VI.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUMS AND PERIODICALS.

_By the Editor._

THE oldest of existing American societies dealing with the scientific aspects of knowledge is the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, whose _Transactions_ began in 1769, and made six volumes to 1809. A second series was begun in 1818.[1914] What are called the _Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee_ make two volumes (1819, 1838), the first of which contains contributions by Heckewelder and P. S. Duponceau on the history and linguistics of the Lenni Lenape. Its _Proceedings_ began in 1838. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was instituted at Boston in 1780, a part of its object being “to promote and encourage the knowledge of the antiquities of America,”[1915] and its series of _Memoirs_ began in 1783,[1916] and its _Proceedings_ in 1846. These societies have only, as a rule, incidentally, and not often till of late years, illustrated in their publications the antiquities of the new world; but the American Antiquarian Society was founded in 1812 at Worcester, Mass., by Isaiah Thomas, with the express purpose of elucidating this department of American history. It began the _Archæologia Americana_ in 1820, and some of the volumes are still valuable, though they chiefly stand for the early development by Atwater, Gallatin, and others of study in this direction. In the first volume is an account of the origin and design of the society, and this is also set forth in the memoir of Thomas prefixed to its reprint of his _History of Printing in America_, which is a part of the series. The _Proceedings_ of the society were begun in 1849, and they have contained some valuable papers on Central American subjects. The Boston Society of Natural History[1917] published the _Boston Journal of Natural History_ from 1834 to 1863, and in 1866 began its _Memoirs_. Col. Whittlesey gave in its first volume a paper on the weapons and military character of the race of the mounds, and subsequent volumes have had other papers of an archæological nature; but they have formed a small part of its contributions. Its _Proceedings_ have of late years contained some of the best studies of palæolithic man. The American Ethnological Society, founded by Gallatin (New York), began its exclusive work in a series of _Transactions_ (1845-53, vols. i., ii., and one number of vol. iii.), but it was not of long continuance, though it embraced among its contributors the conspicuous names of Gallatin, Schoolcraft, Catherwood, Squier, Rafn, S. G. Morton, J. R. Bartlett, and others. Its _Bulletin_ was not continued beyond a single volume (1860-61).[1918] The society was suspended in 1871.

The American Association for the Advancement of Science began its publications with the _Proceedings_ of its Philadelphia meeting in 1848. Questions of archæology formed, however, but a small portion of its inquiries[1919] till the formation of a section on Anthropology a few years ago.

The American Geographical Society has published a _Bulletin_ (1852-56); _Journal_ (or _Transactions_) (1859), etc., and _Proceedings_ (1862-64). Some of the papers have been of archæological interest.

The Anthropological Institute of New York printed its transactions in a _Journal_ (one vol. only, 1872-73).

The Archæological Institute of America was founded in Boston in 1879, and has given the larger part of its interest to classical archæology. The first report of its executive committee said respecting the field in the new world: “The study of American archæology relates, indeed, to the monuments of a race that never attained to a high degree of civilization, and that has left no trustworthy records of continuous history.... From what it was and what it did, nothing is to be learned that has any direct bearing on the progress of civilization. Such interest as attaches to it is that which it possesses in common with other early and undeveloped races of mankind.” Appended to this report was Lewis H. Morgan’s “Houses of the American Aborigines, with suggestions for the exploration of the ruins in New Mexico,” etc.,—advancing his well-known views of the communal origin of the southern ruins. Under the auspices of the Institute, Mr. A. F. Bandelier, a disciple of Morgan, was sent to New Mexico for the study of the Pueblos, and his experiences are described in the second _Report_ of the Institute. In their third _Report_ (1882) the committee of the Institute say: “The vast work of American archæology and anthropology is only begun.... Other nations, with more or less of success, are trying to do our work on our soil. It is time that Americans bestir themselves in earnest upon a field which it would be a shame to abandon to the foreigner.” Still under the pay of the Institute, Mr. Bandelier, in 1881, devoted his studies to the remains at Mexico, Cholula, Mitla, and the ancient life of those regions. At the same time, Aymé, then American consul at Merida, was commissioned to explore certain regions of Yucatan, but the results were not fortunate.

The Institute began in 1881 the publication of an _American Series_ of its _Papers_, the first number of which embodied Bandelier’s studies of the Pueblos, and the second covered his Mexican researches. In 1885 the _American Journal of Archæology_ was started at Baltimore as the official organ of the Institute, and occasional papers on American subjects have been given in its pages. The editors were called upon to define more particularly their relations to archæology in America in the number for Sept., 1888. In this they say: “The archæology of America is busied with the life and work of a race or races of men in an inchoate, rudimentary, and unformed condition, who never raised themselves, even at their highest point, as in Mexico and Peru, above a low stage of civilization, and never showed the capacity of steadily progressive development.... These facts limit and lower the interest which attaches ... to crude and imperfect human life.... A comparison of their modes of life and thought with those of other races in a similar stage of development in other parts of the world, in ancient and modern times, is full of interest as exhibiting the close similarity of primitive man in all regions, resulting from the sameness of his first needs, in his early struggle for existence.” The editors rest their reasons for giving prominence to classical archæology upon the necessity of affording by such complemental studies the means of comparison in archæological results, which can but advance to a higher plane the methods and inductions of the prehistoric archæology of America.

The American Folk-Lore Society was founded in Jan., 1888, and _The Journal of American Folk-Lore_ was immediately begun. A large share of its papers is likely to cover the popular tales of the American aborigines.

The Anthropological Society of Washington is favorably situated to avail itself of the museums and apparatus of the American government, and members of the Geological Survey and Ethnological Bureau have been among the chief contributors to its _Transactions_,[1920] which in January, 1888, were merged in a more general publication, _The American Anthropologist_. A National Geographic Society was organized in Washington in 1888.

There are numerous local societies throughout the United States whose purpose, more or less, is to cover questions of archæological import. Those that existed prior to 1876 are enumerated in Scudder’s _Catalogue of Scientific Serials_; but it was not easy always to draw the line between historical associations and those verging upon archæological methods.[1921]

The oldest of the scientific periodicals in the United States to devote space to questions of anthropology is Silliman’s _American Journal of Science and Arts_ (1818, etc.). The _American Naturalist_, founded in 1867, also entered the field of archæology and anthropology. The same may be said in some degree of the _Popular Science Monthly_ (1877, etc.), _Science_ (1883), and the _Kansas City Review_. The chief repository of such contributions, however, since 1878, has been _The American Antiquarian_ (Chicago), edited by Stephen D. Peet. Its papers are, unluckily, of very uneven value.[1922]

The best organized work has been done in the United States by the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, in Cambridge, Mass., and by certain departments of the Federal government at Washington.

The Peabody Museum resulted from a gift of George Peabody, an American banker living in London, who instituted it in 1866 as a part of Harvard University.[1923] It was fortunate in its first curator, Dr. Jeffries Wyman, who brought unusual powers of comprehensive scrutiny to its work.[1924] He died in 1874, and was succeeded by one of his and of Agassiz’s pupils, Frederick W. Putnam, who was also placed in the chair of archæology in the university in 1886. The _Reports_, now twenty-two in number, and the new series of _Special Papers_ are among the best records of progress in archæological science.

The creation of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846, under the bequest of an Englishman, James Smithson, and the devotion of a sum of about $31,000 a year at that time arising from that gift, first put the government of the United States in a position “to increase and diffuse knowledge among men.”[1925]

The second _Report_ of the Regents in 1848 contains approvals of a manuscript by E. G. Squier and E. H. Davis, which had been offered to the Institution for publication, and which had been commended by Albert Gallatin, Edward Robinson, John Russell Bartlett, W. W. Turner, S. G. Morton, and George P. Marsh. Thus an important archæological treatise, _The Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, comprising the results of extensive original surveys and explorations_ (Washington, 1848), became the first of the _Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_. The subsequent volumes of the series have contained other important treatises in similar fields. Foremost among them may be named those of Squier on the Aboriginal Monuments of New York (vol. ii., 1851); Col. Whittlesey on _The Ancient Works in Ohio_ (vol. iii., 1852); S. R. Riggs’ _Dakota Grammar and Dictionary_ (vol. iv., 1852); I. A. Lapham’s _Antiquities of Wisconsin_ (vol. vii., 1855); S. F. Haven’s _Archæology of the United States_ (vol. viii., 1856); Brantz Mayer’s _Mexican History and Archæology_ (vol. ix., 1857); Whittlesey on _Ancient Mining on Lake Superior_ (vol. xiii., 1863); Morgan’s _Systems of Consanguinity of the human family_ (vol. xvii., 1871);—not to name lesser papers. To supplement this quarto series, another in octavo was begun in 1862, called _Miscellaneous Collections_; and in this form there have appeared J. M. Stanley’s _Catalogue of portraits of No. Amer. Indians_ (vol. ii., 1862); a _Catalogue of photographic portraits of the No. Amer. Indians_ (vol. xiv., 1878).

Of much more interest to the anthropologist has been the series of _Annual Reports_ with their appended papers,—such as Squier on _The Antiquities of Nicaragua_ (1851); W. W. Turner on _Indian Philology_ (1852); S. S. Lyon on _Antiquities from Kentucky_ (1858), and many others.

The sections of correspondence and minor papers in these reports soon began to include communications about the development of archæological research in various localities. They began to be more orderly arranged under the sub-heading of Ethnology in the Report for 1867, and this heading was changed to Anthropology in the _Report_ for 1879. Charles Rau (d. 1887) had been a leading contributor in this department, and no. 440 of the Smithsonian publications was made up of his _Articles on Anthropological Subjects, contributed from 1863 to 1877_ (Washington, 1882). No. 421 is Geo. H. Boehmer’s _Index to Anthropological Articles in the publications of the Smithsonian Institution_ (Washington, 1881). Among the later papers those of O. T. Mason of the Anthropological Department of the National Museum are conspicuous.

The last series is the _Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology_, placed by Congress in the charge of the Smithsonian. The _Reports of the American Historical Association_ will soon be begun under the same auspices.

Major J. W. Powell, the director of the Bureau of Ethnology, said that its purpose was “to organize anthropologic research in America.”[1926] It published its first report in 1881, and this and the later reports have had for contents, beside the summary of work constituting the formal report, the following papers:—

Vol. i.: J. W. POWELL. The evolution of language.—Sketch of the mythology of the North American Indians.—Wyandot government.—On limitations to the use of some anthropologic data.—H. C. YARROW. A further contribution to the study of mortuary customs among the North American Indians.—E. S. HOLDEN. Studies in Central American picture-writing.—C. C. ROYCE. Cessions of land by Indian tribes to the United States: illustrated by those in Indiana.—G. MALLERY. Sign language among North American Indians compared with that among other peoples and deaf-mutes.—J. C. PILLING. Catalogue of linguistic manuscripts in the library.—Illustration of the method of recording Indian languages. From the manuscripts of J. O. Dorsey, A. S. Gatschet, and S. R. Riggs.

Vol. ii.: F. H. CUSHING. Zuñi fetiches.—_Mrs._ E. A. SMITH. Myths of the Iroquois.—H. W. HENSHAW. Animal carvings from mounds of the Mississippi Valley.—W. MATTHEWS. Navajo silversmiths.—W. H. HOLMES. Art in shell of the ancient Americans.—J. STEVENSON. Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona in 1879;—Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the Indians of New Mexico in 1880.

Vol. iii.: CYRUS THOMAS. Notes on certain Maya and Mexican manuscripts.—W. (C.) H. DALL On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the bearing of their geographical distribution.—J. O. DORSEY. Omaha sociology.—WASHINGTON MATTHEWS. Navajo weavers.—W. H. HOLMES. Prehistoric textile fabrics of the United States, derived from impressions on pottery;—Illustrated catalogue of a portion of the collections made by the Bureau of Ethnology during the field season of 1881.—JAMES STEVENSON. Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the Pueblos of Zuñi, New Mexico, and Wolpi, Arizona, in 1881.

Vol. iv.: GARRICK MALLERY. Pictographs of the North American Indians.—W. H. HOLMES. Pottery of the ancient Pueblos;—Ancient pottery of the Mississippi Valley;—Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art.—F. H. CUSHING.. A study of Pueblo pottery as illustrative of Zuñi culture growth.

Vol. v.: CYRUS THOMAS. Burial mounds of the northern sections of the United States.—C. C. ROYCE. The Cherokee nation of Indians.—WASHINGTON MATTHEWS. The Mountain Chant: a Navajo ceremony.—CLAY MACCAULEY. The Seminole Indians of Florida.—_Mrs._ TILLY E. STEVENSON. The religious life of the Zuñi child.

* * * * *

What is known as the United States National Museum is also in charge of the Smithsonian Institution,[1927] and here are deposited the objects of archæological and historical interest secured by the government explorations and by other means. The linguistic material is kept in the Bureau of Ethnology. The skulls and physiological material, illustrative of prehistoric times, are deposited in the Army Medical Museum, under the Surgeon-General’s charge.

Major Powell, while in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, had earlier prepared five volumes of _Contributions to Ethnology_, all but the second of which have been published. The first volume (1877) contained W. H. Dall’s “Tribes of the Extreme Northwest” and George Gibbs’ “Tribes of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon.” The third (1877): Stephen Powers’ “Tribes of California.” The fourth (1881): Lewis H. Morgan’s “Houses and house life of the American Aborigines.” The fifth (1882): Charles Rau’s “Lapidarian sculpture of the Old World and in America,” Robert Fletcher’s “Prehistoric trephining and cranial Amulets,” and Cyrus Thomas on the Troano Manuscript, with an introduction by D. G. Brinton.

Among the _Reports_ of the geographical and geological explorations and surveys west of the 100th meridian conducted by Capt. Geo. M. Wheeler, the seventh volume, _Report on Archæological and Ethnological Collections from the vicinity of Santa Barbara, California, and from ruined pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico and certain Interior Tribes_ (Washington, 1879), was edited by F. W. Putnam, and contains papers on the ethnology of Southern California, wood and stone implements, sculptures, musical instruments, beads, etc.; the Pueblos of New Mexico, their inhabitants, architecture, customs, cliff houses and other ruins, skeletons, etc.; with an _Appendix_ on Linguistics, containing forty Vocabularies of Pueblo and other Western Indian Languages and their classification into seven families.

The _Reports_ of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, under the charge of F. V. Hayden, brought to us in those of 1874-76 the knowledge of the cliff-dwellers, and they contain among the miscellaneous publications such papers as W. Matthews’ _Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians_ and W. H. Jackson’s _Descriptive Catalogue of photographs of No. Amer. Indians_.

There are other governmental documents to be noted: _The Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana in 1852_, by R. B. Marcy and G. B. McClellan (Washington, 1854), contains a vocabulary of the Comanches and Witchitas, with some general remarks by W. W. Turner. There is help to be derived from the geographical details, and from something on ethnology, in the _Reports of Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean_ (Washington, 1856-60, in 12 vols.); in W. H. Emory’s _Report on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey_ (Washington, 1857-58, in 2 vols.); J. H. Simpson’s _Report of Explorations across the great basin of the territory of Utah in 1859_ (Washington, 1876); J. N. Macomb’s _Report of the Exploring Expedition from Santa Fé to the Junction of the Grand and Green Rivers of the Great Colorado of the West in 1859_ (Washington, 1876).

There were also published, under the auspices of the government, the conglomerate and very unequal work of Henry R. Schoolcraft, _Historical and Statistical Information respecting the history, conditions, and prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, collected and prepared under the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs_ (Philad., 1851-57, in 6 vols., with a trade edition of the same date). An act of Congress (March 3, 1847) authorized its publication. As reissued it is called _Archives of aboriginal knowledge, containing original papers laid before Congress, respecting the Indian tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1860, ’68, 6 vols.). It has the following divisions: General history.—Manners and customs.—Antiquities.—Geography.—Tribal organization, etc.—Intellectual capacity.—Topical history.—Physical type.—Language.—Art.—Religion and mythology.—Demonology, magic, etc.—Medical knowledge.—Condition and prospects.—Statistics and population.—Biography.—Literature.—Post-Columbian history.—Economy and statistics. An edition of vols. 1-5 (1856) is called _Ethnological researches respecting the Red Men of America, Information respecting the history_, etc. The sixth volume is in effect a summary of the preceding five.[1928]

At a recent meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a committee was charged with preparing a memorial to Congress, urging action to insure the preservation of certain national monuments. There is a summary of their report in _Science_, xii. p. 101.

* * * * *

Of all European countries, the most has been done in France, by way of periodical system and corporate organizations, to advance the study of American anthropology, ethnology, and archæology. The _Annales des voyages, de la géographie et de l’histoire, traduits de toutes les langues Européennes; des relations originales, inédites_,[1929] the publication of which was begun by Malte-Brun in 1808 and continued to 1814, and the _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_, begun in 1819 and continued with a slightly varying title till 1870, are sources occasionally of much importance. At a later day, Edouard Lartet and others have used the _Annales des Sciences Naturelles_ as a medium for their publications. We hardly trace here, however, any corporate movement before the institution of the Société de Géographie de Paris in 1820. In 1824 it issued the first volume of its _Recueil de Voyages et de Mémoires_, which reached seven volumes in 1864, and had included (vol. ii.) an account of Palenqué and the researches of Warden on the antiquities of the United States. Since this society began the issue of its _Bulletin_ in 1827, it has occasionally given assistance in the study of American archæology.

The earliest distinctive periodical on the subject was the _Revue Américaine_, of which, in 1826-27, three volumes, in monthly parts, were published in Paris.[1930] In 1857 a movement was inaugurated which engaged first and last the coöperation of some eminent scholars in these studies, like Aubin, Buschmann, V. A. Malte-Brun, Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, Jomard, Alphonse Pinart, Cortambert, Léon de Rosny, Waldeck, Abbé Domenech, Charencey, etc. The active movers were first known as the Comité d’Archéologie Américaine, and they issued an _Annuaire_ (1863-67) and one volume, at least, of _Actes_ (1865), as well as a collection of _Mémoires sur l’archéologie Américaine_ (1865). This organization soon became known as the Société Américaine de France, and under the auspices of this name there has been a series of publications of varying designation.[1931] Its _Annuaire_ began in 1868, and has been continued. The general name of _Archives de la Société Américaine de France_ covers its other publications, which more or less coincide with the _Revue Orientale et Américaine par Léon de Rosny_, the first series of which appeared in Paris in 10 vols., in 1859-65, followed by a second, the first volume of which (vol. xi. of the whole) is called _Revue Américaine, publié sous les auspices de la Société d’Ethnographie et du Comité d’Archéologie Américaine_, and is at the same time the fourth volume of the _Actes de la Société d’Ethnographie Américaine et Orientale_. The whole series is sometimes cited as the _Mémoires de la Société d’Ethnographie_.[1932] The series, already referred to, of the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_ is made up thus: Première série: vol. i., _Revue Orientale et Américaine_; ii., _Revue Américaine_; iii. and iv., _Revue Orientale et Américaine_.[1933] The nouvelle série has no sub-titles, and the three volumes bear date 1875, 1876, 1884.

The student of comparative anthropology will resort to the _Materiaux pour l’histoire positive et philosophique_ (later _primitive et naturelle_) _de l’homme_, the publication of which was begun at Paris in 1864 by Gabriel de Mortillet, and has been continued by Trutot, Cartailhac, Chautre, and others. This publication has contained abstracts of the proceedings of an annual gathering in Paris, whose _Comptes rendu_ have been printed at length as of the _Congrès international d’anthropologie et d’archéologie préhistoriques_ (1865, etc.).[1934]

Léon de Rosny published but a single volume of a projected series, _Archives paléographiques de l’Orient et de l’Amérique_ (Paris, 1870-71), which contains some papers on Mexican picture-writing. Rosny and others, who had been active in the movement begun by the Comité d’Archéologie Américaine, were now instrumental in organizing the periodical gathering in different cities of Europe, which is known as the _Congrès international des Américanistes_. The first session was held at Nancy in 1875, and its _Compte Rendu_ was published in two volumes (Nancy and Paris, 1876). The second meeting was at Luxembourg in 1877 (_Compte Rendu_, Paris, 1878, in 2 vols.); the third at Brussels in 1879 (_Compte Rendu_); the fourth at Madrid in 1881 (_Congreso internacional de Américanistas. Cuarta reunion_, Madrid, 1881); the fifth at Copenhagen (_Compte Rendu_, Copenhagen, 1884); and others at Chalons-sur-Marne, Turin, and Berlin. The papers are printed in the language in which they were read.

The _Mémoires de la Société d’Ethnographie_ (founded in 1859) began to appear in 1881, and its third volume (1882) is entitled _Les Documents écrits de l’Antiquité Américaine, compte rendu d’une mission scientifique en Espagne et en Portugal, par Léon de Rosny, avec une carte et 10 planches_. The fourth volume is P. de Lucy-Fossarieu’s _Ethnographie de l’Amérique Antarctique_ (Paris, 1884). In the second volume of a new series there is an account by V. Devaux of the work in American ethnology done by Lucien de Rosny as a preface to a posthumous work[1935] of Lucien de Rosny, _Les Antilles, étude d’Ethnographie et d’Archéologique Américaines_ (Paris, 1886).

Latterly there has been a consolidation of interests among kindred societies under the name of Institution Ethnographique, whose initial _Rapport annuel sur les récompenses et encouragements décernés en 1883_ was published at Paris in 1883. This society now comprises the Société d’Ethnographie, Société Américaine de France, Athénée Oriental, and Société des Etudes Japonaises.

* * * * *

In England, organized efforts for the record of knowledge began with the creation of the Royal Society, though certain sporadic attempts had earlier been known. America was represented among its founders in the younger John Winthrop, and Cotton Mather was a contributor to its transactions, and there has occasionally been a paper in its publications of interest to American archæologists.[1936] The Society of Antiquaries began to print its _Archæologia_ in 1779 and its _Proceedings_ in 1848, and the American student finds some valuable papers in them. The British Association for the Advancement of Science began its _Reports_ with the meeting of 1831, and it has had among its divisions a section of anthropology. In 1830 the Royal Geographical Society began its _Journal_ with a preliminary issue (1830-31, in 2 vols.), though its regular series first came out in 1832. Its _Proceedings_ appeared in 1855, and both publications are a conspicuous source in many ways relating to early American history.[1937] Closely connected with its interest has been the publication begun under the editing of C. R. Markham, and called successively _Ocean Highways_ (1869-73, vol. i.-v.), with an added title of _Geographical Review_ (1873-74), and lastly as _The Geographical Magazine_ (vol. i.-iii., 1874-76).

The Ethnological Society published four volumes of a _Journal_[1938] between 1844 and 1856, and resuming published two more volumes in 1869-70. Its contents are mainly of interest in comparative study, though there are a few American papers, like D. Forbes’s on the Aymara Indians of Peru. This society’s _Transactions_ was issued in two volumes, 1859-60; and again in seven volumes, 1861-69.

Meanwhile, some gentlemen, not content with the restricted field of the Ethnological Society, founded in London an Anthropological Society, which began the publication of _Memoirs_ (1863-69, in 3 vols.); and in this publication Bollaert issued his papers on the population of the new world, on the astronomy of the red man, on American paleography, on Maya hieroglyphics, on the anthropology of the new world, on Peruvian graphic records,—not to name other papers by different writers. The _Transactions_ and _Journal_ of the society, as well as the _Popular Magazine of Anthropology_ (1866), made part in one form or another of the _Anthropological Review_, begun in 1863, and discontinued in 1870, when the _Journal of Anthropology_ succeeded, but ceased the next year. The _Proceedings_ of the society make one volume, 1873-75, under the title of _Anthropologia_, and the society also maintained a series of translations of foreign treatises, the first of which was Theodor Waitz’s _Introduction to Anthropology_, ed. from the German by J. F. Collingwood (1863); and this was followed by a version by James Hunt, the president of the society, of Professor Carl Vogt’s _Lectures on Man, his place in Creation and in the history of the Earth_ (1864), and by other works of Broca, Pouchet, Blumenbach, etc.

What is known as the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland united some of these separate endeavors and began its _Journal_ in 1871. The _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_ has also at times been the channel by which some of the leading anthropologists have published their views, and a few papers of archæological import have been given in the _Transactions_ (1884, etc.) of the Royal Historical Society. Professedly broader relations belong to the _Transactions_ (_Comptes rendus_) of the International Congress of prehistoric (anthropology and) archæology, which began its sessions in 1866.[1939] The latest summary is the _Archæological Review, a journal of historic and prehistoric antiquities_, edited by G. L. Gomme, of which the first number appeared in March, 1888, which has for a main feature a bibliographical record of past and current archæological literature.[1940]

It is, however, in the volumes of the Hakluyt Society’s publications, beginning in 1847, in the annotated reprint of the early writers on American nations and on the European contact with them, that the most signal service has been done in England to the study of the early history of the new world. They are often referred to in the present History.

* * * * *

In Germany a _Magazin für die Naturgeschichte des Menschen_ was published at Zittau as early as 1788-1791.

Wagner published at Vienna, in 1794-96, two volumes of _Beiträge zur philosophischen Anthropologie_; and Heynig’s _Psychologisches (zugleich Anthropologisches) Magazin_ was published at Altenburg in 1796-97.

The Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaft began its _Abhandlungen_ in 1804, but it was not till long after that date that Buschmann and others used it as a channel of their views.

Vertuch’s _Archiv für Ethnographie und Linguistik_ (Weimar, 1807) only reached a single number.

The _Zeitschrift für physische Aerzte_, which was published by Nasse, at Leipzig, 1818-22, was succeeded by the _Zeitschrift für die Anthropologie_ (Leipzig, 1823-24), and this was followed by a single volume, _Jahrbücher für Anthropologie_ (Leipzig, 1830).

Bran’s _Ethnographisches Archiv_ was published at Jena from 1818 to 1829.

It was not till after 1860 that the new interest began to manifest itself, though Fechner’s _Centralblatt für Naturwissenschaften und Anthropologie_ was published at Leipzig in 1853-54.

Ecker’s _Archiv für Anthropologie_ was published at Braunschweig in 1866-68, which came in 1870 under the direction of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, which also began a _Correspondenzblatt_ in 1870, and a series, _Allgemeine Versammlung_, in 1873. This is the most important of the German societies.

Bastian’s _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_ was begun at Berlin in 1869, and later added a _Supplement_.

The Anthropologische Gesellschaft of Vienna began its _Mittheilungen_ in 1870; and in 1887 the Prähistorische Commission of the Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften at Vienna printed the first number of its _Mittheilungen_.

The _Verein für Anthropologie_ in Leipzig published but a single number of a _Bericht_ in 1871.

The Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte continued its _Verhandlungen_ for 1871-72 only; and the Göttinger Anthropologischer Verein made but a bare beginning (1874) of its _Mittheilungen_.

The _Bericht_ of the Museum für Völkerkunde was begun in Leipzig in 1874.

The Münchener Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte began the publication of _Beiträge_ in 1876.

In all these publications there have been papers interesting to American archæologists, if only in a comparative way, and at times American subjects have been frequent, especially in later years. The publications of zoölogical and geographical societies have in some respects been at times of equal interest, but it has not been thought worth while to enumerate them.[1941]

The Königliche Museum at Berlin has a considerable collection of American antiquities, which has been fostered by Humboldt and others, and the ethnological department has made some important publications like those relating to _Amerika’s Nordwestküste_.[1942]

Waitz in his _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_ (vol. iii.; _Die Amerikaner_, Th. i., Leipzig, 1862) has enumerated the literature of American anthropology upon which he depended.

* * * * *

The interest in most of the other European countries is more remotely American. The Museum of Ethnography at St. Petersburg is not without some objects of interest.[1943]

In Sweden the Antropologiska Sällskapet of Stockholm began a _Tidsskrift_ in 1875; but it affords little assistance to the Americanist except in comparative study.[1944]

The student will find some suggestions in a little tract by J. J. A. Worsaae, _De l’organisation des musées historico-archéologiques dans le Nord et ailleurs. Traduit par E. Beauvois_ (Copenhagen, 1885), which is extracted from the _Mémoires de la société royale des antiquaires de Nord, 1885_.

There has begun recently in Leyden an _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie. Herausg. von Krist. Bahnson, Guido Cora [etc.]_ (Leiden, 1888).

In Italy the _Archivio per l’Antropologia et la Etnologia_ was begun at Florence in 1871, and was later made the organ of the Società Italiana di Antropologia di Etnologia. There is an occasional paper in the _Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana_, published at Rome.

In Spain the Sociedad Antropológica Española began at Madrid the publication of its _Revista de Antropologia_ in 1875.

The session of the Congrès des Américanistes at Madrid in 1881 gave a new life in Spain to the study of American archæology and history, and out of this impulse there was begun a _Biblioteca de los Americanistas, publícala D. Justo Zaragoza; Editor D. Luis Navarro_; and the series has been begun with the _Recordacion florida, discurso del reino de Guatemala_, an hitherto unpublished work (1690) of Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán, edited by Justo Zaragoza; and with the _Historia de Venezuela_, being a third edition of the work of José de Oviedo y Baños, edited by C. F. Duro.

The Museo Nacional in Mexico has grown to have a proper importance,[1945] since the Mexican government has prevented the further exportation of archæological relics. It was founded in 1824 by Fathers Icaza and Gondra, but it owes its creation largely to the skill of Professor Gumesindo Mendoza, its curator, by whose death it lost much.[1946] There is a tendency to draw to it other collections. There was a beginning made to publish illustrations of the relics in the museum sixty years ago, but it came to little,[1947] and it was not until recently the publication of _Anales del Museo Nacional de Méjico_ was begun that there seemed to be a proper effort made. The periodicals _Revista Mexicana_ (1835), and _Museo Mexicano_ (1843-45) have done something to illustrate the subject,—not to name others of less importance. The principal periodical source farther south, the _Registro Yucatéco_, only ran to four volumes, published at Merida in 1845-46.

The most conspicuous archæological repository in South America is that of the National Museum at Rio de Janeiro, whose published _Mémoires_ contain important contributions to Brazilian Archæology.

* * * * *

_The editor must be understood as approaching the purely archæological side of the study of Aboriginal America, as a student of the literature pertaining to it, rather than as a critic of phenomena. He has not proceeded even in this course without consultation with Professors Putnam, Haynes, and Brinton, with Mr. Lucien Carr and with Señor Icazbalceta._

INDEX.

[Reference is commonly made but once to a book, if repeatedly mentioned in the text; but other references are made when additional information about the book is conveyed.]

AA, VAN DER, _Voyagien_, xxxv.

Abancay, 236.

Abbot, C. C., associates the rude implements of Trenton with Eskimos, 106, 366; his discoveries in the Delaware gravels considered, 330 _et seq._; _Implements in the river-drift at Trenton_, 333; _Supposed palæolithic implements from the valley of the Delaware_, 334, 388; on the pre-Indian race, 336; importance of his discoveries, 356; on the origin of Americans, 369; on the tertiary man, 387; researches in the Trenton gravels, 388; finds a molar tooth, 388; and a human jaw, 388; _Antiq. of Man in the Delaware Valley_, 388; _Evidences of the Antiq. of Man_, 388; on archæological frauds, 403; _Primitive Industry_, 358, 416; on Atlantic coast pottery, 419.

Abbott, _Brief Description_, 109.

Abelin, J. P., _Theatrum Europeum_, xxxiii. _See_ Gottfried, J. L.

Abenaki, 322.

Abert, J. W., _Examination of New Mexico_, 396.

Acagchemem, 328.

Acaltecs, 191.

Achilles Tatius, _Isagoge_, 8.

Acolhua, forms a confederacy, 147.

Acolhuacan conquered, 147.

Acoma, 396.

Acora, burial-tower at, 248; cut, 249.

Acosta, José de, in De Bry, xxxii; _East and West Indies_, 45, 262; _Historia_, 155, 262; corresponds with Tobar, 155; in Peru, 262; _Concilium Limense_, 268; _Nueva Granada_, 282.

Adair, Jas., _Amer. Indians_, 116, 320, 424; on the lost tribes, 116; on the mounds, 398.

Adam, Lucien, on Fousang, 80; opposes Irish connection with Mexico, 83; on the Eskimo language, 107; on the Quichua, 281; criticises Horatio Hale, 422; edits the Taensa grammar, 426; _Le Taensa_, 426; _Etudes sur six langues_, 425, 427; _Lengua Chiquita_, 425; _Examen grammatical_, 425.

Adam of Bremen on Vinland, 89; _Hist. Eccles._, 89, 94.

Adam, a race earlier than, 384.

Adams, Davenport, _Beneath the Surface_, 412.

Adelung, J. C., xxxv, 422.

Adhémer, _Rev. de la Mer_, 387.

Aelian, _Varia Historia_, 21, 40, 42.

Aeneas Silvius, 26.

Æschylus, _Prometheus Bound_, 13.

Africa, ancient views of its extension south of the equator, 7, 10; circumnavigated, 7; migrations from, to America, 116; its people in Yucatan, 370.

Agassiz, Alex., _Cruises of the Blake_, 17.

Agassiz, Louis, on the autochthonous American man, 373; portrait, 373; his views attacked, 374; on the earliest land above water, 384; _Geol. Sketches_, 384.

Agatharcides, _Geography_, 34.

Agnese map (1554), 53.

Agnew, S. A., 410.

Agriculture in pre-Spanish America, 173, 417; in Peru, 252.

Ahuitzotl, 148.

Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty, 306.

Alabama, shell-heaps, 393; mounds, 410.

Alaguilac language, 428.

Alaska, 77; caves, 391; Indians, 328.

Albany, treaty at (1674), 304; (1684), 304.

Albinus, P., 370.

Albornoz, J. de, _Lengua Chiapaneca_, 425.

Albyn, Cornelis, _Nieuwe Weerelt_, xxv.

Alcavisa, 224.

Alcedo, Ant. de, _Bibl. Amer._, ii.

Alcobasa, 265.

Aleutian islands, as a route from Asia, 78; caves, 391; shell-heaps, 393.

Alexander, C. A., on the Royal Society, 442.

Algonquins, trace of the Northmen among, 99; hero-gods, 430; legends of, 431.

Allan, John, his library, xiii.

Allard, Latour, 192.

Allday, Jacob, 107.

Allen, Chas., _Stockbridge Indians_, 323.

Allen, Edw. G., iv.

Allen, F. A., 379; _Polynesian Antiq._, 82.

Allen, Harrison, 201.

Allen, Joel A., _Works on the orders of Cete, etc._, 107.

Allen, Zachariah, _Condition of Indians_, 323.

Allibone, S. A., xii.

Alligator mound, 409.

Allouez, reference to copper mines, 417.

Alloys of metals, 418.

Almaraz, R., _Memoria_, 182.

Alpacas, 213, 253.

Alsop, Richard, 328.

Alzate y Ramirez, J. A., _Xochicalco_, 180.

Amaquemecan, 139.

Amat de San Filippo, Pietro, _Planisferio del 1436_, 56.

Amautas, 223, 241.

Amegluno, F., _La Antigüedad del Hombre en la Plata_, 390.

America, early descriptions of, xix; early voyages to, xix; how far known to the ancients, 1, 15, 22, 29; held to be Atlantis, 16; to be the land of Meropes, 22; men supposed to reach Europe from, 26; early references to, 40; Egyptian visits, 41; Phœnician, 41; Tyrian, 41; Carthaginian, 41; Asiatic connection, 59, 76; Basques in, 75; early visits by drifting vessels, 75; voyage to Fousang, 78; maps of routes from Asia, 81; by the Polynesian islands, 81; state of culture reached in, 329; origin of man in, 369; climate, 370; autochthonous man in, 372; held to be, later than Europe, the home of man, 377; stone age in, references, 377; ethnological maps, 378; connections with Asia, 383; earliest land above water, 384; geological connection with Europe, 384; bibliog. of its aboriginal aspects, 413; comprehensive treatises on the antiquities, 415; arts in, 416. _See_ Africa, Asia, Chinese, Jews, Madoc, Man, Northmen, Phœnician, Scythian, Tartar, Zeni, Vinland, etc.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 437.

American Antiq. Soc. Catal., xvii; founded, 371, 437; _Archæologia Americana_, 437.

_American Anthropologist_, 438.

_American Antiquarian_, 439.

American Association for the Advancement of Science, 437; would protect antiquities, 441.

American Ethnological Society, 320, 399, 437; its publications, 376.

American Folk-Lore Society, 438.

_American Gazetteer_, 321.

American Geographical Society, xvii, 437.

American Historical Association, 439.

_American Journal of Archæology_, 438.

_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 438.

_American Naturalist_, 438.

American Philosophical Society, their publications, 437.

_American Traveller_ (1743), xxxv, 370.

Americana, i; bibliographies, i; dealers in, xiii.

Americanism, 160.

Ammianus Marcellinus, 42.

Ampère, _Promenade en Amérique_, 81.

Anáhuac, history of, 139; map of, in Clavigero, in facs., 144; its limits, 182; map, 182.

Anaxagoras, 3.

Anchorena, J. D., on the Quichua grammar, 280.

Ancients, their knowledge of America, 1.

Ancon, burials at, 276, 373; cut of mummy, 276; of cloth, 278.

Ancona, Eligio, _Yucatan_, 166.

Ande, 428.

Anderson, Rasmus B., translates Horn’s _Lit. Scandin. North_, 84; _America not discovered by Columbus_, 97; on Dighton Rock, 104.

Anderson, Winslow, on human bodies found in California, 138.

Andrade, J. M., 170; _Catalogue_, 414.

Andree, Richard, _Ethnog. Parallelen_, 105.

Andrews, Edmund B., on geological evidence from the great lakes, 382; on the Ohio mounds, 402, 407, 408.

Angliara, Johan von, xxi.

Angrand, L., on Waldeck, 194; _Les Antiquités de Tiaguanaco_, 273.

Anguilla island, 390.

Animal mounds, 400.

Animals, domestic, hardly known in pre-Spanish America, 173.

Animas River, ruins, 396.

_Annales maritimos_, xix.

_Annales Archéologiques_, 441.

_Annals of Science_, 418.

Antarctic continent, 10.

_Anthropologia_, 442.

Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, 443; _Journal_, 443.

Anthropological Institute of New York, 438.

_Anthropological Review_, 442.

Anthropological Society of Washington, 438.

Anthropology and its method, 378, 411; hist. of, 411.

Antichthones, 9.

Antilles, remnants of Atlantis, 44. _See_ Antillia.

Antillia, island, 31, 48; bibliog. 48; in Bianco and Pizigani maps, 54.

Antipodes, ancient views of, 9, 31, 37.

_Antiquarisk Tidsskrift_, 94.

Antiquity of man. _See_ Man.

Antisell, Thos., 78.

Antonio, Nic., _Bibl. Hispaña nova_, 413.

Apaches, 327.

Apalaches, 426, 431.

Apes, Wm., _Kingdom of Christ_, 116; _Son of the Forest_, 323.

Apianus’s map, xxi.

Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonautica_, 35.

Apponyi, _Libraries of San Francisco_, xviii.

Aprositos, 48.

Arabian geographers, 48.

Arabic maps, 53.

Arabs, their knowledge of the Atlantic islands, 47.

Arana, D. B., _Notas_, vi.

Arana, _Bibliog. de obras anon._, xxiv.

Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 35.

Araucanians, 428.

Arcelin, 357.

Archæological Institute of America, 169, 438.

_Archæological Review_, 443.

Archer-Hind, Ed. Plato’s _Timæus_, 46.

Archimedes, his globe, 3.

Architecture of Middle America, 176, 177; in Peru, 247.

_Archiv für Ethnographie_, 444.

_Archivo des Açores_, xix.

_Archivio per l’Anthropologia_, 444.

Arctic peoples. _See_ Eskimos.

Arequipa, 277.

Argillite, 417; spear-points, 359; commonness of the mineral, 363.

Argonauts, 6.

Argyle, Duke of, _Primeval Man_, 381.

Arica, 275.

Arickarees, 417.

Aristotle on the form of the earth, 2; _Meteorologia_, 7; _De Mirab. Auscultationibus_, 24; on the Atlantic, 28; his scientific treatises, 34; his influence in the West, 37.

Arizona, caves in, 391; ruins in, 397; map, 397.

Armin, _Heutige Mexico_, 178.

Armstrong, Col., 312.

Army Medical Museum, 440.

Arnold, Gov., his stone windmill at Newport, 105.

Arrawak, 428.

Arriaga, José de, 264; _La Idolatria del Peru_, 264.

Arrow-heads, art of making, 417.

Arroyo de la Cuesta, F., _Mutsun language_, 425.

Artaun, S. de, 262.

Arthur, King, in Iceland, 60.

Arthur von Dartzig, xxxiii; _Hist. Ind. orient._, xxxiii.

Arts in America, 416.

Arundel de Wardour, Lord, _Plato’s Atlantis_, 45.

Asguaws, 111.

Asher, David, 200.

Ashtabula Co., Ohio, mounds, 408.

Asia, emigration to America, 59, 76, 329, 371, 383; similarity of flora, 60; of physical appearance of peoples, 76; migration to Fousang, 78; maps of routes to America, 81; supported by Humboldt, 371; testimony of jade, 417; ancient views of its east coast, 7. _See_ Fousang, Mongols, etc.

Aspinwall, Thomas, his library, iv; burned, iv; sold to S. L. M. Barlow, iv.

Assarigoa, 289.

Astley, _Voyages_, xxxv.

Astor Library, xvii.

Astrolabe, 37.

Astronomy among the Mexicans, 179.

Atahualpa, his portrait, 228; his palace, 231; meets Pizarro, 231.

Atenco, 139.

_Atenco de Linia_, 282.

_Athenæ Rauricæ_, xxvi.

Atlantic islands, ancient names attached to, 14; remnants of Atlantis, 21, 45; fabulous ones, 31, 46; in maps, 47, 48; known to the Arabs, 47 as mapped by Gaffarel (_fac-simile_), 52.

Atlantic Ocean, contour of its bottom, map, 17; depth of, 17; its plateaus, 21; dreaded by the ancients, 28; myths of, 31; soundings in, 44; Toscanelli’s ideas of, 51; early maps of, 53; Arabs on, 72.

Atlantis, story of, 15; in Plato, 16; interpretations of it, 16; held to be America, 16, 43; maps of, 18, 19, 20; merely a literary ornament, 21; interest in it on the revival of learning, 33; history of the belief, 41; various identifications, 42; the Atlantic islands remnants, 43; Gaffarel’s map of the remnants, 52; Dawson’s views, 382.

Atonaltzin, 148.

Attu, 78.

Atwater, Caleb, _Indians of the N. W._, 327; on the origin of Americans, 372; on the shell-heaps of the Muskingum, 392; _Antiquities in the State of Ohio_, 398; _Writings_, 398; _Tour to Prairie du Chien_, 298.

Aubin, his acc. of Boturini’s collection of MSS., 159; purchases what was left of it, 160; aids in establishing the Soc. Américaine de France, 161; describes his own collection, 162; list of his MSS., 162; _Mém. sur la peinture didactique_, 176, 200; _Examen des anc. peintures fig. de l’anc. Méxique_, 200; _La langue Méxicaine_, 427.

Aughey, Samuel, 348.

Autochthonous theory, 375. _See_ Man.

Avallon, 32.

Avendaño, F. de, 280.

Avendaño, H. de, 264; _Idolatrios de los Indios_, 264.

Avienus, _Ora maritima_, 25; _Descriptio orbis terræ_, 36.

Avila, F. de, 264; his Indian mythology as translated by Markham, 436; his chapter on the Quichua, 274.

Aviles, Estavan, _Guatemala_, 168.

Axapusco, 173.

Axayacatl, 148.

Axelsen, Otto, 107.

Axon, W. E. A., on Trübner, xvi.

Aymara Indians, 226, 428, 442; language, 279, 428.

Aymé, L. H., on Mitla, 185.

Azangaro, 271.

Azatlan, Fort, 408.

Azcapuzalco, 146.

Azores, known to the Arabs, 47; on the early maps, 49; statue in, 49.

Aztecs, origin of, 135; traces of their tongue in the north, 138; their migration maps, 138; their cradle in the north, 137, 138; in the south, 139; arrive in Mexico, 142; Ranking’s map of their dominion, 144; divided into Mexicans and Tlatelulcas, 146; confederation formed, 147; laws and institutions, 153; _Mappe Tlotzin_, 163; their profiles, 193; the curve of the nose helped by an ornament, 193; their military dress, 193; picture-writing, 197 (_see_ Hieroglyphics); Aubin’s studies of it, 200; their books described, 203; their paper, 203; music of, 420; language, 426; hero-gods, 430; alleged monotheism, 430; mythology, 431; prayers, 431; priesthood and festivals, 431; sacred buildings, 431; goddess of war, 435. _See_ Mexico, Nahua.

Aztlan, 137; map of, 394; a myth, 138; its situation, 138; in the south, 139.

BABBITT, MISS F. E., _Ancient Quartz Workers_, 345; _Glacial Man in Minnesota_, 388.

Babel, dispersion of, 137.

Bachiller y Morales, on the Northmen, 94.

Bachman, John, _Unity of the Human Race_, 374.

Backer, Louis de, _Saint Brandan_, 48; _Misc. Bibliog._, 48.

Backofen, J. J., _Mutterrecht_, 380.

Bacqueville de la Potherie, _Hist. de l’Amérique_, 321, 324.

Baffin Land, 107.

Baguet, M. A., _Races prim. des deux Amériques_, 369.

Bahnson, K., 444.

Baily, John, _Cent. America_, 197; _Guatemala_, 168.

Baird, S. F., on shell-heaps, 392.

Bake, J., _Posidonii reliquiæ_, 34.

Balboa, M. C., _Miscellanea Austral._, 262.

Baldwin, Cornelius, on burial cists, 408.

Baldwin, C. C., 399; on the moundbuilders, 402; _Relics of Moundbuilders_, 403.

Baldwin, E., _La Salle County, Ill._, 408.

Baldwin, John D., _Anc. America_, 412, 415.

Ballesteros, _Ordenanzas del Peru_, 268.

Baltic Sea, early maps, 119, 124, 125, 126, 129.

Baltimore, libraries, xviii.

Bamps, _L’homme blanc_, 195.

Bancarel, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Bancroft, Geo., his library, xvii; on the Northmen, 93; his map of Indian tribes, 321; on the origin of Americans, 375; believes in the unity of the race, 375.

Bancroft, H. H., aids to bibliog. of Indian languages, vii; buys the Squier MSS., viii, 272; his library, viii, ix; his _Native Races_, viii, 169, 415, 430; his lists and foot-note references, 414, 415; _Literary Undertakings_, viii; _Works_, viii; his _Central America_, ix; _Early American Chroniclers_, ix; criticised, ix; _Essays and Miscellanies_, ix; _Hist. of the Pacific States_, ix; _Hist. of California_, ix; on Mexican history, 150; on Sahagún, 157; on Clavigero, 158; on Maya history, 166; condenses the _Popul Vuh_, 166; on the anc. Mexican magnificence, 174; on their warfare, 175; attacks Morgan, 176; his estimate of Prescott, 269; on the moundbuilders, 401; on the general sources of aboriginal America, 413; his opinions, 415; on the aboriginal arts, 416; on American myths, 430.

Bandelier, A. F., on early Mexican chronology, 133, 155; on the Toltecs, 141; on the Aztec arrival, 142; on the Mexican confederacy, 147; on Torquemada, 157; on Ixtlilxochitl, 157; promises an ed. of the _Codex Chimalpopoca_, 158; On the _Popul Vuh_, 167; _Sources of the Aborig. History of Spanish America_, 167; _Warfare of the Ancient Mexicans_, 169, 175; _Tenure of lands_, 169; _Mode of government_, 169, 175; _Archæological Tour in Mexico_, 169, 180, 185; on the Mexican civilization, 173; Morgan’s pupil, 174, 175; his papers on Mexican life, 175; admiration for Morgan, 175; on calendars, 179; _Studies about Cholula_, 180; _Archæolog. Notes on Mexico_, 182; on Mitla, 185; on the Mexican paintings, 200; on the Pueblo ruins, 396; _Sedentary Indians of New Mexico_, 396; _Ruins of Pecos_, 396; his use of sources, 413; _Bibliog. of Yucatan and Cent. America_, 414; on American Monotheism, 430; Quetzalcoatl, 432; his labors in Mexico, 438.

Baradère, 192.

Barber, _Hist. Coll. Mass._, 104.

Barber, E. A., 395, 419; _Les anciens pueblos_, 397.

Barcia, annotates Garcia, 369.

Bardsen, Ivan, his sailing directions, 109.

Barentz, voyage, 36.

Baring-Gould, Sabine, _Iceland_, 84, 85.

Barlow, S. L. M., his library, iv, xviii; _Rough List_, iv; _Bibl. Barlowiana_, v.

Barnard, M. R., 85.

Barranca, J. S., _Ollanta_, 281.

Barrandt, A., 409.

Barrientos, Luis, _Doct. Cristiana_, 425.

Barrow, John, _Voyages into the Polar Regions_, xxxvi, 93.

Barry, Wm., 408.

Barter, _See_ Trade, Traffic.

Bartlett, John R., edits the Murphy Catalogue, x; the Carter-Brown Catalogues, xii; _Bibliog. Notices_, xii; drawing of Dighton Rock, 101, 104; _Personal Narrative_, 139, 396; on rock inscriptions, 410.

Bartlett, S. C., on Dartmouth College, 322.

Bartoli, _Essai sur l’Atlantide_, 46.

Barton, Benj. Smith, _New Views_, 76, 371, 398, 424; on the Madoc voyage, 110; his linguistic studies, 424; on the location of Indian tribes, 321; portrait, 371; his career, 371; _Amer. Antiq._, 371; _Observations_, 398; thought the mounds built by the Toltecs, the descendants of the Danes, 398; on the Ohio mounds, 407; on affinities of Indian words, 437.

Bartram, John, _Travels_, 398, 410.

Bartram, Wm., _Travels_, 398, 410.

Basadre, Modesto, 214; _Riquezas Peruanas_, 244; on Tiahuanacu, 273.

Basalenque, _San Augustin de Mechoacan_, 168.

Basques in America, 74; their language, 75.

Bassett, F. S., _Legends of the Sea_, 46.

Bastian, Adolf, on Yucatan, 166; _Geschichte des Alten Mexico_, 172; _Stein Sculpturen aus Guatemala_, 197; _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, 378; _Ein Jahr auf Reisen_, 436; on the religion of Peru, 436; _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 443; _Culturländer_, 443.

Bates, H. W., _Ethnog. of America_, 76; _Cent. Amer._, 76, 422.

Baylies, Francis, 104.

Beach, W. W., _Indian Miscellany_, 320.

Beamish, N. L., _Disc. of Amer. by the Northmen_, 96.

Bear Mound, in Kentucky, 409.

Beatty, Chas., _Tour in America_, 110, 116, 325; on the lost tribes, 116.

Beauchamp, A. de, _Conquête du Pérou_, 228.

Beauchamp, W. W., 323, 325.

Beaufoy, M., _Mex. Illustrations_, 180.

Beaumes Chaudes caves, 357.

Beauvois, Eugène, _L’Elysée transatlantique_, 31, 47; _L’Eden_, 33, 50; on St. Malo’s voyage, 48; on the Irish discovery of America, 83; _Markland et Escociland_, 83; _Les relations des Gaels avec le Méxique_, 83; _Ancien Evêché du Nouveau Découvertes des Scandinaves_, 96; _Les derniers Vestiges du Christianisme dans le Markland_, 97; _Les Colonies Européennes du Markland_, 97; _Les Skrælings_, 105.

Beccario, his map, 49.

Becher, H. C. R., _Trip to Mexico_, 170.

Becker, J. H., 403; _Migrations des Nahuas_, 139.

Beckwith, H. W., 327.

Becmann, I. C.,_ Hist. Orbis terrarum_, 43.

Bede, _De Natura Rerum_, 37.

Beéche, G., his books, xiii.

Behaim on the Seven Cities (island), 49; globe (1492), 58, 120.

Behring’s Straits, route by, 77; map of, 77; in quaternary times, 78; once land, 383.

Behrnauer, W., _Commerce dans l’ancien Méxique_, 420.

Belknap, Jeremy, on the Norse voyages, 92.

Bell, A. W., 397.

Bell, J. S., 184.

Bellegarde, Abbé, xxxv.

Belt, Th., _Stone implements_, 388.

Beltran de Santa Rosa, P., _Idioma Maya_, 427.

Beltrami, J. C., _Pilgrimage_, 369.

Beloit, Wisc., mounds, 409.

Belt, Thos., on the Trenton gravels, 337; finds a skull in Colorado, 349.

Bembo, Cardinal, his history of Venice, 26.

Benasconi, A., on Palenqué, 191.

Benavides, Alonso, _Memorial_, 395.

Bendyshe, T., 411.

Benes, J. B., 265.

Benincasa, Andreas, his map (1476), cut, 56; other maps, 56.

Bennet and Wijk, _Nederl. Ontdekkingen_, xxxvii; _Zeereizen_, xxxvii.

Benzoni, _New World_, xxxii; printed with Martyr, xxiii.

Beothuks, 321. _See_ Newfoundland.

Berenger, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Berendt, C. H., his Maya collection bought by Brinton, 164; memoir by Brinton, 164; on Guatemala docs., 166; _Centres of Anc. Civilization_, 176; notes on Central America, 196; his books, 414; his linguistic studies, 426; _Analytical Alphabet_, 426, 427; his papers, 426; memoir by Brinton, 426; on the Maya tongue, 427; _Ancient Civilizations in Cent. America_, 427.

Bergen, 68.

Berger, H., _Fragmente des Hipparchus_, 34; _des Eratosthenes_, 9, 34; _Gesch. der Wiss. Erdkunde_, 36; _Geographie_, 28.

Beristain de Souza, _Bibl. Hisp.-Amer._, ii, 413.

Berlin, A. F., 347.

Berlin, Akad. der Wissenschaft, 443; Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, 443; Königliche Museum, 443.

Berlin tablet, 404.

Berlioux, E. F., _Les Atlantes_, 43.

Bernard, _Voiages_, xxxv.

Bernhardy, G., _Eratosthenica_, 34.

Berniggerus, _Questiones_, 40.

Bernoulli, Dr., 200.

Berthelot, _Antiq. Canariennes_, 116.

Berthoud, E. L., 397; _Natchez Indians_, 326; on human relics in Wyoming, 389; _Creek Valley, Colorado_, 416.

Bertonio, L., his Aymara grammar, 279.

Bertran, Giacomo, map, 58.

Bertrand, _Mémoires_, 116.

Betanzos, J. J. de, _Doctrina_, 260; _Suma y Narracion de los Incas_, 260.

Betoner, Wm. (of Worcester), 50.

Beughem, C., _Bibl. Hist._, i.

Bianco, Andreas, his map (1436), 50, 53, 55, 56, 114; cut of, 54; (1448), 50, 53; Carta Nautica, 55; assists Fra Mauro, 117.

Biart, Lucien, _Les Aztéques_, 143, 172; _The Aztecs_, 172.

Bibliographies, Americana, i; _Livres payés 1,000 francs et an dessus_, xx.

_Biblioteca de los Americanistas_, 444.

_Bibliothèque linguistique Amér._, vii.

Biddle, _Sebastian Cabot_, 112; believed the Zeni story a fraud, 112.

Big Bone Lick, 388.

Bigelow, A., 409.

Bigelow, _Natick_, 322.

Bigmore, _Bibliog. of Printing_, xvi.

Billaine, _Recueil de divers Voyages_, xxxiv.

Bimini island, 47.

Birch, _Robt. Boyle_, 322.

Birchrod on Atlantis, 43.

Bird mounds, 409.

Biscayans in America, 75.

Bjarni Asbrandson, his voyage, 82.

Blackamoors found in Central America, 117.

Blackett, W. S., _Lost Histories of America_, 40, 43.

Blackmore collections, 399, 444.

Blade, J. F., _L’Origine des Basques_, 75.

Blake, C. C., on Peruvian skulls, 244.

Blake, John H., his Peruvian collection, 273.

Blenheim Library, xiii.

Blome, _Jamaica_, xxxiv.

Blondel, S., _Recherches_, 419.

Boas, Franz, on the Eskimos, 107; his papers, 107.

Boban, 179.

Bodfish, J. P., on the Northmen voyages, 104.

Bodleian Library, _Codex Mendoza_, 203.

Boehmer, Geo. H., _Index to Anthropol. Articles_, 439.

Bohn, H. G., xvi.

Bolivia, map, 209.

Bollaert, Wm., on the Mexican calendars, 179; on Amer. palæography, 201; _Cent. Amer. hieroglyphics_, 201; _Antiq. Researches_, 270; _Anc. Peruvian graphic records_, 270; Incas, 270; on Tiahuanacu, 273; _Anthropol. of the New World_, 270, 375; his publications, 442.

Bollandists, _Acta Sanctorum_, 48.

Boncourt, F., 182.

Bone-workers, 417.

Bonneville, C. de, 370.

Boon, E. P., his library, xiii.

Bordone, B., his map of the Atlantic islands (1547), 57, 58; map of Scandinavia, 114, 126; had access to the Zeno map, 73.

Borgia, Cardinal, his museum, 205.

Bory de St. Vincent, J. B.,_ Les Isles Fortunées_, 19, 43; map, 19.

Boscana, G., _Chinigchinich_, 328.

Bossange, Hector, xvi.

Boston, private libraries, x; Public Library, its catalogues, xvii; as centre of study in American history, xvii; its libraries, xvii.

Boston Athenæum, its catal., xvii.

Boston Society of Natural History, 437.

Botanical arguments for the connection of Asia and America, 383.

Boturini, Beneduci, books on Indian tongues, vii; his collections in Mexican history, 159; its vicissitudes, 159; described by Aubin, 159; _Idea de una nueva Hist._, 159; facs. of title, 161; portraits, 160, 161; his catalogue, 159; his collection suffers in government hands, 162; contentions over it, 162.

Boucher de Perthes, his discoveries, 390; _Antiq. Celtiques_, 390; _De l’homme antédiluvien_, 390; _Bibl. Univ._, 93.

Boucher de la Richarderie, _Bibl. Univ. des Voyages_, ii.

Boudinot, Elias, _Star in the West_, 116.

Boué, A., on the floras of the earth, 44.

Bouquet, Col., secures captives from the Indians, 290.

Bourgeois, Abbé, on tertiary man, 387.

Bourke, J. G., _Snake Dance_, 429.

Bourne, Wm., _Treasure for Travellers_, 369.

Bovallius, K., _Nicaraguan Antiq._, 197.

Bowen, B. F., _America discovered by the Welsh_, 111.

Boyle, Fred., _Ride across a Continent_, 197.

Bracir (island). _See_ Brazil.

Braddock, Gen., his march, 294, 296.

Bradford, A. W., _Amer. Antiq._, 376, 415.

Brahm, Ger. de, 116.

Brainerd, David, his _Life_, 431.

Bran, _Ethnographisches Archiv_, 443.

Bransford, J. F., _Antiq. at Pantaleon_, 197.

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Abbé, his aids in linguistics, vii; his writings and career, vii, 170; _Coll. de docs. dans les langues Amér._, vii; his library, xiii; on Egyptian traces in America, 41, 167; on the Atlantis theory, 44, 172; on Fousang, 80; on the Northmen and their traces, 94, 99; on scattered traces of the Jews, 116; on the Votan myth, 134; on the Chichimecs, 136; on the Nahua migrations, 138; his easy credence, 139; begins Mexican hist. at B.C. 955, 155; on Sahagún, 157; _Lettres au duc de Valmy_, 158; on the Toltecs, 158; _Nations civilisées du Méxique_, 158, 171; chief sources of, 171; uses the _Codex Chimalpopoca_, 158; the _Codex Gondra_, 158; describes Aubin’s collection, 162; his own collection, 162; edits _Landa’s Relation_, 164, 165, 200; _Mission scientifique au Méxique_, 164, 170; on Yucatan history, 165; edits the _Popul Vuh_, 99, 166; _Dissert. sur les mythes de l’Antiq. Amér._, 166; his theory of cataclysms, 166; a Quiché MS., 167; translates _Mem. Tecpan-Atitlan_, 167; on Oajaca, 168; on Fuentes y Guzman, 168; portrait, 170; _Hist. du Canada_, 170; in Mexico, 170; _Esquisses l’histoire_, 170; _Ruines de Mayapan_, 170; _Lettres pour servir l’introduction a l’histoire du Méxique_, 171; helped by Aubin, 171; search for MSS., 171; _Quatre Lettres_, 171; bibliog., 171; his _MS. Troano_, 172, 200, 206, 207; _Chronol. hist. des Méxicains_, 179; on the ruins of Yucatan, 188; at Uxmal, 189; furnishes a text to Waldeck’s _Monuments Anc. du Méxique_, 194; _Ruines de Palenqué_, 171, 194; _Lettre à Léon de Rosny_, 200; Landa’s alphabet explained, 200; futile attempts at interpreting the hieroglyphics, 201; on the _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, 205; _Système graphique des Mayas_, 207; _Dict. de la Langue Maya_, 207, 427; his _Rapport_ on the MS. Troano, 207; on the _Codex Perezianus_, 207; on the origin of Americans, 369; on the moundbuilders, 401; _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, 172, 414, 423; on Mexican philology, 427; finds Greek roots, 427; _La lengua Quiché_, 427.

Brazil (country), rock inscriptions, 411.

Brazil (island), 31; bibliog., 49; origin of name, 50; on recent maps, 53; in Bianco and Pizigani maps, 54.

Brébœuf, the best observer of Indian traits, 317.

Breckenridge, H. H., on Indian populations, 437.

Breckenridge, _Louisiana_, 398.

Bredsdorff, T. H., on the Zeni, 112.

Breed, E. E., 409.

Brenden. _See_ St. Brandan.

Brenner, Oskar, 98 _Grönland_, 85; his map of Olaus Magnus, 125; _Die ächte Karte des O. Magnus_, 125.

Brerewood, E., _Enquiries_, 369.

Bretschneider, E., _Fusang_, 80.

Bretton, Baron de, _Origines des peuples de l’Amérique_, 369.

Breusing, _Nautik der Alten_, 24.

Brevoort, James C., his likeness, x; his library, x, xviii; supt. of Astor Library, x; on Leclerc’s _Bib. Am._, xvi.

Briganti, A., xxix.

Brigham, W. T., _Guatemala_, 166, 197.

Brine, Lindesay, _Ruined Cities of Cent. Amer._, 176.

Brinley, Geo., his library, xii.

Brinton, D. G., _Abor. Amer. Authors_, vii, 426; on Algonquin legends, 99; on Aztlan, 138; considers the Toltecs merely a dynasty, 141; on the Votanic Empire, 152; owns Berendt’s collection, 164; portrait, 165; on Dr. Berendt, 164; on Central American MSS., 164; _Books of Chilan Balam_, 164; _Chac-Xulub-Chen_, 164; on editions of Landa, 165; on the _Popul Vuh_, 167; _Names of the Gods in the Kiché myths_, 167, 436; _Annals of the Cakchiquels_, 167, 425; on the ethnology of the Cakchiquels, 167; on Nicaraguan history, 169; on Brasseur, 171; on Landa’s alphabet, 200; _Anc. Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan_, 201, 427; _Graphic system of the Mayas_, 201; _Phonetic elements_, 201; _Ikonomic method_, 201; on the _MS. Troano_, 207; on Peruvian myths and literature, 270; on the effect of missions on the Indians, 318; “Archæology corrects Geology”, 350; on Theo. Waitz, 378; on the Nicaragua footprints, 385; _Floridian Peninsula_, 391, 393; on shell heaps, 393; opposes Carr’s views on the moundbuilders, 402; his own views, 402; _Rev. of data for the study of prehist. Chronology_, 412, 413; _Recent European Contributions_, 412; _Prehist. Archæology_, 412; on the use of mica, 416; _Lineal measures of Mexico_, 420; _Language of the palæolithic man_, 421; _Polysyntheism of Amer. languages_, 422; _Amer. Aborig. languages_, 425; _Chronicles of the Mayas_, 164, 425; _Gueguence_, 425, 428; the _Taensa Grammar_, 426; _Philos. Grammar of the Amer. languages_, 426; _Memoir of Berendt_, 164, 426; _Anc. Nahuatl Poetry_, 426; _Nahuatl language_, 426; _Cakchiquel language_, 427; _Xinca Indians_, 427; _Alaguilac language_, 427; on the Nicaragua tongues, 428; _Mangue dialect_, 428; _Lenape and their legends_, 325; _Nat. legend of the Chata-mus-ko-kee tribes_, 326; on the Shawanees, 326; on the mental capacity of the Indian, 328; _Myths of the New World_, 429; on sun-worship, 429; on phallic worship, 429; _American Hero-Myths_, 430; on monotheism, 430; _Religious sentiment_, 430; _Journey of the Soul_, 431; on Quetzalcoatl, 432.

Bristol, Eng., sends out expeditions westward, 75.

Britain, the Island of the Blessed, 15.

British Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, _Reports_, 442.

British Columbia mounds, 410.

_British Sailor’s Directory_, 110.

Brixham cave, 390.

Broadhead, G. C., 409.

Brocard, _Descriptio_, xxi.

Brockhaus (Leipzig), _Bibl. Amér._, xvii.

Brocklehurst, T. U., _Mexico To-day_, 177, 182.

Brodbeck, J., 109.

Bronze Age in America, 418.

Brooks, C. T., _Newport Mill_, 105.

Brooks, Ch. W., on the emigrations to China, 81.

Broughton, Richard, _Monasticon Brit._, 83.

Brown, Dewi, 326.

Brown, D., on Georgia shell heaps, 393.

Brown, G. S., _Yarmouth_, 102.

Brown, John Carter, his library and its catalogues, xii.

Brown, J. Madison, on the ten lost tribes, 116.

Brown, Marie A., _Icelandic Discoverers_, 96.

Brown, Nathan, 81.

Brown, Dr. Robt., on the Eskimos, 107.

Brown, Thomas J., 407.

Browne, J. M., 328.

Browne, J. Ross, 328; _Apache Country_, 396.

Bruff, J. G., on rock inscriptions, 104, 410.

Brühl, Gustav, _Culturvölker_, 195, 411.

Brunet on De Bry, xxxii.

Brunn, _Bibl. Danica_, 40.

Brunner, D. B., _Indians of Berks County_, 325.

Brunson, Alfred, 408.

Bruyas, J., _Radices Verborum Iroquæorum_, 425.

Bryce, Geo., on Manitoba mounds, 410.

Brynjalfson, G., on Scandin. polar explorations, 62.

Buache, Philippe, 20; _Antillia_, 49; map of the route to Fousang, 79; on the Zeni, 112; _Sur Frisland_, 112.

Buchholtz, _Die Homerische Realien_, 13.

Büchner, L., _Der Mensch_, 383; _Man_, 381.

Buck, W. J., _Lappawinzo_, 325.

Buckland, Dr., _Reliq. Diluvianæ,_ 390.

Buckland, Miss, 417.

Buckle, _Hist. Civilization_, 41.

Buddhist priest in Fousang, 78.

Buffon, _Epoques de la Nat._, 44; on stone implements, 387; on bones from the Big Bone Lick, 388.

Bull, Henry, 323.

Bull, Ole, and the statue of Leif Ericson, 98.

Bull, Mrs. Ole, on the Northmen, 98.

_Bulletin Archéologique Français_, 441.

Bullock, Wm., collection of pottery, 418.

Bullock, W. H., _Six mos. in Mexico_, 180.

Bumstead, Geo., xvi.

Bumstead, Jos. (Boston), xv.

Bunbury, E. H., _Anc. Geog._, 36; on Atlantis, 46.

Burder, Geo., _Welsh Indians_, 110.

Bureau of Ethnology, _Reports_, 439.

Burge, Lorenzo, _Preglacial Man_, 387.

Burgoa, F. de, _Géog. Descripcion_, 168.

Burkart, J., _Reisen in Mexico_, 183.

Burke, L., 46.

Burke, J., at Chichen-Itza, 190.

Burney, Jas., _Chron. History of Discovery_, xxxvi.

Burns, C. R., _Missouri_, 409.

Burr, R. T., 397.

Burton, R. F., _Ultima Thule_, 84, 85, 118.

Bus, land of, 47.

Buschmann, J. C. E., _Die Spuren der Aztekischen Sprache_, 138; _Die Lautveränderung Aztek. Wörter_, 138; his linguistic studies, vii, 425; _Die Aztekischen Ortsnamen_, 427; _Die Völker Neu-Mexicos_, 427.

Bussière, Th. de, _Le Pérou_, 275.

Bustamante, C. M. de, edits Leon y Gama’s _Piedras_, 159; _Mañanas de la Alameda_, 179.

Butler, Amos W., _Sacrificial Stone_, 183.

Butler, J. D., _Prehistoric Wisconsin_, 408; on copper implements, 418; _Copper Age in Wisconsin_, 418.

Butler County, Ohio, mounds, 408.

Butterfield, C. W., 326; on the mounds, 407.

Buxton, _Migrations of the Ancient Mexicans_, 169.

Byles, Mather, xxviii.

CABOT, JOHN, xxviii, xxxiv; in De Bry, xxxii; bust of, 56.

Cabot, J. Elliot, on the Northmen, 96.

Cabot, Sebastian, in Bristol, 50.

Cabrera, Felix, _Teatro Crit. Amer._, 134, 191, 433.

Cacama, 149.

Cæsar, Julius (Englishman), xxiii.

Cahokia mound, 408.

Cakchiquels, in Guatemala, 150; their geog. position, 151; their ethnog. relations, 167; their dialect, 427.

Calancha, A. de la, _Coronica Moralizada_, etc., 264; _Hist. Peruanæ_, etc., 264.

Calaveras skull, 351, 352, 384; cut, 385.

Calaveras County (Cal.) cave, 390.

Calculiform characters, 201.

Calderon, J. A., on Palenqué, 191.

Calendar disks, 179; stone of Mexico, 159, 178.

California Acad. of Science, 438.

California, gold drift, 384; its Indians, 81, 328; an island in Sanson’s map, 18; alleged tertiary relics, 351; mounds, 409; the original home of the Nahuas, 137, 138; linguistic confusion in, 138; pottery, 419; shell heaps, 393.

Callender, John, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Callières, 303.

Camargo, D. M., _Tlaxcallan_, 163.

Campa, 428.

Campanius on the Sagas, 92.

Campbell, John, _Voyages_, xxxiv.

Campbell, John, 322, 369; on the linguistic affiliations with Asia, 77; on traditions of Mexico and Peru, 81; on the Davenport tablet, 404.

Camus, A. G., _De Bry_, xxxii.

Canaanites, ancestors of the Americans, 371.

Canada, Indians, 321; their arts, 416; library of Parliament, xviii; mounds, 410.

_Canadian Antiquarian_, 438.

Canadian Institute, 438; _Ann. Repts._, 416.

_Canadian Journal_, 438.

_Canadian Monthly_, 438.

_Canadian Naturalist_, 438.

Canaries, called _Ins. Fortunæ_, 14, 27, 47; known to the Carthaginians, 25. _See_ Fortunate Islands. Known to the Arabs, 47; island seen from, 48; _Noticias_ by Viera y Clavijo, 48; in the Bianco map, 50, 54; in Sanuto’s map, 53; in Pizigani’s map, 54; relations with America, 116. _See_ Guanches.

Canas, 226.

Candolle, De, _Géog. botanique_, 212.

Canepa map, 58.

Cañete, 275.

Canfield, W. H., _Sauk County_, 409.

Cannon, C. L., 397.

Canoes, 420; drifting, 78.

Canstadt, race of, 377.

Cantino map (1501-3), 53, 120.

Canto, Ernesto do, _Archivo des Açores_, xix; _Os Corte-Reaes_, xix.

Cape Cod, map of, 100; ancient hearth on, 105; map of shell heaps, 393.

Cape Prince of Wales, 77.

Cape de Verde islands known to the ancients, 14, 25.

Capel, _Vorstellungen des Norden_, xxxiv, 111.

Capella, Marcianus, _De Nuptiis_, etc., 36.

Caradoc, 109.

Cardiff giant a fraud, 41.

Carelloy Ancona C., _La lengua Maya_, 427.

Carette, E., _Les temps antéhistoriques_, 421.

Carey, _Amer. Museum_, 110.

Cari, 229.

Caribs, origin of, 117; descendants of the Chichimecs, 136.

Carignano map (xiv. cent.), 53.

Carleton, J. H., 397.

Carli, Count Carlo, _Briefe über Amerika_, 20; controverts DePauw, 370; _Delle Lettere Amer._, 43, 44, 370.

Carlson, F. F., 84.

Carolina, Indians of, 325. _See_ North Carolina.

Carolus, J., map of Greenland, 131.

Carr, Lucien, 412; on the position of Indian women, 328; _Crania of No. Amer. Indians_, 356; on the study of skulls, 373; on the Trenton implements, 337, 388; _Mounds of the Mississippi Valley_, 402; on Virginia mounds, 410.

Carrasco, C., _Ollanta_, 281.

Carrenza, L., 282.

Carrera, F. de, _Yunca Grammar_, 274, 279, 280.

Carreri, G. F. G., _Giro del Mondo_, 138, 158; attacked by Robertson and defended by Clavigero, 158.

Carriedo, J. B., on Oajaca, 168; _Los Palacios antiquos de Mitla_, 184.

Carrillo, Canon (now Bishop), Crescencio, his collection of MSS., 163; on Zumárraga, 203; _Yucatan_, 164, 166; _Geog. Maya_, 188; _La langua Maya_, 164.

Carrington, Margaret J., _Absaraka_, 327.

Cartailhac, E., 411, 442; _L’age de pierre_, 387.

Carter-Brown. _See_ Brown, J. C.

Carver, Jona., on the mounds, 398.

Carthaginian discoveries, 14, 25.

Casa Blanca, 395.

Casa Grande of the Gila Valley, 395, 397.

Casas Grandes, 395.

Caspari, Otto, _Urgeschichte der Menschheit_, 81, 383.

Caspi, Marquis de, 205.

Cass, Lewis, on Heckewelder, 398.

Casselius, _De nav. fortuitis in Americam_, 75.

Cassell, J. P., _Observatio hist._, 92.

Cassino, _Standard Nat. History_, 34, 412.

Castaing, Alphonse, _Les fêtes dans l’antiq. peruvienne_, 238; _Système relig. dans l’antiq. peruvienne_, 241.

Castañeda, drawings of Palenqué, 191, 192.

Castell, _America_, xxxiv.

Castelnau, F. de, _Expédition_, 271; on the antiquities of the Incas, 271.

Castillo, G., _Dict. de Yucatan_, 166.

Castillo y Orozco, E., _Vocab. Paéz-Castellano_, 425.

Cat, Edouard, _Découvertes Maritimes_, xxxvii.

Catalan map (1375), 49; cut, 55 (xiv. cent.), 53; carta nautica (1487), 58.

Catcott, A., _Deluge_, 370.

_Catecismo de la doctrina Cristiana_ vii.

Catherwood, Frederick, _Anc. Mts. in Cent. Amer._, 176.

Catlin, Geo., on the Welsh Indians, iii; finds analogies to Hebrew customs in the Indians, 116; _Lifted and subsided rocks_, 46; _Life among the Indians_, 369; _Last Rambles_, 369; _North American Indians_, 320; bibliog., 320; his _Indian Gallery_, 320; _Illustrations of the Manners_, etc., 320; portraits, 320; map of the Indian tribes, 321.

Cauchis, 226.

Cavate dwellings, 395.

Cave-bear epoch, 377.

Cave man, 377, 390; held to be speechless, 377; represented to-day by the Eskimos, 377; drawings of, 382.

Cavendish, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi; in _De Bry_, xxxii; in _Claesz_, xxxiii.

Caves in America, 389.

Caxamarca, 231.

Cayaron, _Chaumont_, 321; _Autobiographie_, 321.

Celedon, R., _Lengua gocejra_, 425.

Cellarius, _Notit. orb. antiq._, 37, 45.

Céloron, 286, 310.

Cenecu, 394.

Central America, Scandinavians in, 99; map of, by Malte-Brun, 151; notes on the ruins, 176. _See_ Yucatan, Guatemala, Nicaragua.

Central Ohio Scientific Assoc., 407.

_Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen_, xvii.

Ceramic art. _See_ Pottery.

Chac-Mool, statue, 180, 190, 434.

Chaca, 224; ruins, 224; described by Squier, 224.

Chaco Cañon, 395, 396.

Chadbourne, P. A., on shell heaps, 392.

Chahta, 402.

Chalcedony, 417.

Chalco conquered, 147.

Challenger ridge in the Atlantic, 44.

Chalmers, interpreting the geological record, 383.

Chama, 428.

Chamberlin, T. C., _Our glacial drift_, 332.

Champlain, his friendship with the Hurons, 285.

Chancas, 210, 227, 230.

Chanes, 135.

Changos, 275.

Chapultepec, Aztecs at, 142; sculptured likeness on its cliff, 148.

Charencey, H. de, _Mélanges_, vii; _La langue Basque_, 75; _Mythe de Votan_, 81; _Djemschid et Quetzalcohuatl_, 81; _Myth d’Imos_, 134; _Civilisation du Méxique_, 176; on the Maya hieroglyphics, 195; _Fragment d’inscription palenquéens_, 201; his linguistic studies, 425; _Mélanges_, 426, 427; _Chrestomathie de la langue Maya_, 427; _Des mots en lengua Maya_, 427; _Le Déluge_, 431.

Charlevoix, _Nouv. France_, ii; on Amer. linguistics, 424.

Charnay, Désiré, finds Buddhist traces in Mexico, 81; on the Toltecs, 141; _Cités et Ruines Amér._, 176, 186, 195; _Le Méxique_, 176; papers in _No. Amer. Rev._, 177; in _Tour du Monde_, 177; _Les Anc. Villes_, 177, 186, 195; _Ancient Cities_, 177; in Yucatan, 186; portrait, 187; his route in Yucatan, 188; at Chichen-Itza, 190; at Palenqué, 195.

Charton, Ed., _Voyageurs_, xxxvii.

Chase, A. W., 409.

Chata-mus-ko-kee tribes, 326.

Chatinos, 136.

Chautre, 442.

Chavanne, _Lit. Polar Regions_, 78.

Chavero, A., _Sahagún_, 157; _México á través de los Siglos_, 172; on the Calendar Stone, 179; his old view of Mexico, 182; _La Piedra del Sol_, 431.

Chaves, Francisco de, in Peru, 260.

Chekilli, 326.

Chellean period, 377.

Chelly, Cañon, cliff-houses, 395.

Cheney, T. A., 405.

Chenooks, 99. _See_ Chinook.

Cherbonneau on Arab geographers, 48.

Cherokees, Timberlake on, 83; _Enquiry into the origin_, 370; held to be moundbuilders, 402; council-house, 402; sources of their history, 326; their case with Georgia, 326.

Cherry, P. P., 403.

Chert, 417.

Chesapeake Bay, shell heaps, 392.

Chevalier, Michel, _Du Méxique avant et pendant la Conquête_, 172, 176; _Le Méxique_, 172.

Chiapaneca language, 425.

Chiapas, 433; MS. concerning, 168; sources of its history, 168; map, 188; ruins in, 191.

Chibchas, 282, 428; their language, 425; origin of, 80; position of, 210.

Chicama, 276.

Chi-Chen, 186.

Chichimecs, barbarians or a tribe, 136; etymology, 136; in Mexico, 139; invade Anáhuac, 142; their stock, 142; adopt the Nahua tongue, 142; form alliances, 142; authorities, 147; anc. MS. on, 157; MS. annals, 162; genealogy of their chiefs, 162; their language, 426.

Chichen-Itza, 434; position of, 151, 188; Charnay at, 186; Le Plongeon at, 186, 190; accounts of, 190; ornaments, 190; statue of Chac-Mool, 190; wall paintings, 190; hieroglyphics at, 200.

Chiclayo, 276.

Chicomoztoc, 138.

Chil, Dr., on Atlantis, 46.

Chilca, 277.

Chillicothe, map, 406.

Chimalpain, Domingo, notes on Mexican history, 162.

Chimalpain, A. M., _Crónica Méx._, 164.

Chimborazo, 275.

Chimus, 227, 275; burial habits, 276; character of the people, 277.

Chinantecs, 136.

Chinchas, 227, 277.

Chinese emigration, 369; in Peru, 82. _See_ Fousang.

_Chinese Recorder_, 80.

Chinook jargon and language, 422, 425.

Chippewas, 326.

Chiquimala, 168.

Chiquita language, 425.

Christianity introduced into Greenland, 62.

Christy collection, 444.

Chocope, 276.

Cholula, temple built by the Olmecs, 137; a shrine, 140; views, 177, 178; account of, 178; when built, 178; dimensions, 178; arms of, 178; restorations, 178; early mentions, 180; maps, 180; communal house at, 175.

Chontales, 136.

Chucuito, ruins at, 245.

Chumeto language, 426.

Chun-kal-cin, 187.

Chuquisaca, 278.

Churchhill’s _Voyages_, xxxiv.

Cibola, seven cities of, 138, 396; held to be Fousang, 80; map of, 394.

Cicero, 7; _Tusculan Disputations_, 9; _Respublica_, 9; on geog. questions, 36; dream of Scipio, 36.

Cicogna, _Bibl. Veneziana_, xxix.

Cicuye (Pecos), 396.

Cieza de Leon, P., as an authority on anc. Peruvian history, xxxv, 259.

Cimmerians, 13.

Cincinnati, Nat. Hist. Soc., 407, 438.

Cincinnati tablet, 404; cut, 404; mounds, 408.

Circleville, Ohio, mounds, 407.

Cisneros, Garcia de, 155, 276.

Cisternay du Fay, xxxii.

Ciudad Rodrigo, A. de, 155.

Civilization of the ancient nations of middle America, 173; bibliog., 176.

Claesz, C., coll. of voyages, xxxiii.

Clallam language, 425.

Clark, Gen. J. S., map of the Iroquois country, 323.

Clark, J. V. H., _Onondaga_, 325.

Clark, W. P., _Indian Sign-language_, 422.

Clarke, Hyde, _Legend of Atlantis_, 43, 383; _Khita-Peruvian Epoch_, 82; _Researches_, 369.

Clarke, P. D., _Wyandotts_, 327.

Clarke, Robt., his book-lists, xv; on the Cincinnati tablet, 404.

Clarke County, Ohio, mounds, 408.

Claus, C., _Den Grölandske Chronica_, 85.

Clavigero, _Storia del Messico_, ii; his beginning of Mexican hist., 155; on the sources of Mexican history, 158; describes the material, 158; belittled by Robertson, 158; portrait, 159; his bibliog., 413.

Clavus, Claudius, his map, 114, 117; facs., 118, 119.

Clay, moulding in, 419; masks of, 419.

Claymont, Del., deposits, 342.

Cleomedes, 4.

Cleomedes, _De sublimibus circulis_, 8, 35.

Clermont, college of, ii.

Cliff-dwellers’ pottery, 419; their houses, 395.

Climate, influence on man, 372, 378; theories of changes in, 387.

Clint, Wm., 322.

Clinton, De Witt, on the Northmen remains, 102; on mounds, 398; _Antiq. of Western N. Y._, 414.

Clodd, Edw., 387; _Childhood of the world_, 412.

Cloth. _See_ Textile arts.

Cluverius, 43; _Introd. in univ. geog._, 40.

Coahuila cave, 390.

Coate, B. H., _Discourse_, 369.

Cobo, B., _Lima_, 274.

Cochrane, J., 408.

Cocomes, 152.

_Codex Chimalpopoca_, 135; named by Brasseur, 158; acc. of, 158; copies, 158; _Hist. de los Reynos de Colhuacan_, 158; _Anales de Cuauhtitlan_, 158; owned by Aubin, 162.

_Codex Cortesianus_, 206, 207.

_Codex Flatoyensis_, 88, 92.

_Codex Gondra_, 158.

_Codex Mendoza_, 203.

_Codex Mexicanus_, 162, 207.

_Codex Perezianus_, 207; cut, 207.

_Codex Troano_, 205; ed. by Brasseur, 207.

Cogulludo, _Yucathan_, 165; _Los tres Siglos en Yucatan_, 165.

Cohn, Albert, xxxii.

Cohuixcas, 136.

Coins, Roman, found in America, 41.

Colaeus at Gades, 25.

Colden, Cadwallader, among the Mohawks, 289; _Five Indian Nations_, 324; editions, 324; his career, 324.

Colhuacan, founded, 139; seat of power, 139; its league, 140.

Colhuas, 136, 139; vassals of the Chichimecs, 142.

Colijn, M., _Journalen_, xxxiv.

Collahuaso, J., _Inca Atahualpa_, 268.

Collas, 226.

Collingwood, J. F., 443.

Colorado Cañon, explored by Powell, 396.

Colorado caves, 391.

Colorado, expeditions in, 395.

Columbia River Valley, centre of migrations, 381.

Columbus, Christopher, acc. of his voyages, xix, xxiv, xxxiv, xxxvi; believed he found Asia, 1; inherited the idea of the sphericity of the earth, 31; inspired by anc. writers, 40; his idea of the width of the Atlantic, 51; Toscanelli’s letter to him, 51; in Iceland, 61; _Tratado de las cinco zonas_, 61; supposed knowledge of the Norse discoveries, 96; efforts to canonize him, 96; attacks on his character, 96; meets a Maya vessel, 173; his Garden of Eden, 372.

Columbus, Ferd., his library, vi; life of C. Columbus, xxxiv.

Comanches, 327; vocabulary, 440.

Comfort, A. J., 409.

Comité d’Archéologie Américaine, its members, 441; _Annuaire_, 441; _Actes_, 441; _Mémoires_, 441.

Commelin, Isaac, _Oost-Indische Compagnie_, xxxiv.

Communal customs, 420; life, 175, 176.

Conant, A. J., 409; _Footprints of a vanished race_, 400.

Conant, H. S., 177.

Concacha, ruins, 220, 221.

Conchucus, 227.

Condamine, C. M. la, _Voyage_, 271; on Peruvian monuments, 271.

Congrès International des Américanistes, 442; its sessions and _Comptes rendus_, 442.

Congrès Internat. d’Anthropologie, 442.

Connecticut Acad. of Arts, etc., 438.

Connecticut Indians, 323.

Conover, G. S., on the Seneca burial mound, 405.

Contractus, H., _De util. astrolabii_, 37.

Conybeare, C. A. V., _Place of Iceland_, 85.

Cook, G. H., _Reports_, 388.

Cooke, J. J., his library, xii.

Cooley, W. D., _Maritime Discovery_, 72, 93.

Copan (ruins), 135; position of, 151; plan, 194; statues, 196; early accounts, 196; seen by Stephens, 196; plans, 197.

Copan (town), 196.

Cope, Edw. D., Mesozoic and Cænozoic of N. America, 353; on cave deposits, 390.

Copenhagen, Royal Soc. of Northern Antiquities, 93; its publications, 94.

Copper, mining, 417; tools of, 417, 418; moundbuilders’ use of, 408.

Copway, Geo., _Ojibway nation_, 327.

Cora, Guido, 444; _Precursori di Colombo_, 115.

Coras, 136.

Cordeiro, L., _Les Portugais dans la découverte de l’Amérique_, xix.

Cordoba, Andrés de, 155.

Cordova, H. de, first sees the Yucatan ruins, 173.

Cordova y Salinas, D. de, 264.

Coreal, François, _Voyages_, 145.

Corlear, 289.

Cornelius E., 410.

Cornell University, Sparks’s library at, vi.

Corni, C. M., 263.

Corroy, F., 193.

Cortambert, Richard, _Voyages_, xxxvii.

Cortereal, John Vas Costá, at Newfoundland, 75, 125.

Cortereal, Gasper, xix, xxxiv.

Cortereals, the, xix, xxxiv.

Cortés, his lost first letter, xxi; his letters, xxv; sought a passage to Asia, 1; arrives on the coast (1579), 149; hailed as Quetzalcoatl, 149; his statements about the native displays, 173; his knowledge of Palenqué, 191; sends feather work to Charles V, 420.

Coruña, Martin de, 155.

Corvo, equestrian statue, 49.

Coryat, _Crudities_, 32.

Cosmas, 30, 38.

Cosmogonists, 383.

Cosmology of the Middle Ages, 36.

Coursey, Col. Henry, 304.

Court, Dr. J., his library, xiii.

Cousin, on the So. Amer. coast, 76.

Cowles, Henry, _Pentateuch_, 374.

Cox, _Mythology of the Aryan nations_, 430.

Coxe, Daniel, _Voyages_, xxxv; _Carolana_, 326.

Cozumel, ruins in, 185, 188, 434.

Cozzen, _Marvellous Country_, 396.

Craniology, diversified in America, 356; science of, 373; capacity no sure guide to intelligence, 373; kinds of, 375; long-headed, or dolichocephalic, 375; short-headed, or brachycephalic, 375; medium, or mesocephalic, 375; Cro-magnon skull, 377, 389; Calaveras skull, 384, 385; Trenton gravel skulls, 388; Enghis skull, 389; Neanderthal skull, 389, 390; Hochelagan skull, 389; moundbuilders’ skulls, 399, 400, 403.

Crantor, commentator on Plato, 41.

Crantz, David, _Grönland_, 86; editions, 86; on Hans Egede, 108.

Crates of Mallus, 7; his globe, 9.

Crawford, Chas., _Indians descended from the Ten Tribes_, 116.

Crawford and Balcarres on De Bry, xxxiii.

Crawfordville, mounds, 400.

Cresson, H. T., finds palæolithic implements, 341; discoveries at Naaman’s Creek, Del., 363; finds piles, 364, 395; _Aztec music_, 420.

Crevaux, J. (with P. Sagot and L. Adam), _Langues de la région des Guyanes_, 425.

Croghan, Col. George, 318.

Croll, James, _Climate and Cosmology_, 383, 387; his theory of climatic changes, 387; _Climate and Time_, 387; controversy with Newcomb, 387.

Cro-magnon skull, 377, 389; cut of, 377; of the cave race, 377.

Cromlechs in Peru, 214.

Crook, G., on making arrow-heads, 417.

Crosby, Dr. Howard, on Geo. H. Moore, xii.

Cross, the, among the Mayas and Nahuas, 195; held to be a symbolized fire drill, 195; the symbol of life, 195.

Crow Indians, 327.

Crowninshield, E. A., his library, xii.

Ctesias, _India_, 39.

Cuella, Juan de, 265.

Cuesta, Fernandez, _Enciclopedia de viajes_, xxxvii.

Cuextecas, 136.

Cuitatecs, 136.

Cuitlahuac conquered, 147.

Cukulcan, 434.

Cumanagota, 428.

Cuming, F., _Tour_, 398.

Cumming, Thos., 306.

Cuoq, J. A., on the Algonquin dialects, 425; _Etudes_, 425; _La langue Iroquoise_, 425.

Currency. _See_ Money.

Cuscatlan, 168.

Cushing, F. H., on the habitation of man as affected by surroundings, 378; on the Pueblo architecture, 395; on the Zuñi, 396; on N. Y. mounds, 405; _Pueblo pottery_, 419, 440; _Zuñi fetiches_, 440.

Cushites of Egypt, 41.

Cusick, David, _Anc. History of the Six Nations_, 325.

Cutler, Manasseh, on the Ohio mounds, 407.

Cutter, Chas. A., edits Sparks’s Catalogue, vii; on bibliog. of De Bry, xxxii.

Cutts, J. B., 409.

Cuvier opposes Lamarck, 383.

Cuyahoga Valley mounds, 408.

Cuzco, great wall in, 220; its fortress, 220; plans of, 229; old view, 229; zodiac of gold found at, 235; foundation of the city, 246.

D’ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, H., _Litt. Celtique_, 50; _Litt. Epique d’Irlande_, 50.

D’Autun, Honoré, _Imago Mundi_, 48.

D’Avalos y Figueroa, Diego, _Miscelanea Austral_, 280.

D’Avezac, _Iles d’Afrique_, 43, 47; _Les iles de St. Brandan_, 47; _Les iles fantastiques_, 43, 47; on the Laon globe, 56.

Da Gama, xxviii.

Dabry de Thiersant, _Origine des Indiens_, 77, 176.

Dacotahs, 327; bibliog., 424; mythology, 431; mounds, 409; linguistic connection with Asia, 77. _See_ Sioux.

Dahlman, F. C., _Dänemark_, 84.

Dahlmann, _Forschungen_, 99.

Dalin, Olaf von, _Svearikes Hist._, 84.

Dall, W. H., on the peopling of America, 76, 77, 78; on the Polynesians, 82; on the Eskimos, 107, 437; _Alaska_, 107; on the origin of the Americans, 369; against the autochthonous theory, 375; on Alaska caves, 391; on shell heaps, 393; on Aleutian islands, 393; edits Nadaillac, 412, 415; on prehistoric man, 412; on Indian masks, 419; on the Alaska tribes, 328, 437.

Dallas, W. S., 383.

Dalrymple, Alex., _Voyages_, xxxv.

Dalrymple, _Bibl. Amer._, ii.

Daly, D., 432.

Damariscotta, Me., shell heap, 392.

Dammartin, _La Pierre de Taunston_, 104.

Danforth, Dr., on Dighton Rock, 103.

Danilsen, A. F., 410.

Danish peat beds, man of, 395.

Danmar, 31, 47, 49.

Dapper’s collection, xxxiv.

Daremburg and Saglio, _Dict. de l’Antiq._, 36.

Dartmouth College founded, 322.

Darwin, Chas., _Descent of Man_, 375; on the degeneracy of the savage, 381.

Darwinism, 383.

Dasent, G. W., _Burnt Njal_, 85; _Norsemen in Iceland_, 85; introd. to Vigfusson’s _Icelandic Dict._, 88.

Daux, A., _Etudes préhistoriques_, 416.

Davenport Academy of Sciences, 438.

Davenport tablets, 404; controversy, 404.

Davilla Padilla, _Prov. de Santiago_, 156; _Varia hist._, 156.

Davis, Asahel, _Antiq. of Cent. Amer._, 176.

Davis, A. C., 418.

Davis, And. McF., on Indian games, 328.

Davis, E. H. _See_ Squier, E. G.

Davis, Horace, _Japanese blood on our N. W. coast_, 78.

Davis, John (navigator), xxxiv; in Davis Straits, 107.

Davis, John (Judge), on the Dighton Rock, 104.

Dawkins, W. B., on the Basques, 75; on the Eskimos, 105; on the tertiary man, 353; _Early man in No. America_, 353; _Early man in Britain_, 356; on prehistoric study, 376; on the antiquity of man, 383; on the Calaveras skull, 385; on man and extinct animals, 388; _Cave Hunting_, 390.

Dawson, Sir J. W., on the Skrælings, 105; on the early migrations, 138; follows Morgan in his communal theory, 176; on the unity of the human race, 374; believes the biblical account literally, 375; portrait, 380; on No. Amer. migrations, 381; _Fossil Men_, 382, 383, 416; advocates the theory of degeneracy, 382; _Nature and the Bible_, 382; _Story of the Earth_, 382, 386; _Origin of the World_, 382; on the Calaveras skull, 385; on the moundbuilders, 401.

Day, St. John V., _Prehistoric Use of Iron_, 41, 418.

Dayton, E. A., 410.

De Brosses, _Hist. des Navigations_, xxxv.

De Bry, Theodore, portrait, xxx; _Voyages_, xxxi; his heirs, xxxi; _Collectiones peregrinationum_, xxxi; bibliog., xxxii; _Elenchus_, xxxii; counterfeit eds., xxxii; his other publications, xxxiii; abridgments, xxxiii; original Wyth drawings, xxxiii.

De Bure on De Bry, xxxii.

De Candolle, _Géog. botanique_, 117. _See_ Candolle.

De Costa, B. F., _Pre-Columbian Discovery_, 97; _Notes on a Review_, 97; _Northmen in Maine_, 97; _Sailing Directions of Hudson_, 97; _Columbus and the geographers of the North_, 97; on Dighton Rock, 104; on the Eskimos, 105; on the Zeni, 115.

De Courcy, _Hist. Chh. in America_, 69.

De Ferry, H., _Le Maconnais préhistorique_, 357.

De Forest, _Indians of Conn._, 323.

De Haas, W., _Archæology of the Mississippi Valley_, 437.

De Hart, J. D., 408.

De Hart, J. M., 409.

De la Porte, Abbé, _Voyageur Français_, xxxvi.

De Laet, on Madoc, 109; on the Zeni, 111. _See_ Laet.

De Leyre, xxxv.

De Pauw, C., his depreciation of American products, 370; _Recherches Philos._, 370; editions, 370; _Defenses_, 370.

De Tocqueville on the Indians, 320.

Dean, C. K., 409.

Deane, Chas., his library, x; his likeness, xi; on James Lenox, xi; on E. A. Crowninshield, xiii; on the Northmen, 98.

Degrees, length of, 32.

Delafield, John, _Antiq. of Amer._, 372.

Delamar, island, 49.

Delaware River gravels, 360, 361, 388. _See_ Trenton.

Delawares, in Penna., 306; in Pontiac’s conspiracy, 316; sources of their history, 325; their language, 423; their legends, 431.

Deluge, myths of the, 431.

Deman, island, 49.

Demmin, A., _La Céramique_, 419.

Demons, isles of, 32.

Denis, Ferd., _Arte plumaria_, 420.

Dennie, _Portfolio_, on the mounds, 398.

Denton, _Desc. of N. Y._, vi.

Derby, J. C., _Fifty years_, viii.

Desimoni, Cornelio, on the Atlantic islands, 47; _Le carte nautiche del medio evo_, 55; on the Zeni, 113.

Desjardins, Ernest, _Rapport sur Harrisse_, v; _Pérou avant la conquête_, 270.

Desnoyers on tertiary man, 387.

Desor, Ed., _Palafittes_, 395.

Deuber, F. X. A., _Gesch. der Schiffahrt im Atl. Ozean_, 60.

Deutsch, Manuel, xxvii.

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, 443; _Correspondenzblatt_, 443; _Allgemeine Versammlung_, 443.

Devaux, V., 442.

Devereux on Arkansas pottery, 419.

Dewitt, S., 405.

Dexter, Henry M., his library, xvii; his bibliog. of Congregationalism, xvii.

Dhoulcarnain, 49.

Dialects, 422. _See_ Linguistics.

Diaz, Bernal, his stories of regal pomp, 173; as a chronicler, 153; facs. of his MS., 154.

Dibden on De Bry, xxxii.

Didron, Aîné, _Annales Archéologiques_, 441.

Dieskau, Baron, on his Indian allies, 296.

Dighton Rock, held to be Phœnician, 41, 104; Rafn’s view of it, 101; various drafts of its inscription, 103; account of, 104; work of the Indians, 104; of Siberians, 104; of Northmen, 104; of Roman Catholics, 104.

Dille, I., 407, 410.

Diman, J. L., on the unhistoric quality of the sagas, 97.

Dimning, E. O., 408.

Dinwiddie, Gov., on the Indians as allies, 296.

Dionne, N. E., 317.

Diodorus Siculus, 14.

Diogenes Laertius, 3.

District Historical Soc., 407.

D’Orbigny, A., _L’homme Americain_, 412; on the religion of the Quichuas, 436.

Doddridge, Jos., _Settlement and Indian wars_, 319; his career, 319.

Dodge, David, 347.

Dodge, J. R., _Red Man_, 326.

Dodge, Wm. (Cincinnati), xv.

Dodsley, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Dolfus, Montserrat and Pavie, _Mémoires_, 170.

Dolphin ridge in the Atlantic, 44.

Domenech, Abbé, _Seven years’ residence_, 80; _Manuscrit pictographique_, 163; on the American man, 369.

Donaldson, Thomas, _Geo. Catlin’s Indian Gallery_, 320.

Doncker, H., map of Greenland, 131.

Dongan, Gov., 304.

Donis, his Ptolemy map, 114; sketch of northern parts, 122.

Donnelly, Ignatius, _Atlantis_, 16, 45, 46.

Dorman, R. M., _Primitive Superstition_, 431.

Dörpfeld, _Metrologie_, 5.

Dorr, H. C., 327.

Dorsey, J. O., 423; on the Omahas, 327.

Douglass, A. E., 393.

Doutrelaine, _Mitla_, 170, 185.

Doyle, _English in America_, 325.

Drake, Daniel, _Cincinnati_, 398.

Drake, E. C., _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Drake, Sir Francis, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi, xxxvii; on De Bry, xxxii; on Claesz, xxxiii.

Drake, F. S., his deceptive _Indian Tribes_, 320, 441.

Drake, Samuel G., dealer in Americana, xv; dies, xv; his library, xv; sold to Conn. Hist. Soc., xv; sold coll. of school-books to the Brit. Mus. xv; his books on the Indians, 318; _Aborig. Races of No. America_, 318.

Draper, _Intellectual development of Europe_, 176.

Draudius, _Bibl. Classica_, i.

_Dresden Codex_, 204, 205; ed. by Förstemann, 205.

Drogeo, 72, 128.

D’Urban, 43.

Du Perier, _Voyages_, xxxv.

Du Pré, L. J., on a prehistoric threshing floor, 210.

Ducatel, J. T., on shell heaps, 392.

Duchateau, Julien, _L’écriture calculiforme des Mayas_, 201.

Dufossé, _Americana_, xvi.

Dunbar, Jas., _Hist. of Markland_, 398.

Dunbar, J. B., 327.

Dunbar, W., on the Indian sign language, 437.

Dunn, Oscar, 60.

Dunning, E. O., 410.

Dupaix, on Mitla and Palenqué, 192; _Antiq. Méxicaines_, 192; on the monuments of New Spain, 203.

Duponceau, P. E., 423; _Mém. sur le système grammatical_, 425.

Durán, Diego, _Las Indias_, 155.

Duro, C. F., 444.

Duro, Ferd., _Disquis. Nauticas_, 75.

Dury, John, 115.

Dussieux, L., _Hist. de la Géog._, 94.

Dutch, early, in Newfoundland, 75.

Dwight, Theo. F., xv.

EAMES, WILBERFORCE, vi; bibliog. of Ptolemy, 35; continues _Sabin’s Dictionary_, 414.

Earl, title of, 61.

Earth, spherical theory, 2; the ancients’ notion of its size, 4, 8; measured, 4; distribution of land and sea, 6; shape of the part known, 8; notions respecting the unknown parts, 8; a supposed southern continent, 9; size supposed in the Middle Ages, 30; rectangular map of, 30; sphericity taught in the Middle Ages, 31; the word “rotundus” as applied, 36; its sphericity ignored by the Church Fathers, 37; acknowledged by others, 37; theories respecting its form, 38; a plane in Homer, 39.

Easter Island, 81.

Eastman, Mrs. Mary, _Dacotah_, 327, 431.

Ebeling, Professor, his likeness, iii; library, iii; his own books on Amer. history, iii.

Ebn Sáyd, 47.

Ecker, _Archiv_, 443.

Ecuador, map, 200.

Eden, Richard, _Decades_, xxiii; _Hist. of Travayle_, xxiii.

Eden, Garden of, 372.

Edkins, J., 78.

Edrisi, _Geography_, 33, 48, 72; on Arab voyages on the Atlantic, 72; his map, 72.

Edwards, Jona., on the lost tribes, 116; on linguistic traces, 116; _Muhhekaneew Indians_, 116; on the Mohegan language, 423.

Effigy mounds, 408.

Egede, Hans, in Greenland, 69, 107; _Grönland_, 107; facs. of its title, 108; bibliog. 108; his map, 131.

Egede, Paul, in Greenland, 69; _Grönland_, 108, 131; his map in facs., 131; acc. of, 131.

Eggers, H. P. von, _Om Grönlands österbygds_, 108; _Ueber die wahre Lage des Ostgrönlands_, 108; on the Zeni, 111.

_Egils saga_, 88.

Eguiara y Eguren, _Bibl. Mex._ 413.

Egyptian migrations, 372; visits to America, 41; analogies in Mexico, 183; built the mounds, 405.

Eichthal, Gustave de, on Fousang, 80; _Les origins Bouddhiques de la civilisation Amér._, 80; _Races océaniennes_, 82.

El-Ghanam, 47.

Elephant mound, 409.

Eliot, John, apostle, on Jews in America, 115; his letters, 322; _Brief Narration_, 322; _Grammar Mass. Indian Language_, 423.

Eliot, Samuel, _Early relations with the Indians_, 323.

Eliot, Samuel A., iii.

Ellicott, Andrew, on mounds near Natchez, 398.

Elliott, C. W., _New England_, 96.

Elliott, E. T., 391.

Ellis, F. S., _Americana_, xvi.

Ellis, Geo. E., on Sparks, vii; “The Red Indian of North America”, 283; _Red Man and White Man_, 322; on the Indians of Mass., 323.

Ellis, Robt., _Peruvia Scythica_, 82, 241, 281.

Ellis and White, xvi.

Elton, C. A., _Remains of Hesiod_, 2.

Elysian Fields, 12, 13.

Emblematic mounds, 400 Emerson, Ellen R., _Indian Myths_, 431.

Emery, Geo. E., on the Zeno map, 115.

Emory, W. H., _Mil. Reconnoissance_, 327, 396; on the Mexican boundary survey, 396, 440.

Enciso, M. F. d’, _Suma de Geog._, 173.

Engel, E. B. d’, _Essai_, 370.

Enghis skull, 389.

England, archæological studies in, 442.

English colonists in North America, their treatment of the Indians, 283; compared with the French, 298; exceed the French in number, 299; number of, 310.

Engroneland, 72. _See_ Greenland.

Engronelant sometimes made distinct from Greenland, 121, 122.

Enriques, Martin, tries to gather Mexican relics, 155.

Ens, Gasper, _West-und-Ost Indischer Lustgart_, xxxiii.

Eocene man, 387.

Epstein, I., 426.

Equinoxes, precession of, 387.

Eratosthenes, on the form of the earth, 3; measured it, 4; _Hermes_, 7; his view of the habitable earth, 9; and the western passage, 27; his age, 34.

Eric Upsi, Bishop, 65.

Eric the Red, his career, 61; saga, 85, 90, 94.

Erizzo, _Le Scoperte Artiche_, 127.

Erslef, Ed., on the Zeni, 114.

Erytheia, 14.

Escoma (Bolivia) ruins, 250.

Escudero, _Chihuahua_, 396.

Eskimos, their boats drift to Europe, 61; appear in Greenland, 68, 107; near Behring’s Straits, 78; described by La Peyrère, 86; known to the Northmen as Skrælings, 105; bibliog., 105, 108; their former southern range, 106, 336; their intellectual char., 106; their migrations, 106, 321; their skulls, 106, 377; bone implements, 106; their linguistic differences, 107, 425; missions among, 108; De Pauw on, 370; allied to the cave race of Europe, 377, 390; of the primitive race of America, 336, 367; their stone implements, 336.

Esparza, M. de, _Informe_, 183.

Espinosa, J. D., 427.

Essex Institute, 438.

Estes, L. C., 409.

Estete, M., 277.

Estienne, Jean d’, on Atlantis, 45.

Estotiland, 72, 128; identification of, 114; not America, 111, 115; was America, 114, 115.

Eten, 277.

Eternal Islands, 47.

Ethnographical collections, 412.

_Ethnological Journal_, 442.

Ethnological Society, _Journal_, 442; _Transactions_, 442.

Etowah valley mounds, 410.

Ettwein, _Traditions of the Indians_, 325.

Etzel, Anton von, _Grönland_, 107.

Eudoxus, 35.

Eumenius, 47.

Euphemus in the Atlantic, 26.

Euripides, _Helena_, 13; _Hippolytus_, 14.

Euseues, 22.

Euthymemes, 26.

Evans, John, _Anc. stone implements_, 384.

Evans, A. S., _Our Sister Republic_, 180.

Everett, Alex. H., in Spain, iii; on the Norse voyages, 94.

Everett, Edw., on the Norse voyages, 94.

Everett, Wm., on the Northmen, 98.

Evers, E., _Archæology of Missouri_, 419.

Ewbank, T., _Rock-writing_, 105; _Indian Antiq. and Arts_, 416.

Eyrbyggja Saga, 83.

FABRICIUS, _Dissert. Crit._, 372.

Fabulous islands, 46. _See_ Atlantic islands.

Faidherbe, Gen., 25.

Fairfield County, Ohio, mounds, 408.

Falb, R., _Land der Inca_, 275.

Falconer, Hugh, _Palæontol. Memoirs_, 384; _Primeval Man_, 390.

Falconer, Richard, _Voyages_, 318.

Faliès, L., _Populations primitives de l’Amérique_, 415.

Fall River, “Skeleton in Armor” found, 105.

Fancourt, C. G., _Yucatan_, 188.

Farcy, Ch., 192; _Antiq. de l’Amérique_, 77.

Faria y Sousa, _Hist. Portuguezas_, 49.

Faribault, G. B., _Catalogue_, iv.

Farnham, Luther, _Private Libraries of Boston_, x, xvii.

Farnum, Alex., _Northmen in Rhode Island_, 102.

Faroe Islands, 114.

Farquharson, R. J., 404.

Farrar, _Families of Speech_, 75.

Farrer, J. A., _Primitive Manners_, 379.

Favyn, Andre, _Navarre_, 75.

Fay, Jos. S., 99.

Fay, S. L., 403.

Feather work, 420.

Fechner, _Centralblatt_, 443.

Fegeux, _Quemada_, 183.

_Fejérvary Codex_, 205.

Fernandez, Melchior, 279.

Ferrer de Conto, José, _La Marina real_, xxxvii.

Feudal system in anc. Mexico, 173.

Feyerabend, Sigmund, portrait, xxxi.

Field, Thomas W., _Ind. Bibliog._, xiii, 414; his _Catalogue_, xiii, 414.

Field of Delight, 32.

Fifteenth-century maps, 53, 57.

Figueredo, J. de, 279.

Figuier, Louis, _L’homme primitif_, 388, 412; _Human Race_, 412; _World before the Deluge_, 375, 412.

Finæus, Orontius, his map, xxiv.

Finlay, J. B., _Wyandotte Mission_, 116.

Finley, E. B., 403.

Finley, I. J., _Ross County, Ohio_, 408.

Finns build the mounds, 405.

Fiorin, Nic., his map, 58.

Fischer, Abbé, edits Ramirez’s Catalogue, 414; _Bibl. Mejicana_, xiii, 414.

Fischer, Theobald, edits Ongania maps, 47.

Fischer, _Origin des Américaines_, 76.

Fish-hooks of bone, 417.

Fish-spears, 360.

Fish-weirs, 365.

Fiske, Moses, 371.

Fiske, Willard, _Bibliog. Notices_, 93.

Fitch, John, his map on the mounds, 398.

Fitzer, W., xxxi; _Orient. Indian_, xxxiii.

Five Nations. _See_ Iroquois.

Flat-heads, 425.

Flath Inis, 32.

_Flatoyensis Codex_, 99.

Fleming, Abraham, _Registre of Hystorie_, 21.

Fletcher, Alice C., _Indian Education and Civilization_, 321; her studies on the Sioux, 327; _Omaha Tribe_, 327.

Fletcher, Robt., _Prehist. trephining_, 440.

Flint, Earl, on the Nicaragua footprints, 385; on Palenqué, 191.

Flint chips, 388. _See_ Stone.

Flint folk, 416; in America, 417.

Flora, that of South America connected with Polynesia, 82.

Flores, I. J., _La lengua del Regno Cakchiquel_, 427.

Florida, calcareous conglomerate, reported human remains in, 389; migration from, to Mexico, 136; mounds, 410; pile-houses in, 393; pottery, 419; shell heaps, 393.

Flower, W. H., 106; on the study of skulls, 373.

Folsom, Geo., on the Northmen, 96; on the Zeni, 112.

Fondouce, C. de, _Les temps préhistoriques_, 390.

Fontaine, Edw., _How the World was Peopled_, 374; on the recent origin of man, 382.

Fontpertuis, A. F. de, _Canaries_, 116; on the mounds, 403.

Footprints in geological times, 385; cut of one, 386.

Forbes, D., 442.

Forbiger, _Handbuch der Alten Geog._, 4, 36.

Force, M. F., on the mounds, 402.

Force, Col. Peter, his library, vi, 171; dies, vi; tributes to, vii.

Forged relics made in Mexico, 180.

Formaleoni, _Saggio sulla Nautica Ant. dei Veneziani_, 47.

Forrey, Samuel, 374.

Forshey, C. G., 409.

Förstemann, Ed., edits the _Dresden Codex_, 205; _Die Maya Handschrift_, 205; _Der Maya Apparat in Dresden_, 205; _Erläuterungen zur Mayahandschrift_, 202, 205.

Forster, J. R., _Geschichte der Entd. und Schifffahrten_ xxxvi; _Entdeckungen im Norden_, 92; on the Zeni, 111.

Fort Ancient, Ohio, 408.

Fort Chartres, last French flag at, 316.

Fort Duquesne, 310.

Fortia, 43.

Fortunate Islands, 15, 22, 27, 47, 48. _See_ Canaries.

Fossey, M., _Le Méxique_, 180, 184.

Foster, G. E., _Se-quo-yah_, 326.

Foster, J. W., _Prehistoric Races_, 401, 412; on the moundbuilders, 401, 409; (with Whitney), _Geology of Lake Superior_, 418.

Four Worlds, doctrine of, 11.

Fourteenth-century maps, 55.

Fousang, in Buache’s map, 79; discussions on, 81; voyage to, 78.

Fox, A. L., on early navigation, 81.

Fox, Luke, on the Zeni, 111.

Fraggia, _Coleccion de MSS._, ii.

Frampton, John, translates Monardes, xxix.

France, archæological efforts in, 441; Congrès archéologique, 441; Société Américaine, 441; _Annuaire_, 441; _Archives_, 441; _Revue Américaine_, 441; _Actes de la Soc. d’Ethnographie_, 441.

Franciscans in Mexico, 154.

Franciscus, E., _Ost- und West-Indischer Lustgarten_, 370.

Francisque, Michel, _Le Pays Basque_, 75.

Franco, Alonzo, 162.

Franco, P., _Indios de Veragua_, 425.

Franklin, B., his papers in Henry Stevens’s hands, xv; on the Norse voyages, 92; on the mounds, 398.

Franklin Co., Ohio, mounds, 408.

Frantzius, A. von, _San Salvador_, etc., 196.

Fraser, W., 51.

Frassus, _Regio_, etc., ii.

Frauds, archæological, 403.

Frazier, J. G., 328.

French colonists in North America, their treatment of the Indians, 283, 297; compared with the English, 299; aim to possess the Western country, 301, 302; their forts along the lakes, 302; their use of Indian lands, 303; numbers, 310; the testimony of their early explorers, 318; their manœuvres to monopolize the fur trade, 324.

Fresnoy, Lenglet du, _Méthode_, xxxii.

Fréville, _Cosmog. du Moyen Age_, 38, 76; _Commerce de Rouen_, 76.

Frey, S. L., 405.

Frezier, A. F., _Voyage_, 243, 271.

Friederichsthal, Baron von, in Yucatan, 186.

Friends. _See_ Quakers.

Frisch, E. F., _Wikingzüge_, 85.

Frisius, Laurentius, map, 114.

Frislanda, 72; name used by Columbus, 73; “Fixlanda”, 73; in maps, 73; in the Zeno map, 114; different identifications, 114, 115; in Stephanus’s map, 130.

Fritsch, J. G., _Disputatio_, 93, 371.

Frobisher, xxxiv; and the island of Bus, 51.

Frode, Are, 84.

Froebel, _Seven Years’ Travel_, 410.

Fry, J. B., _Army Sacrifices_, 319.

Fuenleal, Bishop, 155.

Fuensalida, Luis de, 155.

Fuentes y Guzman, F. A. de, _Guatemala_, 167, 196; _Recordacion Florida_, 168, 444.

Fuhlrott, Dr., 390.

Fur trade, 302.

Fusang. _See_ Fousang.

Fustér, _Bibl. Valenciana_, ii.

GABRIAC, CTE. DE, _Promenade à travers l’Amérique du Sud_, 231.

_Gacetas de Literatura_, 180.

Gadé, G., on an ancient Norse ship, 62.

Gades (Cadiz), 13, 24.

Gaffarel, Paul, _L’Atlantide_, 16; _Les isles fantastiques_, 31, 47; _Relations entre l’anc. monde et l’Amérique_, 38, 60; _Etude sur les rapports de l’Amérique_, 40; _Les Grecs ont-ils connu l’Amérique?_ 40; on the Phœnician visits to America, 41; on Roman inscriptions in America, 41; _Rapports de l’Atlantis_, 44, 46; his later studies of it, 44, 46; bibliog. of Atlantis, 46; _Voyages de St. Brandan_, 48; his map (_fac-simile_) of the Atlantic islands, 52; on the Arab voyages, 72; on Vinland, 97; on the Newport mill, 105; on the Zeno voyage, 115; on the lost tribes of Hebrews, 116; on blackamoors in America, 117.

Galapagos, 81.

Gale, G., _Upper Mississippi_, 327; his annotations on Lapham’s _Antiq. of Wisconsin_, 408.

Galibi, 428.

Galicia, F. C., 171.

Gallindo, J., 193.

Gallæus, Ph., _Enchiridion_, 129; map, in facs., 129.

Gallatin, Albert, on Polynesian connections of the American man, 82; on pre-Spanish migrations, 138; on the Toltecs, 141; _Notes on the semi-civilized nations of Mexico_, 169, 424; _Synopsis of the Indian Tribes_, 320; his map of the Indian tribes,321; a student of ethnology, 376; on the pueblos, 396; on American languages, 320, 422, 424; review of Hale’s work on the Wilkes Exped., 424; on Teoyaomiqui, 435; founds the American Ethnological Society, 437; commends the work of Squier and Davis, 439.

Galloway, W. B., _Science and Geology_, 387.

Galvano, xxxvi; on the seven cities, 75.

Gannett, H., 397.

Gante, Pedro de, 156; _Chronica Compend._, 156.

Garcia y Cubas, _Ensayo_, 41; _Atlas de la Republica Mejicana_, 139; _Pirámides_, 183.

Garcia, Gregorio, _Origen de los Indios_, i, 116, 264, 369; his _Monarquia de los Incas_ lost, 264.

Gardar, Cathedral, 108.

Garden beds, 410.

Garden of Eden, 372.

Gardner, Job, on Dighton Rock, 103, 104.

Gardner, J. S., _Eocenes of England_, 44.

Garnier, Jules, _Les migrations polynésiennes_, 82.

Garnier, J. L., 172.

Garrigue and Christern, _Livres curieux_, xv.

Gass, Rev. J., 404.

Gatschet, A. S., on the Beothuks, 321; _Migration legend of the Creeks_, 326, 425, 426; his linguistic studies, 423, 426.

Gavarrete, Juan, 167.

Gavilan, A. R., _Hist. de Copacabana_, 264.

Gay, Sydney H., on the Norse voyages, 97.

Gebelin, Count, 104; _Monde primitif_, 41, 424.

Geiger, Lazarus, _Development of the human race_, 200.

Geijer, E. J., _Hist. of Sweden_, 84.

Geikie, A., _Search for Atlantis_, 45.

Geikie, Jas., _Great Ice Age_, 332, 386.

Gelcich, E., _Fischgang des Gascogner_, 75.

Geminus, _Isagoge_, 7; _Elementa astron._ or _Isagoge_, 35.

Gendron, _Pays des Hurons_, 321.

Genesis, a record of the Jews only, 372.

_Genesis of Earth and Man_, 373.

_Geografisk Tidsskrift_, 113.

_Geographi Græci minores_, 25.

Geographical Society of the Pacific, 438.

Geological Society, _Quarterly Journal_, 443.

Geology as controverting theology, 383.

George, Wm., xvi.

Georgia, case with the Cherokees, 326; mounds in, 410; Reck in, 326; shell heaps, 393.

Germany, archæological studies in, 443.

Gesner, W., 416.

Gesture-language, 422.

Ghetel, Henning, xx.

Gheysmer abridges Saxo, 92.

Giants in Mexico, 133; references, 133; their bones proved to be mastodon’s, 133; the Toltecs, 141.

Gibbs, Geo., 409, 422; on the Oregon tribes, 328; _Chinook Dict._, 423; his linguistic studies, 424; memoir of, 424; _Vocabularies of the Clallam and Lummi_, 425; _Chinook jargon_, 425; _Chinook language_, 425.

Gila Valley, 395.

Gilbert, J. K., _Niagara falls_, 333.

Gillies, John, _Hist. Collections_, 322.

Gilliss, G. M., 275.

Gillman, H., _Anc. men of the great lakes_, 403; papers on the mounds, 408; _Anc. works at Isle Royale_, 418.

Giroldi map (1426), 53.

Gist, Christopher, 287.

Glacial age, how long ago, 333, 382, 386; in America, 332, 386; man in the, 343, 387.

Glacial gravels, 387. _See_ Trenton.

Gladiatorial stone, 182.

Gladstone, W. E., _Homer_, 12, 39.

Glareanus, revised Strabo, 34; on early references to America, 40.

Glass in pre-Spanish times, 177.

Gleeson, _Cath. Chh. in California_, 409.

Gliddon, Geo. R. _See_ Nott, J. C.

_Glorias del segundo siglo de la compañia de Jesus_, 317.

Goajira, 428.

Goajira language, 425.

Gobineau, _Moral Diversity of Races_, 374.

Godron, A., on Fousang, 80.

Godthaab, 69.

Gold found in the mounds, 418.

Goldsmidt, Edmund, 370.

Gomez, Estevan, his voyage, xxxvi.

Gomme, G. L., 443.

Gonçalvez de Mattos Corrêa, _Descobertas_, xix.

Gondra, Padre, 170, 444.

Gonino, J., 177.

Goodell, A. C., jr., on the Norse voyages, 98.

Gooding, Jos., 103, 104.

Goodnow, I. P., 390.

Goodrich, Aaron, _The So-called Columbus_, 97.

Goodrich, S. G., 328.

Goodson, _Straits of Anian_, 110.

Gookin, Daniel, 322.

Goranson, 92.

Gorgon islands, 13.

Gosnold found metal in use in New England, 417.

Gosse, L. A., _Déformations du crane_, 373.

Gosselin, P. F. J., _Géog. des Grecs_, 36; _Recherches sur la géog._, 36; _Iles de l’océan_, 46; on Atlantis, 46.

Gottfried, J. L., _Neue Welt_, xxxiii.

Göttingen, Anthropol. Verein, 443; Americana in, iii.

Götz, _Dresdener Bibliothek_, 205.

Goupil, René, 323.

Gowans, Wm., bookseller, vi; dealer in Americana, xv.

Graah, W. A., _Reise till ostkysten af Gronland_, 109.

Grammar as an ethnical test, 421, 422.

Granados y Galvez, J. J., _Tardes Américanas_, 172.

Grant, E. M., 410.

Gratacap, L. P., 177, 377.

Grave Creek mound, 403; alleged Scandinavian inscription in, 102, 403.

Gravier, Gabriel, _Les Normands_, 76, 97; _Découverte de l’Amérique_, 97; on Norse civilization among the Aztecs, 99; on the Dighton Rock, 104; _Le Roc de Dighton_, 104; on the Newport mill, 105.

Gray, Asa, on the flora of Japan, 44; in _Darwiniana_, 60; on Jeffries Wyman, 392.

Gray, D., 325.

Gray, Thomas, his copy of the _Novus Orbis_, xxv.

Greek allied to the Maya, 427.

Greeks, cosmography among, 2; in the Atlantic, 26.

Green, John, xxxv.

Green, Dr. S. A., 102.

Green rock (in the Atlantic), 51.

Greene, Albert G., his books, xiii.

Greenland, in the Ptolemy of 1482, xii; its name, 61; earliest people there, 61; its folk lore, 61; Norse visits in eighth century, 61; churches in, 63, 86; East and West Bygd, 63, 108; Norse occupation, 68; bishops of, 68; extinction of the colonists, 68, 69; efforts to learn their fate, 69; climatic changes, 69; its colonists perhaps merged in the Eskimos, 69; ancient bishopric, 85; its ruins, 85; bibliog., 85; runes in, 87; seals of the bishops, 87; voyages hence to Vinland, 87; _Antiq. Amer._, 94; map, 95; a prolongation of Europe, 99, 122, 125. _See_ Eskimos. Sometimes confounded with Spitzbergen, 107; bibliog. of the lost colonies, 107; voyages to discover them, 107, 109; Hans Egede on, 107; sites of the colonies disputed, 108, 109; scant population on east coast, 109; the Zeni in, 114; cartography of, 117, 132; oldest map yet found, 117; in the Genovese portolano, 117; in the _Tab. Reg. Sept._, 117, 121; maps by Hans Egede, 108; by G. Fries, 108; by Paul Egede, 108; by Anderson, 108; by Rafn, 109; by Claudius Clavus, 117, 118; by Fra Mauro, 117; by Behaim, 120; by Sylvanus, 120; by Waldseemüller, 122; by Apian, 122; by Frisius, 122; by Olaus Magnus, 123, 125; by Münster, 126; by Bordone, 126; by Vopellio, 126; by Gallæus, 129; notions of Greenland in Columbus’ time, 120; in Portuguese chart (1503), 120; Ruysch made it a part of Asia, 120; made to stretch northerly from Europe, 125; to connect Europe with America, 126; called Labrador by Rotz, 126; severed from Europe in the alteration of the Zeno map (1561), 128, 129; made an island by Mercator and others, 129; earliest Scandinavian maps to illustrate the sagas, 129; maps of xvith cent., 130; Moll’s confusion, 131; maps by Hans Egede, 131; by Paul Egede, in facs., 131; by Jovis Carolus, 131; by H. Doncker, 131; by J. Meyer, 131; De la Martinière connects it with northern Asia, 132; La Peyrère’s map in facs., 132.

Greenwood, Dr. Isaac, on Dighton Rock, 103, 104.

Greg, R. P., _Fret ornament_, 176.

Gregg, _Commerce des Prairies_, 396.

Gregory IV., his bull, 61.

Grenville, Thos., _Bibl. Grenvil._, iv.

Griffis, W. E., _Arent van Curler_, 323.

Grijalva, Juan de, on the Mexican coast (1518), xxi, 149.

Grimm’s Law, 421.

Grinlandia. _See_ Greenland.

Griswold, Almon W., his library, xiii.

Grocland, a geographical misapprehension, 129; on maps, 129.

Gronland, or Gronlandia. _See_ Greenland.

Gros, _Sur les Monuments de Mexico_, 170.

Grossmann, F. E., 397.

Grote, A. R., 369; on the Eskimos, 105.

Grote, _Greece_, 28.

Grotius, Hugo, on Scandinavia blood in Central America, 99; _De Origine Americanarum_, 369; his controversies, 370.

Grotlandia. _See_ Greenland.

Gruppe, _Die Kosmischen Systeme der Griechen_, 39.

Grynæus, Simon, portrait, xxiv; _Novus Orbis_, xxiv; _Die neue Welt_, xxv; map (1532), 114.

Guajiquero Indians, 169.

Guanches in the Canaries, 25, 116, 377.

Guano, 253.

Guaranis, 136.

Guarini language, 278.

Guatemala, linguistic evidence of Norse influence in, 99; early hist. of, 135, 150; the ethnological connection of its people in dispute, 150; native sources, 166; _Popul Vuh_, 166; _Memorial de Tecpan Atitlan_, 166; bibliog., 166. _See_ Quichés, Cakchiquels.

Guatusos, 169.

Guaxtecas, 136.

Guazucupan, 168.

Gucumatz, 135, 435.

Gudmund, Jonas, his Vinland map, 130.

Gudrid, 65.

Guerrero, ruins in, 184.

Guerrero, Lobo, _Constituciones Synodales_, 268.

Guest, Dr., _Origines Celticæ_, 45.

Guest, W. E., 410.

Guignes, on the Arab voyages, 72; _Les navigations des Chinois_, 78.

Guillot, Paul, 93.

Guimet, Emile, _Anc. peuples de Méxique_, 81.

Guiyard, _Géog. d’Abul-Fada_, 47.

Gumilla, 75.

Gunnbiorn, his voyage, 61; his Skerries, 109.

Günther, Siegmund, _Hypothèse_, 37; _Die Lehre von der Erdrundung_, 38.

Gurnet Head, 102.

Gutierrez, Manuel, 183.

HAAS, WILLS DE, on the moundbuilders, 401, 403.

Habel, S., on sculptures in Guatemala, 197.

Haeckel, _Hist. of Creation_, 375; _Natürl. Schöpfungsgesch._, 383.

Hakluyt, Richard, edits Peter Martyr, xxiii; used by Lok, xxiii; _Divers Voyages_, xxix; _Principall Navigations_, xxix; on Madoc, 109; on the Zeni, 111.

Hakluyt Soc. publications, xxxvii, 443.

Haldeman, S. S., 437; discovers rude implements, 347; on a Rock shelter, in Penna., 416.

Hale, Capt. Chas. R., on the Dighton Rock, 102.

Hale, E. E., on the Madoc voyage, 111.

Hale, Horatio, _Iroquois Book of Rites_, 325, 425; on the tribes of the N. W. coast, 328; _Origin of Language_, 377, 421; on the Cherokees, 402; _Primitive money_, 420; _Indian migrations_, 403, 422; in Wilkes’ Exploring Exped., 423, 424; his linguistic studies, 424.

Hale, Nathan, 320.

Haliburton, R. G., on Bjarni’s voyage, 63; on the Norse voyages, 98.

Hall, Jacob, 107.

Hall, James, _Indian Tribes_, 320.

Hall, Joshua, 410.

Hamconius, _Frisia_, 75.

Hamlin, A. C., 102.

Hampstead, G. S. B., _Portsmouth_, Ohio, 408.

Hamor in De Bry, xxxii.

Hamy, E. T., on a Chinese inscription at Copan, 81; _Crania Ethica_, 373; _Précis de paléontologie humaine_, 383.

Hanno, on the coast of Africa, 25; _Periplus_, 34; his voyage, 45.

Hanson, _Gardiner, Me._, 322; _Norridgewock_, 322.

Happel, _Thesaurus_, 320.

Hardiman, _Irish minstrelsy_, 50.

Hardin Co., Ohio, mounds, 408.

Hardy, Michel, _Les Scandinaves_, 97.

Hariot, _Virginia_, xxxi.

Harrassowitz, Otto, xvi, xvii.

Harris, G. H., _Lower Genesee County_, 323.

Harris, John, _Voyages_, xxxiv.

Harris, T. M., on the mounds, 398; _Tour_, 405.

Harrison, Gen. W. H., on the mounds, 407.

Harrison, _John Howard Payne_, 326.

Harrisse, Henry, _Bibl. Am. Vet._, v, 414; _Notes on Columbus_, v; controversy with Henry Stevens, v; _Sur la nouvelle France_, v; _Additions_, v; _La Colombine_, v; _Les Cortereal_, xix; on Peter Martyr, xx; on early Basque voyages to America, 75.

Hartgers, Joost, _Voyagien_, xxxiv.

Hartman cave, 391.

Harvard College library, rich in Americana, iii; Sparks MSS. in, vii; its catalogue, xvii.

Hassaurek, F., _Spanish Americans_, 272.

Hassler, _Buchdruckergeschichte Ulms_, 118.

Hatfield, R. G., on the Newport mill, 105.

Hatun-runas, 226.

Haumonté, J. D., _La Langue Taensa_, 425.

Harard, V., 328.

Haven, S. F., on the Northmen, 96; portrait, 374; his _Reports_, 374; his career, 376; _Archæology of the United States_, 376; revises Lapham’s _Antiq. of Wisconsin_, 400; on mound exploration, 400; believes in their Indian origin, 400; _Prehist. Amer. Civilization_, 412.

Haven, S. F., jr., bibliography, ii.

Hawkins, Benj., _Creek Country_, 326, 429.

Hawkins, _Voyage_, xxxvi.

Hay, _Texcoco_, 170.

Hayden, F. V., _Ethnography and Philology of the Missouri Valley_, 424; _Survey of the territories_, 440; among the cliff houses, 395.

Hayes, I. I., _Land of Desolation_, 69, 98.

Haynes, H. W., on runic frauds, 97; on Vinland, 98; on the Monhegan runes, 102; “The prehistoric Archæology of North America”, 329; discovers rude implements in N. E., 347, 363; _Bow and arrow unknown to the palæolithic man_, 355; believes in interglacial man, 355; at Solutré, 357; on the Eng. trans. of Grotius, 370; on the Trenton implements, 388; _Copper implements_, 418; on the Taensa fraud, 426.

Hayti held to be Ophir, 82.

Haywood, John, _Tennessee_, 372.

Headlee, S. H., 409.

Heart, Maj. Jona., _Ancient Mounds_, 398, 410.

Heaviside, J. T. C., _Amer. Antiquities_, 41.

Hecatæus, 34.

Heckewelder, J., on Delaware names, 437; on the mounds, 398; on the Delaware language, 423; correspondence with Duponceau, 425.

Heer, _Flora tert. Helv._, 44; _Urwelt der Schweitz_, 44.

Hegewisch, Prof., iii.

Heidenheimer, H., _Petrus Martyr_, xx.

_Heimskringla_, 83.

Heller, C. B., on Uxmal, 189; _Reisen_, 189.

Helluland, 63, 130.

Hellwald, F. von, on Amer. migrations, 139; on the autochthonous theory, 375; _Naturgeschichte des Menschen_, 412; on Mexican mining, 418.

Helps, Sir Arthur, xii; gives the first English condensation of the _Popul Vuh_, 166; on Zumárraga, 203; _Spanish Conquest_, 269; on Peru, 269; _Realmah_, 379.

Henao, G. de, _Antig. de Cantabria_, 75.

Henderson, Ebenezer, _Iceland_, 93.

Henderson, Geo. F., _The Republic of Mexico_, 427.

Henotheism, 430.

Henry, Alex., _Travels_, 318; mentions copper mines, 417.

Henry, David, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Henry, Joseph, 139; on Lake Superior mining, 418.

Henshaw, H. W., on the mounds, 401; _Animal carvings_, 404; on sinkers, 351, 417.

Herbert, Sir Thomas, _Travaile into Africa_, 109.

Herbrüger, E., _Album de Mitla_, 185.

Herckmann, _Der Zeevaert_, etc., xxxiv.

Hercules’ twelve labors, 13.

Heredra, J. M. de, ed. Bernal Diaz, 154.

Heremite, J. d’, _Journael_, 271.

Herjulfson, Bjarni, his voyage, 63.

Hermes, K. H., _Entdeckung von America_, 96.

Herodotus, 39.

Herr, Michael, _Die neue Welt_, xxv.

Herrera, H. A. de, _Disputatio_, xx.

Herrera in De Bry, xxxii; made use of the _Relaciones descriptivas_, 266; title-page of his fifth book, showing portraits of Incas, 267; _Historia_, 1, 155.

Hervai, ruins, 271, 277.

Hervas, L., _Lenguas y naciones Americanas_, 422; _Catálogo de las Lenguas_, 422.

Hervey de St. Denis, _Fou-Sang_, 80.

Hesiod, _Theogony_, 2; on the Elysian Fields, 13; _Works and Days_, 13.

Hesperides, 14.

Heve language, 425.

Heynig, _Psychologisches Magazin_, 443.

Hidatsa language, 425.

Hieroglyphics, invented, 152; of Yucatan, attempts to decipher, 195; by Charencey, 195; used by Spaniards in relig. instruction, 197; stages of, 197; color and forms, elements, 197; not easily read even by natives, 198; Mrs. Nuttall’s complemental signs, 198; phonetic scale, 198, 200; Landa’s Alphabet, 198; general references, 198; on a Yucatan statue, 199; early descriptions, 200; sculptured in wood, 200; inscription on the Palenqué tablet, 200; cut of the same, 201; comparative age of those on stone and in MS., 202; rebus character, 202; _Codex Mendoza_, 203; tribute rolls, 203, 205; _Dresden Codex_, plate of, 204; explained, 205; _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, 205; _Codex Vaticanus_, 205; _Fejérvary Codex_, 205; other Maya MSS., 205; _Codex Troano_, 205, 207; _Codex Cortesianus_, 207; facs. of plate, 206; _Codex Perezianus_, 207.

Higginson, T. W., _Larger Hist. U. S._, 98, 176.

Higginson, Waldo, _Memorials of Class of 1833_, H. C., 439.

Highland County, Ohio, mounds, 408.

Hildebrand, H. O. H., _Island_, 85.

Hilder, F. F., 409.

Hildreth, Richard, on the Northmen, 96.

Hildreth, Dr. S. P., _Pioneer History_, 319; _Pioneer Settlers_, 319.

Hilgard, E. W., 386.

Hill, G. W., 408.

Hill, Horatio, iii.

Hill, Ira, _Antiq. of America_, 104, 415.

Hill, S. S., _Peru and Mexico_, 272.

Himilko on the ocean, 25.

Hindoos, migrations, 371, 372.

Hipkins, A. J., _Musical instruments_, 420.

Hipparchus, 34; on the form of the earth, 3; on the oceans, 7.

_Hispanicarum rerum, Scriptores_, xxix.

Historical societies, their libraries, xviii.

Hobbs, James, _Wild life_, 327.

Hochelagan skull, 377.

Hochstetter, F. von, _Ueber Mex. Reliquien_, 420.

Hodgson, Adam, _Letters_, 76.

Hoei Shin, 78, 80.

Hoffman, W. J., 347.

Holden, Edw. S., _Cent. Amer. Picture-writing_, 201, 202, 440.

Holden, Mrs. H. M., on Atlantis, 45.

Hole, the Norse Holl, 99.

Holguin, D. G., his grammar, 279.

Holm, Lieut., on the Greenland ruins, 86.

Holmberg, A. E., _Nordbon_, etc., 85.

Holmes, O. W., on Jeffries Wyman, 392.

Holmes, W. H., on the sacrificial stone of Teotihuacan, 183; on the cliff houses, 395; survey of the serpent mound, 401; on shell work, 417; _Use of gold in Chiriqui_, 418; on textile art, 419; _Ceramic art_, 419; on pottery in the Mississippi Valley, 419; _Pueblo Pottery_, 419, 440.

Homer, Arthur, _Bibl. Amer._, ii.

Homer, his World, 6; his ideas of the earth, 38; his geography, 39.

Hondt, F. de, xxxv.

Honduras Indians, 169.

Hooker, J. D., _Botany of the Voyage of the Erebus_, etc., 82; _Flora of Tasmania_, 82.

Hopkins, A. G., 323.

Hopkins, Samuel, _Housatunnuk Indians_, 323.

Horace, and Atlantic islands, 27.

Horn, F. W., _Lit. of the Scandinavian North_, 84, 98.

Horn (Hornius), Geo., _Responsio ad diss. H. Grotii_, 370; on the Zeni, 111; on Madoc, 109.

Hornstone, 417.

Horsford, E. N., _Disc. of America by Northmen_, 98; edits Zeisberger’s _Dictionary_, 424.

Hosea, L. M., 408.

Hospitality, laws of, 175.

Hotchkiss, T. P., 409.

Hotten, J. C., xvi.

Hough, F. B., on the N. Y. Indians, 325; on mound in N. Y. State, 405.

Houghton, Jacob, _Copper mines of Lake Superior_, 418.

Housatonics, 323.

Houses of the American aborigines, 420.

Howard, Lord, gov. of Virginia, 304.

Howe, _Hist. Coll. Ohio_, 407.

Howell, G. R., on Munsell, xv.

Howells, Jas., _Fam. letters_, 109.

Howgate polar exped., 106.

Howland, H. R., 408.

Howley, M. F., _Eccles. Hist. Newfoundland_, 69.

Howorth, H. H., _Irish monks and Northmen_, 61; _Mammoth and the Flood_, 45, 382; on Genesis, 384.

Hoy, P. R., 402; _Copper implements_, 418.

Hoyt, Epaphas, _Antiq. Researches_, 323.

Huacabamba, 276.

Huacrachucus, 227.

Hualli, 275.

Huamachuchus, 227.

Huanacauri hill, 224.

Huanaco, 213.

Huanapu, 275.

Huancas, 227; allies of the Chancas, 230.

Huanuco el viejo, 247.

Huaraz, ruins, 220.

Huarcu, 277.

Huarochiri, 277, 436.

Huascar, 231.

Huastecs, 136.

Huayna Ccapac, 231.

Hubbard, Bela, _Mem. of half century_, 408.

Hudson, Hendrick, voyage, xxxiv.

Hudson Bay connected with the Great Lakes, 79.

Hudson Bay Company, its relations with the Indians, 297.

Hudson Bay Indians, 321.

Hudson, _Geog. vet. script. Græci minores_, 34.

Hudson River Indians, 325.

Huebbe and Azuar, map of Yucatan, 188.

Huehue-Tlapallan, 136, 137.

Huemac, 140, 432.

Huerta, Alonso de, 279.

Huiñaque, ruins, 220.

Huitramannaland, 82.

Huitzillopochtli, 148, 432, 435.

Hulsius, bibliog., xii.

Hultsch, _Metrologie_, 4, 5.

Human sacrifices, 140, 145, 147, 148, 185; in Peru, 237, 238; in Mexico, 431.

Humboldt, Alex. von, his library, vi; _Examen Critique_, vi, 40; _Crit. Untersuchungen_, vi; _Géog. du nouveau monde_, vi; _Cosmos_, vi; his MSS., vi; on early mentions of America, 40; on Atlantis, 46; on the fabulous islands, 47; on the Arab voyages in the Atlantic, 72; on the Asiatic origin of Americans, 76; on the Icelandic sagas, 94; on the Norse discovery, 96; on the Dighton Rock, 104; on the Eskimos, 105; on the Zeni, 115; on the Aztec wanderings, 138; on their migration maps, 139; on Carreri, 158; buys some part of the Boturini collection, 160, 162; on the ruins of Middle America, 176; on the Cholula mound, 180; on Mitla, 184; describes Aztec MSS., 203; on the _Codex Telleriano_, 205; in South America, 270; _Vues de Cordillères_, 271, 371; Eng. transl., 271; _Voyage au régions équinoxiales_, 271; _Ansichten der Natur_, 271; _Aspects of Nature_, 271; _Views of Nature_, 271; on the Chibchas, 282; on the origin of Mexicans, 371; his bibliog. in his _Vues_, 413; on arts in America, 416; (with Bonpland) _Voyage_, 426.

Humboldt, Wm. von, his linguistic studies, 426.

Humphrey, D., _Soc. for propagating the Gospel_, 323.

Humphrey and Abbott, _Physics of the Mississippi Valley_, 393.

Hunt, Jas., 443.

Hurakan, 435.

Huron River, Ohio, mounds near, 408.

Hurons, 321; their language, 423.

Hutchinson, Thos., his library, i.

Hutchinson, T. J., on Peruvian skulls, 244; _Two years in Peru_, 272; _Some fallacies about the Incas_, 272.

Huttich, John, _Novus Orbis_, xxiv.

Huxley, on cataclysmic force, 382; _Distribution of Races_, 383; _Man’s place in nature_, 390.

Hygden maps (1350), 55, 117; Polychronicon, 117.

Hyginus, on the form of the earth, 3; _Poeticon astron._, 36.

Hyperboreans, 12.

Hyrcanian ocean, 382.

ICAZA, Father, 444.

Icazbalceta, J. G., on Indian languages, vii; _Don Fray Zumárraga_, 155, 156, 203; on Sahagún, 157; ed. Mendieta, 157; _Apuntes_, 157; portrait, 163; prints the_Hist. de los Méxicanos por sus Pinturas_, 164; defends Zumárraga, 203; _Destruccion de Antigüedades_, 203; _Las bibliotecas de Eguiara y de Beristain_, 413; _Cat. de escritores en lenguas indígenas_, 414; _Bibl. Amér. del Siglo xvi._, 157, 414, 426; his MSS., 427.

Iceland, visited by King Arthur, 60; by Irish, 60, 82; by the Norse, 83; bibliog., 84; millennial celebration, 85; books printed in, 93, 94; _Antiq. Amer._, 94; map, by Rafn, 95; by Claudius Clavus, 117, 118; other maps, 118; in Mauro’s map, 120; in map (1467), 121; in Martellus’ map, 122; Olaus Magnus, 123, 124, 125; Seb. Münster, 126; Zeno map, 127, 128; by Gallæus, 129.

Icelandic language, 66.

Icelandic sagas. _See_ Saga.

Ideler, J. I., vi.

Idols still preserved in Mexico, 180.

Igh, 134.

_Il genio vagante_, xxxiv.

Illinois, Indians, 327; mounds, 408.

_Ilustracion Mexicana_, 184.

Imlay, G., _Western Territory_, 398.

Imox, 134.

Inca civilization. _See_ Peru.

India, supposed westerly route to, 27.

Indian languages. _See_ Linguistics.

Indian Ocean once dry land, 383.

Indian summer, origin of the term, 319.

Indians, variety of complexion among, 111, 370; Morgan on their houses, 175; their contact with the French and English, 283; their feuds, 284; acquire firearms, 285, 301; deed lands, 286, 296; trade with the whites, 286; lose skill with the bow, 287; adoption of prisoners, 287; sell them for ransoms, 287, 289; treatment of captives, 290; captives cling to them, 291; life of, 293; trails, 294; traders among, 294, 297; as allies, 295; treaties with the English, 300, 304, 305; French missionaries among, 301; fur-hunters, 301; attempts to christianize, 307; the French instigations, 313; number of souls, 315; bibliog., 316; character in war, 318; government publications on, 320, 321; their shifting locations, 321; reservations for, 321; life of, as depicted by Morgan, 325; tribal society, 328; position of women, 328; medicine, 328; mortuary rites, 328; their games, 328; their mental capacity, 328; myths, 429; non-pastoral, 379; map of tribes, 381; decay of tradition among them, 400; degraded descendants of the higher races of middle America, 415; industries and trade, 416; lost arts, 416; copper mining, 418; influence of missions, 430; belief in a future life, 431; scope of Schoolcraft’s work, 441.

Indiana, _Geol. Report_, 393; Indians, 327; mounds, 408.

Indianapolis Acad. of Sciences, 438.

Indio triste, statue, 183.

Industries of the Amer. aborigines, 416.

Ingersoll, Ernest, 440; _Village Indians_, 396; on Indian money, 420.

Ingolf in Iceland, 61.

Ingolfshofdi, 61.

Ingram, Robert, 115.

Institut Archéologique, _Annales_, 441.

Institution Ethnographique, 442; _Rapport_, 442.

_Insulae Fortunatae_, 14. _See_ Fortunate Islands, Canaries.

Interglacial man, 334, 355.

International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, _Trans._, 443.

Inwards, Richard, _Temple of the Andes_, 219, 273.

Iowa mounds, 409.

Ireland the Great, 61; references, 82; variously placed, 82, 83; Rafn’s map, 95.

Ireland, early map of, 118

Irish legends about the island Brazil, 50.

Irish in Iceland, 60, 61, 82.

Irland it Mikla, 82. _See_ Ireland the Great.

Irminger, Admiral, on the Zeni, 114.

Iron, meteoric, found in the mounds, 418.

Iroquois, held to be Turks, 82; Sir Wm. Johnson breaks their league, 284, 300; attacked by the French, 300; extend their hunting grounds, 303; war against the Illinois, etc., 303; addicted to rum, 303; treaty with the English (1764), 304; sources of their history, 323; map of their country, 323; in Colden’s _Five Nations_, 324; their cession of western lands to the English in 1726, 324; sacrifice of the white dog, 325; build the mounds in New York, 402, 405; their arts, 416; hero-gods, 430; their monotheism, 430; myths, 431; language, 425.

Irving, Washington, on O. Rich, iii; on the Norse voyages, 93, 96.

Isla Verde, 31, 47, 51.

Islands of the Blest, 13, 15. _See_ Canaries, Fortunate Islands.

Isle Royale, copper mines, 418.

_Islenzkir Annáler_, 83.

Israel, lost tribes. _See_ Jews.

Italy, anthropological studies in, 444.

Itzamná, 434.

Itzcohuatl, 203.

Ivory workers, 417.

Ixtlilxochitl (ruler), 146.

Ixtlilxochitl (writer), 148; beginning of Mexican history, 155; gathers records, 157; his character, 157; his MS. material, 157; part secured by Aubin, 162; _Hist. Chichimeca_, 162; chief instigator of the feudal view of Mexican life, 173; his illusive character, 174.

Izalco, 168.

Izamal, 186, 188, 434.

Iztachnexuca, 139.

Iztcoatl, 146.

JACKER, E., 327, 328.

Jackson, C. T., _Geol. Report_, 418.

Jackson, Jas., _Liste de bibliog. géog._, i, xvii.

Jackson, W. H., among the cliff dwellings, 395; in the Chaco cañon, 396; _Photographs of N. Am. Indians_, 440.

Jacobs-Beeckmans, _Les iles Atlantique_, 53.

Jacobs, _Praying Indians_, 322.

Jacquet Island, 53.

Jade, 417; in Asia and America, 81.

Jadite, 417.

_Jahrbücher für Anthropologie_, 443.

Jalisco, 139, 433.

James, Capt. Thomas, his voyage, xxxv.

Japan discovered, 32; held to be Fusang, 78.

Jargons, 422.

Jarl, 61.

Jarvis, S. F., 381; _Religion of the Indian Tribes_, 429.

Jarz, K., on the Homeric islands, 40.

Jasper, 417.

Jaubert, trans. of _Edrisi_, 48.

Jay, John, early navigator, 50.

Jefferson, Thos., his anthropological collections, 371; on the mounds, 398; on Amer. linguistics, 424; his MSS. burned, 424; _Notes on Va._, ii.

Jeffreys, _French Dominion_, 326.

Jemez, 394.

Jeremias, _Die Babylon.—Assyr. Vorstellungen_, 13.

Jesuits, their _Relations_ as a source of Indian history, 316; their bibliog., xii; their missions, 317; travels of their missionaries, 318; in Peru, 262.

Jewitt, J. R., _Journal at Nootka Sound_, 327.

Jews, Grave Creek tablet, 404; migrations to America, 115.

Jiménes de la Espada, Márcos, _Biblioteca Hispano-ultramarina_, 260; edits Santillan, 261; edits Montesinos, 263; edits the _Relacion_ of the Anonymous Jesuit, 263; _Coleccion de libros Españoles raros_, 263; _Tres Relaciones_, 263; edits Salcamayhua, 266; edits the _Informaciones por mandado de Don F. de Toledo_, 268; his editorial labors, 274; edits Cieza de Léon, 274; edits Betanzos, 274; portrait, 274.

Jogues, the missionary, 323; sources, 323.

Johannes, Count. _See_ Jones, George.

Johnson, Elias, _Six Nations_, 325.

Johnson, G. H. M., 325.

Johnson, Sir William, and the Iroquois, 284; on his influence among the Indians, 318.

Jolibois, Abbé, on the anc. Mexicans, 81.

Joly, _L’homme avant métaux_, 383; _Man before metals_, 383; on the moundbuilders, 403.

Jomard, _Les Antiq. Amér._, 80; _Une pierre gravée_, 404.

Jones, C. C., _Tomo-chi-chi_, 326; finds rude stone implements in Georgia, 344; _Antiq. of No. Amer. Indians_, 344; on the making of arrow-heads, 417; on the Georgia mounds, 410; _Indian Remains_, 410; _Anc. tumuli_, 410; _Antiq. of Southern Indians_, 293, 410; on effigy mounds, 410; on bird-shaped mounds, 410; on rock inscriptions, 411.

Jones, David, _Two visits_, 110, 326, 398.

Jones, Geo., _Orig. Hist. of Ancient America_, 41, 190.

Jones, H. G., on Madoc’s voyage, 110.

Jones, Jos., 419; on the mounds, 410.

Jones, J. M., on shell heaps, 392.

Jones, Morgan, on the Tuscaroras, 109.

Jones, Peter, _Ojibway Indians_, 327.

Jones, _Oneida County_, 323.

Jones, _Stockbridge_, 323.

Jónsson, Arngrimur, 84; _Grönlandia_, 85.

Jordan, Francis, _Aboriginal Encampment at Rehoboth, Del._, 393.

Jordan, Fr., jr., 419.

Jorell, Otto, _Navires du Nord_, 62.

Jotunheimer, 130.

Jourdain, A., _Traductions d’Aristote_, 37.

Jourdain, Ch., _Influence d’Aristote_, 37, 38.

_Journal of American Folk Lore_, 438.

_Journal of Anthropology_, 442.

Jowett, B., _Dialogues of Plato_, 46.

Joyce, _Old Celtic Romances_, 33, 50.

Juarros, Domingo, _Guatemala_, 168, 196.

Jubinal, _Légendes de S. Brandaines_, 48.

Julianehaab district, maps, 87, 89.

Junks, drifting of, 78.

Junquera, S. P., 115.

Justiniani, Dr. Pablo, 281.

KABAH, 188, 200.

Kabah-Zayi, 186.

Kakortok, 86, 88.

Kalbfleisch, C. H., his library, xviii.

Kalm, Peter, on the Norse voyages, 92; _Travels_, 325; on the mounds, 398; on the formation of soil, 361.

Kames, Lord, _Hist. of Man_, 380.

Kan-ay-ko, 394.

Kane, Paul, _Wanderings_, 321.

Kansas Academy of Sciences, 438.

_Kansas City Review_, 439.

Kansas mounds, 409.

Keane, A. H., 273, 410; _Ethnology of America_, 412, 422.

Keary, C. F., _Dawn of History_, 412, 415.

Keller, Dr., on the Swiss lake dwellings, 395.

Kelley, O. H., 409.

Kemp’s discovery in London, 388.

Kendall, E. A., 104; _Travels_, 104.

Kennebecs, 322.

Kennedy, James, _Origin Amer. Indians_, 117.

Kennedy, J., _Probable origin of the Amer. Indians_, 369; _Essays_, 369.

Kennett, White, _Bibl. Amer. Prim._, i; his library, i.

Kennon, B., 78.

Kentucky caves, 390.

Kentucky mounds, 409.

Keppel, Gestalt, _Grösse, and Weltstellung der Erde_, 39.

Kerr, Henry, _Travels_, 111.

Kerr, Robert, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Keyport, N. Jersey, 363, 393.

Keyser, J. R., _Private life of the old Northmen_, 85; _Religion of the Northmen_, 85.

Keyser, K., _Norges Hist._, 85.

Kich-Moo, 187.

Kiché, Brinton’s spelling of Quiché, 167.

Kidder, F., 325.

King, Richard, 106.

Kingektorsoak stone, 66.

Kingsborough, Edward, Lord, his belief in the lost-tribe theory, 116; acc. of, 203; his MSS. in Rich’s hands, 203; in Sir Thomas Philipps’, 203; _Antiq. of Mexico_, 203; copies, 203; finds no MSS. in Spain, 203.

Kingsley, Chas., _Lectures_, 98.

Kingsley, J. S., _Standard Nat. Hist._, 356.

Kino, Padre, 396.

Kircher, A., _Mundus Subterraneus_, 9, 43; _Œdipus Ægypticus_, 204.

Kiriri, 428.

Kirkland, the missionary, on the mounds, 399.

Kitchen-middens. _See_ Shell heaps.

Kittanning, 312.

Klaproth, J. H. von, _Fousang_, 78.

Klee, _Le Déluge_, 390.

Klemm, _Allgem. Culturgesch. der Menschheit_, 377, 431; _Allgem. Culturwissenschaft_, 377.

Kneeland, Samuel, _Amer. in Iceland_, 85; on the skeleton in armor, 105.

Kneip, C. H., iii.

Knight, Mrs. A. A., 45.

Knox, Robert, _Races of Men_, 369.

Knox, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Koch and the Missouri mastodon, 388.

Kohl, J. G., on the Northmen voyages, 97; on Frislanda, 114; _Kitchi-Gami_, 327.

Kolaos, voyage, 40.

Kollmann, Dr., 384.

_Kosmos_, 438.

Koriaks, 77.

Kramer, J., ed. Strabo, 34.

Krarup, F., on the Zeni, 113.

Krause, E., _Northwest Coast of America_, 328.

Kristni Saga, 85.

Krossanes, 101, 102.

Kublai Khan, 82.

Kukulcan, 152. _See_ Cukulcan.

Kumlein, L., _Nat. Hist. Arctic America_, 106.

Kunstmann, _Mémoires_, 53.

LA BORDE, _Mer du Sud_, 43; _L’origine des Caraibes_, xxxiv, 117.

La Harpe, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

La Mothe Cadillac at Detroit, 303.

La Peyrère, map of Greenland, 132; _Relation du Groenland_, 132.

La Roquette on the Zeni, 112.

La Salle and the Indians, 318.

Labarthe, Charles, _La civilisation péruvienne_, 275; _Doc. inédits sur l’Empire des Incas_, 275.

Labat, _Nouveau Voyage_, 117.

Labrador, name of, 31, 74.

Lacandons, 188.

Lacerda, José de, _Doutor Livingstone_, 114.

Lachmann, _Sagenbibliothek_, 91.

Lacustrine deposits, 347; habitations, 393.

Laet, Joannes de, _Nieuwe Wereldt_, i; _Notæ ad diss. H. Grotii_, 370; further controversy with Grotius, 370.

Lafieri, Geografia, 125.

Lafitau, on the Asiatic origin of Americans, 76; _Mœurs des Sauvages_, 317; on the Tartar origin of Americans, 371.

Lagerbring, Sven, 84.

Laguna, Col. de la, 184.

Laing, Ed., _Heimskringla_, 92; on the sagas, 99.

Lake Bonneville, 347.

Lake Lahontan, 347.

Lake Superior, copper mines, 417.

Lamarck, J. B. A., his transformation theory, 383; _Philosophie Zool._, 383.

Lambayeque, 275.

Lancaster, Pa., treaty at, 305.

Landa, Bishop, _Relacion_, 164, 200; edited by Brasseur, 164; by Rada y Delgado, 165; critical account of editions by Brinton, 165; his alphabet, 198; facs. of part of it, 198; exists only in a copy, 198; pronounced a fabrication, 200, 202; analysis of, 201; misleading, 202; his destruction of MSS., 203.

Landino, 35.

_Landnamabók_, 83; editions, 83.

Landry, S. F., _Moundbuilder’s Brain_, 403.

Lands, tenure of, 175.

Lang, A., 281.

Lang, J. D., _Polynesian Nations_, 82.

Langdon, F. W., 408.

Langebek, Jacobus, _Scriptores rerum Danicarum_, 83.

Langius, _Med. Epist. Misc._, 41.

Langlet du Fresnoy, _Méthode_, i.

Language, as a test of race, 421, 422; failed in the palæolithic man, 421. _See_ Linguistics.

Laon globe (1486), 119; cut, 56.

Lapham, I. A., on the Indians of Wisconsin, 327; _Antiq. of Wisconsin_, 400, 408.

Lappawinzo, 325.

Larenaudière, _Méxique_, 190.

Larkin, F., _Anc. man in America_, 384, 405, 415.

Larrabure y Unanue, E., on the Ollantay drama, 282.

Larrainzar, M., _Estudios sobre la hist. de America_, 172, 195; on Palenqué, 195.

Lartet, Ed., _Nouvelles Recherches_, 388; _Annales des Sciences_, 441.

Lartet and Christy, _Reliq. Aquitanicæ_, 389.

Las Casas, _Narratio_, xxxiii; _Apolog. hist._, 155.

Latham, _Nat. Hist. of Man_, 374; _Man and his migrations_, 381.

Latreille, 16.

Latrobe, C. J., _Rambles in Mexico_, 180.

Laud, Archbp., 205.

Laurentian hills, 384.

Laurenziano-Gaddiano portolano, 55.

Law, A. E., 410.

Lawson, _Carolina_, xxxv.

L’Estrange, Sir H., _Americans no Jewes_, 115.

Le Beau, _Voyage_, 321.

Le Hon, H., _Influence des lois Cosmiques_, 387; _L’homme fossile_, 383.

Le Moyne, _Florida_, xxxii.

Le Noir on the _Dresden Codex_, 205.

Le Plongeon, Dr., on Atlantis, 44; on the connection of the Maya and Asiatic races, 81; on traces of the Guanches in Yucatan, 117; his studies in Yucatan, 166, 186; his discovery of the Chac-mool, 180, 181, 190; _Sacred Mysteries_, 180, 187; his over-confidence, 187, 200; controversies, 187; at Chichen-Itza, 187, 190; on the Maya tongue, 427.

Le Plongeon, Mrs. Alice, her studies on the Mayas, 166, 169, 187; _Vestiges of the Mayas_, 187; _Here and There in Yucatan_, 187.

Leardo, Giovanni, map (1448), 56; (1452), 53, 56, 115.

Leclerc, Ch., _Bibl. Amer._, vii, xvi, 413, 423.

Leclercq, _Gaspésie_, 321.

Leconte, J. L., on the California Indians, 437.

Lee, Arthur, on the mounds, 398.

Lee, J. C. Y., 397.

Lee, J. E., _Lake dwellings of Switzerland_, 395.

Leffler, O. P., 84.

Legendre, Napoleon, _Races de l’Amérique_, 369.

Legis-Glueckselig, _Die Runen_, 66.

Legrand d’Aussy, _Image du monde_, 37.

Leibnitz, _Opera philol._, 40.

Leidy, Jos., 374; discovers rude implements in lacustrine deposits, 347; on a mustang skull found in the California gravels, 353; _Extinct mammalia_, 388; on shell-heaps, 393; on the Hartman cave, 391.

Leif Ericson, his career, 62; his voyage to Vinland, 63; described, 90; statue in Boston, 98.

Leipzig, Museum für Völkerkunde, _Bericht_, 443; _Verein für Anthropologie_, 443.

Leland, Ch. G., C_alifornia and Mexico in the Fift. Cent._, 80; _Fusang_, 80; _Mythology of the Algonquins_, 99; _Algonquin legends_, 99, 431; on the Norse spirit in Algonquin myths, 99.

Lelewel, on the Arab voyages, 72; on Frislanda, 114.

Lemoine, J. M., on the Hurons, 321; on Indian mortuary rites, 328.

Lemuria, 383.

Lenape stone, 405.

Lenni Lenape, 325, 437. _See_ Delawares.

Lenoir, A., on Egyptian traces in America, 41; compares Palenqué with Egyptian remains, 192.

Lenox Library, xi; its bibliographical contributions, xi.

Lenox, Jas., his library, xi; _Recollections_ by Stevens, xi; his De Brys, xxxiii.

Léon y Gama, A. de, _Desc. de las Dos Piedras_, 159, 182; chronol. tables of Mexico, 133.

Léon y Pinelo, _Epitome_, i.

Leone, Giovan, _Viaggio_, xxix.

Lepsius, _Das Stadium_, 4.

Lesage, S., 317.

Lesley, J. P., _Origin and Destiny of Man_, 379, 383; his independent views, 384.

Lesson and Martinet, _Les Polynésiens_, 82.

Letheman on the Navajos, 327.

Letronne, on the size of the earth, 5; on the views of the extension of Africa, 7; _Opinions Cosmog. des Pères_, 38.

Levinus printed with Martyr, xxiii.

Lévy-Bing on the Grave Creek mound tablet, 404.

Lewis, Sir Geo. C., _Astron. of the Ancients_, 36.

Lewis, H. C., _Geol. Survey of Penna._, 388; _Trenton gravels_, 337, 388.

Lewis, T. H., on the mounds, 400, 403; on a snake mound, 401; on Iowa mounds, 409; on Kentucky mounds, 409; on Red River mounds, 410; on Rock inscriptions, 410.

Lewis and Clarke, on the Indians, 320; discover mounds, 409; their Indian vocabularies lost, 424.

Lexington, Ky., Indian fort, 437.

Li Yan Tcheou, 80.

Libraries, American, i; in New England, i; private, of Americana, vi.

_Libretto de tutta la navigazione_, etc., xix.

Libyan relic in America, 404.

Lick Creek mound, 408.

Lima, audience of, 211.

Linares on Teotihuacan, 182.

Lindenow, G., voyage to Greenland, 107.

Linguistics, American, bibliog. of, vii, 421, 423; affiliations with Asia, 77; with China, 81; used in studying ethnical relations, 421; number of stocks, 422, 424; dialects, 422; maps of America, by languages, 422; polysynthesis, 422; collections, 425; vocabularies in Wheeler’s Survey, 440.

Linschoten, xxxvii.

Lisbon Academy, _Memorias da Litteratura_, xix.

Little, Wm., _Warren_, 322.

Little Falls, Minn., 346.

Little Miami valley, mounds in, 403, 408.

Littlefield, Geo. E., xv.

Livermore, Geo., on Henry Stevens, xiv.

Lizana, B., 165.

Ljung, E. P., _Dissertatio_, 370.

Llamas of Peru, 213, 253; cut of, 213.

Llanos, Adolfo, _Sahagún_, 157.

Lloyd, Humphrey, _Cambria_, 109.

Lloyd, H. E., 108.

Lloyd, T. G. B., 321.

Loaysa, 162.

Locke, Caleb, _Hist. de la navigation_, xxxiv.

Locke, John, on the Wisconsin mounds, 400; _Mineral Lands_, 400.

Locket, S. H., 409.

Lockwood, Rev. Samuel, 363; collection, 393.

Lodge, Henry Cabot, review of Gravier’s _Découverte par les Normands_, 97.

Loess, 332, 348; of the Mississippi Valley, 388.

Loew, O., 394.

Löffler, E., on Vinland, 98.

Logan, James, his position in Penna., 308.

Logstown, 287.

London Anthropological Society, _Memoirs_, 442; _Trans._ and _Journals_, 442.

London Society of Antiquaries, _Archæologia_, 442.

Long, R. C., _Anc. Arch. of America_, 176.

Long, _Bibl. Amer._, ii.

Longfellow, H. W., _Skeleton in Armor_, 105.

Longperier, A. de, _Notice des Monuments_, 444; _Bronzes Antiques_, 26.

Loo-choo Islands, 80.

Lopez, V. F., on Quichua roots, 280; _Les Races Aryennes du Pérou_, 82, 241, 281; on the Ollantay drama, 282,

Lorente, S., _Hist. Antiq. del Peru_, 270; papers in the _Revista Peruana_, 270; _Revista de Lima_, 270.

Lorenzana, _Hist. Nueva España_, 203.

Lorillard, Pierre, 177.

Lorillard City, 177; situation, 188.

Lort, Michael, 104.

Loskiel, G. H., _Mission_, 371, 429.

Lothrop, S. K., _Kirkland_, 323.

Loudon, Archibald, _Selection of narratives_, 319.

Louisiana, missions in, 326; mounds, 409.

Löw, Conrad, _Meer Buch_, xxxiii.

Löwenstern, _Le Méxique_, 182.

Lowndes, the bibliographer, xvi.

Lubbock, Sir John, _Origin of Civilization_, 377, 380; as an anthropologist, 379; portrait, 379; _Prehistoric Times_, 379; on _No. Amer. Archæology_, 379; on the degeneracy of the savage, 381; _Early Condition of Man_, 381; _Scientific Lectures_, 387; on prehistoric archæology, 412.

Lucy-Fossarieu, P. de, _Ethnographie de l’Amérique Antarctique_, 442.

Ludewig, Hermann E., _Amer. local History_, v; _Amer. Aborig. Linguistics_, v; _Lit. of Amer. Aborig. Language_, vii, 423.

Lule, 428.

Lummi language, 425.

Lumnius, J. F., _De Extremo Dei Judicio_, 115.

Lunarejo, Dr., 280.

Lund, Dr., on caves in Brazil, 390.

Lurin, 277.

Lyctonia, 46.

Lydius, B., xxv.

Lyell, Sir Charles, on Atlantis, 44; _Antiquity of Man_, 384; eds., 384; _Second Visit_, 393; on the moundbuilders, 402.

Lykins, W. H. R., 409.

Lyman, Theodore, 3, 412.

Lyó-Baa, 184.

Lyon, G. F., _Journal_, 170; _Mexico_, 183.

Lyon, S. S., 410; _Antiquities from Kentucky_, 439.

Lyon, W. B., 397.

MACCAULEY, CLAY, on the Seminole Indians, 326.

Macedo, Dr., on Inca and Aztec civilizations, 275.

Machimus, 22.

Maciana library (Venice), vi.

Mackenna, B. V., his books, xiii.

Maclean, J. P., on Atlantis, 45; _Mastodon, Mammoth and Man_, 388; _Moundbuilders_, 401; on the serpent mound, 401; on the Grave Creek tablet, 404; mounds in Butler County, 408.

Maclovius, Bishop of Aleth, 48.

Macomb, J. N., _Exploring Exped. from Santa Fé_, 440.

Macrobius, 13, 31; _Comm. in Somn. Scip._, 9, 10, 11, 36; his maps, 10, 11, 12.

Madeira, 48; known to the ancients, 15, 25, 27; in the Bianco map, 50.

Madier de Montjau, _Chronol. hiérog._, 133; on Mexican MSS., 163; _Chronol. des rois Aztéques_, 200.

Madison, Bishop J., on the mounds, 398; on fortifications in the West, 437.

Madisonville, Ohio, Archæolog. Soc., 407; mounds, 408.

Madoc, Prince, his voyage, 71; bibliog., 109, 110, 111; linguistic traces of the Welsh in America, 109; English eagerness to substantiate his voyage, 109; some believe he went to Spain, 111; his people are the Mandans, 111; possible, but not probable, 111.

Madriga, P. de, 271; voyage to Peru, xxxiv.

Madrinanus, A., xx.

Maelduin, 33, 50.

Mag Mell, 32.

_Magazin für die Naturgeschichte des Menschen_, 443.

Magellan, xxviii, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi, xxxvii.

Magio, Ant., _Lengua de los Indios Baures_, 425.

Magnus, Olaus, _Hist. of the Goths_, 84; maps (1539), 123; (1555), 124; (1567), 125; _Historia_, 125; _Von dem alten Goettenreich_, 125.

Magnusen, Finn, 86, 96; on _Scand. divisions of time_, 99; an instance of his over-eagerness, 102.

Magnussen, Arne, 88.

Magrurin, 33.

Mahudel on stone implements, 387.

Mailduin, 33, 50.

Maillard, Abbé, _Miconaque language_, 425.

Maine Indians, 322; Indian missions, 322; shell heaps, 392.

Maisonneuve, _Bibl. Amer._, xiv, xvi; _Collection linguistique_, 425.

Maisonneuve. _See_ Leclerc.

Maize in Peru, 213.

Major, R. H., on the Atlantic islands, 47; on Arab voyages in the Atlantic, 72; on the Northmen, 96; on the sites of the Greenland colonies, 109, 113; on the Madoc voyage, 111; advocates the Zeni story, 112; portrait, 112.

Mala, 277.

Malay emigration to America, 60.

Malay stock in America, 81, 82.

Mallery, Col. Garrick, on the Dighton Rock, 103; on Indian inscriptions, 104; on pictographs, 410; on gesture language, 422; _Study of Sign language_, 422, 440.

Mallet, P. H., _Dannemark_, 92; _Northern Antiq._, 84, 92.

Malte-Brun, _Annales des Voyages_, xxxvi, 441; _Nouvelles Annales_, xxxvi, 441; on the Arab voyagers, 72; on the sagas, 92; on the Zeni, 112; _Précis de la géog._, 112; map of Central America, 151; map of Yucatan, 188; _L’époque des monumens de l’Ohio_, 398; _Nations et langues au Méxique_, 427.

Mame-Huastèque language, 426.

Mamertinus, 47.

Mammoth, 388.

Man Satanaxio, 31, 47, 49, 54.

Man, origin and antiquity of, in America, 330, 369; bibliog., 369; plurality of origin, 372; autochthonous, in America, 372; references on, 375; prehistoric, 377; stages of prehistoric existence, 377; his progress from barbarism to civilization, 378; influenced by climate, 378; degenerate in the modern savage, 380; controversy on this point, 381; arguments against his antiquity, 382; for it, 383; English, French, and German schools of opinion, 383; original home in the Indian Ocean, 383; his geological remoteness in Europe, 330, 384; references on his antiquity in America, 384; in the Glacial age, 387; existence with extinct animals, 388; in American caves, 389; scarcity of human remains of the palæolithic era, 390; early man in So. America, 390; as lake dweller, 395; of the Danish peat beds, 395; general references on prehistoric man, 412, 415; as a speaking animal, 421; unity of the American race, 429; the thoughts of early man, 429. _See_ Anthropology.

Manasseh Ben Israel, 115.

Manchester Geographical Society, _Journal_, 442.

Manco Ccapac, origin of, 225; at Cuzco, 224; portrait, 228.

Mancos River, 395.

Mandans, 111.

Mange, Padre, 396.

Mangue dialect, 428.

Mangues, 169.

Mani, 153; archives, 189.

Manilius, on the form of the earth, 3; _Astronomicon_, 36.

Manitoba Hist. Society, _Trans._, 410; mounds, 410.

_Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco_, 180.

Marana, J. P., _Turkish Spy_, 110.

Marçay, De, _Découvertes de l’Amérique_, 45.

Marceau, E., _Les anc. peuples d’Amérique_, 412.

Marcel de Serre, _Cosmog. de Moise_, 41.

Marcellus, _Ethiopic History_, 41.

March y Labores, José, xxxvii.

Marcoy, _Travels in So. Amer._, 209; _Voyage_, 272.

Marcy, R. B., _Border Reminiscences_, 319; (with G. B. McClellan) _Exploration of the Red River_, 327, 440.

Margry, Pierre, _Mémoires_, 302, 317.

Maricheets, 321.

Marietta, mounds, plan of, by W. Sargent, 437; Harris, view of the mounds, 405; mounds at, discovered, 407.

Marinelli, G., _Erdkunde bei den Kirchen-Vätern_, 30, 38.

Marinus of Tyre, 34; on the size of the known earth, 8.

Markham, C. R., on the Eskimos, 107; “The Inca civilization in Peru”, 209; translates Report of Ondegardo, 261; Molina’s _Rites of the Incas_, 262, 436; translates Avila’s narrative, 264; edits Salcamayhua, 266; _Cuzco and Lima_, 271; _Travels in Peru and India_, 271; _Peru_, 271; portrait, 272; on Tiahuanacu, 273; his editorial work, 274; on the Quichua language, 280; _Ollanta_, 281; reply to Mitre, 282; _Ocean Highways_, 442; _Geog. Review_, 442; _Geog. Mag._, 442.

Markland, 63, 130.

Marmier, X., _Island_, 84.

Marmocchi, F. C., _Viaggi_, xxxvii, 163.

Marquesas islands, 81.

Marquez, P., _Antichi mon. de Arch. Messicana_, 180.

Marriott mound, 408.

Marryat’s _Travels_, 321.

Marsh, Geo. P., 84, 439.

Marsh, O. C., on the Newark mounds, 408.

Marshall, O. H., _Hist. Writings_, 323; on the Ohio Valley Indians, 326.

Marson, Arc, 82.

Martellus, H., _Insularium illustratum_, 114, 119; map sketched, 122.

Marten, _Voyage to Greenland_, xxxiv.

Martha’s Vineyard, tracts on the conversion of the Indians, 322.

Martin, Félix, _Hurons et Iroquois_, 321; _Jogues_, 323.

Martin, Gabriel, xxxii.

Martin, Henri, _Dissertation sur l’Atlantide_, 46; _Timée de Platon_, 46.

Martin, Luis, 184.

Martin, T. H., his astron. papers, 36; _Cosmog. Grecque_, 39; _Sur le Timée_, 42.

Martin of Valencia, 156.

Martinez, J., Quichua vocabulary, 279.

Martinière, map of Greenland, 132; _Voyages_, 132.

Martius, F. P. von, _Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, 428; _Glossaria_, 428; _Beiträge_, 136.

Martyr, Peter, bibliog., xx; his first decade, xx; _Legatio Babylonica_, xx; acc. by Harrisse, xx; by Schumacher, xx; by Heidenheimer, xx; _Die Schiffung_, xxi; Poemata, xxi; _De Nuper sub D. Carolo repertis insulis_, xxi; facs. of title, xxii; _De orbe novo_, xxi; _Extrait ou Recueil_, xxi; _De rebus oceanicis_, xxiii; _Summario_, xxiii; joined with Oviedo, xxiii; Eden’s _Decades_, xxiii; Willes’ _Hist. of Travayle_, xxiii; edited by Hakluyt, xxiii; by Lok, xxiii; _Opus Epistolarum_, xxiv; on the Ethiopian origin of the tribes of Yucatan, 117; describes the Maya and Nahua picture-writings, 203.

Maryland, docs. in her Archives, xiv; Hist. Soc., xviii; Indians, 325.

Masks, Mexican, 419.

Mason, Geo. C., on the Newport mill, 105; _Rem. of Newport_, 105.

Mason, O. T., on the mounds, 402; bibliog. of anthropology, 411; on anthropology in the U. S., 411; his anthropolog. papers, 439.

Massachusetts Bay map, 100.

Massachusetts Hist. Soc., Library Catalogue, xvii; on the statue of Leif Ericson, 98; on Rafn’s over-confidence, 100.

Massachusetts Indians, 323.

_Massachusetts Quart. Rev._, 96.

Massachusetts State Library, xvii.

Massilia founded, 26.

Mastodon, carvings of, 405; mound, 409; remains of man associated with the, 388; how long disappeared, 389.

_Materiaux pour l’histoire primitive_, 411.

Mather, Cotton, on Dighton Rock, 103, 104; _Wonderful works of God_, 104; on Jews in New England, 115; on supposed remains of a giant, 389; and the Royal Society, 442.

Mather, Increase, his letter to Leusden, 322.

Mather, Saml., _America known to the ancients_, 40.

Mathers, their library, i.

Matienzo, Juan de, _Gobierno de el Peru_, 261.

Matlaltzinca, 148.

Matthews, W., _Language of the Hidatsa_, 425; _Hidatsa Indians_, 440.

Maudsley, A. P., _Guatemala_, 197.

Maurault, _Abenakis_, 322.

Maurer, Konrad, _Altnord. Sprache_, 84; _Island_, 85; _Isländische Volkssagen_, 85; on the Zeni, 113; _Rechtgesch. des Nordens_, 85.

Mauro, Fra, map (1457), 53, 117; facs. of northern parts, 120.

Maury, Alfred, 374.

Mavor, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, his library, viii.

Maximilian, Prince, _Reise_, 319; _Travels_, 392.

Maxtla, 146.

Maya d’Ahkuil-Chel, 426.

Mayapan, 152; deserted, 153.

Mayas, origin of, 134, 152; name first heard, 135; nations comprised, 135; acc. of, 152; hieroglyphics, 152, 426; Katunes, 152; calendar, 152; manuscripts, 162; Chilan Balam, 164; _Popul Vuh_, their sacred book, 166; their last pueblo, 175; picture-writing, 197; metals among, 418; languages of, 427; dialects, 427; allied to the Greek, 427; general references, 427; religion of, 433; hero-gods, 430, 434.

Mayberry, S. P., on Florida shell heaps, 393.

Mayda, 31, 47, 51, 53.

Mayer, Brantz, on Sparks, vii; _Mexico_, 170; _Observations on Mex. hist._, 184.

Mayhews, the Indian missionaries, 322.

Mayta, Ccapac, Inca, 229.

Mazahuas, 136.

Mazetecs, 136.

McAdams, W., 409; _Anc. Races in the Mississippi Valley_, 403, 410; _Cahokia_, 408.

McCaul, John, 99.

McCharles, A., 410.

McClellan, G. B., 440.

McClintock and Strong’s _Cyclop. bibl. lit._, 384.

McClure and Parish, _Mem. of Wheeloch_, 322.

McCoy, Isaac, _Baptist Indian missions_, 369.

McCulloh, James H., _Researches on America_, 169, 372; on the mounds, 399.

McCullough, John, captive to the Indians, 292, 319.

McElmo cañon, 395.

McFarland, R. W., 408.

McGee, W. J., 377; on glacial man, 330, 343; on the Columbia period, 343; his lacustrine explorations, 349; on Iowa mounds, 409.

McIntosh, John, _Disc. of America_, 372.

McKenney, T. L., _Memoirs_, 320; his career, 320; (with James Hall) _Indian Tribes_, 320.

McKinley, Wm., 410.

McKinney, W. A., 41.

McLennan, J. F., _Primitive Marriage_, 380; _Studies in Anc. Hist._, 380.

McMaster, S. Y., 111.

McParlin, J. A., 397.

McWhorter, T., 408.

Measures of length used by the Mexicans, 420.

_Meddelelser om Grönland_, 86.

Medel on the Mex. hieroglyphics, 200.

Megatherium, 389.

Megiser, H., _Sept. Novantiquus_, xxxiv, 111.

Meigs, J. A., on Morton’s collection, 372; _Catal. human crania_, 372; _Obs. on the cranial forms_, 374; _Form of the occiput_, 375.

Meineke, A., ed. Strabo, 34.

Mela, Pomponius, his views of the extension of Africa, 10; relations with Ptolemy, 10; on men supposed to be carried from America to Europe, 26; _De Situ Orbis_, 36.

Melgar, E. S. de, 279.

Melgar, J. M., _De las Teogonias en los manuscritos Méxicanos_, 431.

Melgar, Señor, 116.

Melkarth, 24.

Melo, Garcia de, 260.

Menana, 102.

Mendieta, _Hist. Eçcles. Ind._, 157.

Mendoza, Gumesindo, 155; curator of Museo Nacional in Mexico, 444.

Menendez, _Geog. del Peru_, 212.

Mengarini, G., _Flat-head Grammar_, 425.

Mentone caves, 390.

Menzel, _Bibl. Hist._, ii.

Menzies, Wm., his library and catalogue, xii.

Mer de l’Ouest, 79.

Mercator map (1538), 125.

Mercer, H. G., 405.

_Mercurio Peruano_, 276.

Meredith, a Welsh bard, 109.

Merian, M., xxxi.

Merida, 188.

Meridian, the first, where placed by the ancients, 8.

Merivale, C., _Conversion of the Northern Nations_, 85.

Merom, Ohio, 408.

Meropes, 22.

Merry Meeting Bay, 102.

Mesa, Alonso de, 260; _Anales del Cuzco_, 270.

Metal, use of, 418; working in Peru, 256; among the early Americans, 417.

Metz, Dr. C. L., finds palæolithic implements in Ohio, 340, 341; _Prehist. Mts. Little Miami Valley_, 408.

Meunier, V., _Les ancêtres d’Adam_, 383.

Mexia y Ocon, J. R., 279.

Mexico (country), linguistics of, viii; held to be Fousang, 78, 80, 81; correspondences in languages with Chinese, 81; with Sanskrit, 81; Asiatic origin of games, 81; jade ornaments in, 81; Asiatic origin, references on, 81; obscurities of its pre-Spanish history, 133; early race of giants, 133; chronologies, 133; the Toltecs arrive, 139; the confederacy growing, 147; its nature, 147; portraits of the kings, 148; sources of pre-Spanish history, 153; the early Spanish writers, 153; the courts and the natives, 160; MS. annals, 162; general accounts in English, 169; _Archives de la Com. Scient. du Méxique_, 270; ethnology of, 172; character of its civilization, 173, 176; the confederacy, 173; diverse views of the extent of the population, 174; disappearance of their architecture, 174; map by Santa Cruz, 174; mode of government, 174, 175; their palaces, 175, 176; notes on the ruins, 176; astronomy in, 179; idols still preserved, 180; superstitions for writings, 180; origin of the people, 375; copper, use of, 418; variety of tongues in, 426; culture, 329, 330. _See_ Toltecs, Nahuas, Anahuac, Aztecs, Chichimecs.

Mexico (city), founded, 133, 144; Clavigero’s map in facs., 143; its lakes, 143; other maps, 143; facs. of the map in Coreal’s _Voyages_, 145; a native acc. of the capture, 162; calendar stone, 179; used to regulate market days, 179; Museo Nacional, 419, 444; its _Anales_, 444; view of, 180, 181; forgeries in, 180; no architectural remains, 182; the city gradually sinking, 182; relics still beneath the soil, 182; Bandelier’s notes, 182; old view of the city, 182; early descriptions, 182; its military aspect, 182; relics unearthed, 182; temple of (views), 433, 434.

Meye, Heinrich, _Copan und Quiriguá_, 196, 197.

Meyer, A. B., 417.

Meyer, J., map of Greenland, 131.

Mica, 416.

Michel, Francisque, _Saint Brandan_, 48.

Michigan mounds, 408.

Michinacas, 136.

Michoacan, 149, 433.

Micmacs, 321; language, 425; legends, 431; missions, 321; traditions of white comers among, 99.

Mictlan, 184, 435.

Mictlantecutli, 435.

Middle Ages, geographical notions, 30.

Miedna, 78.

Migration of nations in pre-Spanish times, 137, 139, 369; disputes over, 138; Gallatin’s view, 138; bibliog., 139; Dawson’s map of those in North America, 381; generally from the north, 381.

Mil, A., _De origine Animalium_, 370.

Milfort, a creek, 326.

Miller, J., _Modocs_, 327.

Miller, W. J., _Wampanoags_, 102.

Mindeleff, V., on Pueblo architecture, 395.

Minnesota mounds, 409.

Minutoli, J. H. von, on Palenqué, 191; _Stadt in Guatemala_, 195.

Miocene man, 387.

Miquitlan, 184.

_Mirror of Literature_, 110.

_Mission Scientifique au Méxique, Ouvrages_, 207.

Missions’ effect on the Indians, 318.

Mississippi Valley, loess of, 388; mounds, 410.

Missouri, mounds, 409; pottery, 419.

Missouri River, lacustrine age, 348.

Mitchell, S. L., on the Asiatic origin of the Americans, 76, 371; on the Northmen, 102.

Mitchell, A., 410.

Mitchell, W. S., on Atlantis, 44.

Mitchener, C. H., _Ohio Annals_, 407.

Mitla, ruins of, 184; plan, 184.

Mitre, Gen. B., _Ollantay_, 282.

Miztecs, 136; subjugated, 149.

Mochica language, 227, 275, 276.

Modocs, 327.

Mohawks put English arms on their castles, 304, 324.

Mohegan Indians, their language, 423.

Moke, H. T., _Hist. des peuples Américains_, 172.

Moletta (Moletius) on the Zeno map, 129.

Molina, Alonzo de, 156.

Molina, Christoval de, in Peru, 262; _Fables and Rites of the Incas_, 262; on the Incas, 436.

Molina, _Vocabulario_, viii; _Arte de la lengua Méx._, viii.

Möllhausen, Reisen, 396; _Tagebuch_, 396.

Moluccan migration to South America, 370.

Monardes, _Dos Libros_, xxix; _Hist. Medicinal_, xxix; likeness, xxix; _Joyfull Newes_, xxix.

Monboddo, Lord, on Irish linguistic traces in America, 83.

Moncacht-Ape, 77.

Money, 420.

Mongolian stock on the Pacific coast, 82.

Mongols in Peru, 82.

Monhegan, alleged runes on, 102.

Monogenism, 374.

Monotheism in America, 430.

Monro, R., _Anc. Scotch lake dwelling_, 393.

Montalboddo, _Paesi Nov._, xix.

Montana mounds, 409.

Montanus, _Nieuwe Weereld_, i; on the Zeni, 111; _America_, xxxiv; on the sagas, 92; on the Madoc voyage, 109.

Monte Alban, 184.

Montelius, O., _Bibliog. de l’archéol. de la Suède_, 444.

Montémont, A., Voyages, xxxvii.

Montesinos, F., in Peru, 263; _Memorias antiguas_, 82, 263; _Anales_, 263; _Mémoire historique_, 263; on Jews in Peru, 115; _Mémoires_, 273.

Montesquieu, _Esprit des Lois_, 380.

Montezuma (hero-god), 147, 150.

Montezuma (first of the name), 146; in power, 147; various spelling of the name, 147; dies, 148.

Montezuma (the last of the name), 148; forebodings of his fall, 148; hears of the coming of the Spaniards, 149; his “Dinner”, 174, 175.

Montfaucon, _Collectio_, 30.

Montgomery, James, _Greenland_, 69.

Moore, Dr. Geo. H., at the Lenox Library, xii; account of, xii.

Moore, Martin, 322.

Moore, M. V., 41.

Moore, Thos., _Hist. Ireland_, 61.

Moosmüller, P. O., _Europäer in America_, 88, 90.

Moquegua, 277.

Moqui Indians, 397, 429; representatives of the cliff dwellers, 395.

Moravian missions, 308, 318.

_Moravian Quarterly_, 109.

Morellet, Arthur, _Voyage_, 194; _Travels_, 195.

Morgan, Col. Geo., 319.

Morgan, L. H., his _Montezuma’s dinner_, ix, 174; attacked by H. H. Bancroft, ix, 174; on the cradle of the Mexicans, 138; his exaggerated depreciation of the Mexican civilization, 173, 174; his relations with the Iroquois, 174; _Houses and House life_, 175, 420; _Ancient Society_, 175, 382; controverted, 380; his publications, 175; his death, 175; on Rau’s views as respects the Tablet of the Cross, 195; on centres of migrations, 381; on human progress, 382; on the Pueblo race, 395; on the ruins of the Chaco cañon, 396; on the ruins on the Animas River, 396; on the social condition of the Pueblos, 397; on the moundbuilders, 401; finds their life communal, 402; on their houses, 402; _League of the Iroquois_, 325, 416; on bone implements, 417; on linguistic divisions, 422; on Indian life, 325; _Iroquois laws of descent_, 437; _Bestowing of Indian names_, 437; _Houses of American Aborigines_, 437.

Morgan, Thomas, on Vinland, 98.

Morillot, Abbé, _Esquimaux_, 105.

Morisotus, C., _Epist. Cent. duæ_, 370.

Morlot, A., 395; on the Phœnicians in America, 41.

Mormon bible, its reference to the lost tribes, 116.

Morris, C., 403.

Morse, Abner, _Anc. Northmen_, 105.

Morse, Edw. S., _Arrow Release_, 69; on the tertiary man, 387; on prehistoric times, 412.

Morse, Jed., _Report on Indian affairs_, 320.

Mortillet, G. de, _Le Signe de la Cross_, 196; _Antiq. de l’homme_, 383; founds the _Materiaux_, etc., 411, 442; _L’homme_, 442; _Dict. des Sciences Anthropologique_, 442.

Morton, S. G., _Inquiry into the distinctive characteristics of the aborig. race_, 437; _Crania Amer._, 372; his collection of skulls, 372; _Physical type of the American Indian_, 372; _Aboriginal Race of America_, 372; _Some observations_, 372; on the moundbuilders’ skulls, 399, 403.

Morton, Thomas, _New English Canaan_, 369.

Mossi, H., on the Quichua language, 280.

Motolinía, _Historia_, 156.

Motupé, 276.

Moulton, J. W., _New York_, 93.

Moulton, M. W., 409.

Moundbuilders, connected with the Irish, 83; with the Welsh, 111; with the Jews, 116; with the later peoples of Mexico, 136, 137; Morgan on their houses, 175; Haynes’s views, 367; literature of, 397; early Spanish and French notices of, 398; accounts by travellers, 398, 402; held to be ancestors of the Aztecs and other southern peoples, 398; emblematic mounds, 400; the most ancient, 402; believed to be of the Indian race, 400, 401, 402; earliest advocates of this view, 400; vanished race view, 400, 401, 402; Great Serpent mound, 401; no clue to their language, 401; mounds in New York built by the Iroquois, 402; date of their living, 402; divisions of the United States by their characteristics, 402; held to be Cherokees, 402; agriculturalists, 402, 410; sun-worshippers, 402; age of, 403; contents of the mounds, 403; fraudulent relics, 403; geographical distribution of their works, 404; built by Finns, 405; by Egyptians, 405; maps, 406; use of copper, 408; pipes, 409; military character, 409; turned hunters, 410; their textile arts, 419; cloth found, 419; pottery, 419.

Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, 24.

Mowquas, 111.

Moxa, 428.

M’Quy, Dr., 191.

Mudge, B. F., 409.

Muellenhof, _Alterthumskunde_, 4.

Muhkekaneew Indians, 116.

Mühlenpfordt, E. L., _Versuch_, 184.

Muiscas. _See_ Muyscas.

Mujica, M. A., 282.

Müller, C., _Geog. Græci_, 34.

Müller, F., _Allgemeine Ethnographie_, 375.

Müller, J. G., on the Peruvian religion, 270; _Amer. Urreligionen_, 380, 430; on Quetzalcoatl, 433.

Müller, J. W. von, _Reisen_, 185.

Müller, Max, on early Mexican history, 133; on Ixtlilxochitl, 157; on the _Popul Vuh_, 167; on E. B. Tylor, 377; on American monotheism, 430.

Müller, P. E., _Icelandic Hist. Lit._, 84; (with Velchow, J.) ed. _Saxo Gram._, 92; _Sagenbibliothek_, 85.

Müller, _Handbuch des klas. Alterth._, 5.

Muller, Frederik, xvi.

Mummies, in American caves, 391; of Incas, 234, 235; Peruvian, 276, 277.

Munch, P. A., _Det Norske Folks Hist._, 84; _Olaf Tryggvesön_, 90; _Norges Konge-Sagaer_, 90.

Munich, Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, 443.

Muñoz, J. B., 191; _Historia_, ii; on the Norse voyages, 92.

Munsell, Frank, xv.

Munsell, Joel, xv; his publications, xv; sketch by G. R. Howell, xv.

Münster, Sebastian, his map, xxv; _Cosmographia_, xxv; likeness, xxvi, xxvii; _Kosmograffia_, xxviii; translations, xxviii; on the Greenland geography, 126.

Murphy, H. C., his library, ix; his _Catalogue_, ix; dies, ix.

Murray, Andrew, _Geog. Distrib. Mammals_, 82, 106.

Murray, Hugh, _Travels_, 93, 111; _Disc. in No. America_, 72; on the Northmen, 93.

Múrua, M. de, _Hist. gen. del Peru_, 264.

_Museo Erudico_, 276.

_Museo Guatemalteco_, 168.

_Museo Mexicano_, 444.

Music, 420.

Musical instruments, 420.

Mutsun language, 425.

Muyscas, myths of, 436; idol, 281; origin of, 80.

Myths, not the reflex of history, 429; literature of American, 429.

NAAMAN CREEK, rock shelter at, 365.

Nachan, 135.

Nadaillac, Marquis de, _L’Amérique préhistorique_, 369, 412, 415; _Prehistoric America_, 415; on the autochthonous theory, 375; _De la période glaciaire_, 388; _Les prem. hommes_, 369, 412; _Mœurs des peuples préhistorique_, 412; _Les pipes et le tabac_, 416; _L’art préhist. en Amérique_, 419.

Nahuas, origin of, 134; direction of their migration controverted, 134, 136, 137, 138; earliest comers, 137; from the N. W., 137; date disputed, 137; their governmental organizations, 174; places of their kings, 174; their buildings, 182; picture-writing, 197; myths, 431. _See_ Aztecs, Mexico.

Narborough, _Magellan Straits_, xxxiv.

Narragansetts, 323.

Nasca, Peru, 271, 277.

Nasmyth, J., 50.

Natchez Indians, 326; supposed descendants of Votanites, 134.

Natchez, relics at, 389.

Natick language, 423.

National Geographic Society, 438.

Natural Hist. Soc. of Montreal, 438.

_Nature_, 443.

Naugatuck valley, 323.

Naulette cave, 377.

Nauset, 102.

Navajos, 327; expedition against, 396; weaving among, 420.

Neanderthal, race, 377; skull, 377, 389.

Nebel, Carlos, _Viaje pintoresco_, 179, 180.

Negro race, as primal stock, 373; of a stock earlier than Adam, 384.

Nehring, A., on animals found in Peruvian graves, 273.

Neill, E. D., on the Ojibways, 327.

Neolithic Age, 377; implements of, 377. _See_ Stone Age.

Nepeña, 276.

_Neue Berlinische Monatsschrift_, 371.

Neumann, K. F., _Amerika nach Chinesischen Quellen_, 78, 80.

Névome language, 425.

New Brunswick shell heaps, 392.

New England Hist. Geneal. Society, xvii.

New England Indians, 322; mounds in, 404; visited by the Northmen, 94, 95, 96; shell heaps, 392.

New Grenada, map, 209; tribes of, 282.

New Hampshire, bibliog., xv; Indians, 322.

New Jersey, copies of docs. in her Archives, xiv; Indians, 325; shell heaps, 393.

New Mexico, map of ruins in, 397.

New Orleans, human skeleton found near, 389.

New York Acad. of Science, 438.

New York city, as a centre for the study of Amer. hist., xvii; its Hist. Soc. library, xvii; Astor Library, xvii; private libraries, x, xviii.

New York State, local history in, v; its library at Albany, xviii; the French import goods into, for the Indian trade, 311; its trade with the Indians, 311; Indians, 323; missions, 323; mounds, 404.

Newark, Ohio, map of mounds at, 407; described, 408.

Newcomb, Simon, opposes Croll’s theory, 387.

Newfoundland, early visited by the Basques, 75; in the early maps, 74; Eskimos in, 106; Indians of, 321.

Newman, J. B., _Red Men_, 46.

Newport stone tower claimed to be Norse, 105.

Nezahualcoyotl, 146, 147; dies, 148.

Nezahualpilli, 148.

Nicaragua, early footprint in, 385; explorers of, 197; mythology, 434; sources of its history, 169.

Nicholas V, alleged bull about Greenland, 69.

Nicholls and Taylor, _Bristol_, 50.

Nienhof, _Brasil. Zee-en Lantreize_, xxxiv.

Nijhoff, Martin, xvii.

Nilsson, _Stone Age_, 412.

Niza, Marco de, _Quito_, 268.

Noah, M. M., _American Indians descendants of the Lost tribes_, 116.

Nodal, J. F., on the Quichua tongue, 280; _Ollanta_, 281.

Nonohualcas, 136.

Nordenskjöld, A. E., _Exped. till Grönland_, 86; his belief in a colony on east coast of Greenland, 109; portrait, 113; on the Zeni, 114; _Bröderna Zenos_, 114; _Trois Cartes précolumbiennes_, 114, 117; _Studienund Forschungen_, 114; finds the oldest maps of Greenland, 117; his projected _Atlas_, 125; on the Olaus Magnus map (1567), 125.

Norman, B. M., _Rambles in Yucatan_, 186.

Norman sailors on the American coasts, 97.

Norris, P. W., 409.

Norse. _See_ Northmen.

North Carolina, antiquities, 410; rock inscriptions, 411.

Northmen, cut of their ship, 62; plan of same, 63; ship discovered at Gokstad, 62; another at Tune, 62; one used as a house, 64; depicted in the Bayeux tapestry, 64; flags, 64; weapons, 64; characteristics, 67; in Greenland, 68; in Iceland, 83; alleged visits to America, 98; their voyages seldom recognized in the maps of the xvth cent., 117.

Northwest coast, the Berlin Museum’s _Nordwest Küste_, 76.

Nortmanus, R. C., _De origine gent. Amer._, 370.

Norton, Charles B., his _Lit. Letter_, xv.

Norumbega held to be a corruption of Norvegia, 98.

Norway, early map, 118; in Fra Mauro’s map, 120; in Olaus Magnus, 124, 125; by Bordone, 126; in Gallæus, 129.

Nott, J. C. (with Gliddon), _Types of Mankind_, 372; _Physical Hist. of the Jews_, 373; _Indigenous Races_, 374.

Nova Scotia, Indians, 321; shell-heaps, 392.

Nova Scotia Institute of Nat. Science, 438.

Novo y Colson, D. P. de, and Atlantis, 45.

Noyes, _New England’s Duty_, 322.

Noymlap, 275.

Numismatic and Antiq. Soc. of Philadelphia, 438.

Nuttall, Thomas, _Arkansa Territory_, 326.

Nuttall, Mrs. Zelia, on Mexican communal life, 175; on the so-called Sacrificial Stone, 185; on complemental signs in the Mexican graphic system, 198; on Mexican feather-work, 420; on terra cottas from Teotihuacan, 182.

Nyantics, 323.

O’BRIEN, M. C., grammatical sketch of the Abnake, 423.

O’Curry, Eugene, _Anc. Irish history_, 50.

O’Flaherty, _Islands of Arran_, 50; _Ogygia_, 51.

Oajaca, 149, 433; sources of its history, 168; ruins in, 184; teocalli at (view), 436.

Obando, Juan de, his Quichua dictionary, 279; grammar, 279.

Ober, F. A., _Travels in Mexico_, 170; _Anc. Cities of America_, 177.

Obsidian, 417; implements, 358.

Ocean, ancient views of the, 7; depth of, 383.

_Ocean Highways_, 442.

Ococingo, 135.

Odysseus, voyage of, 6; his wanderings, 40.

Ogallala Sioux, 327.

Ogilby, _America_, i, xxxiv.

Ogygia, 12, 13, 23.

_Ohio Archæological and Hist. Quarterly_, 407.

Ohio Land Company (1748), formation of the, 309.

Ohio, mounds in, 405; bibliog. and hist., 406; _Centennial Report_, 406; pictographs, 410; State Board of Centennial managers, _Final Report_, 407.

Ohio Valley, ancient man in, 341; ancient hearths in, 389; caves, 391; English attempts to occupy, 312; frontier life, 319; Indians, 326.

Ojeda, A. de, describes pile dwellings, 364.

Ojibways, 327.

Olaf, Tryggvesson, 62; saga, 90; editions, 90.

Olaus Magnus, 65; _Hist. de Gentibus Septent_, 67.

Olivarez, A. F., 282.

_Ollantai_ or _Ollantay_, 425; drama, 274, 242, 281; different texts, 281; its age, 282.

Ollantay-tampu _or_ tambo, ruins, 220, 221, 271.

Olmecs, migration of, 135; earliest comers, 135; overcame the giants, 137.

Olmos, A. de, 156, 276, 279.

Olosingo, 196.

Omahas, 327.

Onas, 289.

Ondegardo, Polo de, in Peru, 260, 261; _Relaciones_, 261.

Onderdonk, J. L., 412.

Ongania, _Sammlung_, 47, 53.

Onondaga language, 424.

Onontio, 289.

Ophir of Solomon, 82, 369; found in Palenqué, 191.

Orbigny, A. d’, _L’homme Américain_, 271; _Voyages_, 271; his ethnographical map of South America, 271.

Orcutt, S., _Indians_, 323; _Stratford_, 323.

Ordoñez, Ramon de, _La Creacion del Cielo_, etc., 168; _Palenqué_, 191.

Oré, L. G. de, _Rituale_, 227, 280.

Oregon, Indians, 328; mounds, 409; shell heaps, 393.

Orozco y Berra, helped by the collections of Icazbalceta and Ramirez, 163; _Geog. de las lenguas de México_, 135, 172, 427; _Dic. Universal de Hist_., 172; _Mexico_, 172; _El Cuauhxicalli de Tizoc_, 185; _Códice Mendozino_, 200.

Orrio, F. X. de, _Solution_, _del gran problema_, 76.

Ortega, C. F., ed. Veytia, 159.

Ortelius, on the Zeni, 111; holds Plutarch’s continent to be America, 40; believed Atlantis to be America, 43; map of the Atlantic Ocean (1587), 58; map of Scandia, 129; and the sagas, 92.

Otomis, 136, 424; their language, 81.

Otompan, 140.

Otté, E. C., 271.

Otumba, fight at, 175.

Ovid, _Fasti_, 3.

Oviedo y Baños, J. de, _Venezuela_, 444.

_Oxford Voyages_, xxxiv.

Oztotlan, 139.

PACCARI-TAMPU, 223.

Pachacamac, 234, 277.

Pachicuti, J. de S. C., _Reyno del Piru_, 436.

Pachacutec, Inca, 230, 277.

Pacific Ocean, great Japanese current, 78; its islands in geol. times, 383; long voyages upon, in canoes, 81.

Pacific Railroad surveys, 440.

Packard, A. S., on the Eskimos, 105.

Padoucas, 110.

_Pæsi Novamente_, xix; _Newe unbek. landte_, xx; fac-simile of title, xxi; _Nye unbek. lande_, xx; _Itinerariū Portugal_, xx; _Sensuyt le nouveau monde_, xx; _Le nouv. monde_, xxi.

Paez, 428.

Paéz-Castellano language, 425.

Page, J. R., 410.

Paijkull, C. W., _Summer in Iceland_, 83.

Paint Creek, map, 406.

Painter, C. C., _Mission Indians_, 328.

Palacio, Diego Garcia de, _Carta_, 168, 427.

Palacio, M., 281.

Palæolithic age, named by Lubbock, 377; its implements, 331; cut of, 331; man in America, 357, 358; could he talk? 421; developments towards the neolithic state, 365. _See_ Stone Age.

Palenqué, position of, 151; ruins described, 191; first discovered, 191; age of, 191; restorations, 192; tablet, 193; sculptures from the Temple of the Cross, 193, 195; seen by Waldeck, 194; plans, 195; views, 195; statues, 196.

Palfrey, J. G., on the Northmen, 96; on the Newport tower, 105; on the Indians, 323.

Palin, Du, _Study of hieroglyphics_, 204.

Pallas, _Vocab. comparativa_, 424.

Palmer, Edw., 409; on a cave in Utah, 390.

Palmer, Geo., _Migrations from Shinar_, 374.

Palomino, 260.

Palos, Juan de, 155.

Palszky, F., 374.

Panchæa, 12.

Pandosy, M. C., _Yahama language_, 425.

Papabucos, 136.

Papantla, 178.

Paracelsus, Theoph., on the plurality of the human race, 372.

Paradise, position of, 31, 47.

Paraguay, 370.

Paravey, C. H. de, _Fou-Sang_, 80; _Nouvelles preuves_, 80; _Plateau de Bogota_, 80; replies to Jomard, 80.

Pareja, F., _La Lengua Timuquana_, 425.

Pareto, Bart. de, his map (1455), 56.

Paris, peace of (1763), 312, 313; Société de Géographie founded, 441; _Recueil de Voyages_, 441; _Bulletin_, 441.

Parkman, F., _California and the Oregon trail_, 327; _France and England in North America_, 316; on the Indian character, 317; _La Salle_, 318.

Parmenides, 3.

Parmentier, Col., 81.

Parmunca, 275.

Parsons, S. H., 437.

Parsons, Usher, on the Nyantics, 323.

Passamaquoddy legends, 431.

Patin, Ch., xxiv.

Pattison, S. R., _Age of Man_, 387; _Earth and the Word_, 383.

Patton, A., 408.

Pauw., De, _Recherches_, 173. _See_ De Pauw.

Pawnees, 327.

Paynal, 432.

Payta, 275.

Pazos-kanki, V., his Quichua work, 280.

Peabody, Geo., 439.

Peabody Academy of Science, 438.

Peabody Institute (Balt.), xviii.

Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology, 439; _Reports_, 439; _Special Papers_, 439.

Peale, T. R., 409, 410.

Pech, Nakuk, 164.

Peck, W. F., _Rochester_, 323.

Pecos, ruins, 396.

Pederson, Christiern, ed. of Saxo, 92.

Peet, S. D., _The Pyramid in America_, 177; on Pueblo architecture, 395; on the serpent symbol, 401; on the moundbuilders, 403, 408, 409; on mounds as totems, 408; on the Saint Louis mounds, 409; on early agriculture, 417; human faces in American art, 420; _Religious beliefs of the Aborigines_, 431; _Animal worship and Sun worship_, 431; _Religion of the Moundbuilders_, 431; edits _Amer. Antiquarian_, 439.

Pégot-Ogier, E., _Archipel des Canaries_, 48.

Peirce, C. S., on the Newport mill, 105.

Pelaez, Paula G., _Guatemala_, 168.

Pemicooks, 323.

Pemigewassets, 322.

Penafiel, Antonio, _Nombres géog. de México_, 427.

Penn, Wm., on Jews in America, 115.

Pennant, _Tour of Wales_, iii.

Pennock, B., 85.

Pennsylvania, Indians in, 306, 325; mounds, 405; settlers of, 307; their treatment of the Indians, 309.

Penobscots, 322; their legends, 431.

Pentland, J. B., map of Lake Titicaca, 246.

Pequods, 323.

Percy, Bishop, ed. Mallet’s _Northern Antiquities_, 91.

Perdita, island, 48.

Perez, José, 77, 117, 404; preserver of Maya MSS., 163.

Perez, Pio, _Chron. Yucateca_, 164; his notes, 164.

Periegetes, D., _Periplus_, 39.

Peringskiöld, ed. _Heimskringla_, 91.

Perizonius, 22, 40.

Perkins, Fred. B., his sketch of Gowans, xv; _Scrope_, xv.

Pernetty, D., controverts De Pauw, 370; _Examen_, 370; _De l’Amérique_, 370.

Perrine, T. M., 408.

Perrot, Nic., _Mémoires_, 429.

Pertuiset, E., _Le Trésor des Incas_, 272.

Pertz, G. H., _Mon. Germ. Hist._, 88.

Peru, Mongols in, 82; giants in, 82; the Ophir of Solomon, 82; Chinese in, 82; Jews in, 115; Votanites in, 134; civilization in, 209; evidences of it, 209; maps, 210, 211; bounds, 212; length of the settled condition of the Inca race, 212; plants and animals domesticated, 212; ancient burial-places, 214; pre-Inca people, 214; cyclopean remains, 220; water sacrifices, 221; deity of, 222; Pirua dynasty, 223, 225; its people, 227; Tampu Tocco, 223; Inca dynasty, 223; its duration, 225; list of the kings, 223; origin of the Incas, 223; their rise under Manco, 225; their original home, 226; their subjugation of the earlier peoples, 227; establish their power at Cuzco, 228; portraits of the Incas, 228, 267; picture of warriors, 230; Chanca war, 230; Inca Yupanqui, 230; war between Huascar and Atahualpa, 231, 262; names of the Incas, 231; succession of the Incas, 231, 232; their religion, 232; belief in a Supreme Being, 233; sun-worship, 233; plan of the Temple of the Sun, 234; religious ceremonials, 236, 240; astronomical knowledge, 236; their months, 236; festivals, 237; human sacrifices, 237, 238; learned men, 241; the Quichua language, 241; the court language, 241; references on the Inca civilization, 241; their bards, 242; dances, 242; musical instruments, 242; dramas, 242; quipus records, 242; healing art, 243; the central sovereign, 244; tributes, 245; the Inca insignia, 245; their architecture, 247; two stages of it, 247; their thatching, 247; ruins, 247; social polity, 249; the Inca family, 249; divisions of the empire, 249; provinces, 250; ruins of a village, 251; laborers, 251; bringing up of children, 251; land measure, 251; their agriculture, 252; hanging gardens, 252; irrigation, 253; peculiar products, 253; their flocks, 253; their roads, 254, 261; travelling, 254; map of roads, 254; colonial system, 255; military system, 255; arts, 255; metal-workers, 256; pottery, 256, 257, 258; weapons, 257; spinning, weaving, and dyeing, 257; cloth-making, 258; authorities on ancient Peruvian history, 259; the conquerors as authors, 260; lawyers and priests, 261; poetry, 262; chronology, 262; efforts to extirpate idolatry, 264; native writers, 265; _Relaciones descriptivas_ filled out in Peru, 266; the _Informaciones_ respecting the usurpation of the Incas, 268; pedigrees of the Incas, 268; ordinances, 268; works of travellers, 270, 272; origin of its civilization, 273; the great work of Raimondi, 273; on the geography, 273; editors of old works, 273; songs of the Incas, 274; ancient people of the coasts, 275; native language, 278; iron in, 418; cloths of, 420; mythology of, 436.

Peschel, O., _Gesch. der Erdkunde_, 36; _Erd- und Völkerkunde_, 48; on the Arab voyages, 72; _Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeck._, 96; portrait, 391; _Abhandlungen_, 391; acc. of, 391; on the Polynesians, 82; _Races of Men_, 381; on Orozco y Berra, 427.

Petavius, Dionysius, _Uranologion_, 6, 8, 35.

Peter, R., 410.

Peter of Ghent. _See_ Gante.

Peters, Richard, on the lost tribes, 116.

Petersen, N. M., _Danmarks Hist._, 84.

Peterson, J. G., 84.

Peterson, _Rhode Island_, 105.

Petit Anse Island, basket-work discovered at, 348, 386.

Pettitot, P. E., _Langue Dènè-Dindjie_, 425; _Vocab. Français-Esquimau_, 425.

Petzholdt, _Bibl. Bibliog._, xvii.

Peyrère, Isaac de la, _Groenland_, 85; editions and translations, 86; _Præadamitæ_, 384; _Man before Adam_, 384.

Peyster, J. W. de, _Miscellanies by an officer_, 321.

Phallic symbols, 81, 195, 429.

Philadelphia libraries, xviii.

Philip, King, his war, 297; prisoners in, 289.

Phillips, H., jr., 155, 444; on the alleged Nova Scotia runes, 102.

Phillips, J. S., 372.

Phillipps, Sir. Thomas, 155; receives some of Kingsborough’s MSS., 203; _Catalogue_, 203; his copy of Kingsborough’s book, 203.

Philoponus, _Nova typis transacta navigatio_, 48.

Phœnicians and maritime discovery, 23, 29.

Photography of the Yucatan ruins, 186.

Picard, _Peuples idolatres_, xxxiii.

Pichardo, J. A., and the Boturini collection, 160.

Pickering, Chas., his ethnolog. map, 82; _Races of Man_, 374; _Men and their geog. distribution_, 381.

Pickering, John, 423.

Pickett, E., _Testimony of the Rocks_, 403, 409.

Pictographs, 105, 410.

Picture-writing, notes on, 197; that of the Aztecs and Mayas early confounded, 197, 205 (_see_ Hieroglyphics); recent sales of MSS., 200; Maya method, 202; P. Martyr’s descriptions, 203; in Kingsborough’s work, 203.

Pidgeon, Wm., _Traditions of De-coo-dah_, 400; on Fort Azatlan, 408.

Piedrahita, _Granada_, 436.

Pierre, Henry, xxviii.

Pile dwellings, 364.

Pillars of Hercules, 25.

Pilling, Jas. C., _Bibliog. Indian Languages, Proof-sheets_, vii, 414, 423; on linguistic MSS., 423.

Pim, Bedford, _Dottings_, 197.

Pima language, 425.

Pimentel, Antonio, _Relaciones_, 164.

Pimentel, F., _Lenguas indigenas de México_, viii, 142, 425, 426.

Pinart, Alphonse, _Les Aléoutes_, 78; _Catalogue_, 414, 423, 425; _Coleccion de linguistica_, vii; _Bibl. de linguistique Amér._, 425.

_Pinart-Brasseur Catalogue_, vii, xiii.

Pindar on the Atlantic Ocean, 28.

Pinelo, Ant. de Léon, _Biblioteca_, 413; Barcia’s ed., 413.

Pinelo. _See_ Léon y Pinelo.

Pinkerton, John, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Pinzon’s voyages, acc. of, xxiv.

Pipart, Abbé J., 200; _Astronomie des Méxicaines_, 179.

Pipe-stone quarries, 416.

Piquet, Father, 308.

Pirinda-Othomi language, 426.

Piruas, 222.

Pisco, valley, 277; mummy from, 277.

Pissac, 236.

Pizarro, Pedro, 260.

Pizigani, Fr., map (1367), 50, 55; cut of, 54; (1373), 53, 55.

Plato, on the form of the earth, 3; _Phaedo_, 3; _Timaeus_, 3, 15, 42; on the Atlantis story, 15, 41; his works, 34; editions, 42.

Platzmann, Julius, _Grammatiken_, vii.

Pleistocene man in America, 329, 357. _See_ Tertiary and Quaternary man.

Pliny on the form of the earth, 3; _Nat. Hist._, 15, 35, 42; his _Atlantis_, 42.

Pliocene man, 385. _See_ Pleistocene.

Plummets, 417.

Plurality of races, 372.

Plutarch, _De Placitis Philosophorum_, 3; his Saturnian continent, 23; _Moralia_, 35; on Solon, 42.

Poinsett, J. R., _Notes on Mexico_, 180.

Poisson, J. B., _Animadversiones_, 370.

Polo, Marco, xxiv, xxviii, xxxv, xxxvi.

Polybius, 34; on the branches of the ocean, 7.

Polynesians, their relations to the Malays, 81; their route to America, 81; migrations, 82, 376.

Pomar, J. B., _Antigüedades de los Indios_, 164; _Memorias históricas_, 164; on a Mexican house, 420.

Ponce, Father Alonzo, 197.

Pontanus, _Rerum et urbis Amst. hist._, xxxiii; on the Zeni, 111.

Pontiac’s conspiracy, 284, 314; number of warriors, 315; posts captured, 316.

Pontoppidan, _Norway_, 92.

Poole, W. F., 43; on Donnelly’s _Atlantis_, 45; on Weise’s _Disc. of America_, 45.

_Popular Mag. of Anthropology_, 442.

_Popular Science Monthly_, 439.

_Popular Science Review_, 443.

Porcelain in pre-Spanish times, 177.

Porcupine bank, 51.

Portuguese discoveries in America, bibliog., xix; the first explorers of the African coast, 38; early views of the American coast, 120.

Posidonius, 5, 34.

Post, C. F., in Ohio, 311.

Potato in Peru, 213.

Potter, W. P., 409.

Potter, _Early Hist. Narragansett_, 323.

Potter’s wheel, 419.

Pottery, collections of, 418, 419; paper on, 419; in Peru, 256, 257.

Pourtalès, Count, on human remains in Florida, 389.

Powell, David, 109.

Powell, Maj. J. W., in the Colorado cañon, 396; portrait, 411; _Survey of the Rocky Mt. region_, 412; _Ann. Reports Bur. Ethnol._, 412; on the moundbuilders, 401; views on language, 423; _Evolution of language_, 423, 440; on the Wyandots, 327, 440; on tribal society, 328; _Philosophy of the No. Amer. Indians_, 431; _Mythology of the No. Amer. Indians_, 431, 440; director of Bureau of Ethnology, 439; his linguistic studies, 439; edits _Contributions to Ethnology_, 440.

Powers, Stephen, on the California Indians, 81; _Tribes of California_, 81, 328.

Pownal, Gov. Thomas, suggests the cranial test of race, 372.

Prantl, _Aristoteles_, 7; _Himmelsgebäude_, 7.

Pratt, W. H., 408.

Praying Indians, 309.

Preadamites, 384.

Preble, G. H., on Norse ships, 62.

Precession of the equinoxes, 387.

Prehistoric archæology, canons of, 329; Internat. Congresses, 411.

Prehistoric time, usual divisions of, 377; stages of development not decided by time, 377.

Prescott, W. H., on the Northmen, 96; _Mexico_, 163; notes on it by Ramirez, 163; on the Mexican civilization, 174; his relative use of early Spanish writers in his _Peru_, 263, 269; his library, 269; on the Mexican connection with Asia, 375.

Prestwich, on cataclysmic force, 382; on the age of man, 384; _On the drift containing implements_, 384; _Flint-implement-bearing beds_, 386.

Prevost, Abbé, _Voyages_, xxxv.

Price, E., 403.

Price, J. E., 258.

Prichard, J. C., _Researches_, 320, 412.

Priest, Josiah, _Amer. Antiq._, 372.

Prime, W. C., on Gowans, xv.

Prince, Thos., his library, i.

Prinz, R., _De Solonis Plutarchi fontibus_, 42.

Pritt, Jos., _Olden Time_, 319.

Proclus, comment on Plato, 35; _Comment. in Timaeum_, 41.

Proudfit, S. V., 347.

Prunières, 357.

Ptolemy, on the form of the earth, 3; on the size of the known earth, 8; his system revived, 32; his influence, 34; editions, 34; bibliog., 35; _Almagest_, 35; on the Atlantic islands, 47.

Pueblo Indians, arts of, 416; pottery, 419; connection with the Aztecs, 427; general references, 397; their race, 395; ruins among them, 395; their connection with the moundbuilders, 395. _See_ Zuñi, Moqui, etc.

Pueblo region, maps of, 394, 397.

Pulgar, Fernando del, xxiv.

Pullen, Clarence, 397.

Pulszky, F., _Human races and their art_, 420.

Pumpelly, R., _Across America_, 327.

Puquina, 274; language, 226, 280.

Purchas, Samuel, xxxiii; on the Zeni, 111; buys the _Codex Mendoza_, 204.

Purpurariæ, 14.

Putnam, C. E., 404; _Authenticity of the elephant pipes_, 404.

Putnam, F. W., on the California Indians, 328; on the origin of Americans, 375; on the Trenton implements, 334, 337, 388; _Palæolithic implements_, 388; on Kentucky caves, 390; on shell heaps, 392; on Jeffries Wyman, 392; on the Great Serpent mound, 401; his position on the question of moundbuilders, 402; on their skulls, 403; on Fort Ancient, 408; in the Little Miami Valley, 408; on Fort Azatlan, 408; on stone graves in Tennessee, 410; on the Kentucky mounds, 410; in Cassino’s _Standard Nat. Hist._, 412; on the arts of Southern California, 416; edits the archæological part of _Wheeler’s Survey_, 416, 440; on soap-stone quarries, 416; on traces of stone-working, 417; on jade in America, 417; on the melting of metal, 417; finds meteoric iron in the mounds, 418; silver, 418; gold, 418; on copper objects, 418; in Mexico, 418; on moundbuilders’ pottery, 419; on Tennessee pottery, 419; _Conventionalism in Anc. Amer. art_, 420; on cloth in the mounds, 420; as curator of Peabody Museum, 439; on Amer. archæological collections, 440; his comments on the relics of the Naaman Creek rock shelter, 367.

Putnam, Rufus, _Ross County, Ohio_, 408.

Pyramids in America, 177.

Pythagoras, 3.

Pytheas, 34; on the Atlantic, 28; at Thule, 28.

QUAKERS, bibliog., xvii; in Pennsylvania, oppose resistance to Indians, 308; relation to the Indians, 325.

Quaritch, Bernard, the London bookseller, xvi; his _Museum_, xvi; his _General Catalogues_, xvi; in the “Sett of Odd Volumes”, xvi; sketch by W. H. Wyman, xvi.

Quarry of pipe-stones, 416.

Quarrying stone, 416.

Quartz, 417.

Quartzite, 417.

Quaternary man, the earliest, 387.

Quatrefages de Bréan, A. de, _Les Polynésiens_, 82; _Crania Ethica_, 373; _Unité de l’espèce humaine_, 374; _Races humaines_, 374, 387; _Human Species_, 374; _Nat. Hist. of Man_, 374, 387, 411; _Les progrès de l’Anthropologie_, 378; _Hommes fossiles_, 359, 411; _Rapport sur le progrès de l’Anthropologie_, 411.

Quauhnahuac conquered, 147.

Quauhtlatohuatzin, 146.

Queh, F. G., 167.

Quellenata, ruins, 249.

Quemada, ruins, 183.

Querez, 394.

Querlon, xxxv.

Quetzalcoatl (a king), 140; discredited by Brinton, 141.

Quetzalcoatl (a divinity), a white-bearded man, 137; the myth, 137; identified with Cortés, 149; Bastian on, 172; his mound, 179; oppressed by Tezcatlipoca, 431; references, 432; historical basis of his story, 432; effigy, 432; under other names, 434.

Quiahuiztlan, 164.

Quiché-Cakchiquel peoples of Guatemala, 135; their geog. position, 151.

Quichés, language, 427; myths, 435; origin of, 134; traditions, 135; their power in Guatemala, 150; warned of the Spaniards’ coming, 151; their geog. position, 151.

Quichuas, their language and literature, 82, 241, 278; grammars, 278; vocabularies, 278; myths of, 436; original home, 226.

Quignon, Mount, human jaw found at, 390.

Quinames, 133, 136.

Quinantzin, 142.

Quincy, Josiah, _Hist. Harvard University_, iii.

Quinsai, 51.

Quinté Bay mounds, 410.

Quipus, 242; cut, 243.

Quiriguá, ruins, 196; plan, 196; references, 197.

Quito, Hassaurek on, 272; map, 211; early accounts lost, 268; later histories, 268.

Quitus, 227.

Quivira, 394.

RACES, unity or plurality of, bibliog., 372.

Rada, De la, on Rosny, 201; _Les Vases péruviennes_, 257.

Rada y Delgado, J. D. de la, publishes Landa’s _Relacion_, 165.

Radisson, P. E., _Voyages_, 318.

Rae, John, 106.

Rafinesque, C. S., on Atlantis, 46; on the Delawares, 325; _Anc. Mts. of America_, 372; on the mounds, 409; his character, 424; introd. to Marshall’s _Kentucky_, 424; _Ancient History_, 424; _The American Nations_, 424.

Rafn, C. C., _Grönlands Hist. Mindesmaerker_, 86; autog., 87; _Americas Geog._, 87; ed. Olaf Tryggvesson’s Saga, 90; portrait, 90; his career, 93; _Cabinet d’Antiq. Amér._, 93; _Antiq. Americanæ_, 94; bibliog., 94; his lesser statements about the Northmen, 94; _L’ancienne géog. des régions arctiques_, 94; _Antiq. Américaines_, 94; influence of Rafn, 96.

Ragine, A., _Découv. de l’Amérique_, 78.

Raimondi, Ant., _El Peru_, 273.

Rain-god, 180.

Raleigh, Sir Walter, on De Bry, xxxii.

Ramirez, José F., edits Duran’s _Historia_, 155; on Sahagún, 157; his collection of MSS., 157, 163; notes on Prescott, 163; _Bibl. Mex._, 414.

Ramirez de Fuenleal, _Hist. de los Méxicanos por sus Pinturas_, 431.

Ramon de Ordoñez, _Hist. del Cielo_, 134. _See_ Ordoñez.

Ramusio, edits P. Martyr and Oviedo, xxiii; _Navigazioni_, xxiii, xxviii; on the Zeni, 111.

Randolph, J. W., xv.

Ranking, John, _Conquest of Peru by the Mongols_, 82.

Rask, Erasmus, 88; on the Irish discovery of America, 83.

Rasle, S., _Abnake language_, 423.

Rau, Chas., on Dighton Rock, 104; on the Palenqué Tablet, 195; on the progress of study in the hieroglyphics, 202; _Catal. Nat. Museum_, 403; on Illinois mounds, 408; _Articles_, etc., 411; on the aboriginal implements of agriculture, 417; _Prehistoric fishing_, 417; on the stock in trade of an aboriginal lapidary, 417; various papers on stone implements, 417; on Amer. pottery, 419; _Aboriginal Trade_, 420; thought the earliest man could not talk, 421; _Articles on Anthropol. Subjects_, 439; _Archæolog. Coll. of the U. S._, 440; _Lapidarian Sculpture_, 440.

Rawlinson, Geo., _Antiq. of Man_, 381, 382.

Rawlinson, Sir H. C., on the Zeni, 113.

Ray, Luzerne, 323.

Rea, A. de la, _Mechoacan_, 168.

Read, Harvey, 418.

Read, M. C., 407; _Archæology of Ohio_, 407; on the Tennessee mounds, 410.

Reade, John, 328.

Reck, P. G. F. von, _Diarium_, 326.

Recollects, missions, 317.

_Recueil de Voyages_, etc., xix.

Red River of Louisiana, 440.

Red River of the North, mounds, 410.

Red pipe-stone quarry, 416.

_Registro Yucatéco_, 444.

Reynolds, E. R., 416; _Shell-heaps at Newburg, Md._, 393.

Reynolds, H. L., jr., _Metal Art of Anc. Mexico_, 418.

Reid, _Bibl. Amer._, ii.

Reikjavik, 61.

Reillo, island, 49.

Reinaud, _Relations de l’Empire Romaine avec l’Asie_, 11; _Géog. d’Abul-Fada_, 47.

Reindeer Period, 339, 377.

Reisch’s map, 122.

Reiss, W., and A. Stübel, _Necropolis of Ancon_, 273.

Relics, spurious, 180.

Remesal, Ant. de, _Hist. gen. de las Indias_, 168; praised by Helps, 168.

Renard, on St. Paul’s Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, 45.

Repartimientos, 174.

Retzius, A., _Present state of Ethnology_, 44; on the human skull, 373; on the unity of man, 374; on the Guanche skulls, 116, 117.

Reusner, _Icones_, xxiv.

Réville, Albert, _Origin and growth of religion_, 241, 431.

_Revista Méxicana_, 444.

_Revista Peruana_, 276.

_Revue Américaine_, 441.

_Revue d’Anthropologie_, 442.

_Revue d’Architecture_, 217.

_Revue Ethnographique_, 441.

_Revue des Soc. Savantes_, 38.

Rhees, W. J., _History of the Smithsonian Institution_, 439.

Rhode Island, docs. in her Archives, xiv; Indians, 323.

Rialle, G. de, _La Mythologie_, 430.

Ribas, Juan de, 155.

Ricardo, Ant., 278.

Riccioli, _Geog._, 5.

Rice, A. T., _Essays from No. Amer. Rev._, 92.

Rich, Obadiah, his career, iii; dies, iv; his catalogues, iv; assists Kingsborough, 203; obtains his MSS., 203; helped Prescott, 260.

Richarderie. _See_ Boucher.

Richardson, J. M., 408.

Richardson, _Voyages_, xxxvi.

Riggs, R. S., 423; _Dacota language_, 424; on the Dacotah myths, 431.

Rigollet, convinced by De Perthes, 390.

Rikardsen, K., 107.

Rimac, 277.

Rink, Hinrich, _Eskimoiske Eventyr_, 70; portrait, 106; best authority on the Eskimos, 106; his publications, 106; _Tales of the Eskimo_, 107; _Danish Greenland_, 107; _Eskimo Tribes_, 107; on their dialects, 107; their origin and descent, 107; their primitive abode, 107; their traditions, 107; _Ostgrönländerne_, 131. _See_ Greenland.

Rio, Ant. del, at Palenqué, 191; _Ruins of an anc. city_, 191.

Rio de Janeiro, Nat. Museum, 444; _Mémoires_, 444.

Rios, P. de los, 205.

Riseland, 130.

River drift, man of, 377.

Rivero, M. E. de, _Antigüedades Peruanas_, 270; translations, 270.

Rivera, P., 183.

Rivière, E., in the Mentone caves, 390; _Un Squelette humain_, 390.

Robertson, D. A., 403, 405.

Robertson, R. S., 401, 403, 408.

Robertson, Samuel, 74.

Robertson, Wm., _America_, ii., 169; on the Norse voyages, 92; his nearly correct view of the anc. Mexican civilization, 173; severe on Clavigero, 158; disbelieved in pre-Spanish ruins, 176; on the Incas, 269; portrait, 269; on the Amer. Indians, 320; on seventeenth-century literature of Americana, 413; his bibliog., 413.

Robin, _Louisiane_, 398.

Robinson, Conway, _Disc. in the West_, 93.

Robinson, Edw., 439.

Robinson, _Life in California_, 328.

Rocca, inca, 229.

Rock inscriptions of the Indians, 104, 105, 410, 411.

Rock shelter at Naaman’s Creek, 365.

Rock-writing, 105.

Rocks, cup-like cavities in, 417.

Rockall, 51.

Rockford tablet, 404.

Roehrig on the Sioux, 77.

Rogers, Horatio, _Private libraries of Providence_, xvii.

Roisel, _Etudes ante-historiques_, 46.

Rojas, _Cholula_, 180.

Roman, G., 265.

Roman, H., _Republica de las Indias_, 434.

Roman coins, in the Danish shell-heaps, 382; found in America, 41.

Romans, Bernard, _Florida_, 326, 372; on the autochthonous Amer. man, 372.

Romans in the Atlantic, 26.

Rome, _Società Geog. Ital., Bollettino_, 444.

Romero on Mexican languages, vii.

Roquefeuil, de, Voyage, 78.

Rosa, Gonzalez de la, 274, 280.

Rosas, Dr., 281.

Rosny, Léon de, _L’Atlantide_, 46; on Fousang, 80; _Variétés Orientales_, 80; _Les doc. écrit. de l’antiq. Amér._, 139, 201, 207, 442; on Sahagún, 157; gives fac. of Aztec map, 163; _Essai sur le déchiffrement_, etc. 163, 198, 201, 207; on Landa’s Alphabet, 200; _Les écritures figuratives_, 201; _Archives paléographiques_, 201, 442; _Anc. textes Mayas_, 201; _Nouvelles Recherches_, 201; his studies on Spain and Portugal, 201; _Les Sources d’histoire anté-Columbienne_, 201, 413; bibliog. 201; portrait, 202; on the _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, 205; on Brasseur’s ed. of the _Codex Troano_, 207; discovers the _Codex Perezianus_, 207; _Manuscrit dit Méxicain, No. 2 de la bibl. impériale_, 207; his works on Amer. archæology, 207; on jade industries, 417; _Revue Orientale et Américaine_, 441.

Rosny, Lucien de, _Les Antilles_, 412, 442; _Le tabac_, 416; _La Céramique_, 419.

Ross, Thomasina, 271.

Rosse, Irving C., 106.

Rothelin, Abbé, De Bry, xxxii.

Rotz, his map of Greenland, 126.

Roujow, _Races humaines_, 390.

Rowbotham, J. F., _Hist. of Music_, 420.

Royal Geographical Society and its publications, 442.

Royal Historical Soc. _Trans._, 443.

Royal Society of Canada, 438.

Royal Society, 442.

Royce, C. C., on the Cherokees, 326; _Indian Cessions of land_, 440; on the Shawanees, 326.

Royllo, island, 49.

Rucharner, _Newe unbek. landte_, xx.

Rudbeck, on Atlantis, 16.

Ruffner, E. H., _Ute Country_, 327.

Ruge, _Der Chaldäer Selenkos_, 7.

Ruins in Middle America, notes on, 176.

Runes, alleged ones in Nova Scotia, 102; cuts of, 66, 67; age of, 66; references, 66; in Greenland, 87.

Runnels, M. T., _Sanbornton, N. H._, 404.

Rupertus, _Dissertationes_, 40.

Russell, I. C., _Lake Lahontan_, 349.

Ruttenber, E. M., _Hudson River Indians_, 325.

Ruxton, _Life in Far West_, 111, 327.

Ruysch’s map, 120, 122.

SAABYE, HANS E., 108.

Sabin, Jos., his publications, vi; _Amer. Bibliopolist_, vi; _Dictionary_, vi, 414; _Squier Catal._, viii, 414; _Menzies Catal._, xii.

Sabine, Lorenzo, on the Indians in Maine, 322.

Sac and Fox tribes, 327.

Sacrificial Stone in Mexico, 180, 181, 185.

Sacsahuaman, ruins, 220, 221.

Sagard, _Canada_, 429; reference to copper mines, 417.

Sagas, when written, 84; credibility of, 87, 98, 99; fac-simile of script, 87; largely myths, 88; when put in writing, 88; _Codex Flatoyensis_, 88, 99; bibliog., 91; absurdities in, 99; oldest maps in accordance with, 129. _See_ Northmen, Iceland, etc.

Saghalien, 80.

Sagot, P., 425.

Sahagún, Father, as linguistic student, 156; portrait, 156; his true name, 156; bibliog., 157.

Sahuaraura, inca, Dr. J., 281; _Recuerdos de la Monarquia Peruana_, 270.

Saint. _See_ St.

Sails used by the Peruvians, 420.

Salcamayhua, J. de, S. P. Y., _Relacion_, 266.

Saldamando, E. T., _Los Antiquos Jesuitas del Peru_, 223, 262.

Sale, Ant. de la, _La Salade_, 85.

Salisbury, Stephen, jr., 137; assists Le Plongeon, 186, 187; _The Mayas_, 187; _Terra Cottas of Isla Mujeres_, 187.

Salone on Atlantis, 46.

Salter, John, 328.

San Juan, cliff houses on the, 395; pueblo, 396.

San Miguel, 49.

San Tomas, his grammar, 278.

Sana, 276.

Sanborn, J. W., _Seneca Indians_, 323.

Sanbornton, N. H., Indian fortification, 404.

Sanford, Ezekiel, _Hist. United States_, 320.

Sans, R., 264.

Sanskrit roots in Mexican, 81.

Sanson, Guillaume, on Atlantis, 16; his map, 18.

Santa, 275.

Santarem, _Hist. de la Cosmog._, 38; his atlas, 53.

Santillan, Fernando de, Relacion, 261.

Sanuto, Marino, his map (1306), 53; acc. of, 53 (1320), 55.

Saravia, B. de, _Antig. del Peru_, 261, 268.

Sargasso Sea, 25.

Sargent, Winthrop, on the Cincinnati mounds, 398, 437; plan of the Marietta mounds, 405.

Sarmiento de Gamboa, P., discovers islands, 268; _Viage al estrecho de Magellanes_, 268.

Sars, J. E., _Norske Hist._, 85.

Satanagio. _See_ Man Satanaxio.

Satanaxio. _See_ Man.

Saunders, Trelawny, map of Peru, 211.

Saussure, H. de, _Ruines d’une anc. ville_, 182.

Savage, a.d., 196.

Savage, Jos., 409.

Sawkins, J. G., 184.

Saxe-Eisenach, Duke of, 205.

Saxenburg, island, 47.

Saxo-Grammaticus, _Hist. Danica_, 91.

Scandinavia. _See_ Northmen, Norway, Sweden, Iceland.

Schaefer, _Entwicklung, etc._, 3; _Gestalt und Grösse der Erde_, 39; _Philologus_, 5.

Schaghticoke Indians, 324.

Schellhas, _Die Mayahandschrift_, 205.

Scherer, J. B., _Recherches_, 76, 424, 445.

Scherzer, K., _Wanderungen_, 166; _Las Hist. del Origen de los Indios_, 166; _Quiriguá_, 197.

Schiern, F., _Un Enigme_, 26.

Schlagintweit, 412.

Schmerling, Dr., _Recherches sur les ossemens_, 390.

Schmidel, Brazil, xxxii.

Schmidt, E., 402; _Dissert. de America_, 40; _Die ältesten Spuren des Menschen_, 384; _Anthropol. Methoden_, 411.

Schmidt, Julius, _Copan and Quiriguá_, 196, 197.

Schneider, C. E. C., 41.

Schoebel, C., among the pueblos, 397.

Schöning, Gerhard, _Norges Rigens Hist._, 92.

Schonlandia, 129.

Schoolcraft, H. R., _Books in the Indian tongues_, vii; on the Northmen, 96; on the Grave Creek inscription, 102; on the Dighton Rock, 102, 104; _Indian Tribes_, 320, 376, 430, 441; opinions of it, 320, 441; otherwise called _Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge_, 441; and _Ethnological Researches_, 441; F. S. Drake’s ed., 441; his notes on antiquities, 376; _Grave Creek Mound_, 403; _Report on Iroquois_, 324, 405; _Notes on the Iroquois_, 324, 405; on Virginia mounds, 410; on Florida pottery, 419; his linguistic studies, 424; dies, 441; rivalry of Catlin, 441.

Schouten in De Bry, xxxii.

Schrader, _Namen der Meere_, 13.

Schultz-Sellack, Carl, _Die Amer. Götter_, 202, 434.

Schultz, _Travels_, 405.

Schumacher, H. A., _Petrus Martyr_, xx.

Schumacher, P., 393; on pottery making, 419.

Schwab, Moïse, 404.

Schwatka, F., on the Eskimos, 107.

_Science_, 439.

Scioto Valley, map of mounds, 406.

Scipio’s dream, 9, 11.

Scoffern, John, _Stray leaves_, 383.

Scolvus, Jac., his landfall, 129. _See_ Skolno.

Scott, P. A., 350.

Scott, Sir Walter, on the Sagas, 83.

Scotland, early map of, 118.

Scudder, S. H., _Catal. of Scientific Serials_, 438, 441.

Scull, G. D., edits Radisson, 318.

Scylax on the Atlantic, 28; _Periplus_, 28.

Scythian migration to America, 370.

Sea of Darkness, 32, 74.

Seager, his drawing of the Dighton Rock, 102.

Sebillot, Paul, _Légendes_, 47.

Seeman, B., _Dottings_, 197.

Selden collection, 205.

Selish grammar, 425.

Sellers, on arrow points, 417.

Seminole Indians, 326.

Semites, 25.

Seneca, L. A., _Questionum Nat._, 35; works, 35; on the westward passage, 27; his prophecy, 29; his “Ultima Thule”, 29; his _Medea_, 29.

Seneca Indians, 323; origin of the name, 323; their burial mound, 405. _See_ Iroquois.

Septon, J., 85.

Se-quo-yah, 326.

Serpent mound, 401.

Serpent symbol, 401.

Serpent, worship of, 429.

Sertorius, 14, 26.

Seven Caves, 138.

Seven Cities, island of, 31, 47, 48.

Sewall, Samuel, on Hornius, 370; _Phænomena_, 115.

Sewell, Stephen, on Dighton Rock, 103, 104.

Shaler, N. S., on the New Jersey gravels, 334; their implements, 388; on the disappearance of the mastodon, 389; on Ohio Valley caves, 391; _Kentucky Survey_, 402; on the mounds, 410.

Shaw, J., 408.

Shawanees, 307, 326; in Pontiac’s conspiracy, 316.

Shea, J. G., _Library of Amer. Linguistics_, vii; _Catholic Missions_, 318; on the Indians of Nova Scotia, 321; translates Martin’s _Jogues_, 323; on the Wisconsin Indians, 327; _Dict. Français-Onontagué_, 424; _Lib. of Amer. Linguistics_, 425; its contents, 425; _French Onondaga Dict._, 425.

Shell-heaps, 391; contemporary with the cave-men, 391; contents of those in No. America, 392; general references, 392, 393.

Shell-money, 420.

Shell-work, 417.

Shepard, H. A., Antiq. of Ohio, 405, 407.

Sherman, D., 325.

Sherwood, J. D., 403.

Sherwood, R. H., 322.

Shetimasha Indians, 426.

Ships, speed of ancient, 24; of the fifteenth century, 73; a British ship, 110. _See_ Northmen.

Short, C. W., 437.

Short, J. T., _No. Amer. of Antiq._, vii, 412, 415; on Fousang, 81; on the antiquity of man in America, 330.

Shoshones, arts of, 416; their migrations, 381.

Sierra, Justo, 165.

Sign-language. _See_ Gesture language.

Sigüenza y Gongora, C. de, his chronology of Mexico, 133; collection of, 158.

Silenus, 21.

Silliman, _Journal of Arts_, 371. See _Amer. Journal of Science and Arts_.

Sillustani, 236; Chulpas at, 248; cut, 250.

Silver, 418.

Silvestre, _Paléographie_, 205.

Siméon, Rémi, _Les Annales Méxicaines_, 164; _La langue Méxicaine_, 427; _Sur la numération_, 170.

Simms, _Views and Reviews_, 328.

Simon, Mrs. B. A., _Hope of Israel_, 116; _Ten Tribes_, 116.

Simonin, L., _L’homme Américain_, 375, 381.

Simpson, H. F. M., _Prehist. of the North_, 85.

Simpson, J. H., _Navajo Country_, 327; _Mil. Reconnaissance_, 395, 396; _Explorations of Utah_, 440.

Sinding, Paul K., _Scandinavia_, 96; _Scandin. Races_, 96.

Sinkers, 417.

Sioux, 327. _See_ Dacotahs.

Sitgreave, Capt. L., _Expedition_, 396.

Sitjav, B., language of the San Antonio Mission, 425.

Six Nations. _See_ Iroquois.

Skeleton in armor, 105.

Skertchly, S. B. J., 352.

Skolno on the Labrador coast, 76. _See_ Scolvus.

Skrælings, 68, 105. _See_ Eskimos.

Skulls, trepanned, 244; deforming of, 244. _See_ Craniology.

Sladen, Von, _Brazil_, xxxii.

Slafter, E. F., _Voyages of the Northmen_, 76.

Small, John, on Thule, 118.

Smedt, C. de, 48.

Smith, Alf. R., xvi.

Smith, B., 169; on the Dighton Rock, 104; _Heve language_, 425; _Pima language_, 425.

Smith, C. D., 416.

Smith, C. H., 369; _Human Species_, 374.

Smith, Ethan, _View of the Hebrews_, 116.

Smith, Mrs. E. A., on the Iroquois, 425; _Myths of the Iroquois_, 431.

Smith, Col. James, 292, 319; _Captivity_, 288.

Smith, John, in De Bry, xxxii.

Smith, J. G., _Atla_, 45.

Smith, John Russell, xvi.

Smith, J. T., _Northmen in New England_, 96; _Disc. of America by the Northmen_, 96.

Smith, J. W. C., 410.

Smith, J. Y., 369.

Smith, Jos., _Friends’ books_, xvii; _Anti-quakeriana_, xvii; _Bibl. Quakeristica_, xvii.

Smith, Wm., _New York_, 324.

Smithsonian Institution, 439; its publications, 439.

Smucker, Isaac, 403; archæology in Ohio, 406; on the Newark mounds, 408; on the Alligator mound, 409.

Smyth, Thos., _Unity of the Human Race_, 374.

Snorre Sturleson, _Heimskringla_, 83.

Snorre, ancestor of Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, 65.

Soap-stone quarries, 416.

Sobolewski, S., his catalogue, xiii; his De Bry, xxxii.

Sobron, F. C. Y., _Los idiomas_, vii.

Société Americaine de France, 176, 441.

Société d’Anthropologie, 390; _Bulletin_ and _Mémoires_, 442.

Société d’Ethnographie, _Mémoires_,442; _Les Documents écrits de l’Antiquité Amér._, 442.

Société Ethnographique, _Bulletin_ and _Mémoires_, 441.

Soil formation in America, 461.

Solberg, Th., bibliog. of Scandinavia, 98.

Soldan, Paz., _Geog. del Peru_, 212.

Soligo, Christ., map (1487?), 58.

Solinus, _Polyhistor._, 35.

Sollars, W. J., 106.

Solomon, his Ophir, 82. _See_ Ophir.

Solon and Atlantis, 15, 42.

Solorano, Juan de, _Politica Indiana_, 268.

Soloutre, village, 357, 377.

Soltecos, 136.

Soto, Francis de, 155; on the mounds, 397.

South America, flora corresponds with African, 117; prehistoric man in, 412; languages, 428.

Southall, Jas. C., on the Unity of Races, 374; believes in the theory of degeneracy, 382; _Recent origin of Man_, 382, 384; biblical trust, 382; _Epoch of the Mammoth_, 382; his views, 382; controversy with the archæologists, 382; on his opponents, 382.

Southern States, Indians of, 326.

Southey, Robert, _Madoc_, 111.

Spain, arms of, 267; hieroglyphic MSS. in, 203; Sociedad Anthropológica Española, 444; _Revista_, 444.

Spainhour, J. M., 410.

Spanish America, writers of, ii.

Sparks, Jared, his library, vi; his MSS., vii; dies, vii.

_Speaker’s Commentary_, 383.

Speech wanting in the palæolithic man, 377.

Speer, Wm., 81.

Spilbergen on De Bry, xxxii.

Spilsbury, J. H. G., his Quichua work, 280.

Spineto, _Hieroglyphics_, 205.

Spitzbergen sometimes called Greenland in early accounts, 107.

Spizelius, Theoph., _Elevatio_, 115.

_Sporting Review_, 213.

Spotswood, Gov., on the frontier posts, 309.

Sprengel, M. C., _Europäer in Nord Amerika_, 92.

Squier, E. G., on Zestermann’s _Colonization of America_, 60; his publications and library, vii, viii, 169, 272, 414; _Serpent Symbol_, 76; notes on Zestermann, 83; on the Grave Creek inscription, 102; _Catalogue of his library_, 169; _Central America_, 169; _Collection of Docs._, 169; _The Great Calendar Stone_, 179; introd. to Morellet’s _Travels_, 195; on the Central America ruins and their relative age, 196; _Nicaragua_, 197; on Tenampua, 197; criticised by Bovallius, 197; on a defect in the signatures of Kingsborough’s book, 203; in Peru, 224; at Chacha, 224; at Lake Titicaca, 247; _La géog. du Pérou_, 247; _Primeval monuments of Peru_, 249; _Peru, incidents of Travel_, 272; his mission and studies in Peru, 272; _Les monuments du Pérou_, 272; death, 272; _Traditions of the Algonquins_, 325; on early notices of the Pueblo race, 395; _Semi-civilized Nations of New Mexico and California_, 396; (with Davis), _Anc. Mts. of the Mississippi Valley_, 399; commended by Gallatin and others, 439; on the New York mounds, 399; _Observations onmounds_, 399; doubts the Grave Creek tablet, 404; _Aborig. Mts. State of N. Y._, 405; _Antiq. of N. Y. State_, 405; _Monograph of Authors_, 427; _Serpent Symbol_, 429.

Squier, Mrs. M. F., 195.

St. Bonaventure, G. de, 427; _Grammaire Maya_, 200.

St. Brandan, island of, 32; his story, 48; his island, 48.

St. Clement, 37.

St. Lawrence Island, 77.

St. Louis Academy of Science, 438; mounds near, 409.

St. Malo, legend of, 48.

St. Patrick, 83.

St. Petersburg, Museum of Ethnography, 443.

St. Thomas in Central America, 137; connected with Quetzalcoatl, 432.

Stadium, length of, 4.

Stallbaum, ed. of Plato, 43; on Phœnician knowledge of America, 43.

Stanford, _Compend. of Geog._, 412.

Stanley, J. M., _Portraits of No. Amer. Indians_, 439.

Steenstrup, Japetus, on the Zeni, 114.

Steenstrup, K., on Scandinavian ruins, 86; _Osterbygden_, 131; on the Greenland colonies, 109.

Steffen, Max, _Landwirtschaft_, 253, 417.

Stein, Gerard, _Die Entdeckungsreisen_, 72.

Steiner, Abraham G., 408.

Steinthal, H., _Ursprung der Sprache_, 421.

Stelle, J. P., 410.

Stenstrom, H., _De America_, 93.

Stephens, Geo., _Oldest Doc. in Danish_, 66; _No. Runic Mts._, 66; _Runic Mts. of Scandinavia_, 66.

Stephens, J. L., _Yucatan_, 164, 176, 186; prints a Maya doc., 164; held responsible by Morgan for exaggerated notions of the Maya splendor, 176; _Central America_, 176, 186, 194; in Yucatan, 185, 186; map, 188; at Uxmal, 189; at Chichen-Itza, 190; his results in Yucatan, 190; at Palenqué, 194; at Copan, 196.

Stephens, _Lit. of the Cymry_, 111.

Stephenson, Geo., 410.

Stephenson, M. F., 410.

Sterling, H. H., _Irish Minstrelsy_, 50.

Stevens, E. T., _Flint Chips_, 392, 444.

Stevens, Henry, controversy with Harisse, v; buys Humboldt’s library, vi; on Humboldt, vi; _Recoll. of Lenox_, xi; bought Crowninshield library, xii; dealer in Americana, xiii; _Schedule of Nuggets_, xiii, xiv; _Bibl. Hist._, xiii, xiv; dies, xiii; on De Bry, xxxii; proposed _Bibl. Americana_, xiv; his transcripts of MSS., xiv; agent of the Smithsonian Inst., the British Museum, the Bodleian, xiv; his _English Library_, xiv; _Amer. Bibliographer_, xiv; _Books in the Brit. Mus._, xiv; _Hist. Nuggets_, xiv; _Bibl. Amér._, xiv; _Hist. and Geog. Notes_, xiv; _Bibl. Geog. et Hist._, xiv; _Amer. books with tails_, xv; _Hist. Collections_, xv; owns Franklin MSS., xv; list of his own publications, xv; _Bibliog. of New Hampshire_, xv; buys the Brockhaus collection, xvii; Zeni map, 113.

Stevens, H. N., xiv.

Stevens, John, _Voyages_, xxxv.

Stevens, J. A., _Geo. Gibbs_, 424.

Stevens, Simon, xiv.

Stevenson, Jas., on the cliff houses, 395; _Anc. habitations of the Southwest_, 397; catalogue of pottery, 419; researches among the Pueblos, 439.

Stevenson, J. E., 403; _Zuñi_, 396.

Stevenson, Mrs. T. E., _Religious life of the Zuñi child_, 440.

Stevenson, W., on navigation, xxxvi.

Stickney, C. E., _Minisink Region_, 323.

Stiles, Dr. Ezra, on the Dighton Rock, 104; _The United States elevated to glory_, 371; on the origin of the American, 371; on an Indian idol, 437.

Stockbridge Indians, 323.

Stoddard, Amos, _Louisiana_, 110.

Stoddard, _Louisiana_, 398.

Stoll, O., _Republik Guatemala_, 428.

Stone, O. M., _Teneriffe_, 48.

Stone, W. L., on the moundbuilders, 41; _Uncas and Miantonomoh_, 323; his lives of Johnson, Brant, and Red Jacket, 325; on the N. Y. mounds, 405.

Stone Age in America, oldest implements yet found, 343; different stones used, 362. _See_ Palæolithic, Neolithic.

Stone, artificial cleavages of, 388; chipping, the process, 417; work in, 416.

Strabo, on the size of the known world, 8; his views of habitable parts, 9; _Geographia_, 5, 34; editions, 34; translations, 34; Gosselin’s French transl., 34; translated by order of Nicholas V, 37.

Strebel, H., _Alt-Mexico_, 172, 420.

Strinhold, A. M., 85.

Stroll, Otto, _Guatemala_, 141.

Strong, Moses, 409.

Strutt, _Dict. Engravers_, xxvii.

Stuart and Kuyper, _De Mensch_, 320.

Stübel, A., _Necropolis of Ancon_, 273; _Ueber Altperuvianische Gewebemuster_, 273.

Studley, Cordelia A., 390.

Sturleson, Snorro, _Heimskringla_, 91.

Sulte, B., on the Iroquois, 321.

Sumner, Chas., _Prophetic voices concerning America_, 40.

Sun, worship of, 429.

Sunderland library, xiii.

Susquehanna Valley Indians, 325.

Sutcliffe, Thomas, _Chili and Peru_, 272.

Sutherland, P. C., 106.

Sweden, anthropological studies in, 444.

Sweden, early map, 119, 124, 125, 129.

Swedes, their blinding patriotism, 88; on the Delaware, 307.

Sweetzer, Seth, on prehist. man, 412.

Swinford, _Mineral Resources of Lake Superior_, 418.

Swiss lake dwellings, 395; relics from, 395; general references, 395.

Switzler, W. F., _Missouri_, 409.

Sylvester, _Northern New York_, 323.

TACITUS, _Germania_, 28.

Tacna, 277.

Tamana, idol from, 281.

Tamoanchar, 135; geog. position, 151.

Tanmar. _See_ Danmar.

Tanos, 394.

Taos, 394, 396.

Tapenecs. _See_ Tepanecs.

Tapijulapane-Mixe, 426.

Tarapaca, 270, 275.

Tarascos, 136.

Tarayre, G., _L’Exploration mineralogique_, 170.

Targe, xxxvi.

Tartar migrations to America, 369, 370; traces in N. W. America, 78.

Tassin, French geographer, 51.

Tayasàl, 175.

Taylor, A. S., bibliog. of California, ix.

Taylor, Isaac, _Alphabets_, 200.

Taylor, Jeremy, _Dissuasive from Popery_, 51.

Taylor, John, on the N. Y. mounds, 404.

Taylor, R. C., on the Wisconsin mounds, 400.

Taylor, S., 400.

Taylor, Thomas, 41; _Commentaries of Proclus_, 35.

Taylor, W. M., on mounds, 405.

Techotl, 146.

Tecpan, 175.

Tecpaneca conquered, 147.

Tehna, 394.

Tehuelhet, 428.

_Telleriano-Remensis Codex_, 205.

Temple, Edw., _Travels in Peru_, 272.

Temple, _No. Brookfield_, 323.

Tempsky, G. F. von, _Mitla_, 184.

Ten Kate, H. F. C., 356; _Reizen_, 395.

Tenampua, 197.

Tenayocan, 142.

Tennessee, aborig. remains, 410; pottery, 419; stone graves, 410.

Tenochtitlan. _See_ Mexico (city).

Teoamoxtli, 158, 167.

Teoculcuacan, 138.

Teotihuacan, Olmecs at, 135; a religious shrine, 140; ruins, 182.

Teoyaomiqui, effigy, 182, 435.

Tepanecs, 136, 146.

Tepechpan, 162.

Tepeu, 435.

Tepeyahualco, 173.

Terceira, 49.

Ternaux-Compans, H., his library, iv; _Bibl. Amér._, iv; _Voyages_, xxxvii, 273; his studies of Peru, 273; _La theogonie Méxicaine_, 431.

Terra cotta, 420.

Tertiary man, 387; evidences, 353, 385, 387.

Tertullian, _De Pallio_, 42.

Teruel, Luis de, 264; MSS. on the Peruvians, 264.

Textile arts, 419; impression preserved in pottery, 419; of the moundbuilders, 419.

Tezcatlipoca, 431; oppressor of Quetzalcoatl, 431.

Tezcuco, growth of, 140, 142; alleged empire at, 173; old bridge near, 182; old buildings, 182.

Tezozomoc, H. de A., 146; _Crónica Méx._, 155, 163; MSS. on Mexican history, 162.

Theopompus of Chios, 21; his continent, 21.

Thévenot, bibliog., xii, xxxiv; _Voyages_, 204.

Thévet, A., on the Jewish migration to America, 115.

Thiersant, Dabry de, _Origine des Indiens_, 369.

Thomas, Cyrus, on Mexican MSS., 163; on the Mexican astronomy, 179; on Landa’s alphabet, 200; _MS. Troano_, 201, 207, his course of study, 201; on Maya numerical signs, 205; on the mounds, 401; _Work on Mound Exploration_, 401; _Burial Mounds_, 401; disputes Putnam’s view of the mounds, 402; presentations of his views on the moundbuilders, 402; on the elephant pipes, 404; on the builders of the mounds, 407; on the effigy mounds, 408, 409; on the stone graves of Tennessee, 410; on the Etowah mounds, 410; conducts mound explorations, 439; _Maya and Mexican MSS._, 440.

Thomas, Mrs. Cyrus, bibliog. of Ohio mounds, 406.

Thomas, David, _Travels_, 405.

Thomas, Isaiah, founds Amer. Antiq. Soc., 437.

Thompson, E. H., _Atlantis not a Myth_, 44; on Yucatan, 187; on the “Elephants’ trunks”, 188.

Thompson, G. A., _New Theory_, 76.

Thompson, J., translates De Pauw, 370.

Thompson, T. P., _Knot Records of Peru_, 243; _Hist. of the Quipus_, 243.

Thompson, Waddy, _Recoll. of Mexico_, 180.

Thomson, Chas., _Enquiry_, 325.

Thorfinn Karlsefne, in Vinland, 65; Saga, 90.

Thorlacius, G., his map of Vinland, 130, 131.

Thorlacius, Theod., 130, 131.

Thorlakssen. _See_ Thorlacius.

Thorndike, Col., Israel, iii.

Thorne, Robt., his map, 125.

Thornton, J. W., 102.

Thoron, Onffroy de, 82.

Thorowgood, Thomas, _Jewes in America_,115; _Vindiciæ Jud._, 115; _Digitus Dei_, 115.

Thorwald on Vinland, 65.

Three Chimneys (islands), 53.

Thule, 117; discovered, 26; in Seneca, 29; varying position, 118.

Thurston, G. P., 81, 402.

Thyle, on Macrobius’ map, 10. _See_ Thule.

Tiahuanacu, position, 210; architectural details, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218; ruins restored, 219; ruins described, 215; doorway, 216, 218; seen by D’Orbigny, 271; various descriptions, 272, 273; by Bollaert, 273; by Basadie, 273; by Inwards, 273.

Tibullus, _Elegies_, 7.

Tides, Macrobius’ view of, 11.

Tiele, P. A., xxxiii.

Tiguex, 394.

Tikal, 200.

Tilantongo, 148.

Tillinghast, W. H., “Geog. Knowledge of the Ancients”, 1.

Timagenes, 42.

Timber brought from Vinland, 65.

Timberlake, Henry, on the Cherokees, 83.

Timucua language, 426.

Timuquana language, 425.

Tin mines, early, 24.

Tinneh, 77.

Tishcoban, 325.

Titicaca, lake, seat of worship, 222; its myth, 222; seat of the Piruas, 223; connected with the Inca myths, 224; dwellers near, 226; views of lake and ruins, 246; Squier’s Explorations, 246; surveyed by J. B. Pentland, 246; Inca palace, 247; map, 248.

Tizoc, 148.

Tlacatecuhtli, 173.

Tlacopan forms a confederacy, 147.

Tlacutzin, 139.

Tlaloc, 435; rain-god, 180.

Tlapallan, 137, 139.

Tlapallanco, 139.

Tlascalans, 149.

Tobacco, mortars for pounding it, 416.

Tobar, Juan de, _Codex Ramirez_, 155; _Relacion_, 155; printed by Sir Thos. Phillipps, 155; _Hist. de los Indios_, 155.

To-carryhogan, 289.

Tollan, 137, 139.

Tollatzinco, 139.

Toloom, 190.

Toltecs, descendants of the Atlantides, 44; origin of, 135, 141; from Tollan, 137; their appearance in Mexico, 139; end of their power, 140; a nation or a dynasty, 140; their story, 140; their later migrations, 140; Brinton and Charnay disagree on their status, 141; Bandelier considers them Maya, 141; Sahagún the “giants”, 141; Bandelier’s view, 141; sources of their history, 141; MS. annals, 162; their astronomical ideas, 179; build the ruins of Yucatan, 191.

Tomo-chi-chi, 326.

Tomlinson, A. B., 403.

Tonocote, 428.

Topinard on the jaw-bone from the Naulette Cave, 377.

Torfæus, _Hist. Gronlandiæ_, 85; his character, 88; _Hist. Vinlandiæ_, 92; facs. of title, 91; places Vinland in Newfoundland, 99; gives maps, 129.

Toribio de Benevente, 155.

Torquemada, instructed by Ixtlilxochitl, 173; on the origin of Americans, 369; MS. used by him, 162; _Monarchia Ind._, 157.

Torres Rubio, Irego de, in Peru, 279; his Quichua grammar, 278.

Torrid zone, notions regarding it, 6; they check exploration, 6.

Toscanelli on Antillia, 49; his ideas of the Atlantic ocean, 51; letter to Columbus, 51; different texts of it, 51, 52; his working papers, 52; his map, 56.

Totems, 408.

Totemism, 328.

Totonacs, 136.

Totul Xius, 152; sources, 153.

Toulmin, Harry, 110.

Tovar, _See_ Tobar.

Trabega, 205.

Trade of the Amer. Aborigines, 416; no good acc. of, 420.

Traffic, intertribal, 420.

Treaties with the Indians, methods of, 305.

Trees, rings of, as signs of age, 191, 403.

Trenton gravel bluff, view of, 335; the deposits described, 338; skulls found in, 356; gravels, 388; traces of man in, 388. _See_ Delaware, New Jersey.

Trepanning in Peru, 244.

Trephining, 244.

Trigoso, S. F. M., _Descob. e Commercio dos Portuguezes_, xix.

Triquis, 136.

Tritemius, Joannes, _De Scriptoribus_, xx.

Trivizano, _Libretto_, xx.

Trivulgiana library (Milan), vi.

Tro y Ortolano, J., 205.

Trocadero Museum in Paris, 177.

Troil, _Lettres sur l’Islande_, 84.

Trojans, ancestors of the Indians, 369.

Trömel, Paul, _Bibl. Amér._, xvii, 413.

Troost, G., on Tennessee archeol. remains, 410.

Tross, Edwin, catalogues, xvi.

Trowbridge, D., 405.

Troyon, Prof., _Habitations lacustres_, 395.

Trübner, K. J., xvi.

Trübner, Nic., _Bibl. Hisp. Amer._, xvi; dies, xvi.

Trumbull, J. H., on Indian languages, vii; edits the Brinley library catalogue, xii; _Indian Missions in New England_, 322; his studies in the Indian languages, 322, 423.

Trutat, E., 411.

Trutot, 442.

Truxillo, Diego de, _Relacion_, 260.

Truxillo, ruins near, 275.

Tschudi, J. D. von, on the llamas, 213; _Antig. Peruanas_, 270; _Reisen_, 270; _Travels_, 270; _Ollanta_, 281; on the Quichua language, 280; his grammar, 280.

Tula, 137; ruin at, 177.

Tulan, 135.

Tulan, Zuiva, 139.

Tumbez, 277.

Tungus, 77.

Tupac Inca Yupanqui, 230.

Tupis of South America, 136, 428.

Turnefort, 43.

Turner, G., 437.

Turner, Sharon, _Anglo-Saxons_, 88.

Turner, W., 423.

Turner, W. W., vii, 424, 440; _Indian Philology_, 439.

Tusayan, 394.

Tuscaroras, 310.

Tuttle, C. W., 102.

Two Sorcerers, island, 47.

Tylor, E. B., on Egyptian hieroglyphics, 41; _Scandin. civilization among Eskimaux_, 70; on connection of Asia and Mexico, 77; _Anáhuac_, 170, 174; applauds Prescott’s view, 174; portrait, 376; his rank as an anthropologist, 377; _Early Hist. of Mankind_, 377, 380; _Early Mental Condition of Man_, 378; _Condition of Prehist. Races_, 378; on man’s progress from barbarism to civilization, 378; _Primitive Culture_, 378; _Anthropology_, 378; _Amer. aspects of Anthropology_, 379; acc. of, 379; on the degeneracy of the savage, 381.

Tyrians on the Atlantic, 24.

Tzendal language, 427.

Tzequiles, 135.

Tzetzes, _Scholia in Lycophron_, 15.

UA CORRA, 50.

Uhde collection, 444.

Uhle, Max, 404.

Uira-cocha, 222, 229.

Ukert, _Geog. der Griechen_, 28, 36, 46.

Ule, Otto, _Die Erde_, 44.

Ulloa, A., _Mémoires_, 271; _Voyage historique_, 271; _Not. Amer._, 370.

Ulloa, J. J., _Voyage_, 271.

Ulloa, _Relacion Hist._, 228.

Ulpius globe, 126.

Uncpapas, 327.

Unger, F., _Insel Atlantis_, 44.

United States Army, _Reports of Chief Engineer_, 396; geological survey, _Reports_, 396; National Museum, 440.

Upham, Warren, 333; _Recession of the ice sheet in Minnesota_, 346; _Ohio gravel beds_, 388.

Urcavilca, 230.

Urco, 229.

Uricoechea, E., _Memorias_, 282; _Lengua Chibcha_, 425.

Urlsperger Tracts, 326.

Urrabieta, xxxvii.

Ursel, Comte d’, _Sud Amérique_, 272.

Ursúa, M., 175.

Urus, 226, 280.

Utah mounds, 409.

Utes, 327.

Utlatlan, position of, 151, 152.

Uxmal, position of, 151, 188; Totul Xius in, 153; communal house near, 175; seen by Zavala, 186; by Waldeck, 186; by Charnay, 186, 188; descriptions, 188; so-called elephants’ trunks, 189; early accounts, 189; view of ruined temple, 189; seen by Brasseur, 189; inhabited when the Spaniards came, 190; plans, 190.

Uzielli, G., on Toscanelli, 51.

VALADES, DIDACUS, _Rhetorica Christ._, 154.

Valdemar-Schmidt, _Voyages au Groenland_, 109.

Valdez, Ant., 281.

Valencia, Martin de, 155.

Valentini, P. J. J., _Olmecas and Tultecas_, 137; on the Calendar Stone, 179; on Landa’s alphabet, 200; _Mexican copper tools_, 418; _Katunes of Maya Hist._, 152, 164.

Valera, Blas, his work lost, 209; his career, 261; his MSS. used by Garcilasso, 262.

Valera, Luis, 260.

Vallancey, Chas., 104.

Valmy, Duc de, 171.

Valpy, _Panegyrici veteres_, 47.

Valsequa, Gabriell de, his map (1439), 56.

Vancouver’s Island, 81, 393.

Van den Bergh, L. P. C., _Amerika voor Columbus_, 75.

Van den Bos, Lambert, _Zee-helden_, xxxiv.

Van der Aa. _See_ Aa.

Van Noort, Olivier, xxxiii.

Vanuxem, Professor, on shell heaps, 392.

Varnhagen, F. de, _L’Origine touranienne des Américains_, 41, 117.

Vasquez, Francisco, _Guatemala_, 168.

Vasquez, T., 260.

Vater, J. S., _Ueber Amerikas Bevölkerung_, 60; (with Adelung), _Mithridates_, 422; _Analekten der Sprachenkunde_, 422.

Vaugondy, _Atlantis_, 16.

Veer, G. de, _Voyages_, 85.

Vega, Father, his collection of MSS., 157.

Vega, F. Nuñez de la, knew the Book of Votan, 134; _Obispado de Chiappas_, 134.

Vega, Garcilasso de la, in Peru, 265; house in which he was born, 265; son of an Inca princess, 265; his expedition of De Soto, 265; _Commentarios Reales_, 265, 266; used Blas Valera, 265; wrote on Spain thirty years after leaving Peru, 266; corrects Acosta, 266; critics of, 266; dies, 266.

Velasco, Juan de, 279; _Reino de Quito_, 268, 273.

Ventancurt, _Teatro Mex._, 171.

Vera, F. H., 413.

Vera Cruz, ruins near, 178.

Verneau, _Dans l’Archipel Canarienne_, 25.

Verreau, Abbé, on the beginnings of the Church in Canada, 317.

Vertuch, _Archiv für Ethnographie_, 443.

Vespucius in De Bry, xxxii; voyages, acc. of, xxiv; mentioned, xxviii, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi; map owned by him, 56.

Vetanzos, Juan de, used by Garcia, 369. _See_ Betanzos.

Vetromile, _Abnakis and their history_, 466.

Veytia, on the Toltecs, 141; _Hist. Antiq. de Mejico_, 141, 159; better on the Tezcucans than on the Mexicans, 150; begins Mexican history at A.D. 697, 155; used Boturini’s collection, 159; annotates Ixtlilxochitl’s MSS., 162; continues Boturini’s labors, 162.

Vicary, J. F., _Saga time_, 92.

Victor, J. D., _Disput. de America_, 40, 370.

Vicuña, 213.

Vienna, Anthropologische Gesellschaft, 443; Prähist. Commission, 443.

Viera y Clavijo, J. de, _Islas de Canaria_, 48.

Vigfússon, G., _Icelandic Eng. Dict._, 85; _Icelandic Sagas_, 90.

Vigil, José M., 155.

Vikings, burial of, 62.

Vilcashuaman, ruins, 247, 271.

Villacastin, F. de, 260.

Villagutierre Soto-Mayor, _Conquista de Itza_, 165.

Villar, Dr., 282; _Uira-cocha_, 271.

Villar, Leonardo, 266.

Villebrune, J. B. L., 370.

Vincent, _Commerce of the Ancients_, 117.

Vining, E. P., _An inglorious Columbus_, 80.

Vinland, found and named, 64; attempted identification, 65; last ship to, 65; probability of voyages to, 67; bibliog., 87, 98; the sagas, 87, 88; put in writing, 88; situated in Labrador, 92, 93, 96, 99; in Newfoundland, 92, 93, 94, 96, 99; in Greenland, 92, 98; in New York, 93, 102; not in America, 93; in New England, 93; in Maine, 102; in Massachusetts, 94, 99; in Rhode Island, 94, 96, 99, 102; in Africa, 100; maps, 94; those of Rafn reproduced, 95, 100; probability of the voyages to, 98; linguistic proofs of, 98; ethnographical proofs, 99; physical and geographical proofs, 99; tides in, 99; length of summer day in, 99; Rafn’s attempts to identify it, 100; his map, 100; held to be a prolongation of Africa, 100; monumental proofs, 102; has no frost, 102; natives called Skrælings, 105; held to be north of Davis’s Straits by the oldest Norse maps, 130; that by Stephanius (1570) in facs., 130; separated from America, 130.

Vinson, Julien, _La langue basque_, 75.

Viollet-le-Duc, _Habitation humaine_, 64, 176; belief in a yellow race in Central America, 81; on Norse ceremonials in the south, 99; his text to Charnay, 176; a restoration of Palenqué, 192.

Viracocha, 436.

Virchow, R., on Peruvian skulls, 244; on human remains found in Peruvian graves, 273.

Virgil, _Georgics_, 6; prophecy of Anchises, 27.

Virginia, docs. in her Archives, xiv; Indian conspiracy of. 1622, 284; Indians, 325; mounds in, 410; graves, 410.

Visconti, 33; map (1311), 53; (1318), 53.

Vitalis, Ordericus, _Hist. Eccles._, 88.

Vitziliputzli, 432.

Vivien de St. Martin, _Hist. de la Géog._, 36; on Fousang, 80.

Vocabularies, numerous, 421; tests of ethnical relations, 421; formed as tests, 424. _See_ Linguistics.

Vogel, Theo., xxxvii.

Vogeler, A. W., 393, 403.

Vogt, Carl, _Vorlesungen_, 369; _Lectures on Man_, 369, 443.

Völcker, _Homersch. Geog._, 39.

Volney on the mounds, 398.

Von Baer, K. E., _Fahrten des Odysseus_, 40.

Voss, _Die Gestalt der Erde_, 39.

Votan, and his followers, 133, 141; _Book of Votan_, 134; dim connection with Guatemala, 150; with Yucatan, 152; myth of, 433.

Voyages, collections of, xxxiv; early ones to America, bibliog., xix.

Vreeland, C. E., _Antiquities at Pantaleon_, 197.

Vries, voyage to Virginia, xxxiv.

WADSWORTH, M. E., 334; _Microscopic evidence of a lost continent_, 45.

Wagner, G., _De originibus Amer._, 370; _Beiträge zur Anthropologie_, 443.

Wahlstedt, J. J., _Iter in Americam_, 92.

Waiknas, 136.

Waitz, T., on Peruvian anthropology, 270; _Naturvölker_, 369, 430, 443; _Anthropologie_, 378, 430; portrait, 378; _Die Amerikaner_, 172, 378; _Introd. to Anthropology_, 370, 378, 443.

Wake, C. S., _Chapters on Man_, 82; _Serpent Worship_, 429.

Walam-Olum, 325.

Waldeck, Frederic de, buys some of the Boturini collection, 162; _Voyage pittoresque_, 186; at Uxmal, 186, 188; portrait, 186; map of Yucatan, 188; in Yucatan, 194; _Monuments Anc. du Méxique_, 194; liberties of his drawings, 202; _Coleccion de las Antig. Mex._, 444.

Walkenaer, C. A., _Voyages_, xxxvii.

Walkendorf, Bishop Eric, 107.

Walker, S. T., on Tampa Bay shell-heaps, 393.

Walker, _Athens County, Ohio_, 408.

Walker River cañon, 350.

Wallace, A. R., _Antiq. of Man in America_, 330; on climate and its influence on races, 378; _Tropical Nature_, 383; does not believe in sunken continents, 383; _Geog. Distribution of Animals_, 383; _Malay Archipelago_, 383; on the antiq. of man, 330, 384; _Island life_, 387.

Wallace, C. M., _Flint implements_, 345.

Wallace, Jas., _Orkney Islands_, 118.

Wallbridge, T. C., 410.

Wampanoag Indians, 102, 323.

Wampum, 420; belts, 420.

Ward, H. G., _Mexico_, 180.

Warden, David B., his library, iii; _Art de vérifier des dates_, iii; dies, iii; translates Rio on Palenqué, 191; on the origin of Americans, 192; on the mounds, 399; _Recherches_, 415.

Warner, J., 409.

Warren, Dr. J. C., on the mounds, 400.

Warren, W. F., _Key to Anc. Cosmologies_, 12; on Homer’s earth, 39; _True Key_, 39; _Paradise Found_, 39, 47.

Warren, W. W., 327.

Washington, Col., expedition against Navajos, 396.

Washington, Geo., on the Dighton Rock, 104.

Washington, D. C., as a centre of study in Amer. history, xvii.

Water, proportion of, on the globe, 383.

Watkinson Library, xii.

Watrin, F., 326.

Watson, P. B., _Bibliog. of Pre-Columbian Discoveries_, 98.

Watts, Robt., i.

Weaving, art of, 420.

Webb, Daniel, 370.

Webb, Dr. T. H., 94.

Webster, Noah, on the mounds, 398.

Wedgwood, _Origin of language_, 422.

Weeden, W. B., _Indian money_, 420.

Wegner, G., _De Nav. Solomonæis_, 82.

Weigel, T. O., xvii; on De Bry, xxxii.

Weights used by the Peruvians, 420.

Weise, A. J., _Disc. of America_, 45, 98; on Atlantis, 45.

Weiser, Conrad, interpreter, 305; his career, 305; his papers, 305.

Welch, L. B., _Prehistoric Relics_, 408.

Welsh in America, 72. _See_ Madoc.

West India Island, Malay stock in, 82.

Western Reserve Historical Soc., 407.

Westropp, H. M., _Prehistoric Phases_, 412.

Whately, Richard, _Polit. Economy_, 381; _Origin of Civilization_, 381.

Wheaton, Henry, _Northmen_, 93; French version, 93.

Wheeler, G. M., on the _Pueblos_, 395; _U. S. Geol. Survey_, 396, 440.

Wheelock, Eleazer, his charity school, 322; founds Dartmouth College, 322; _Indian Charity School_, 322; memoir, 322.

Whipple, Report on the Indian tribes, in _Pacific R. R. Repts._, 396.

White’s drawings in Hariot’s _Virginia_, xxxiii.

White, John S., 62.

Whitney, J. D., _Climatic Changes_, 69, 383; searches in the Trenton gravels, 337; on the neolithic man in the tertiary gravels, 350; views the Calaveras skull, 385; his accounts of it, 385; _Auriferous Gravels_, 385; _Human remains of the Gravel series_, 385; disbelieves the precession of the equinoxes as affecting climate, 387; on the Trenton implements, 388; _Geol. of Lake Superior_, 418.

Whitney, W. D., _Language_, 74; _Bearing of language on the Unity of Man_, 372; _Testimony of language respecting the unity of the human race_, 422.

Whitney, W. F., _Bones of the native races_, 373.

Whittlesey, Col. Chas., on anc. hearths in the Ohio Valley, 389; _Antiquity of Man in the U. S._, 391; portraits, 399; _Ancient Works in Ohio_, 399; _Weapons of the Race of the Mounds_, 400; on the Grave Creek tablet, 404; on the Cincinnati tablet, 404; surveys the Marietta mounds, 405; on the Ohio mounds, 407, 408; _Report_ on the archæology of Ohio, 407; _Fugitive Essays_, 407; surveys the Newark mounds, 408; on Rock inscriptions, 410; _Anc. mining at Lake Superior_, 418; on anc. human remains in Ohio, 437.

Wicksteed, P. H., 241, 431.

Wiener, Charles, _Pérou et Bolivie_, 271; _Le communisme des Incas_, 271; _Les institutions de l’Empire des Incas_, 82, 271.

Wieser, F., on Zoana Mela, 122.

Wilde, Sir W. R., on lacustrine dwellings, 393.

Wilder, B. G., on Jeffries Wyman, 392.

Wilhelmi, K., _Island_, etc., 83, 96.

Willes, Richard, edits Eden, xxiii.

William of Worcester, 50.

Williams, C. M., 80.

Williams, G., _Guatemala_, 197.

Williams, H. C., 410.

Williams, H. L., 318.

Williams, Helen M., translates Humboldt’s _Vues_, 271.

Williams, Isaac, memoir, 319.

Williams, John, _Prince Madog_, 110.

Williams, Roger, on the Jews in America, 115; _Key_, 423.

Williams, S. W., on Fousang, 80.

Williamson, Jos., on the Northmen in Maine, 97.

Williamson, Peter, _Sufferings_, 318.

Williamson on the Asiatic origin of Americans, 371.

Williamson, _No. Carolina_, 93.

Willson, Marcus, _American History_, 415.

Wilson, Sir Daniel, _Lost Atlantis_, 46; on Vinland, 97; _Historic Footprints in America_, 97; on Dighton Rock, 104; on the exaggeration of Mexican splendor, 174; on picture-writing, 198; on the Huron-Iroquois, 322; on the Canada tribes, 322; _Certain Cranial Forms_, 373; on the unity of man, 374; _American Cranial Type_, 374; portrait, 375; _Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_, 376; first used the word “prehistoric”, 376; _Prehistoric Man_, 376, 379, 415; _Pre-Aryan Amer. Man_, 377; _Unwritten History_, 377; _Interglacial Man_, 388; on the moundbuilders, 402; on the Grave Creek tablet, 404; accepts the Cincinnati tablet, 404; on Canadian mounds, 410; on bone and ivory work, 417; on American pottery, 419; _Artistic faculty in the aborig. races_, 419; _American Crania_, 437.

Wilson, R. A., _New Conquest of Mexico_, 41, 174, 203.

Wimmer, L. F. A., _Runenskriftens_, etc., 66.

Winchell, Alex., on Atlantis, 45; on the retrocession of the falls of St. Anthony, 382; _Preadamites_, 379, 384.

Winchell, N. H., _Geol. of Minnesota_, 333; discovers rude implements, 345; on copper mining, 418.

Winsor, Justin, “Americana”, i; “Early Descriptions of America”, etc., xix; _Ptolemy’s Geography_, xxv; “Pre-Columbian Explorations”, 59; “Cartography of Greenland”, 117; “Mexico and Central America”, 133; sources of the history of the modern Indians, 316; “Progress of Opinion respecting the Origin and Antiquity of Man in America”, 369; “Bibliog. of Aboriginal America”, 413; “Comprehensive treatises on Amer. Antiquities”, 415; “Industries and Trade of the American Aborigines”, 416; “American Linguistics”, 421; “American Myths and Religions”, 429; “Archæological Museums and Periodicals”, 437; _Calendar of the Sparks MSS._, 423.

Winthrop, Jas., on Dighton Rock, 103, 104.

Winthrop, John, the younger, 442.

Winthrop, R. C., 437.

Wisconsin Academy of Science, 438.

Wisconsin, Indians, 327; mounds in, 400, 408.

Wiseman, Cardinal, _Lectures_, 372.

Witchitas, vocabulary, 440.

Withrow, W. H., on the last of the Hurons, 322; on Jogues, 323.

Witsen, Nic., _Tartarye_, 123, 370.

Wittmack, L., on Peruvian plants found on graves, 273.

Wollheim, A. E., _Nat. lit. der Scand._, 66, 88.

Woodward, Ashbel, _Wampum_, 420.

Workshops of stone chipping, 417.

Wormskiold on the sites of the Greenland colonies, 108.

Worsaae, J. A., _Vorgesch. des Nordens_, 85; acc. of, 85; _Prehistory of the North_, 62; _L’organisation des Musées_, 444; _Danes in England_, 61.

Worsley, Israel, _View of the Amer. Indians_, 116.

Worthen, A. H., 388.

Wright, B. M., _Gold ornaments from the graves_, etc., 273.

Wright, D. F., 410.

Wright, Geo. F., on the antiq. of man in America, 340; examines deposits in Delaware, 342; _Man and the glacial period_, 388; _Preglacial man in Ohio_, 388; _Ohio gravel beds_, 388.

Wright, Thomas, _St. Brandan_, 48.

Wureland, 117.

Wuttke, H., _Erdkunde_, 38, 49; on the Atlantic islands, 47.

Wuttke, _Gesch. der Schrift_, 205.

Wyandots, 327.

Wyhlandia, 117.

Wyman, Jeffries, 439; on the Calaveras skull, 353; portrait, 392; investigates shell-heaps, 392; death, 392; accounts of, 392; on the Florida shell heaps, 393; on the St. John River, 393.

Wyman, W. H., on Quaritch, xvi; _Bibliog. of Printing_, xvi.

Wynne, _Private Libraries of N. Y._, x, xviii.

Wyoming Hist. and Geol. Soc., 438.

XAHILA, F. E. A., 167.

Xenophanes, 6.

Xeres, on Peru, xxxvii.

Xibalba, 134; held to be Palenqué, 135; Brinton’s view, 135.

Xicalancas, 136.

Xicaques, 169.

Ximenes, Francisco, 155; finds the _Popul Vuh_, 166.

Ximenes, _Gnomone fioretino_, 51.

Xinca Indians, 428.

Xochicalco, 180.

Xochimilca conquered, 147.

Xoloc founded, 142.

Xolotl, 162.

Xuares, Juan, 155.

YAHAMA LANGUAGE, 425.

Yahuar-huaccac, 229.

Yaqui, 135.

Yarrow, H. C., _Mortuary Customs_, 328, 440; on mound-burials, 408.

Yates and Moulton, _New York_, 104.

Yca, 277.

Youmans, Eliza H., 411.

Yucatan. _See_ Mayas; difficulty of the chronology, 152; the Perez MS., 153; sources, 164; scant material, 164; Barendt’s collection, 164; ruins, 185; early described, 186; seen by Stephens, 186; ancient records, 187; architecture, 188; Charnay’s map, 188; other maps, 188; age of the ruins, 191; types of heads, 195; bas-relief, 208; had an Ethiopian stock, 370; crucible for melting copper used, 418; folk-lore, 434.

Yucay, 247.

Yuma language, 426.

Yuncas, 227; grammar of, 280.

Yupanqui, Inca, his portrait, 228; in power, 230; called Pachacutec, 230.

ZABOROWSKI, _L’homme préhistorique_, 412.

Zacatecas, 183.

Zach, _Correspondenz_, 41.

Zachila, 184.

Zahrtmann on the Zeni, 112.

Zamná, 152, 434.

Zani, Count V., 205.

Zapaña, 229.

Zapata, MS. Hist. of Tlaxcalla, 162; _Cronica de Tlaxcallan_, 164.

Zapotecs, 146, 149.

Zaragoza, Justo, 167, 444.

Zarate, Augustin de, _Prov. del Peru_, 261.

Zavala, L. de, on Uxmal, 186.

Zayi, ruins, 188.

Zegarra, G. P., _Ollantay_, 281, 282.

Zegarra, Pedro, 281; _Ollantay_, 425.

Zeisberger, David, missionary, 423; _Indian Dictionary_, 423; on a Delaware grammar, 437.

_Zeitschrift für die Anthropologie_, 443.

_Zeitschrift für physische Aerzte_, 443.

Zeller, _Gesch. der Griech. Philosophie_, 36.

Zeni, brothers, xxviii, xxxiv, xxxvi; northern voyage, 72, 111; bibliog., 115; _Dei Commentarii del Viaggio_, 73; fac-simile of title, etc., 70, 71; their map perhaps used by Bordone, 73; it made an impression, 74, 128; history of the belief in their voyage, 111; the map, 111, 112, 114; fac-simile of, 11, 127; altered in Ptolemy, 111, 114; facsimiles of this alteration, 111, 128; maps possibly to be used by the young Zeno, 114, 126; map compared with that of Olaus Magnus, 126; condition of northern cartography at the date of the Zeno publication, 126, 127.

Zerffi, _Hist. development of art_, 416.

Zestermann, C. A. A., _Colonization of America_, 60, 83.

Ziegler, America, xxxiii, 125.

Zoana Mela, 122.

Zorzi, Pæsi Nov., xix.

Zumárraga, Bp., orders a collection of traditions, 164; _Hist. de los Mexicanos_, 164; _Codex Zumárraga_, 164; his alleged destruction of MSS., 203.

Zuñi, representatives of the cliff dwellers, 395; references on, 396; visits to, 396.

Zurita, A. de, on the Quiches, 168; _Rapport_, 153; character of, 153.

Zurla, Cardinal, on the Zeni, 112; _Dissertazione_, 112; _Di Marco Polo_, 47, 112; _Fra Mauro_, 47.

Zutigils, 152.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Herrera failed to add a list of authors to the original edition of his _Historia_ (1601-1615), but one of about thirty-three entries is found in later editions.

[2] See Vol. IV. p. 417.

[3] Sabin, vol. x. no. 40,053; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 347; Rich (1832), no. 188; Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide to American Literature_, p. viii; Murphy, no. 1,471.

[4] _Dictionary_, vol. ii. no. 5,102.

[5] For an account of a likeness, see J. C. Smith’s _British Mezzotint Portraits_, iv. no. 1,694.

[6] The book, of which 250 copies only were printed, is rare, and Quaritch prices it at £3 (Sabin, vol. ix. no. 37,447). It preserves some titles which are not otherwise known; and represents a library which Kennett had gathered for presentation to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Rich (_Bibl. Amer. nova_, i. 21) says the index was made by Robert Watts. Although Stevens (Historical Collections, i. 142) says that the books were dispersed, the library is still in existence in London, though it lacks many titles given in the printed catalogue, and shows others not in that volume. Cf. _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, xx. 274; Allibone, ii. 1020; James Jackson’s _Bibliographies géographiques_ (Paris, 1881), no. 606; Trübner’s _Bibliographical Guide_, p. ix; Sabin, _Bibliography of Bibliographies_, p. lxxxvii.

[7] _Memorial History of Boston_, vol. i. pp. xviii, xix; vol. ii. pp. 221, 426.

[8] The original edition was Valencia, 1607. Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 52.

[9] _Catalogue_ (1832), no. 188. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 568; Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. ix; Sabin, vol. i. no. 3,349. The portion on America is in vol. ii.

[10] For example, the Champlain of 1613, 3 fr.; that of 1632, 4 fr.; 21 volumes of the _Relations_ of the Jesuits, 18 fr.

[11] Sabin, _Dictionary_, vol. ii. no. 5,198; and _Bibliography of Bibliographies_, p. xviii; _Hist. Mag._, i. 57; and Allibone, ii. 1764, who calls him Reid, an American resident in London, and says he issued the bibliography as preparatory to a history of America. Jackson’s _Bibliographies géographiques_, no. 611, and Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. x, call it by the name of the publisher, Debrett.

[12] Jackson’s _Bibliographies géographiques_, no. 621.

[13] Jackson, _Bibliographies géographiques_, no. 612; _Serapeum_ (1845), p. 223; Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. xxv.

[14] Sparks, _Catalogue_, no. 1,635; Jackson’s _Bibliographies géographiques_, no. 613; Trübner, p. xxv.

[15] _History of Mexico_, iii. 512, where is an account of Alcedo’s historical labors.

[16] Sparks, _Catalogue_, no. 1,635 _a_, and p. 230.

[17] Sabin, _Bibliography of Bibliographies_, p. xxiv; H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 700, 760.

[18] Quincy’s _Harvard University_, ii. 413, 596. It is noteworthy, in view of so rich an accession coming from Germany, that Grahame, the historian of our colonial period, says that in 1825 he found the University Library at Göttingen richer in books for his purpose than all the libraries of Britain joined together.

[19] This collection is also embraced in the Catalogue of the College Library already referred to. Mr. Warden began the collection of another library, which he used while writing the American part (10 vols.) of the _Art de vérifier des Dates_, Paris, 1826-1844, and which (1,118 works) was afterward sold to the State Library at Albany for $4,000. Dr. Henry A. Homes, the librarian at Albany, informs me that when arranged it made twenty-one hundred and twenty-three volumes. Warden’s _Bibliotheca Americana_, Paris, 1831, reprinted at Paris in 1840, is a catalogue of this collection. Mr. Warden died in 1845, aged 67. Cf. Ludewig in the _Serapeum_, 1845, p. 209; Muller, _Books on America_ (1872), no. 1734; Allibone, iii. 2,579; S. G. Goodrich, _Recollections_, ii. 243; Jackson’s _Bibl. Géog._, nos. 617, 618; Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. xiv. There was a final sale of Mr. Warden’s books by Horatio Hill, in New York, in 1846.

[20] This portrait of one of the earliest contributors to the bibliography of American history follows an engraving in the _Allgemeine geographische Ephemeriden_, May, 1800, p. 395. Ebeling was born Nov. 20, 1741, and died June 30, 1817, and his own contributions to American History were—

(_a_) _Amerikanische Bibliothek_ (Zwei Stücke), Leipzig, 1777.

(_b_) _Erdbescreibung und Geschichte von America_, Hamburg, 1795-1816, in seven vols.; the author’s interleaved copy, with manuscript notes, is in Harvard College Library.

(_c_) With Professor Hegewisch, _Americanisches Magazin_, Hamburg, 1797.

There are other likenesses,—one a large lithograph published at Hamburgh; the other a small profile by C. H. Kniep. Both are in the collection of the American Antiquarian Society.

[21] This collection was offered to Congress for purchase through Edward Everett in December, 1827. The printed list, with nearly a hundred entries for manuscripts and three hundred and eighty-nine for printed books, covering the years 1506-1825, was printed as Document 37 of the 1st session of the 20th Congress. The sale was not effected. Rich had been able to gather the books at moderate cost because of the troubled political state of the peninsula. Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. xv.

[22] _Dictionary_, ii. 1788.

[23] _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, p. xxix.

[24] Dibdin (_Library Companion_, edition 1825, p. 467) refers to this spirit, hoping it would lead to a new edition of White Kennett, perfected to date.

[25] _Bibliotheca Grenvilliana_ (London, 1842), now a part of the British Museum.

[26] Sabin, _Bibliog. of Bibliog._, p. cxxi; Allibone, _Dictionary_, p. 1787; Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide to American Literature_, Introduction, p. xiv; Jackson’s _Bibl. Géog._, no. 623, etc.; _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, i. 395; _Historical Magazine_, iii. 75; _Menzies Catalogue_, no. 1,690; Ternaux-Compans, _Bibliothèque Américaine_, Preface. Puttick and Simpson’s _Catalogues_, London, June 25, 1850, and March, April, and May, 1872, note some of his books, besides manuscript bibliographies.

After Mr. Rich’s death Mr. Edward G. Allen took the business, and issued various catalogues of books on America in 1857-1871. Cf. Jackson’s _Bibliog. Géog._, nos. 677-682.

[27] See Vol. III. p. 159. The catalogue, being without date, is sometimes given later than 1833. Cf. Jackson, _Bibliog. Géog._, no. 636; and no. 690. A new _Rough List_ of the Barlow Collection was printed in 1885.

[28] _Magazine of American History_, iii. 177. This library was sold in November, 1836, as Raetzel’s; the numbers 908-2,117 concerned America. Trübner (_Bibliographical Guide_, p. xviii) says the collection was formed by Ternaux probably with an ultimate view to sale. Ternaux did not die till December, 1864.

[29] Now worth 40 or 50 francs.

[30] Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. xvi.

[31] See Vol. IV. p. 367. Cf. also Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. xviii; and Daniel’s _Nos Gloires Nationales_, where will be found a portrait of Faribault.

[32] Sabin, x. nos. 42, 644-42, 645.

[33] Sabin, x. 42, 643; Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. xxi.

[34] _Historical Magazine_, xii. 145; Allibone, ii. p. 1142. The sale of Mr. Ludewig’s library (1,380 entries) took place in New York in 1858.

[35] In his _Verrazano_, p. 5.

[36] Cf. also D’Avezac in his _Waltzemüller_, p. 4.

[37] Sabin, viii. p. 107; Jackson, _Bibliog. Géog._, no. 696. The edition was four hundred copies.

[38] An error traced to the proof-reader, it is said in Sabin’s _Bibliog. of Bibliog._, p. lxxiv.

[39] Stevens noticed this defence by reiterating his charges in a note in his _Bibliotheca Historica_, 1870, no. 860.

[40] Vol. IV. p. 366.

[41] Sabin, _Bibliography of Bibliographies_, p. lxxv.

[42] _Grandeur et décadence de la Colombine_, Paris, 1885.

[43] _J. J. Cooke Catalogue_, no. 2,214; _Griswold Catalogue_, nos. 730, 731. The editions were fifty copies on large paper, two hundred on small. It may be worth record that Gowan, a publisher in New York, was the earliest (1846) to instigate a taste for large paper copies among American collectors, by printing in that style Furman’s edition of Denton’s _Description of New York_, after the manner of the English purveyors to book-fancying.

[44] See _Proceedings of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society_, Philadelphia, 1881, p. 28.

[45] Mr. Wilberforce Eames is the new editor. A list of the catalogues prepared by Mr. Sabin is given in his _Bibliography of Bibliographies_, p. cxxiv, etc.

[46] The German translation, _Kritische Untersuchungen_, was made by J. I. Ideler, Berlin, 1852, in 3 vols. It has an index, which the French edition lacks.

[47] Sabin, viii. 539. The edition of Paris, without date, called _Histoire de la géographie du nouveau continent_, is the same, with a new title and an introduction of four pages, La Cosa’s map being omitted.

[48] _Verrazano_, p. 4.

[49] In his _Cosmos_ Humboldt gives results, which he says are reached in his unpublished sixth volume of the _Examen critique_.

[50] The Humboldt Library was burned in London in June, 1865. Nearly all of the catalogues were destroyed at the same time; but a few large paper copies were saved, which, being perfected with a new title (London, 1878), have since been offered by Stevens for sale. Portions of the introduction to it are also used in an article by Stevens on Humboldt, in the _Journal of Sciences and Arts_ January, 1870. Various of Humboldt’s manuscripts on American matters are advertised in Stargardt’s _Amerika und Orient_, no. 135, p. 3 (Berlin, 1881).

[51] Cf. _Historical Magazine_, vol. ix. no. 335; _Magazine of American History_, vol. ii. pp. 193, 221, 565; _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1868. Colonel Force died in January, 1868.

[52] Mr. Sparks died March 14, 1866. Tributes were paid to his memory by distinguished associates in the Massachusetts Historical Society (_Proceedings_, ix. 157), and Dr. George E. Ellis reported to them a full and appreciative memoir (_Proceedings_, x. 211). Cf. also _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, March, 1866; _Historical Magazine_, May, 1866; Brantz Mayer before the Maryland Historical Society, 1867, etc.

[53] Cf. _Historical Magazine_, vol. ix. p. 137.

[54] The principal interpreter of the Indian languages of the temperate parts of North America has been Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull, of Hartford, for whose labor in the bibliography of the subject see a chapter in vol i. of the _Memorial History of Boston_. There is also a collection edited by him, of books in and upon the Indian languages, in the _Brinley Catalogue_, iii. 123-145. He gave in the _Proceedings_ of the American Antiquarian Society, and also separately in 1874, a list of books in the Indian languages, printed at Cambridge and Boston, 1653-1721 (Field, _Indian Bibliography_, no. 1,571). Cf. also Ludewig’s _Literature of American Aboriginal Languages_, mentioned on an earlier page. It was edited and corrected by William W. Turner. (Cf. _Pinart-Brasseur Catalogue_, no. 565; Field, _Indian Bibliography_, no. 959).

Icazbalceta published in 1866, at Mexico, a list of the writers on the languages of America; and Romero made a similar enumeration of those of Mexico, in 1862, in the _Boletin de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia_, vol. viii. Dr. Daniel G. Brinton has made a good introduction to the literary history of the native Americans in his _Aboriginal American Authors_, published by him at Philadelphia in 1883. For his own linguistic contributions, see Field, _Indian Bibliography_, no. 187, etc. One of the earliest enumerations of linguistic titles can be picked out of the list which Boturini Benaduci, in 1746, appended to his _Idea de una nueva historia general de la America septentrional_.

The most extensive enumeration of the literature of all the North American tongues is doubtless to be the _Bibliography of North American Linguistics_, which is preparing by Mr. James C. Pilling of the Bureau of Ethnology in Washington, and which will be published in due time by that bureau. A preliminary issue (100 copies) for corrections is called _Proof-sheets of a Bibliography of the Indian Languages of North America_ (pp. xl, 1135).

The _Bibliotheca Americana_ of Leclerc (Paris, 1879) affords many titles to which a preliminary “Table des Divisions” affords an index, and most of them are grouped under the heading “Linguistique,” p. 537, etc. The third volume of H. H. Bancroft’s Native Races, particularly in its notes, is a necessary aid in this study; and a convenient summary of the whole subject will be found in chapter x. of John T. Short’s _North Americans of Antiquity_. J. C. E. Buschmann has been an ardent laborer in this field; the bibliographies give his printed works (Field’s _Indian Bibliography_, p. 208, etc.), and Stargardt’s _Catalogue_ (no. 135, p. 6) shows some of his manuscripts. The Comte Hyacinthe de Charencey has for some years, from time to time, printed various minor monographs on these subjects; and in 1883 he collected his views in a volume of _Mélanges de philologie et de paléographie Américaines_.

The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, in his _Bibliothèque Mexico-Guatemalienne_ (Leclerc, nos. 81, 1,084), has given for Central America a very excellent list of the works on the linguistics of the natives, which are all contained also in the _Catalogue_ of the Pinart-Brasseur sale, which took place in Paris in January and February, 1884. Cf. the paper on Brasseur by Dr. Brinton, in _Lippincott’s Magazine_, vol. i.; and the enumeration of his numerous writings in Sabin’s _Dictionary_, ii. 7,420; also Leclerc, Field, and Bancroft.

Dr. Félix C. Y. Sobron’s _Los Idiomas de la America Latina,—Estudios Biografico-bibliograficos_, published a few years since at Madrid, gives, according to Dr. Brinton, extended notices of several rare volumes; but on the whole the book is neither exhaustive nor very accurate.

Julius Platzmann’s _Verzeichniss einer Auswahl Amerikanischer Grammatiken_, etc. (Leipsic, 1876), is a small but excellent list, with proper notes. These bibliographies will show the now numerous works upon the aboriginal tongues, their construction and their fruits.

There are several important series interesting to the student, which are found in the catalogues. Such are the _Bibliothèque linguistique Américaine_, published in seven volumes by Maisonneuve in Paris (Leclerc, no. 2,674); the _Coleccion de linguistica y etnografía Americanas_, or _Bibliothèque de linguistique et d’Ethnographie Américaines_, 1875, etc., edited by A. L. Pinart; the _Library of American Linguistics_, in thirteen volumes, edited by Dr. John G. Shea (Cf. _Brinley Catalogue_, vol. iii. no. 5,631; Field, no. 1,396); _Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature_, published by Dr. D. G. Brinton in Philadelphia; and Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Collection de documents dans les langues indigènes_, Paris, 1861-1864, in four volumes (cf. Field, p. 175).

The earliest work printed exclusively in a native language was the _Catecismo de la Doctrina Cristiana en lengua Timuiquana_, published at Mexico in 1617 (cf. Sabin, vol. xiv. no. 58,580; Finotti, p. 14). This is the statement often made; but Mr. Pilling refers me to references in Icazbalceta’s _Zumárraga_ (vol. 1. p. 200) to an earlier edition of about 1547; and in the same author’s _Bibliografia Mexicana_ (p. 32), to one of 1553. Molina’s _Vocabulario de la lengua Castellana y Mexicana_, placing the Nahuatl and Castilian in connection, was printed at Mexico in 1555. The book is very rare, five or six copies only being known; and Quaritch has priced an imperfect copy at £72 (Quaritch, _Bibliog. Géog. linguistica_, 1879, no. 12,616; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 206; _Brinley Catalogue_, vol. iii. no, 5,771). The edition of 1571 is also rare (_Pinart-Brasseur Catalogue_, no. 630; Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 285, 286; Quaritch, 1879, no. 12,617). The first edition of Molina’s Aztec grammar, _Arte de la lengua Mexicana y Castellana_, was published the same year (1571). Quaritch (1879, no. 12,615) prices this at £52 10_s._ Cf. also Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 284. One of the chief of the more recent studies of the linguistics of Mexico is Francisco Pimentel’s _Cuadro descriptivo y comparativo de las lenguas indigenas de México_, Mexico, 1862-1865; and second edition in 1874-1875.

This subject has other treatment later in the present volume.

[55] It included two thousand and thirty-four items, ninety-four of which were Mr. Squier’s own works.

[56] Vol. II. p. 578.

[57] He says that up to 1881 he had gathered 35,000 volumes, at a cost of $300,000, exclusive of time and travelling expenses. His manuscripts embraced 1,200 volumes. The annual growth of his library is still 1,000 volumes.

[58] One twelfth of the earth’s surface, as he says.

[59] Cf. account of Maximilian’s library in the _Bookworm_ (1869), p. 14.

[60] These biographical data are derived from a tract given out by himself which he calls _A brief account of the literary undertakings of Hubert Howe Bancroft_ (San Francisco, A. L. Bancroft & Co. [his own business house], 1882, 8vo, pp. 12). Other accounts of his library will be found in the _American Bibliopolist_, vii. 44; and in Apponyi’s _Libraries of California_, 1878. Descriptions of the library and of the brick building (built in 1881) which holds it, and of his organized methods, have occasionally appeared in the _Overland Monthly_ and in other serial issues of California, as well as in those of the Atlantic cities. He has been free to make public the most which is known regarding his work. He says that the grouping and separating of his material has been done mostly by others, who have also written fully one half of the text of what he does not hesitate to call _The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft_; and he leaves the reader to derive a correct understanding of the case from his prefaces and illustrative tracts. Cf. J. C. Derby’s _Fifty Years among authors, books, and publishers_ (New York, 1884), p. 31.

[61] Averaging twelve from that time to this; a hundred persons were tried for every one ultimately retained as a valuable assistant,—is his own statement.

[62] At a cost, as he says, of $80,000 to 1882.

[63] They appeared in _The Nation_ and in the _New York Independent_ early in 1883. The first aimed to show that there were substantial grounds for dissent from Mr. Bancroft’s views regarding the Aztec civilization. The second ignored that point in controversy, and merely proposed, as was stated, to test the “bibliographic value” which Mr. Bancroft had claimed for his book, and to point out the failures of the index plan and the vicarious system as employed by him.

[64] Seemingly intended to make part of one of the later volumes of his series, to be called _Essays and Miscellanies_.

[65] With a general title (as following his _Native Races_) of _The History of the Pacific States_, we are to have in twenty-eight volumes the history of Central America, Mexico, North Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, Northwest Coast, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, British Columbia, and Alaska,—to be followed by six volumes of allied subjects, not easily interwoven in the general narrative, making thirty-nine volumes for the entire work. The volumes are now appearing at the rate of three or four a year.

[66] The list which is prefixed to the first volume of the _History of California_, forming vol. xiii. of his Pacific States series, is

## particularly indicative of the rich stores of his library, and greatly

eclipses the previous lists of Mr. A. S. Taylor, which appeared in the _Sacramento Daily Union_, June 25, 1863 and March 13, 1866. Cf. Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, p. xxxix. A copy of Taylor’s pioneer work, with his own corrections, is in Harvard College Library. Mr. Bancroft speaks very ungraciously of it.

[67] See Vol. IV., chap. i. p. 19.

[68] Jackson, _Bibl. Géog._, no. 639; _Menzies Catalogue_, nos. 1,459, 1,460; Wynne’s _Private Libraries of New York_, p. 335. Mr. Murphy died Dec. 1, 1882, aged seventy-two; and his collection, then very much enlarged, was sold in March, 1884. Its _Catalogue_, edited by Mr. John Russell Bartlett, shows one of the richest libraries of Americana which has been given to public sale in America. It is accompanied by a biographical sketch of its collector. Cf. Vol. IV. p. 22.

[69] Cf. Wynne’s _Private Libraries of New York_, p. 106. Mr. Brevoort died December 7, 1887.

[70] Cf. Sabin, v. 283; Farnham’s _Private Libraries of Boston_.

[71] February, 1880, aged eighty years. His father was Robert Lenox, a Scotchman, who began business in New York in 1783, and retired in 1812 with a large fortune, including a farm of thirty acres, worth then about $6,000, and to-day $10,000,000,—if such figures can be made accurate. Cf. also Charles Deane in _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1880. Henry Stevens’s _Recoll. of Lenox_ is conspicuous for what it does not reveal.

[72] The Lenox Library is now under the direction of the distinguished American historical student, Dr. George H. Moore, so long in charge of the New York Historical Society’s library. Cf. an account of Dr. Moore by Howard Crosby in the _Historical Magazine_, vol. xvii. (January, 1870). The officer in immediate charge of the library is Dr. S. Austin Allibone, well known for his _Dictionary of Authors_.

[73] Mr. Bartlett was early in life a dealer in books in New York; and the Americana catalogues of Bartlett and Welford, forty years ago, were among the best of dealers’ lists. Jackson’s _Bibl. Géog._, no. 641.

[74] The field of Americana before 1800 has been so nearly exhausted in its composition, that recent purchases have been made in other departments, particularly of costly books on the fine arts.

[75] Cf. Vol. III. p. 380.

[76] Because Greenland in the map of the Ptolemy of this year is laid down. The slightest reference to America in books of the sixteenth century have entitled them to admission.

[77] The book purports to have been printed in one hundred copies; but not more than half that number, it is said, have been distributed. Some copies have a title reading, _Bibliographical notices of rare and curious books relating to America, printed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in the library of the late John Carter Brown, by John Russell Bartlett_.

[78] Sir Arthur Helps, in referring to the assistance he had got from books sent to him from America, and from this library in particular, says: “As far as I have been able to judge, the American collectors of books are exceedingly liberal and courteous in the use of them, and seem really to understand what the object should be in forming a great library.” _Spanish Conquest_, American edition, p. 122.

[79] Cf. _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, October, 1875.

[80] Dr. Trumbull himself has been a keen collector of books on American history, particularly in illustration of his special study of aboriginal linguistics; while his influence has not been unfelt in the forming of the Watkinson Library, and of that of the Connecticut Historical Society, both at Hartford.

[81] The first sale—there are to be four—took place in March, 1878, and illustrated a new device in testamentary bequests. Mr. Brinley devised to certain libraries the sum of several thousand dollars each, to be used to their credit for purchases made at the public sale of his books. The result was a competition that carried the aggregate of the sales, it is computed, as much beyond the sum which might otherwise have been obtained, as was the amount devised,—thus impairing in no degree the estate for the heirs, and securing credit for public bequests. The scheme has been followed in the sale of the library (the third part of which was Americana, largely from the Menzies library) of the late J. J. Cooke, of Providence, with an equivalent appreciation of the prices of the books. It is a question if the interests of the libraries benefited are advanced by such artificial stimulation of prices, which a factitious competition helps to make permanent.

[82] _American Bibliopolist_, viii. 128; Wynne’s _Private Libraries of New York_, p. 318. The collection was not exclusively American.

[83] Memoir of Mr. Crowninshield, by Charles Deane, in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, xvii. 356. Mr. Stevens is said to have given about $9,500 for the library. It was sold in various parts, the more extensive portion in July, 1860. Allibone, vol. ii. p. 2,248.

[84] This collection—which Mr. Allan is said to have held at $15,000—brought $39,000 at auction after his death.

[85] Another catalogue rich in pamphlets relating to America is that of Albert G. Greene, New York, 18339.

[86] The _Catalogue_ is more correctly printed than the _Essay_. Sabin, _Bibliog. of Bibliog._, p. cxxv.

[87] _Bibliotheca Mejicana, a collection of books relating to Mexico, and North and South America_; sold by Puttick & Simpson in London, June, 1869. (About 3,000 titles.)

[88] Jackson, _Bibl. Géog._, nos. 844, 845.

[89] _Catalogue de la collection précieuse de livres anciens et modernes formant la Bibliothèque de feu M. Serge Sobolewski (de Moscou)_ Leipsic, 1873.

[90] _Bibliotheca Sunderlandiana. Sale Catalogue of the Sunderland or Blenheim Library. Five Parts._ London, 1881-1883. (13,858 nos.)

[91] _Catalogue de livres rares et précieux, manuscrits et imprimés, principalement sur l’Amérique et sur les langues du monde entier, composant la bibliothèque de Alphonse L. Pinart, et comprenant en totalité la bibliothèque Mexico-Guatémalienne de M. l’abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg._ Paris, 1883. viii. 248 pp. 8º.

[92] _Catalogue de la précieuse bibliothèque de feu M. le Docteur J. Court, comprenant une collection unique de voyageurs et d’historiens relatifs à l’Amérique. Première partie._ Paris, 1884. (458 nos.)

[93] There is an account of his family antecedents, well spiced as his wont is, in the introduction to his _Bibliotheca Historica_, 1870.

[94] Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide to American Literature_ (1859), p. iv.; _North American Review_, July, 1850, p. 205, by George Livermore.

[95] Allibone, ii. 2247-2248.

[96] Sabin, vol. xii. no. 49,961.

[97] Stevens, _Historical Collections_, i. 874. It was ostensibly made in preparation for his projected _Bibliographia Americana_.

[98] _Historical Collections_, vol. i. no. 90; Allibone, vol. ii. p. 2248.

[99] Allibone, ii. 2248; _Historical Collections_, vol. i. no. 875; _Bibliotheca Historica_ (1870), no. 1,974.

[100] Allibone, ii. 2248; _Historical Collections_, vol. i. no. 878.

[101] It was first published, less perfectly, in the _American Journal of Science_, vol. xcviii. p. 299; and of the separate issue seventy-five copies only were printed. _Bibliotheca Historica_ (1870), no. 1,976. It was also issued as a part of a volume on the proposed _Tehuantepec Railway_, prepared by his brother, Simon Stevens, and published by the Appletons of New York the same year. _Ibid._ no. 1,977; _Historical Collections_, vol. i. nos. 894-895; Allibone, vol. ii. p. 2348, nos. 17, 18, 19.

[102] _Historical Collections_, vol. i. no. 897.

[103] It is a droll fancy of his to call his bookshop the “Nuggetory;” to append to his name “G. M. B.,” for Green Mountain Boy; and even to parade in a similar titular fashion his rejection at a London Club,—“Bk-bld—Ath.-Cl.”

[104] _Historical Collections_, vol. i. no. 898.

[105] _Historical Collections_, vol. i. no. 899.

[106] The public is largely indebted to the efforts of Mr. Theodore F. Dwight, the librarian and keeper of the Archives of the Department of State at Washington, for the ultimate success of the endeavor to secure these manuscripts to the nation. Mr. Stevens had lately (1885) formed a copartnership with his son, Mr. Henry N. Stevens, and had begun a new series of Catalogues, of which No. 1 gives his own publications, and No. 2 is a bibliography of New Hampshire History. He died in London, February 28, 1886.

[107] _N. E. Hist. and Geneal. Reg._, 1863, p. 203. Dr. Homes, of Albany, is confident Joseph Bumstead was earlier in Boston than Mr. Drake. The _Boston Directory_ represents him as a printer in 1800, and as a bookseller after 1816.

[108] His earliest catalogue appeared in 1842, as of his private library. Sabin’s _Bibl. of Bibl._, p. xlix. A collection announced for sale in Boston in 1845 was withdrawn after the catalogue was printed, having been sold to the Connecticut Historical Society for $4,000. At one time he amassed a large collection of American school-books to illustrate our educational history. They were bought (about four hundred in all) by the British Museum.

[109] Cf. Jackson’s _Bibl. Géog._, no. 684, and pp. 185, 199. Also see Vol. III. 361.

[110] His catalogues are spiced with annotations signed “Western Memorabilia.” Sabin (_Dictionary_, vii. 369) quotes the saying of a rival regarding Gowans’s catalogues, that their notes “were distinguished by much originality, some personality, and not a little bad grammar.” His shop and its master are drawn in F. B. Perkins’s _Scrope, or the Lost Library_. _A Novel_. Mr. Gowans died in November, 1870, at sixty-seven, leaving a stock, it is said, of 250,000 bound volumes, besides a pamphlet collection of enormous extent. Mr. W. C. Prime told the story of his life, genially, in _Harper’s Magazine_ (1872), in an article on “Old Books in New York.” Speaking of his stock, Mr. Prime says: “There were many more valuable collections in the hands of booksellers, but none so large, and probably none so wholly without arrangement.” Mr. Gowans was a Scotchman by birth, and came to America in 1821. After a varied experience on a Mississippi flat-boat, he came to New York, and in 1827 began life afresh as a bookseller’s clerk. Cf. _American Bibliopolist_, January, 1871, p. 5.

[111] Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, p. xxx.

[112] Jackson, _Bibl. Géog._, nos. 670-676.

[113] Jackson, no. 687. See Vol. IV. p. 435. Munsell issued privately, in 1872, a catalogue of the works printed by him. Sabin, _Bibl. of Bibl._, p. cv. Cf. a _Biographical Sketch of Joel Munsell, by George R. Howell, with a Genealogy of the Munsell Family, by Frank Munsell_. Boston, 1880. This was printed (16 pp.) for the New England Historic Genealogical Society.

[114] Jackson, no. 669.

[115] They have been issued in 1869, 1871, 1873, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1883. Jackson, nos. 705-711. Lesser lists have been issued in Cincinnati by William Dodge. The chief dealer in Americana in Boston, who issues catalogues, is, at the present time, Mr. George E. Littlefield.

[116] Another is now in progress.

[117] With these canons Mr. Quaritch’s prices can be understood. The extent and character of his stock can be inferred from the fact that his purchases at the Perkins sale (1873) amounted to £11,000; at the Tite sale (1874), £9,500; at the Didot sales (1878-1879), £11,600; and at the Sunderland sales (1883), £32,650, out of a total of £56,851. At the recent sales of the Beckford and Hamilton collections, which produced £86,444, over one half, or £44,105, went to Mr. Quaritch. These figures enable one to understand how, in a sense, Mr. Quaritch commands the world’s market of choice books. A sketch, _B. Q., a biographical and bibliographical Fragment_ (1880, 25 copies), in the privately printed series of monographs issued to a club in London, of which Mr. Quaritch is president, called “The Sette of Odd Volumes,” has supplied the above data. The sketch is by C. W. H. Wyman, and is also reprinted in his _Bibliography of Printing_, and in the _Antiquarian Magazine and Bibliographer_, November, 1882. One of the club’s “opuscula” (no. iii.) has an excellent likeness of Mr. Quaritch prefixed. Cf. also the memoir and portrait in Bigmore and Wyman’s _Bibliography of Printing_, ii. 230.

[118] Jackson, nos. 643-649; Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. xix.

[119] Mr. Trübner died in London March 30, 1884. Cf. memorial in _The Library Chronicle_, April, 1884, p. 43, by W. E. A. Axon; also a “Nekrolog” by Karl J. Trübner in the _Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen_, June, 1884, p. 240.

[120] Cf. notice by Mr. Brevoort in _Magazine of American History_, iv. 230.

[121] There is a paper on “Edwin Tross et ses publications relatives à l’Amérique” in _Miscellanées bibliographiques_, Paris, 1878, p. 53, giving a list of his imprints which concern America.

[122] Jackson, nos. 689, 703, 717.

[123] Vol. IV. chap. viii. editorial note. There is an account of Muller and his bibliographical work in the _Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen_, November, 1884.

[124] Jackson, nos. 650-654; Trübner, _Bibliographical Guide_, p. xix; Sabin, _Bibliog. of Bibliog._, p. cv; Petzholdt, _Bibliotheca Bibliographica_.

[125] More or less help will be derived from the American portion of the _Liste provisoire de bibliographies géographiques spéciales, par James Jackson_, published in 1881 by the Société de Géographie de Paris,—a book of which use has been made in the preceding pages.

[126] See the chapter on the libraries of Boston in the _Memorial History of Boston_, vol. iv.

[127] The extent of Dr. Dexter’s library is evident from the signs of possession which are so numerously scattered through the 7,250 titles that constitute the exhaustive and very careful bibliography of Congregationalism and the allied phases of religious history, which forms an appendix to his _Congregationalism as seen in its Literature_, New York, 1880. He explains in the Introduction to his volume the wide scope which he intended to give to this list; and to show how poorly off our largest public libraries in America are in the earliest books illustrating this movement, he says that of the 1,000 earliest titles which he gives, and which bear date between 1546 and 1644, he found only 208 in American libraries. His arrangement of titles is chronological, but he has a full name-index.

The students of the early English colonies cannot fail to find for certain phases of their history much help from Joseph Smith’s _Descriptive Catalogue of Friends’ Books_, London, 1867; his _Bibliotheca Anti-Quakeriana_, 1873; and his _Bibliotheca Quakeristica_, a bibliography of miscellaneous literature relating to the Friends, of which Part I. was issued in London in 1883.

[128] The private library of George Bancroft is in Washington. It is described as it existed some years ago in Wynne’s _Private Libraries of New York_.

[129] A book on the private libraries of San Francisco by Apponyi was issued in 1878.

[130] An account of the libraries of the various historical societies in the United States is given in the _Public Libraries of the United States_, issued by the Bureau of Education at Washington in 1876.

[131] The title is quoted differently by different authorities. Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 32, and _Additions_, no. 16; his _Christophe Colomb_, i. 89; Humboldt, _Examen critique_, iv. 67; Sabin, _Dictionary of Books relating to America_, x. 327; D’Avezac, _Waltzemüller_, p. 79; Varnhagen, _Nouvelles Recherches_, p. 17; Irving’s _Columbus_, app. ix.

[132] See Vol. IV. p. 12. The editorship is in dispute,—whether Zorzi or Montalboddo. The better opinion seems to be that Humboldt erred in assigning it to Zorzi rather than to Montalboddo. Cf. Humboldt, _Examen critique_; Brunet, v. 1155, 1158; Sabin, _Dictionary_, vol. xii. no. 50,050; D’Avezac, _Waltzemüller_, p. 80; Graesse, _Trésor_; Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, nos. 48, 109, app. p. 469, and _Additions_, no. 26; _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_, October, 1857, p. 312; Santarem’s _Vespucius_, Eng. tr., p. 73; Irving’s _Columbus_, app. xxx.; Navarrete, _Opúsculos_, i. 101; Harrisse, _Christophe Colomb_, i. 89. There are copies of this 1507 edition in the Lenox and Carter-Brown libraries, and in the Grenville Library; and one in the Beckford sale, 1882 (no. 186), brought £270. Cf. also _Murphy Catalogue_, no. 2,612[A], and _Catalogue de la précicuse bibliothèque de feu M. le Docteur F. Court_ (Paris, 1884), no. 262. The _Paesi novamente retrovati_ is shown in the chapter on the Cortereals in Vol. IV. to be of importance in elucidating the somewhat obscure story of that portion of the early Portuguese discoveries in North America. Since Vol. IV. was printed, two important contributions to this study have been made. One is the monograph of Henry Harrisse, _Les Cortereal et leur voyages au Nouveau-monde. D’après des documents nouveaux ou peu connus tirés des archives de Lisbonne et de Modène. Suivi du texte inédit d’un recit de la troisième expédition de Gasper Cortereal et d’une carte nautique portugaise de 1502 reproduite ici pour la première jois. Mémoire lu à l’Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres dans sa séance du 1er juin, 1883_, and published in Paris in 1883, as Vol. III. of the _Recueil de voyages et de documents pour servir à l’histoire de la géographie depuis le XIIIe jusqu’à la fin du XVIe siècle_. The other is the excerpt from the _Archivo des Açores_, which was drawn from that work by the editor, Ernesto do Canto, and printed separately at Ponta Delgarda (S. Miguel) in an edition of one hundred copies, under the title of _Os Corte-Reaes, memoria historica accompanhada de muitos documentos ineditos_. Do Canto refers (p. 34) to other monographs on the Portuguese discoveries in America as follows: Sebastião Francisco Mendo Trigoso,—_Ensaio sobre os Descobrimentos e Commercio dos Portuguezes em as Terras Septentrionaes da America_, presented to the Lisbon Academy (1813), and published in their _Memorias da Litteratura_, viii. 305. Joaquim José Gonçalves de Mattos Corrêa,—_Acerca da prioridade das Descobertas feitas pelos portuguezes nas costas orientaes da America do norte_, which was printed in _Annaes maritimos e Coloniaes_, Lisbon, 1841, pp. 269-423. Luciano Cordeiro,—_De la part prise par les Portugais dans le découverte de l’Amerique_, Lisbon, 1876. This was a communication made to the Congrès des Américanistes in 1875. Cf. Vol. IV. p. 15.

[133] Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 55; D’Avezac, _Waltzemüller_, p. 80; Wieser, _Magalhâes-Strasse_, pp. 15, 17. There are copies in the Lenox, Carter-Brown, Harvard College, and Cincinnati Public libraries. The Beckford copy brought, in 1882, £78. Quaritch offered a copy in 1883 for £45. At the Potier sale, in 1870 (no. 1,791), a copy brought 2,015 francs; the same had brought 389 francs in 1844 at the Nodier sale. _Livres payés en vente publique 1,000 francs et au dessus_, 1877, p. 77. Cf. also Court, no. 263.

[134] Only one copy in the United States, says Sabin.

[135] In Carter-Brown and Lenox libraries; also in the Marciana and Brera libraries. Leclerc in 1878 priced a copy at 1,000 francs. Cf. Harrisse, no. 90, also p. 463, and _Additions_, no. 52; Sobolewski, no. 4,130; Brunet, v. 1158; Court, no. 264.

[136] Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,054; Leclerc, no. 2,583 (500 francs). A copy was sold in London in March, 1883. There is a copy in the Cincinnati Public Library.

[137] Harrisse, no. 109; Sobolewski, no. 4,131; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 68; Murphy, no. 2,617.

[138] _Newe unbekanthe landte_ (Nuremberg, 1508), by Ruchamer; copies are in the Lenox, Carter-Brown, Congress, and Cincinnati Public libraries. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,056; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 36; Harrisse, no. 57; Murphy, no. 2,613; Sobolewski, no. 4,069; D’Avezac, _Waltzemüller_, p. 83; Rosenthal, _Catalogue_ (1884), no. 67, at 1,000 marks.

[139] _Nye unbekande Lande_ (1508), in Platt-Deutsch, by Henning Ghetel, of Lubeck, following the German. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,057; Harrisse, _Additions_, no. 29. The Carter-Brown copy (_Catalogue_, vol. i. no. 37) cost about 1,000 marks at the Sobolewski (no. 4,070) sale, when it was described as an “édition absolument inconnu jusqu’au présent.” Mr. C. H. Kalbfleisch has since secured a copy at 3,000 marks,—probably the copy advertised “as the second copy known,” by Albert Cohn, of Berlin, in 1881, in his _Katalog_, vol. cxxxix. no. 27. Cf. _Studi biografici e bibliografici della Società Italiana_, i. 219.

[140] _Itinerariū Portugallēsiū e Lusitania in Indiā_ (Milan, 1508), a Latin version by Archangelus Madrinanus, of Milan. Cf. D’Avezac, _Waltzemüller_, p. 82; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,058; Harrisse, no. 58; Sobolewski, no. 4,128; Muller (1870), no. 1,844. There are copies in the Lenox, Barlow, Harvard College, Carter-Brown (_Catalogue_, vol. i. no. 35), and Congressional libraries. The Beckford copy (no. 1,081) brought £78. Sabin quotes Bolton Corney’s copy at £137. Copies have been recently priced at £30, £36, and £45. A copy noted in the _Court Catalogue_ (no. 177) differs from Harrisse’s collation.

[141] _Sensuyt le nouveau mōde_, supposed to be 1515; some copies vary in text. The Lenox Library has two varieties. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. nos. 50,059, 50,061; Harrisse, no. 83, and _Additions_, no. 46; D’Avezac, _Waltzemüller_, p. 84. An edition of 1516 (_Le nouveau monde_) is in the Carter-Brown and Lenox libraries (Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,062; Court, no. 248; Harrisse, no. 86; Sobolewski, no. 4,129). One placed in 1521 (_Sensuyt le nouveau mōde_) is in Harvard College Library (Harrisse, no. 111; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,063). Another (_Sensuyt le nouveau monde_) is placed under 1528 (Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,064; Harrisse, no. 146, and _Additions_, no. 87).

[142] _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 50. Harrisse also gives a chapter to Peter Martyr in his _Christophe Colomb_, i. 85.

[143] See also the reference in Joannes Tritemius’ _De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_ (Cologne, 1546), pp. 481-482. There have been within a few years two monographs upon Martyr:(1) Hermann A. Schumacher’s _Petrus Martyr, der Geschichtsschreiber des Weltmeeres_ (New York, 1879); (2) Dr. Heinrich Heidenheimer’s _Petrus Martyr Anglerius und sein Opus epistolarum_ (Berlin, 1881). This last writer gives a section to his geographical studies.

[144] Humboldt, _Examen critique_, ii. 279; Irving, _Columbus_, app.; Prescott, _Ferdinand and Isabella_ (1873), ii. 74, and _Mexico_, ii. 96; H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, i. 312; Helps, _Spanish Conquest_. Cf. Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, nos. 66 and 160.

[145] Morelli’s edition of _Letter of Columbus_, 1810.

[146] There is an examination of this edition on page 109 of Vol. II.

[147] Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 88; _Carter-Brown Catalogue_, vol. i. no. 50; Huth, p. 920; Brunet, i. 293; Murphy, no. 1,606; Leclerc, no. 2,647 (600 francs); Stevens, _Nuggets_, £10 10_s._; _Bibliotheca Grenvilliana_. There is a copy in Charles Deane’s collection. Tross priced a copy in 1873 at 900 francs.

[148] _Carter-Brown Catalogue_, vol. i. no. 61; Graesse, _Trésor_, i. 130; Sabin, i. 201, who says Rich put it under 1560.

[149] _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 62; _Additions_, p. 78.

[150] _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 110.

[151] There are copies in Harvard College and Carter-Brown libraries. Cf. Sabin, i. 199; Leclerc, no. 24 (150 francs); Court, no. 13; Murphy, no. 1,606[A]; Stevens, _Historical Collection_, i. 48; his _Nuggets_, £2 2_s._ But recent prices have been £20 and £25; Brunet, i. 294; Ternaux, no. 24; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,173. This tract was reprinted in the _Novus orbis_ (Basle, 1532), and was appended to the Antwerp edition (1536) of Brocard’s _Descriptio terræ sanctæ_ (Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 218; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 117). It is also in the _Novus orbis_ of Rotterdam, 1596 (Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 505).

[152] There are copies in the Harvard College, Lenox, and Carter-Brown libraries. It is very rare; a fair copy was priced in London, in 1881, at £62. Cf. Brunet, i. 293; _Carter-Brown Catalogue_, vol. i. no. 94; Sabin, i. 198; Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 154; Murphy, no. 1,607; Court, no. 14.

[153] The book is very rare. There is a copy in Harvard College Library. A copy was priced in London at £36; but Quaritch holds the Beckford copy (no. 2,275), in fine binding, at £148. Harrisse (_Bill. Amer. Vet._, no. 167) errs in his description. Cf. Brunet, i. 294; Sobolewski, no. 3,667; Sabin, i. 199; Huth, p. 920; Stevens, _Historical Collections_, i. 48; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 99; Murphy, no. 3,002; Court, no. 124.

[154] Richard Eden’s copy of this book, with his annotations, apparently used in making his translation of 1555, was sold in the Brinley sale, no. 40, having been earlier in the Judge Davis sale in 1847 (no. 1,352). The first of the Stevens copies, in his sale of 1870 (nos. 75, 1,234), is now in Mr. Deane’s library. There are also copies in the Force (Library of Congress), Carter-Brown (_Catalogue_, vol. i. no. 104), and Ticknor (_Catalogue_, p. 14) collections, and in Harvard College Library. Cf. Sabin, i.; Stevens’s _Nuggets_, £1 11_s._ 6_d._; Ternaux, no. 47; Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 176; Muller (1877), no. 2,031; Court, no. 15; Murphy, no. 1,608; Leclerc (1878), no. 25 (80 francs); Quaritch, no. 11,628 (£3 10_s._; again, £5 5_s._); Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,176 (£50). Priced in Germany at 60 and 100 marks.

[155] Ramusio’s name does not appear, but D’Avezac thinks his editorship is probable; cf. _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (1872), p. 11. There are copies in Harvard College, Carter-Brown, J. C. Brevoort, H. C. Murphy, and Lenox libraries. For an account of a map said to belong to it, see Winsor’s _Bibliography of Ptolemy_, sub anno 1540. Cf. _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 190; Stevens, _Historical Collections_, vol. i. no. 344, and _Nuggets_, vol. ii. no. 1,808; Murphy, no. 1,609; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,177; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 107; Ternaux, no. 43; Court, no. 213. Ramusio also included Martyr in the third volume of his _Navigationi_. Cf. the opinions of Mr. Deane and Mr. Brevoort on the _Summario_ as given in Vol. III. p. 20.

[156] Brunet, Graesse, Ternaux.

[157] Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 214.

[158] Vol. i. p. 199.

[159] See Vol. III. p. 200; Murphy, no. 1,610.

[160] The book is rare; the copy in the Menzies sale (no. 1,332) brought $42.50. Cf. further in Vol. III. p. 204; also Cooke, no. 1,642.

[161] It has three decades and three books of the “De Babylonica legatione.” There are copies in Harvard College and the Carter-Brown libraries. Cf. Rich (1832), no. 52; _Nuggets_, £1 10_s._ 6_d._; Sabin, i. 201; Muller, (1877), no. 2,031; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 295; Leclerc, no. 26 (80 francs); Harrassowitz, 35 marks; Quaritch, £1 5s. and £1 16s.; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,178; O’Callaghan, no. 1,479; Cooke, no. 1,641; Court, no. 16; Murphy, no. 1,611.

[162] Graesse, i. 130; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 344; Stevens (1870), no. 1,235.

[163] The Sunderland copy (vol. iv. no. 8,179), with the map, brought £24; a French catalogue advertised one with the map for 250 francs. Without the map it is worth about $25. See further in Vol. III. p. 42; also Murphy, no. 1,612; Cooke, no. 1,643; Court, no. 17. Hakluyt’s text was used by Lok in making an English version (he adopted, however, Eden’s text of the first three decades), which was printed as _De Novo Orbe; or, the Historie of the West Indies_. Bibliographers differ about the editions. One without date is held by some to have been printed in 1597 (White-Kennett; Field, _Indian Bibliography_, no. 1,013; Menzies, no. 1,333, $35; Huth, p. 923); but others consider it the sheets of the 1612 edition with a new title (see Vol. III. p. 47, Field, no. 1,014; Stevens, 1870, no. 1,236; Harrisse, _Notes on Columbus_, p. 10; O’Callaghan, no. 1,481; Murphy, no. 1,612*; Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 129, 130). There are copies of this 1612 edition in the Boston Athenæum, Harvard College, Carter-Brown, and Massachusetts Historical Society libraries; it is worth from $30 to $40. Mr. Deane’s edition of 1612 has a dedication to Julius Cæsar, the English jurist of that day, which is not in the edition without date. See Vol. III. p. 47. The same was reissued as a “second edition,” with a title dated 1628, of which there is a copy in Harvard College Library (Field, no. 1,015; Stevens, _Nuggets_, £4 14_s._ 6_d._; Menzies, no. 1,334; Griswold, no. 475; Quaritch, £9 and £12).

[164] Brunet, i. 294; Harrisse, _Notes on Columbus_, p. 10; _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 160; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 93; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,174, (£61). There is also a copy in Harvard College Library.

[165] Sabin, i. 200. Copy in Harvard College Library; it was printed at the Elzevir Press (Harrisse, _Notes on Columbus_, p. 11; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,036; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,175).

[166] Prescott’s copy is in Harvard College Library (_Ferdinand and Isabella_, 1873, ii. 76).

[167] Cf. Arana, _Bibliog. de obras anon._ (1882), no. 373.

[168] There are copies of this Basle edition in the Boston Public, Harvard College, Carter-Brown, Lenox, Astor, and Barlow libraries. Münster’s map, of which an account is given elsewhere, is often wanting; the price for a copy with the map has risen from a guinea in Rich’s day (1832), to £5. Cf. Harrisse, no. 171; Leclerc, no. 411; Muller (1877), no. 1,301; Ternaux, no. 38; Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,100; Court, no. 249. The Paris edition has the Orontius Finæus map properly, though others are sometimes found in it. Cf. Harrisse, nos. 172, 173; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 102; Sabin, vol. ix. nos. 34,101, 34,102; Leclerc, nos. 412 (150 francs), 2,769; Stevens, _Bibliotheca geographica_, p. 124; Cooke, no. 2,879; Court, no. 250; Sunderland, no. 263; Muller (1872), no. 1,847; Quaritch (1883) £12 16_s._ The Lenox Library has copies of different imprints,—“apud Galeotum” and “apud Parvum.” There are other copies in the Barlow and Carter-Brown libraries. Good copies are worth about £10.

[169] Sabin (vol. ix. p. 30) says it is rarer than the original Latin. There are copies in Harvard College, Congressional, and Carter-Brown libraries. Cf. Rich (1832), £1 1_s._; Ternaux, no. 45; Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,106; Grenville, p. 498; Harrisse, no. 188, with references; Stevens (1870), no. 1,419; Muller (1872), no. 1,853, and (1877) no. 1,309 (40 florins), with corrections of Harrisse; Sobolewski, no. 3,857; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 110; Huth, vol. iii. nos. 1,050-1,051. Quaritch and others of late price it at £3. It was from this German edition of the _Novus orbis_ that the collection, often quoted as that of Cornelis Albyn, and called _Nieuwe Weerelt_, was made up in 1563, with some additional matter. It is in the dialect of Brabant, and Muller (_Books on America_, 1872, no. 1,854) says it is “exceedingly rare, even in Holland;” he prices it at 50 florins. Cf. Leclerc, no. 2,579 (250 francs); Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,107; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 240; Huth, vol. iii. no. 1,051; A. R. Smith’s Catalogue (1874), no. 8 (£2 2_s._); Pinart, no. 668.

[170] It has pp. 585-600 in addition to the edition of 1532. There are copies in the Cornell University (_Sparks Catalogue_, no. 1,107), Lenox, Carter-Brown, Barlow, J. C. Brevoort, and American Antiquarian Society libraries. One of the two copies in Harvard College Library belonged at different times to Charles Sumner, E. A. Crowninshield (no. 796), and the poet Thomas Gray, and has Gray’s annotations, and a record that it cost him one shilling and ninepence. The map of the 1532 Basle edition belongs to this 1537 edition; but it is often wanting. The _Huth Catalogue_ (vol. iii. p. 1050) calls the map of “extreme rarity;” and Quaritch has pointed out that the larger names in the map being set in type in the block, there is some variation in the style of these inscriptions belonging to the different issues. Cf. Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,103; Harrisse, no. 223; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 123; Leclerc, no. 413, with map (100 francs); Stevens (_Nuggets_) does not mention the map, but his _Bibliotheca historica_ (1870), no. 1,455, and _Historical Collections_, p. 66, give it; Muller (1872), no. 1,850 and (1877) no. 1,306. Recent prices of good copies with the map are quoted at £4 4_s._, 57 marks, and 70 francs; without the map it brings about $4.00. Grolier’s copy was in the Beckford sale (1882), no. 187.

[171] There are copies in the Boston Public (two copies), Boston Athenæum, Harvard College, Carter-Brown (no. 202), and American Antiquarian Society libraries. The map is repeated from the earlier Basle editions. Cf. _Brinley Catalogue_, no. 50; _Huth Catalogue_ (without map), iii. 1,050; Harrisse, no. 171; Stevens, _Historical Collection_, vol. i. no. 501; Cooke, no. 1,064; Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,104. Rich, in 1832, priced it with map at £2 2_s._; recent prices are £4 4_s._ and £5 5_s._

[172] Edited by Balthazar Lydius. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 182; Graesse, iv. 699; Brunet, iv. 132; Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,105; Huth, iii. 1051; Leclerc, no. 414 (40 francs); Stevens, _Nuggets_, £2 2_s._; Court, no. 251; Muller (1872), no. 1,870. There are copies in Harvard College Library and Boston Athenæum.

[173] The editions of Ptolemy recording or affecting the progress of geography in respect to the New World are noted severally elsewhere in the present work; but the whole series is viewed together in the _Bibliography of Ptolemy’s Geography_, by Justin Winsor, which, after appearing serially in the _Harvard University Bulletin_, was issued separately by the University Library in 1884 as no. 18 of its _Bibliographical Contributions_.

[174] H. H. Bancroft, _Mexico_, i. 258. Harrisse (_Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 237) gives the date 1541 as apparently the first edition. His authority is the _Labanoff Catalogue_; but the date therein is probably an error (Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,384). The _Athenæ Rauricæ_ cites a Latin edition of 1543,—it is supposed without warrant, though it is also mentioned in Poggendorff’s _Biog.-liter. Handwörterbuch_, ii. 234.

[175] Harrisse (_Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 258), describing a copy in the Lenox Library. The map of America in this edition is given by Santarem, and much reduced in Lelewel. There are twenty-four maps in it in all (Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,385).

[176] Also published at Basle (Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet., Additions_, no. 152; Weigel, 1877, _Catalogue_; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,386). It has twenty-eight maps. There is a copy in the Royal Library at Munich.

[177] The third and later German editions were as follows: 1546. According to the _Athenæ Rauricæ_.—1550. Basle, 1,233 pages, woodcuts, with views of towns added for the first time, and fourteen folios of maps. Harrisse (no. 294) quotes the description in Ebert’s _Dictionary_, no. 14,500. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,387; Leclerc, no. 396; Rosenthal (Munich, 1884), no. 52, at 80 marks. Harrisse (_Additions_, no. 179) says the Royal Library at Munich has three different German editions of 1550.—1553. Basle. Muller (_Books on America_, 1872, no. 1,020; 1877, no. 2,203) cites a copy, with twenty-six maps; also Sabin (vol. xii. no. 51,388).—1556. Cited by Sabin, vol. xii. no. 53,389.—1561. Basle. Cf. Rosenthal, _Catalogue_ (1884), no. 53.—1564. Basle. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,390; _Carter-Brown Catalogue_, i. 598. It has fourteen maps, the last being of the New World.—1569, 1574, 1578. Basle. All are cited by Ebert and Harrisse, who give them twenty-six maps, and say that the cuts are poor impressions.—1574, 1578, 1588. Undated; but cited by Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,391-51,393.—1592, 1598. In these editions the twenty-six maps and the woodcuts are engraved after new drawings. That of 1592 is in the Boston Athenæum; that of 1598 is in Harvard College Library. The likeness of Münster on the title is inscribed: “Seins alters lx jar.” America is shown in the general mappemonde, and in map no. xxvi., “Die Newe Welt.” Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,394-51,395.—1614, 1628. These Basle editions reproduced the engravings of the 1592 and 1598 editions, and are considered the completest issues of the German text. They are worth from 30 to 40 marks each. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,396.

[178] The _Athenæ Rauricæ_ gives a Latin edition of 1545.

[179] This 1550 Latin edition has fourteen maps, and copies are worth from $12 to $15. Cf. _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 300; _Huth Catalogue_, iii. 1,009; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,379; Strutt, _Dictionary of Engravers_.

[180] The title of the 1554 edition as shown in the copy in the Boston Public Library reads as follows: _Cosmo | graphiae | uniuersalis Lib. VI. in | quibus iuxta certioris fidei scriptorum | traditionem describuntur, | Omnium habitabilis orbis partium situs, pro- | priæq’ dotes. | Regionum Topographicæ effigies. | Terræ ingenia, quibus sit ut tam differentes & ua | rias specie res, & animatas, & inanimatas, ferat. | Animalium peregrinorum naturæ & picturæ. | Nobiliorum ciuitatum icones & descriptiones. | Regnorum initia, incrementa & translationes. | Regum & principum genealogiæ. | Item omnium gentium mores, leges, religio, mu- | tationes: atq’ memorabilium in hunc usque an- | num 1554. gestarum rerum Historia. | Autore Sebast. Munstero._ The same edition is in the Harvard College Library; but the title varies, and reads thus: _Cosmo | graphiæ | uniuersalis Lib. VI. in | quibus, iuxta certioris fidei scriptorum | traditionem describuntur, | Omniū habitabilis orbis partiū situs, propriæq’ dotes. | Regionum Topographicæ effigies. | Terræ ingenia, quibus sit ut tam differentes & uarias | specie res, & animatas & inanimatas, ferat. | Animalium peregrinorum naturæ & picturæ. Nobiliorum ciuitatum icones & descriptiones. | Regnorum initia, incrementa & translationes. | Omnium gentium mores, leges, religio, res gestæ, mu- | tationes: Item regum & principum genealogiæ. | Autore Sebast. Munstero. | The colophon in both reads: | Basileæ Apud Henrichum Petri, | Mense Septemb. Anno Sa | lvtis M.D.LIIII._ | This copy belonged to Dr. Mather Byles, and has his autograph; the title is mounted, and may have belonged to some other one of the several “title-editions” which appeared about this time. Cf. _Harvard University Bulletin_, ii. 285; _Carter-Brown_, vol. i. no. 194; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,380-51,381. The account of America is on pages 1,099-1,113. These editions have been bought of late years for about $4; but Rosenthal (Munich, 1884) prices a copy of 1552 at 130 marks, and one of 1554 at 150 marks.

[181] Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,382; Muller, _Books on America_ (1872), p. 11.

[182] Some copies have nineteen maps, others twenty-two in all. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 291; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,383. Some passages displeasing to the Catholics are said to have been omitted in this edition. It is worth about $12 or $15.

[183] _Supplément_, col. 1,129; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,397.

[184] That of Basle, 1556, has on pp. 1,353-1,374, “Des nouvelles ilsles: comment, quand et par qui elles ont esté trouvées,” with a map and fourteen woodcuts. It is usually priced at about $20; the copies are commonly worn (Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,398). The same publisher, Henry Pierre, reissued it (without date) in 1568, with twelve folding woodcut maps, the first of which pertains to America (Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 271; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,399). In 1575 a new French edition, with the cuts reduced, was issued in three volumes, folio, edited by Belleforest and others; it gives 101 pages to America. Cf. Brunet, col. 1,945; _Supplément_, col. 1,129; Stevens (1870), p. 121; Sunderland, no. 8,722 (£18 10_s._); Porquet (1884), no. 1,673, (150 francs); Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,400.

[185] Cf. Vol. III. of the present _History_, pp. 200, 201.

[186] Weigel (1877), p. 96; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,401.

[187] _Supplément_, col. 1,129. Cf. also Weigel (1877), p. 96; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,132; Sabin, vol. xii. nos. 51,402-51,403.

[188] _Terzo volume delle navigationi et viaggi_, etc., Venice, 1556. His name is, Latinized, Ramusius.

[189] Harrisse, _Notes on Columbus_, p. 46. A list of the Contents is given in the _Carter-Brown Catalogue_ (vol. i. p. 181), and in Leclerc (no. 484), where a set (1554, 1583, 1565) is priced at 250 francs. Of interest in connection with the present History, there are in the first volume of Ramusio the voyages of Da Gama, Vespucius, and Magellan, as well as matter of interest in connection with Cabot (see Vol. III. p. 24); in the second volume (1559), the travels of Marco Polo, the voyage of the Zeni and of Cabot. The first edition of the first volume was published in 1550; Ramusio’s name does not appear. A second edition came out in 1554. Cf. _Murphy Catalogue_, nos. 2,096-2,098; Cooke, no. 2,117.

[190] Born in 1485-1486; died in 1557. There is an alleged portrait of Ramusio in the new edition of _Il viaggio di Giovan Leone_, etc. (Venice, 1857), the only volume of it published. The portrait of him by Paul Veronese in the hall of the Great Council was burned in 1557; and Cicogna (_Biblioteca Veneziana_, ii. 310) says that the likeness now in the Sala dello Scudo is imaginary.

[191] Cf. also Camus, _Mémoire sur De Bry_, p. 8; Humboldt, _Examen critique_; Hallam, _Literature of Europe_; Harrisse, _Bibl. Amer. Vet._, no. 304; Brunet, vol. iv. col. 1100; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 195 Clarke’s _Maritime Discovery_, p. x, where Tiraboschi’s account of Ramusio is translated; and H. H. Bancroft, _Mexico_, i. 282. Ternaux mentions a second edition in 1564; but Harrisse could find no evidence of it (_Bibl. Amer. Vet._, p. xxxiii). There was a well-known second edition of the third volume in 1565 (differing in title only from the 1556 edition), which, with a first volume of 1588 and a second volume of 1583, is thought to make up the most desirable copy; though there are some qualifications in the case, since the 1606 edition of the third volume is really more complete.

[192] Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 275.

[193] Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 287, 288, 299, 337; Sunderland, nos. 8,569, 8,570; Brinley, no. 44; Murphy, no. 1,709; Court, no. 241.

[194] Court, no. 242.

[195] Carter-Brown, i. 386; ii. 12; Brinley, no. 45.

[196] The different editions in the various languages are given in Sabin, xii. 282.

[197] Sabin, vol. viii. no. 32,004.

[198] A complete reprint of all of Hakluyt’s publications, in fourteen or fifteen volumes, is announced (1884) by E. and G. Goldsmid, of Edinburgh.

[199] The title, however, as given in catalogues generally, runs: _Collectiones peregrinationum in Indiam orientalem et Indiam occidentalem, XXV partibus comprehensæ a Theodoro, Joan-Theodoro De Bry, et a Matheo Merian publicatæ. Francofurti ad Mænum_, 1590-1634.

[200] This part is of extreme rarity, and Dibdin says that Lord Oxford bought the copy in the Grenville Library in 1740 for £140. Cf. Vol. III.

[201] The earliest description of a set of De Bry of any bibliographical moment is that of the Abbé de Rothelin, _Observations et détails sur la collection des voyages_, etc. (Paris, 1742), pp. 44 (Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 473), which is reprinted in Lenglet du Fresnoy’s _Méthode pour étudier la géographie_ (1768), i. 324. Gabriel Martin, in his catalogue of the library of M. Cisternay du Fay, had somewhat earlier announced that collector’s triumph in calling a set in his catalogue (no. 2,825) “exemplum omni genere perfectum,” when his copy brought 450 francs. The Abbé de Rothelin aimed to exceed Cisternay du Fay, and did in the varieties which he brought together. The next description was that of De Bure in his _Bibliographie instructive_ (vol. i. p. 67), printed 1763-1768; but the German editions were overlooked by De Bure, as they had been by his predecessors. The _Carter-Brown Catalogue_ (vol. i. no. 473) shows Sobolewski’s copy of De Bure with manuscript notes. A lifetime later, in 1802, A. G. Camus printed at Paris his _Mémoire sur les grands et petits voyages_ [de De Bry] _et les voyages de Thevenot_. As a careful and critical piece of work, this collation of Camus was superior to De Bure’s. A description of a copy belonging to the Duke of Bedford was printed in Paris in 1836 (6 pp.). Weigel, in the _Serapeum_ (1845), pp. 65-89, printed his “Bibliographische Mittheilungen über die deutschen Ausgaben von De Bry,” which was also printed separately. It described a copy now owned in New York. Muller, in his _Catalogue_ (1872), p. 217, indicates some differences from Weigel’s collations. The copy formed by De Bure fell into Mr. Grenville’s hands, and was largely improved by him before he left it, with his library, to the British Museum. The _Bibliotheca Grenvilliana_ describes it, and Bartlett (_Carter-Brown Catalogue_, i. 321) thinks it the finest in Europe. Cf. Dibdin’s description, which is copied in the _American Bibliopolist_ (1872), p. 13. The standard collation at present is probably that of Brunet, in his _Manuel du libraire_, vol. i. (1860), which was also printed separately; in this he follows Weigel for the German texts. This account is followed by Sabin in his _Dictionary_ (vol. iii. p. 20), whose article, prepared by Charles A. Cutter, of the Boston Athenæum, has also been printed separately. The Brunet account is accompanied by a valuable note (also in Sabin, iii. 59), by Sobolewski, whose best set (reaching one hundred and seventy parts) was a wonderful one, though he lacked the English Hariot. This set came to this country through Muller (cf. his _Catalogue_, 1875, p. 387), and is now in the Lenox Library. Sobolewski’s second set went into the Field Collection, and was sold in 1875; and again in the J. J. Cooke sale (_Catalogue_, iii. 297) in 1883. Cf. _Catalogue de la collection de feu M. Serge Sobolewski de Moscou_, prepared by Albert Cohn. The sale took place in Leipsic in July, 1873. Brunet and Sobolewski both point out the great difficulties of a satisfactory collation, arising from the publisher’s habit of mixing the sheets of the various editions, forming varieties almost beyond the acquisition of the most enthusiastic collector, “so that,” says Brunet, “perhaps no two copies of this work are exactly alike.” “No man ever yet,” says Henry Stevens (_Historical Collections_, vol. i. no. 179), “made up his De Bry perfect, if one may count on the three great De Bry witnesses,—the Right Honorable Thomas Grenville, the Russian prince Sobolewski, and the American Mr. Lenox,—who all went far beyond De Bure, yet fell far short of attaining all the variations they had heard of.” The collector will value various other collations now accessible, like that in the _Carter-Brown Catalogue_, vol. i. no. 396 (also printed separately, twenty-five copies, in 1875); that printed by Quaritch, confined to the German texts; that in the _Huth Catalogue_, ii. 404; and that in the _Sunderland Catalogue_, nos. 2,052, 2,053.

[202] There are lists of the sets which have been sold since 1709 given in Sabin (vol. iii. p. 47), from Brunet, and in the _Carter-Brown Catalogue_ (vol. i. p. 408). The Rothelin copy, then esteemed the best known, brought, in 1746, 750 francs. At a later day, with additions secured under better knowledge, it again changed hands at 2,551 francs, and once more, in 1855 (described in the _Bulletin du bibliophile_, 1855, pp. 38-41), Mr. Lenox bought it for 12,000 francs; and in 1873 Mr. Lenox also bought the best Sobolewski copy (fifty-five volumes) for 5,050 thalers. With these and other parts, procured elsewhere, this library is supposed to lead all others in the facilities for a De Bry bibliography. Fair copies of the _Grands voyages_ in Latin, in first or second editions, are usually sold for about £100, and for both voyages for £150, and sometimes £200. Muller, in 1872, held the fourteen parts, in German, of the _Grands voyages_, at 1,000 florins. Fragmentary sets are frequently in the Catalogues, but bring proportionately much less prices. In unusually full sets the appreciation of value is rapid with every additional part. Most large American libraries have sets of more or less completeness. Besides those in the Carter-Brown (which took thirty years to make, besides a duplicate set from the Sobolewski sale) and Lenox libraries, there are others in the Boston Public, Harvard College, Astor, and Long Island Historical Society libraries,—all of fair proportions, and not unfrequently in duplicate and complemental sets. The copy of the Great Voyages, in Latin (all first editions), in the Murphy Library (_Catalogue_, no. 379), was gathered for Mr. Murphy by Obadiah Rich. The Murphy Library also contained the German text in first editions. In 1884 Quaritch offered the fine set from the Hamilton Library (twenty-five parts), “presumed to be quite perfect,” for £670. The Earl of Crawford and Balcarres is about publishing his bibliography of De Bry.

[203] There are somewhat diverse views on this point expressed by Brunet and in the Grenville Catalogue.

[204] Reference has been made elsewhere (Vol. III. pp. 123, 164) to sketches, now preserved as a part of the Grenville copy of De Bry in the British Museum, which seem to have been the originals from which De Bry engraved the pictures in Hariot’s _Virginia_, etc. These were drawn by Wyth, or White. A collection of twenty-four plates of such, from De Bry, were published in New York in 1841 (_Field’s Indian Bibliography_, no. 1,701). Cf. _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct. 20, 1866, for other of De Bry’s drawings in the British Museum. De Bry’s engravings have been since copied by Picard in his _Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses des peuples idolatres_ (Amsterdam, 1723), and by others. Exception is taken to the fidelity of De Bry’s engravings in the parts on Columbus; cf. Navarrete, French translation, i. 320.

[205] Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 453, 454, 455.

[206] Rich (1832), £5 5_s._ Cf. P. A. Tiele’s _Mémoire bibliographique sur les journaux des navigateurs Néerlandais réimprimés dans les collections de De Bry et de Hulsius_, Amsterdam, 1867.

[207] Stevens (1870), no. 668; Sabin, vi. 211.

[208] Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 456; vol. ii. no. 198; Muller (1875), p. 389.

[209] Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 457, 458; vol. ii. nos. 373, 791. There was a second edition in 1655. Cf. Muller (1872), no. 636; Sabin, vol. i. no. 50; iii. 59; Huth, ii. 612. Abelin also edited the first four volumes (covering 1617-1643) of the _Theatrum Europeum_ (Frankfort, 1635), etc., which pertains incidentally to American affairs (Muller, 1872, no. 1,514). Fitzer’s _Orientalische Indien_ (1628) and Arthus’s _Historia Indiæ orientalis_ (1608) are abridgments of the _Small Voyages_.

[210] Vol. IV. p. 442.

[211] Sabin, vol. x. no. 42,392; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 530.

[212] Muller (1872), no. 1,867.

[213] Vol. III. p. 47. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. ii. nos. 159, 169, 189, 223, 308, 330, 397. Sobolewski’s copy was in the Menzies sale (no. 1,649). Quaritch’s price is from £75 to £100, according to condition, which is the price of good copies in recent sales.

[214] Muller (1872), no. 2,067.

[215] _Catalogue_ (1875), no. 3,284; (1877), no. 1,627; Tiele, no. 1.

[216] Muller (1872), no. 1,837.

[217] This collection also includes the voyages of Barentz, and of Hudson, as well as several through Magellan’s Straits, with Madriga’s voyage to Peru and Chili.

[218] The collection, as it is known, is sometimes dated 1644 and 1645, but usually 1646 (Muller, 1872, no. 1,871; Tiele, _Mémoire bibliographique_, p. 9; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. nos. 567, 586; Sabin, iv. 315, 316). A partial English translation appeared in London in 1703 (Muller, 1872, no. 1,886). The _Oost-Indische Voyagien_, issued at Amsterdam in 1648 by Joost Hartgers, is a reprint of part of Commelin, with some additions. Only one volume was printed; but Muller thinks (1872 _Catalogue_, no. 1877) that some separate issues (1649-1651), including Vries’s voyage to Virginia and New Netherland, were intended to make part of a second volume. Cf. Sabin, viii. 118; Stevens, _Nuggets_, no. 1,339.

[219] Vol. IV. p. 219.

[220] The original of Ogilby’s _America_: cf. Vol. III. p. 416.

[221] Muller (1872), no. 1,884. Another Dutch publication, deserving of a passing notice, which, though not a collection of voyages, enlarges upon the heroes of such voyages, is the _Leeven en Daden der doorluchtigste Zee-helden_ (Amsterdam, 1676), by Lambert van den Bos, which gives accounts of Columbus, Vespucius, Magellan, Drake, Cavendish, the Zeni, Cabot, Cortereal, Frobisher, and Davis. There was a German translation at Nuremberg in 1681 (Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,149; Stevens, 1870, no. 231).

[222] Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,111. A second edition was printed by the widow Cellier in Paris in 1683 (Muller, 1875, p. 395), containing the same matter differently arranged.

[223] An earlier edition (1667) did not have them (Muller, 1875, p. 394). Capel’s _Vorstellungen des Norden_ (Hamburg, 1676) summarizes the voyages of the Zeni, Hudson, and others to the Arctic regions.

[224] Sabin, iv. 68; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 50. It includes in the later editions Castell’s description of America, with other of the Harleian manuscripts, and gives Ferdinand Columbus’ life of his father.

[225] _Historical Magazine_, i. 125.

[226] Allibone; Bohn’s _Lowndes_, etc.

[227] Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,400; Sabin, viii. 92; Muller (1872), no. 1,901.

[228] H. H. Bancroft, Central America, ii. 745, who errs somewhat in his statements; _Murphy Catalogue_, no. 1,074; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 88, with full table of contents. The best description is in Muller (1872), no. 1,887. Although Vander Aa says, in the title of the folio edition, that it is based on the Gottfriedt-Abelin _Newe Welt_, this new collection is at least four times as extensive.

[229] Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 96.

[230] Carter-Brown, iii. 110.

[231] Carter-Brown, iii. 150.

[232] The publication began in numbers in 1708, and some copies are dated 1710 (Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 158).

[233] Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 208, in ten vols., 1715-1718. H. H. Bancroft (_Central America_, ii. 749), cites an edition (1715-1727) in nine vols. Muller (1870, no. 2,021) cites an edition, ten vols., 1731-1738.

[234] Sabin, vol. i. no. 1,250.

[235] Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 792; H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 747.

[236] Volumes xii. to xv. are given to America; the later volumes were compiled by Querlon and De Leyre.

[237] Different sets vary in the number of volumes.

[238] Muller (1872), nos. 1,895-1,900; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 831; H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 746. A German translation appeared at Leipsic in 1747 in twenty-one volumes.

[239] H. H. Bancroft, Central America, ii. 750.

[240] Muller (1872), nos. 1,980, 1,981. There was a German translation, with enlargements, by J. C. Adelung, Halle, 1767; an English translation is also cited. A similar range was taken in Alexander Dalrymple’s _Historical Collection of Voyages_ in the South Pacific Ocean (London, 1770), of which there was a French translation in 1774 (Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,730). The most important contribution in English on this subject, however, is in Dr. James Burney’s _Chronological History of Discovery in the South Sea_ (1803-1817), five volumes quarto.

[241] Dr. Johnson wrote the Introduction; there was a third edition in 1767 (Bohn’s _Lowndes_, p. 2994).

[242] H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 750.

[243] H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 754.

[244] Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,494.

[245] Sabin, v. 473; H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 750.

[246] Sabin, ix. 529; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,602; H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 750.

[247] Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,733; H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 751.

[248] H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 751; Allibone.

[249] H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 749.

[250] H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 752.

[251] There was a quarto reprint in Philadelphia of a part of it in 1810-1812.

[252] There is a catalogue of voyages and an index in vol. xvii. Cf. Allibone’s _Dictionary_.

[253] Stevens, _Bibliotheca geographica_, no. 317.

[254] Muller (1872), no. 1,842.

[255] Muller (1875), no. 3,303.

[256] Complete sets are sometimes offered by dealers at £30 to £35.

[257] H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 757.

[258] A Spanish translation of the modern voyages by Urrabieta was published in Paris in 1860-1861. The Spanish _Enciclopedia de viajes modernos_ (Madrid, 1859), five volumes, edited by Fernandez Cuesta, refers to the later periods (H. H. Bancroft, _Central America_, ii. 758).

[259] The plane earth cut the cosmic sphere like a diaphragm, shutting the light from Tartarus.

_ἀυτὰρ ὕπερθεν_ _γῆς ῥίζαι πεφύασι καὶ ἀτρυγέτοιο θαλάσσης._ (Hesiod, _Theog._ 727.)

“and above Impend the roots of earth and barren sea.”

(_The remains of Hesiod the Ascræan_, etc., translated by C. A. Elton, 2d ed. London, 1815.)

Critics differ as to the age of the vivid description of Tartarus in the Theogony.

[260] Pythagoras has left no writings; Aristotle speaks only of his school; Diogenes Laertius in one passage (_Vitae_, viii. 1 (Pythag.), 25) quotes an authority to the effect that Pythagoras asserted the earth to be spherical and inhabited all over, so that there were antipodes, to whom that is _over_ which to us is _under_. As all his disciples agreed on the spherical form of the earth while differing as to its position and motion, it is probable that they took the idea of its form from him. Diogenes Laertius states that Parmenides called the earth round (_στρογγύλη_, viii. 48), and also that he spoke of it as spherical (_σφαιροειδῆ_, ix. 3); the passages are not, as has been sometimes assumed, contradictory. The enunciation of the doctrine is often attributed to Thales and to Anaximander, on the authority of Plutarch, _De placitis philosophorum_, iii. 10, and Diogenes Laertius, ii. 1, respectively; but the evidence is conflicting (Simplicius, _Ad Aristot._, p. 506^b. ed. Brandis; Aristot., _De caelo_, ii. 13; Plutarch, _De plac. phil._ iii., xv. 9).

[261] Plato, _Phaedo_, 109. Schaefer is in error when he asserts (_Entwicklung der Ansichten der Alten ueber Gestalt and Grösse der Erde_, 16) that Plato in the _Timaeus_ (55, 56) assigns a cubical form to the earth. The question there is not of the shape of the earth, the planet, but of the form of the constituent atoms of the element earth.

[262]

Terra pilae similis, nullo fulcimine nixa, Aëre subjecto tam grave pendet onus. [Ipsa volubilitas libratum sustinet orbem: Quique premit partes, angulus omnis abest. Cumque sit in media rerum regione locata, Et tangat nullum plusve minusve latus; Ni convexa foret, parti vicinior esset, Nec medium terram mundus haberet onus.] Arte Syracosia suspensus in aëre clauso Stat globus, immensi parva figura poli; Et quantum a summis, tantum secessit ab imis Terra. Quod ut fiat, forma rotunda facit. (Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 269-280.)

The bracketed lines are found in but a few MSS. The last lines refer to a globe said to have been constructed by Archimedes.

[263] Plato makes Socrates say that he took up the works of Anaxagoras, hoping to learn whether the earth was round or flat (_Phaedo_, 46, Stallb. i. 176). In Plutarch’s dialogue “_On the face appearing in the orb of the moon_,” one of the characters is lavish in his ridicule of the sphericity of the earth and of the theory of antipodes. See also Lucretius, _De rerum nat._, i. 1052, etc., v. 650; Virgil, _Georgics_, i. 247; Tacitus, _Germania_, 45.

[264] That extraordinary picture could, however, hardly have been intended for an exposition of the actual physical geography of the globe.

[265] Aristotle, _De caelo_, ii. 15.

[266] Archimedes, _Arenarius_, i. 1, ed. Helbig. Leipsic, 1881, vol. ii. p. 243.

[267] The logical basis of Eratosthenes’s work was sound, but the result was vitiated by errors of fact in his assumptions, which, however, to some extent counterbalanced one another. The majority of ancient writers who treat of the matter give 252,000 stadia as the result, but Cleomedes (_Circ. doctr. de subl._, i. 10) gives 250,000. It is surmised that the former number originated in a desire to assign in round numbers 700 stadia to a degree. Forbiger, _Handbuch der alten Geographie_, i. 180, n. 27.

[268] The stadium comprised six hundred feet, but the length of the Greek foot is uncertain; indeed, there were at least two varieties, the Olympic and the Attic, as in Egypt there was a royal and a common ell, and a much larger number of supposititious feet (and, consequently, stadia) have been discovered or invented by metrologists. Early French scholars, like Ramé de l’Isle, D’Anville, Gosselin, supposed the true length of the earth’s circumference to be known to the Greeks, and held that all the estimates which have come down to us were expressions of the same value in different stadia. It is now generally agreed that these estimates really denote different conceptions of the size of the earth, but opinions still differ widely as to the length of the stadium used by the geographers. The value selected by Peschel (_Geschichte der Erdkunde_, 2d ed., p. 46) is that likewise adopted by Hultsch (_Griechische und Römische Metrologie_, 2d ed., 1882) and Muellenhof (_Deutsche Alterthumskunde_, 2d ed., vol. i.). According to these writers, Eratosthenes is supposed to have devised as a standard geographical measure a stadium composed of feet equal to one half the royal Egyptian ell. According to Pliny (_Hist. Nat._, xii. 14, § 5), Eratosthenes allowed forty stadia to the Egyptian schonus; if we reckon the schonus at 12,000 royal ells, we have stadium = 12,000/40 × .525^m = 157.5^m. This would give a degree equal to 110,250^m, the true value being, according to Peschel, 110,808^m. To this conclusion Lepsius (_Das Stadium und die Gradmessung des Eratosthenes auf Grundlage der Aegyptischen Masse_, in _Zeitschrift für Aegypt. Sprache u. Alterthumskunde_, xv. [1877]. See also _Die Längenmasse der Alten_. Berlin, 1884) objects that the royal ell was never used in composition, and that the schonus was valued in different parts of Egypt at 12,000, 16,000, 24,000, _small_ ells. He believes that the schonus referred to by Pliny contained 16,000 small ells, so that Eratosthenes’s stadium = 16,000/40 × .450^m = 180^m.

It is possible, however, that Eratosthenes did not devise a new stadium, but adopted that in current use among the Greeks, the Athenian stadium. (I have seen no evidence that the long Olympic stadium was in common use.) This stadium is based on the Athenian foot, which, according to the investigations of Stuart, has been reckoned at .3081^m, being to the Roman foot as 25 to 24. This would give a stadium of 184.8^m, and a degree of 129,500^m. Now Strabo, in the passage where he says that people commonly estimated eight stadia to the mile, adds that Polybius allowed 8⅓ stadia to the mile (_Geogr._, vii. 7, § 4), and in the fragment known as the Table of Julian of Ascalon (Hultsch, _Metrolog. script. reliq._, Lips., 1864, i. 201) it is distinctly stated that Eratosthenes and Strabo reckoned 8⅓ stadia to the mile. In the opinion of Hultsch, this table probably belonged to an official compilation made under the emperor Julian. Very recently W. Dörpfeld has revised the work of Stuart, and by a series of measurements of the smaller architectural features in Athenian remains has made it appear that the Athenian foot equalled .2957^m (instead of .3081^m), which is almost precisely the Roman foot, and gives a stadium of 177.4^m, which runs 8⅓ to the Roman mile. If this revision is trustworthy,—and it has been accepted by Lepsius and by Nissel (who contributes the article on metrology to Mueller’s _Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaft_, Nordlingen, 1886, etc.),—it seems to me probable that we have here the stadium used by Eratosthenes, and that his degree has a value of 124,180^m (Dörpfeld, _Beiträge zur antiken Metrologie, in Mittheilungen des deutschen Archaeolog. Instituts zu Athen_, vii. (1882), 277).

[269] Strabo, _Geogr._, ii. 5, § 7; the estimate of Posidonius is only quoted hypothetically by Strabo (ii. 2, § 2).

[270] Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ ii. 112, 113. There is apparently some misunderstanding, either on the part of Pliny or his copyists, in the subsequent proposition to increase this estimate by 12,000 stadia. Schaefer’s (_Philologus_, xxviii. 187) readjustment of the text is rather audacious. Pliny’s statement that Hipparchus estimated the circumference at 275,000 stadia does not agree with Strabo (i. 4, § 1).

[271] The discrepancy is variously explained. Riccioli, in his _Geographia et hydrographia reformata_, 1661, first suggested the more commonly received solution. Posidonius, he thought, having calculated the arc between Rhodes and Alexandria at 1-48 of the circumference, at first assumed 5,000 stadia as the distance between these places: 5,000 × 48 = 240,000. Later he adopted a revised estimate of the distance (Strabo, ii, ch. v. § 24), 3,750 stadia: 3,750 × 48 = 180,000. Letronne (_Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_, vi., 1822) prefers to regard both numbers as merely hypothetical illustrations of the processes. Hultsch (_Griechische u. Römische Metrologie_, 1882, p. 63) follows Fréret and Gosselin in regarding both numbers as expressing the same value in stadia of different length (Forbiger, _Handbuch der alten Geographie_, i. 360, n. 29). The last explanation is barred by the positive statement of Strabo, who can hardly be thought not to have known what he was talking about: _κἄν τῶν νεωτέρων δὲ ἀναμετρήσεων εἰσάγηται ἡ ἐλαχίστην ποιόυσα τὴν γῆν, οἵαν ὁ Ποσειδώνιος ἐγκρίνει περὶ ὀκτωκαίδεκα μυριάδας οὖσαν_, (_Geogr._, ii. 2, § 2.)

[272] _Geographia_, vii. 5.

[273] 1° = 500 stadia = 88,700^m, which is about one fifth smaller than the truth.

[274] Xenophanes is to be excepted, if, as M. Martin supposes, his doctrine of the infinite extent of the earth applied to its extent horizontally as well as downward.

[275] The domain of early Greek geography has not escaped the incursions of unbalanced investigators. The Greeks themselves allowed the Argonauts an ocean voyage: Crates and Strabo did valiant battle for the universal wisdom of Homer; nor are scholars lacking to-day who will demonstrate that Odysseus had circumnavigated Africa, floated in the shadow of Teneriffe—Horace to the contrary notwithstanding,—or sought and found the north pole. The evidence is against such vain imaginings. The world of Homer is a narrow world; to him the earth and the Ægean Sea are alike boundless, and in his thought fairy-land could begin west of the Lotos-eaters, and one could there forget the things of this life. There is little doubt that the author of the Odyssey considered Greece an island, and Asia and Africa another, and thought the great ocean eddied around the north of Hellas to a union with the Euxine.

[276]

Quinque tenent caelum zonae: quarum una corusco Semper sole rubens, et torrida semper ab igni; Quam circum extremae dextra laevaque trahuntur Caeruleae glacie concretae atque imbribus atris; Has inter mediam duae mortalibus aegris Munere concessae divom.

(Virgil, _Georg._ i. 233.)

The passage appears to be paraphrased from similar lines which are preserved in Achilles Tatius (_Isag. in Phænom. Arat._; Petavius, _Uranolog._ p. 153), and by him attributed to the _Hermes_ of Eratosthenes. See also Tibullus, _Eleg._ iv., Ovid, and among the men of science, Aristotle, _Meteorol._, ii. 5, §§ 11, 13, 15; Strabo, _Geogr._, i. 2, § 24; ii. 5, § 3; Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, ii. ch. 68; Mela, _De chorographia_, i. 1; Cicero, _Republ._, vi. 16; _Tusc. Disp._, i. 28.

[277] Aristotle, _Meteorol._, ii. 1, § 10; ii. 5, § 15; _De caelo_, ii. 14 _ad fin_. Letronne, finding the latter passage inconvenient, reversed the meaning by the arbitrary insertion of a negative (_Discussion de l’opinion d’Hipparque sur le prolongement de l’Afrique au sud de l’Equator_ in _Journal des Savans_, 1831, pp. 476, 545). The theory which he built upon this reconstructed foundation so impressed Humboldt that he changed his opinion as to the views of Aristotle on this point (_Examen critique_, ii. 373). Such an emendation is only justifiable by the sternest necessity, and it has been shown by Ruge (_Der Chaldäer Seleukos_, Dresden, 1865), and Prantl (_Werke des Aristoteles uebersetzt und erläutert_, Bd. ii.; _Die Himmelsgebäude_, note 61), that neither sense nor consistency requires the change.

[278] Herodotus, ii. 23; iii. 115; iv. 36, 40, 45.

[279] Geminus, _Isagoge_. Polybius’s work on this question is lost, and his own expressions as we have them in his history are more conservative. It is, he says, unknown, whether Africa is a continent extending toward the south, or is surrounded by the sea. Polib. _Hist._ iii. 38; Hampton’s translation (London, 1757), i. 334.

[280] Ptolemy, _Geogr._, vii. 3, 5.

[281] The circumnavigation of Africa by Phœnicians at the command of Necho, though described and accepted by Herodotus, can hardly be called an established fact, in spite of all that has been written in its favor. The story, whether true or false, had, like others of its kind, little influence upon the belief in the impassable tropic zone, because most of those who accepted it supposed that the continent terminated north of the equator.

[282] Ptolemy, _Geogr._, i. 11-14. Eratosthenes and Strabo located their first meridian at Cape St. Vincent; Marinus and Ptolemy placed it in the Canary group. See Vol. II. p. 95.

[283] Geminus, _Isagoge_, ch. 13; Achilles Tatius, _Isagoge in Phænom. Arati;_ Cleomedes, _De circulis sublimis_, i. 2. The first two are given in the _Uranologion_ of Petavius, Lond., Paris, 1630, pp. 56, 155.

The classes were always divided on the same principle, and each contained two groups so related that they could apply to one another reciprocally the name by which the whole class was designed. These names, however, are not always applied to the same classes by different writers. 1. The first class embraced the people who lived in the same half of the same temperate zone; to them all it was day or night, summer or winter, at the same time. They were called _σύνοικοι_ by Cleomedes, but _περίοκοι_ by Achilles Tatius. 2. The second class included such peoples as lived in the same temperate zone, but were divided by half the circumference of that zone; so that while they all had summer or winter at the same time, the one group had day when the other had night, and _vice versa_. These groups could call one another _περίοικοι_ according to Cleomedes, but _ἀντίχθονες_ according to Tatius. 3. The third class included those who were divided by the torrid zone, so that part lived in the northern temperate zone and part in the southern, but yet so that all were in the same half of their respective zones; _i. e._, all were in either the eastern or western, upper or lower, hemisphere. Day and night were shared by the whole class at once, but not the seasons, the northern group having summer when the southern had winter, and _vice versa_. These groups could call one another _ἄντοικοι_. 4. The fourth class comprised the groups which we know as antipodes, dwelling with regard to one another in different halves of the two temperate zones, so that they had neither seasons nor day or night in common, but stood upon the globe diametrically opposed to one another. All writers agree in calling these groups _ἀντίποδες_. The introduction of the word _antichthones_ in place of _perioeci_ was due, apparently, to a misunderstanding of the Pythagorean _antichthon_. This name was properly applied to the imaginary planet invented by the early Pythagoreans to bring the number of the spheres up to ten; it was located between the earth and the central fire, and had the same period of revolution as the earth, from the outer, Grecian, side of which it was never visible. This “opposite earth,” _Gegenerde_, was later confused with the other, western, or lower hemisphere of the earth itself. It was also sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the southern hemisphere, as by Cicero in the _Tusculan Disputations_ (i. 28), “duabus oris distantibus habitabilem et cultum; quarum altera quam nos incolimus,

Sub axe posita ad stellas septem unde horrifer Aquiloni stridor gelidas molitur nives,

altera australis, ignota nobis, _quam vocant Græci_ _ἀντίχθονα_.” Mela has the same usage (i. 4, 5), as quoted below. Macrobius, _Comm. in Somn. Scip._ lib. ii. 5, uses the nomenclature of Cleomedes. Reinhardt, quoted in Engelmann’s _Bibliotheca classica Græca_, under Geminus, I have not been able to see.

[284] Strabo, i. 4, § 6, 7; i. 2, § 24. Geminus, _Isagoge_, 13. Muellenhof, _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_, i. 247-254. Berger, _Geogr. Fragmente d. Eratosthenes_, 8, 84.

[285] Cicero, _Respubl._, vi. 15... sed partim obliquos, partim transversos, partim etiam adversos stare vobis. Some MSS. read aversos. See also _Tusc. Disp._, i. 28; _Acad._, ii. 39.

[286] Antichthones alteram [zonam], nos alteram incolimus. Illius situs ob ardorem intercedentis plagae incognitus, huius dicendus est. Haec ergo ab ortu porrecta ad occasum, et quia sic iacet aliquanto quam ubi latissima est longior, ambitur omnis oceano. Mela, _Chor._, i. 4, 5. Because Mela says that the known world is _but little_ longer than its width, it has been supposed that he was better informed than his contemporaries, and attributed something like its real extent to Africa. Thomassy (_Les papes géographiques_, Paris, 1852, p. 17) finds in his work a rival system to that of Ptolemy. The discovery of America, he thinks, was due to Ptolemy; that of the Cape of Good Hope to Mela. It was the good fortune of Mela that his work was widely read in the Middle Ages, and had great influence; but we owe him no new system of geography, since he simply adopted the oceanic theory as represented by Strabo and Crates. That he slightly changed the traditional proportion between the length and breadth of the known world is of small importance. The known world, he states, was surrounded by the ocean, and there is nothing to show that he supposed Africa to extend below the equator. In his description of Africa he applies the terms length and breadth not as we should, but with contrary usage: “Africa ab orientis parte Nilo terminata, pelago a ceteris, brevior est quidem quam Europa, quia nec usquam Asiae et non totis huius litoribus obtenditur, longior tamen ipsa quam latior, et qua ad fluvium adtingit latissima,” etc., i. 20. (Ed. Parthey, 1867.)

[287] Mela, i. 54, “Alter orbis.” Cicero, _Tusc. Disp._, i. 28, “Ora Australis.”

[288] Hyde Clarke, _Atlantis_, in the _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society_, London, New Series, vol. iii.; Reinaud, _Relations politiques_, etc., _de l’empire Romaine avec l’Asie orientale_, etc., in the _Journal Asiatique_, 1863, p. 140.

[289] The exposition of Macrobius is so interesting as illustrating the mathematical and physical geography of the ancients, and as showing how thoroughly the practical consequences of the sphericity of the earth were appreciated; it is so important in the present connection as demonstrating that the whole idea of inhabited lands in other parts of the earth was based on logic only, not on knowledge, that I have ventured to quote from it somewhat freely.

Macrobius, _Comm. in Somn. Scipionis_, ii. 5.—“Cernis autem eamdem terram quasi quibusdam redimitam et circumdatam cingulis, e quibus duos maxime inter se diversos, et caeli verticibus ipsis ex utraque parte subnixos, obriguisse pruina vides; medium autem illum, et maximum, solis ardore torreri. Duo sunt habitabiles: quorum australis ille, in quo qui insistunt, adversa vobis urgent vestigia, nihil ad vestrum genus; hic autem alter subjectus aquiloni, quem incolitis, cerne quam tenui vos parte contingat. Omnis enim terra, quae colitur a vobis, angusta verticibus, lateribus latior, parva quaedam insula est....” (Cicero.) ... Nam et septentrionalis et australis extremitas perpetua obriguerunt pruina.... Horum uterque habitationis impatiens est.... Medius cingulus et ideo maximus, aeterno afflatu continui caloris ustus, spatium quod et lato ambitu et prolixius occupavit, nimietate fervoris facit inhabitabile victuris. Inter extremos vero et medium duo majores ultimis, medio minores ex utriusque vicinitatis intemperie temperantur.... Licet igitur sint hae duae ... quas diximus temperatas, non tamen ambae zonae hominibus nostri generis indultae sunt: sed sola superior, ... incolitur ab omni, quale scire possumus, hominum genere, Romani Graecive sint, vel barbari cujusque nationis. Illa vero ... sola ratione intelligitur, quod propter similem temperiem similiter incolatur, sed a quibus, neque licuit unquam nobis nec licebit cognoscere: interjecta enim torrida utrique hominum generi commercium ad se denegat commeandi.... Nec dubium est, nostrum quoque septentrionem [ventum] ad illos qui australi adjacent, propter eamdem rationem calidum pervenire, et austrum corporibus eorum gemino aurae suae rigore blandiri. Eadem ratio nos non permittit ambigere quin per illam quoque superficiem terrae quae ad nos habetur inferior, integer zonarum ambitus quae hic temperatae sunt, eodem ductu temperatus habeatur; atque ideo illic quoque eaedem duae zonae a se distantes similiter incolantur.... Nam si nobis vivendi facultas est in hac terrarum parte quam colimus, quia, calcantes humum, caelum suspicimus super verticem, quia sol nobis et oritur et occidit, quia circumfuso fruimur aere cujus spiramus haustu, cur non et illic aliquos vivere credamus ubi eadem semper inpromptu sunt? Nam, qui ibi dicuntur morari, eamdem credendi sunt spirare auram, quia eadem est in ejusdem zonalis ambitus continuatione temperies. Idem sol illis et obire dicitur nostro ortu, et orietur quum nobis occidet: calcabunt aeque ut nos humum, et supra verticem semper caelum videbunt. Nec metus erit ne de terra in caelum decidant, quum nihil unquam possit ruere sursum. Si enim nobis, quod asserere genus joci est, deorsum habitur ubi est terra, et sursum ubi est caelum, illis quoque sursum erit quod de inferiore suspicient, nec aliquando in superna casuri sunt.

Hi quos separat a nobis perusta, quos Graeci _ἀντοικοὑς_ vocant, similiter ab illis qui inferiorem zonae suae incolunt partem interjecta australi gelida separantur. Rursus illos ab _ἀντοικοῖς_ suis, id est per nostri cinguli inferiora viventibus, interjectio ardentis sequestrat: et illi a nobis septentrionalis extremitatis rigore removentur. Et quia non est una omnium affinis continuatio, sed interjectae sunt solitudines ex calore vel frigore mutuum negantibus commeatum, has terrae partes quae a quattuor hominum generibus incoluntur, maculas habitationum vocavit....

9. Is enim quem solum oceanum plures opinantur, de finibus ab illo originali refusis, secundum ex necessitate ambitum fecit. Ceterum prior ejus corona per zonam terrae calidam meat, superiora terrarum et inferiora cingens, flexum circi equinoctialis imitata. Ab oriente vero duos sinus refundit, unum ad extremitatem septentrionis, ad australis alterum: rursusque ab occidente duo pariter enascuntur sinus, qui usque ad ambas, quas supra diximus, extremitates refusi occurrent ab oriente demissis; et, dum vi summa et impetu immaniore miscentur, invicemque se feriunt, ex ipsa aquarum collisione nascitur illa famosa oceani accessio pariter et recessio.... Ceterum verior, ut ita dicam, ejus alveus tenet zonam perustam; et tam ipse qui equinoctialem, quam sinus ex eo nati qui horizontem circulum ambitu suae flexionis imitantur, omnem terram quadrifidam dividunt, et singulas, ut supra diximus, habitationes insulas faciunt ... binas in superiore atque inferiore terrae superficie insulas....

[290] Mr. Gladstone (_Homer and the Homeric age_, vol. iii.) transposes these Homeric localities to the east, and a few German writers agree with him. President Warren (_True key to ancient cosmologies_, etc., Boston, 1882) will have it that Ogygia is neither more nor less than the north pole. Neither of these views is likely to displace the one now orthodox. Mr. Gladstone is so much troubled by Odysseus’s course on leaving Ogygia that he cannot hide a suspicion of corruption in the text. President Warren should remember that Ogygia apparently enjoyed the common succession of day and night. In Homeric thought the western sea extended northward and eastward until it joined the Euxine. Ogygia, located northwest of Greece, would be the centre, _omphalos_, of the sea, as Delphi was later called the centre of the land-masses of the world.

[291] _Odyssey_, iv. 561, etc.

[292] It is well known that whereas Odysseus meets the spirits of the dead across Oceanus, upon the surface of the earth, there is in the _Iliad_ mention of a subterranean Hades. The Assyrio-Babylonians had also the idea of an earth-encircling ocean stream,—the word _Ὠκεανὸς_ the Greeks said was of foreign origin,—and on the south of it they placed the sea of the dead, which held the island homes of the departed. As in the _Odyssey_, it was a place given over to dust and darkness, and the doors of it were strongly barred; no living being save a god or a chosen hero might come there. Schrader, _Namen d. Meere in d. Assyrischen Inschriften (Abhandl. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin_, 1877, p. 169). Jeremias, _Die Babylonisch-Assyrischen Vorstellungen vom Leben nach dem Tode_ (Leipzig, 1887). The Israelites, on the other hand, imagined the home of the dead as underground. _Numbers_, xvi. 30, 32, 33.

Buchholtz, _Die Homerische Realien_, i. 55, places Hades on the European shores of Ocean, but the text of the Odyssey seems plainly in favor of the site across the stream, as Völcker and others have understood.

[293] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 166-173; Elton’s translation, London, 1815, p. 22. Paley marks the line _Τηλοῦ ἀπ̓ ἀθανάτων τόισιν Κρόνος ἐμβασιλζύει_ as probably spurious. Cronos appears to have been originally a Phœnician deity, and his westward wandering played an important part in their mythology. We shall find further traces of this divinity in the west.

[294] Pindar, _Olymp._, ii. 66-85, Paley’s translation, London, 1868, p. 12. See also Euripides, _Helena_, 1677.

[295] Æschylus, in the _Prometheus bound_, introduced the Gorgon islands in his epitome of the wanderings of Io, and certainly seems to speak of them as in the east; the passage is, however, imperfect, and its interpretation has overtasked the ablest commentators.

[296] Euripides, _Hippolytus_, 742-751; Potter’s translation, i. p. 356. See also Hesiod, _Theog._, 215, 517-519.

[297] Mela, iii. 100, 102, etc. The chief passage is Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, vi. 36, 37, who took his information from King Juba and a writer named Statius Sebosus. Pliny, who, beside the groups named in the text, mentions the Gorgades, which he identifies with the place where Hanno met the gorillas, has probably misunderstood and garbled his authorities; his account is contradictory and illusive.

[298] Tzetzes (_Scholia in Lycophron_, 1204, ed. Mueller, ii. 954), a grammarian of the twelfth century, says that the Isles of the Blessed were located in the ocean by Homer, Hesiod, Euripides, Plutarch, Dion, Procopius, Philostratus and others, but that to many it seems that Britain must be the true Isle of the Blessed; and in support of this view he relates a most curious tale of the ferriage of the dead to Britain by Breton fishermen.

[299] _L’Atlantide_, by Paul Gaffarel, in the _Revue de Géographie_, April, May, June, July, 1880 (vi. 241, 331, 421; vii. 21). See also, in his _Étude sur les rapports de l’Amérique et de l’ancien continent avant Christophe Colomb_ (Paris, 1869).

[300] _Atlantis: the antediluvian world_, New York, 1882.

[301] Theopomp., _Fragmenta_, ed. Wieters, 1829, no. 76, p. 72. _Geographi Graec. minores_, ed. Mueller, i. 289. Aeliani, _Var. Hist._, iii. 18. The extracts in the text are taken from “_A Registre of Hystories, etc., written in Greeke by Aelianus, a Roman, and delivered in English by_ Abraham Fleming.” London, 1576, fol. 36.

[302] We owe this quip to Tertullian (he at least is the earliest writer to whom I can trace it): “Ut Silenus penes aures Midae blattit, _aptas sane grandioribus fabulis_” (_De pallio_, cap. 2).

[303] “Furthermore he tolde one thing among all others, meriting admiration, that certain men called Meropes dwelt in many cittyes there about, and that in the borders adiacent to their countrey, was a perilous place named Anostus, that is to say, wythout retourne, being a gaping gulfe or bottomles pit, for the ground is as it were cleft and rent in sonder, in so much that it openeth like to the mouth of insatiable hell, y^t it is neither perfectly lightsome, nor absolutely darksome, but that the ayer hangeth ouer it, being tempered with a certaine kinde of clowdy rednes, that a couple of floodes set their recourse that way, the one of pleasure the other of sorow, and that about each of them growe plantes answearable in quantity and bignes to a great plaine tree. The trees which spring by y^e flood of sorow yeldeth fruite of one nature, qualitie, and operation. For if any man taste thereof, a streame of teares floweth from his eyes, as out of a conduite pipe, or sluse in a running riuer, yea, such effect followeth immediately after the eating of the same, that the whole race of their life is turned into a tragical lamentation, in so much that weeping and wayling knitteth their carkeses depriued of vitall mouing, in a winding sheete, and maketh them gobbettes for the greedy graue to swallow and deuoure. The other trees which prosper vpon the bankes of the floode of pleasure, beare fruite cleane contrary to the former, for whosoeuer tasteth thereof, he is presently weined from the pappes of his auncient appetites and inueterate desires, & if he were linked in loue to any in time past, he is fettered in the forgetfulnes of them, so that al remembrance is quite abolished, by litle and litle he recouereth the yeres of his youth, reasuming vnto him by degrees, the times & seasons, long since, spent and gone. For, the frowardnes and crookednes of old age being first shaken of, the amiablenes and louelynesse of youth beginneth to budde, in so much as they put on y^e estate of stripplings, then become boyes, then change to children, then reenter into infancie, & at length death maketh a finall end of all.”

Compare the story told by Mela (iii. 10) about the Fortunate Isles: “Una singulari duorum fontium ingenio maxime insignis: alterum qui gustavere risu solvuntur, ita adfectis remedium est ex altero bibere.”

It should be noted that the country described by Theopompus is called by him simply “The Great Continent.”

[304] Strabo, vii. 3, § 6. Perizonius makes this passage in Aelian the peg for a long note on ancient knowledge of America, in which he brings together the most important passages bearing on the subject. He remarks: “Nullus tamen dubito, quin Veteres aliquid crediderint vel sciverent, sed quasi per nebulam et caliginem, de America, partim ex antiqua traditione ab Aegyptiis vel Carthaginiensibus accepta, partim ex ratiocinatione de forma et situ orbis terrarum, unde colligebant, superesse in hoc orbe etiam alias terras praeter Asiam, Africam, & Europam.” In my opinion their assumed knowledge was based entirely on ratiocination, and was not real knowledge at all; but Perizonius well expresses the other view.

[305] _Mare Cronium_ was the name given to a portion of the northern ocean. Forbiger, _Handbuch_, ii. 3, note 9.

[306] The average of all known rates of speed with ancient ships is about five knots an hour; some of the fastest runs were at the rate of seven knots, or a little more. Breusing, _Nautik der Alten_, Bremen, 1886, pp. 11, 12. Movers, _Die Phœnizier_, ii. 3, 190. Movers estimates the rate of a Phœnician vessel with 180 oarsmen at double that of a Greek merchantman. He compares the sailing qualities of Phœnician vessels with those of Venice in the Middle Ages to the disadvantage of the latter. As the ancients had nothing answering to our log, and their contrivances for time-keeping were neither trustworthy nor adapted for use on shipboard, these estimates are necessarily based on a few reports of the number of days spent on voyages of known length,—a rather uncertain method.

[307] Tin exists in some of the islands of the Indian Ocean, and they were worked at a later period, but there is no direct evidence, as far as I am aware, that they were known at the date when Tyre was most flourishing.

[308] Diodorus Siculus, v. 18, 19; _De Mirab. Auscult._, 84. Müllenhof, _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_, i., Berlin, 1870, p. 467, traces the report through the historian Timaeus to Punic sources.

[309] The narration of Hanno’s voyage has been preserved, apparently in the words of the commander’s report. _Geographi Graeci minores_, ed. Mueller (Paris, 1855), i. pp. 1-14. Cf. also _Prolegom._, pp. xviii, xxiii. Our only notion of the date of the expedition is derived from Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, v. i. § 7, who says: “Fuere et Hannonis Carthaginiensium ducis commentarii, _Punicis rebus florentissimis_ explorare ambitum Africae jussi.” All that is known of Himilko is derived from the statement of Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, ii. 67, that he was sent at about the same time as Hanno to explore the distant regions of Europe; and from the poems of Avienus, who wrote in the fourth century, and professed to give, in the _Ora Maritima_, many extracts from the writings of Himilko. The description of the difficulties of navigation in the Atlantic is best known. In his _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_ (Berlin, 1870), i. pp. 73-210, Muellenhof has devoted especial attention to an analysis of this record.

[310] Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, vi. 36, 37; Mela, iii. 100, etc.; Solinus, 23, 56 [ed. Mommsen, p. 117, 230]; Ptolemy, _Geogr._, iv. 6; _Rapport sur une mission scientifique dans l’archipel Canarienne,_ par M. le docteur Verneau; 1877. In _Archives des Missions Scientifique et Litteraires_, 3^e série, tom. xiii. pp. 569, etc. The presence of Semites is indicated in Gran Canaria, Ferro, Palma, and the inscriptions agree in character with those found in Numidia by Gen. Faidherbe. In Gomera and Teneriffe, where the Guanche stock is purest, there have been no inscriptions found. Dr. Verneau believes that the Guanches are not descended from Atlantes or Americans, but from the Quaternary men of Cro-magnon on the Vézère; he found, however, traces of an unknown brachycephalic race in Gomera.

[311] In the second century, a.d., Pausanias (_Desc. Graec._, i. 23) was told by Euphemus, a Carian, that once, on a voyage to Italy, he had been driven to the sea outside [_ἐς τὲν ἔξω θάλασσαν_], where people no longer sailed, and where he fell in with many desert islands, some inhabited by wild men, red-haired, and with tails, whom the sailors called Satyrs. Nothing more is known of these islands. _Ἔξο_ has here been rendered simply “distant”; but even in this sense it could hardly apply in the time of Pausanias to any region but the Atlantic. It is more probable that the phrase means “outside the columns.”

In the first century B.C., some men of an unknown race were cast by the sea on the German coast. There is nothing to show that these men were American Indians; but since that has been sometimes assumed, the matter should not be passed over here. The event is mentioned by Mela (_De Chorogr._, iii. 5, § 8), and by Pliny (_Hist. Nat._, ii. 67); the castaways were forwarded to the proconsul, Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer (B.C. 62), by the king of the tribe within whose territory they were found. Pliny calls the tribe the Suevi; the reading in Mela is very uncertain. Parthey has _Botorum_, the older editors _Baetorum_, or _Boiorum_. The Romans took them for inhabitants of India, who had been carried around the north of Europe; modern writers have seen in them Africans, Celts, Lapps, or Caribs. A careful study of the whole subject, with references to the literature, will be found in an article by F. Schiern: _Un énigme ethnographique de l’antiquité_, contributed to the Memoirs of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries; New Series, 1878-83, pp. 245-288.

In the Louvre is an antique bronze which has been thought to represent one of the Indians of Mela, and also to be a good reproduction of the features of the North American Indian (Longpérier, _Notice des bronzes antiques_, etc., _du Musée du Louvre_, Paris, 1868, p. 143), but the supposition is purely arbitrary.

Such an event as an involuntary voyage from the West Indies to the shores of Europe is not an impossibility, nor is the case cited by Mela and Pliny the only one of the kind which we find recorded. Gomara (_Hist. gen. de las Indias_, 7) says some savages were thrown upon the German coast in the reign of Frederic Barbarossa (1152-1190), and Aeneas Silvius (Pius II.) probably refers to the same event when he quotes a certain Otho as relating the capture on the coast of Germany, in the time of the German emperors, of an Indian ship and Indian traders (mercatores). The identity of Otho is uncertain. Otto of Freisingen ([Dagger] 1158) is probably meant, but the passage does not appear in his works that have been preserved (Aeneas Silvius, _Historia rerum_, ii. 8, first edition, Venice, 1477). The most curious story, however, is that related by Cardinal Bembo in his history of Venice (first published 1551), and quoted by Horn (_De orig. Amer._, 14), Garcia (iv. 29), and others. It deserves, however, record here. “A French ship while cruising in the ocean not far from Britain picked up a little boat made of split oziers and covered with bark taken whole from the tree; in it were seven men of moderate height, rather dark complexion, broad and open faces, marked with a violet scar. They had a garment of fishskin with spots of divers shades, and wore a headgear of painted straw, interwoven with seven things like ears, as it were (coronam e culmo pictam septem quasi auriculis intextam). They ate raw flesh, and drank blood as we wine. Their speech could not be understood. Six of them died; one, a youth, was brought alive to Roano (so the Italian; the Latin has Aulercos), where the king was” (Louis XII.). Bembo, _Rerum Venetarum Hist._ vii. year, 1508. [_Opere_, Venice, 1729, i. 188.]

[312]

Nos manet Oceanus circumvagus; arva, beata Petamus arva, divites et insulas, Reddit ubi Cererem tellus inarata quotannis Et inputata floret usque vinea.

* * * * *

Non huc Argoo contendit remige pinus, Neque inpudica Colchis intulit pedem; _Non huc Sidonii torserunt cornua nautae_, Laboriosa nec cohors Ulixei. Juppiter illa piae secrevit litora genti, Ut inquinavit aere tempus aureum; Aere, dehinc ferro duravit saecula, quorum Piis secunda, vate me, datur fuga.

(Horace, _Epode_, xvi.)

Virgil, in the well-known lines in the prophecy of Anchises—

Super et Garamantes et Indos Proferet inperium; iacet extra sidera tellus, Extra anni solisque vias, ubi caelifer Atlas Axem humero torquet stellis ardentibus aptum—

(_Æneid_, vi. 795.)

had Africa rather than the west in mind, according to the commentators.

It is possible that the islands described to Sertorius were Madeira and Porto Santo, but the distance was much overestimated in this case.

[313] “He [Eratosthenes] says that if the extent of the Atlantic Ocean were not an obstacle, we might easily pass by sea from Iberia to India, still keeping in the same parallel, the remaining portion of which parallel ... occupies more than a third of the whole circle.... But it is quite possible that in the temperate zone there may be two or even more habitable earths _οἰκουμένας_, especially near the circle of latitude which is drawn through Athens and the Atlantic ocean.” (Strabo, _Geogr._, i. 4, § 6.)

[314] Seneca, _Naturalium Quaest. Praefatio._ The passage is certainly striking, but those who, like Baron Zach, base upon it the conclusion that American voyagers were common in the days of Seneca overestimate its force. It is certainly evident that Seneca, relying on his knowledge of theoretical geography, underestimated the distance to India. Had the length of the voyage to America been known, he would not have used the illustration.

[315] Smaller vessels even than were then afloat have crossed the Atlantic, and the passage from the Canaries is hardly more difficult than the Indian navigation. The Pacific islanders make voyages of days’ duration by the stars alone to goals infinitely smaller than the broadside of Asia, to which the ancients would have supposed themselves addressed.

[316] Aristotle, _Meteorolog._, ii. 1, § 14; Plato, _Timaeus_; Scylax Caryandensis, _Periplus_, 112. _τῆς Κέρνης δὲ νέσου τὰ ἐπέκεινα οὐκέτι ἐστὶ πλωτὰ διὰ βραχύτητα θαλάττης καὶ πελὸν καὶ φῦκος_(_Geogr. Graec. min._, ed. Mueller, i. 93; other references in the notes). Pytheas in Strabo, ii. 4, § 1; Tacitus, _Germania_, 45, 1; _Agricola_, x. A gloss to Suidas applies the name Atlantic to all innavigable seas. Pausanias, i. ch. 3, § 6, says it contained strange sea-beasts, and was not navigable in its more distant parts. A long list of references to similar passages is given by Ukert, _Geogr. der Griechen u. Römer_, ii. 1, p. 59. See also Berger, _Wissenschaftliche Geographie_, i. p. 27, note 3, and Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, iii. ch. 18, notes.

[317] _De Mirab. Auscult._, 136. The Phœnicians are said to have discovered beyond Gades extensive shoals abounding in fish.

Quae Himilco Poenus mensibus vix quatuor, Ut ipse semet re probasse retulit Enavigantem, posse transmitti adserit: Sic nulla late flabra propellunt ratem, Sic segnis humor aequoris pigri stupet. Adjecit et illud, plurimum inter gurgites Extare fucum, et saepe virgulti vice Retinere puppim: dicit hic nihilominus, Non in profundum terga dimitti maris, Parvoque aquarum vix supertexi solum: Obire semper huc et huc ponti feras, Navigia lenta et languide repentia Internatare belluas. (Avienus, _Ora Maritima_, 115-130.)

Hunc usus olim dixit Oceanum vetus, Alterque dixit mos Atlanticum mare. Longo explicatur gurges hujus ambitu, Produciturque latere prolixe vago. Plerumque porro tenue tenditur salum, Ut vix arenas subjacentes occulat. Exsuperat autem gurgitem fucus frequens, Atque impeditur aestus hic uligine: Vis belluarum pelagus omne internatat, Multusque terror ex feris habitat freta. Haec olim Himilcos Poenus Oceano super Spectasse semet et probasse retulit: Haec nos, ab imis Punicorum annalibus Prolata longo tempore, edidimus tibi. (_Ibid._ 402-415.)

Whether Avienus had immediate knowledge of these Punic sources is quite unknown.

[318] Seneca, _Medea_, 376-380.

[319] In the first book of his _Suasoriæ_, M. Annaeus Seneca collected a number of examples illustrative of the manner in which several of the famous orators and rhetoricians of his time had handled the subject, _Deliberat Alexander, an Oceanum naviget_, which appears to have been one of a number of stock subjects for use in rhetorical training. This collection thus gives a good view of the prevalent views about the ocean, and certainly tells strongly against the idea that the western passage was then known or practised. “Fertiles in Oceano jacere terras, ultraque Oceanum rursus alia littora, alium nasci orbem, ... _facile ista finguntur; quia Oceanus navigari non potest_ ... confusa lux alta caligine, et interceptus tenebris dies, ipsum veros grave et devium mare, et aut nulla, aut ignota sidera. Ita est, Alexander, rerum natura; _post omnia Oceanus, post Oceanum nihil_.... Immensum, et humanae intentatum experientiae pelagus, totius orbis vinculum, terrarumque custodia, inagitata remigio vastitas.... Fabianus ... divisit enim illam [quaestionem] sic, ut primum negaret ullas in Oceano, aut trans Oceanum, esse terras habitabiles: deinde si essent, perveniri tamen ad illas non posse. Hic difficultatem ignoti maris, naturam non patientem navigationis.”

[320] Virgil, bishop of Salzburg, was accused before Pope Zacharias by St. Boniface of teaching the doctrine of antipodes; for this, and not for his belief in the sphericity of the earth (as I read), he was threatened by the Pope with expulsion from the church. The authority for this story is a letter from the Pope to Boniface. See Marinelli, _Die Erdkunde bei den Kirchenvätern_, p. 42.

[321] Cosmas, as will be seen in the cut, adhered to the continental theory, placing Paradise on the continent in the east. Paradise was more commonly placed in an island east of Asia.

[322] It has been suggested by M. Beauvois that Labrador may in the same way derive its name from _Inis Labrada_, or the Island of Labraid, which figures in an ancient Celtic romance. The conjecture has only the phonetic resemblance to recommend it. Beauvois, _L’Elysée transatlantique (Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, vii. (1883), p. 291, n. 3).

[323] Gaffarel, P., _Les isles fantastiques de l’Atlantique au moyen âge_, 3.

[324] Coryat’s _Crudities_, London, 1611. Sig. h(4), verso.

[325] The result of the Arabian measurements gave 56⅔3 miles to a degree. Arabian miles were meant, and as these contain, according to Peschel (_Geschichte der Geographie_, p. 134) 4,000 ells of 540.7^{mm}., the degree equalled 122,558.6^m. The Europeans, however, thought that Roman miles were meant, and so got but 83,866.6^m. to a degree.

[326] Edrisi, _Geography_, Climate, iv., § 1, Jaubert’s translation, Paris, 1836, ii. 26.

[327] Found in various Celtic MSS. See Beauvois, _L’Eden occidentale (Rev. de l’Hist. des Relig._), viii. (1884), 706, etc.; Joyce, _Old Celtic Romances_, 112-176.

[328] These alleged voyages are considered in the next chapter.

[329] Polybius, _Hist._, iii. 38.

[330] The tract _On the World_ (_περὶ κόσμου_, de mundo), and the _Strange Stories_ (_περὶθαυμασίων ἀκουσμάτν_, _de mirabilibus auscultationibus_), printed with the works of Aristotle, are held to be spurious by critics: the former, which gives a good summary of the oceanic theory of the distribution of land and water (ch. 3), is considerably later in date; the latter is a compilation made from Aristotle and other writers. Muellenhof has sought partially to analyze it in his _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_, i. 426, etc.

[331] First in _Geographica Marciani, Scylacis, Artemidoris, Dicæarchi, Isidori. Ed. a Hoeschelio_ (Aug. Vind., 1600). The great collection made by Hudson, _Geographiae veteris scriptores Graeci minores_ (4 vols., Oxon., 1698-1712; re-edited by Gail, Paris, 1826, 6 vols.), is still useful, notwithstanding the handy edition by C. Mueller in the Didot classics, _Geographiae Graeci minores_ (Paris, 1855-61. 2 vols. and atlas).

[332] _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum. Ed. C. et T. Mueller_ (Paris, Didot, 1841-68. 5 vols.).

[333] _Die geographischen Fragmente des Hipparchus: H. Berger_ (Leipzig, 1869); _Posidonii Rhodii reliquiae doctrinae: coll. J. Bake_ (Lugd. Bat., 1810); _Eratosthenica composuit G. Bernhardy_ (Berlin, 1822); _Die geographischen Fragmente des Eratosthenes: H. Berger_ (Leipzig, 1880).

[334] _Strabonis Geographia_ (Romae, Suweynheym et Pannartz, s. a.), in 1469 or 1470, folio. First edition of the Latin translation which was made by Guarini of Verona, and Lilius Gregorius of Tiferno; only 275 copies were printed. It was reprinted in 1472 (Venice), 1473 (Rome), 1480 (Tarvisii), 1494 (Venice), 1502 (Venice), 1510 (Venice), and 1512 (Paris). _Strabo de situ orbis_ (Venice. Aldus et Andr. Soc., 1516), fol., was the first Greek edition; a better edition appeared in 1549 (Basil., fol.), with Guarini’s and Gregorius’s translation revised by Glareanus and others. Critical ed. by J. Kramer (Berlin, 1844), 3 vols. Ed. with Latin trans. by C. Müller and F. Dübner (Paris, Didot, 1853, 1857). It has since been edited by August Meineke (Leipsic, Teubner, 1866. 3 vols. 8vo).

There was an Italian translation by Buonacciuoli, in Venice and Ferrara, 1562, 1585. 2 vols. The _Γεωγραφικὰ_ has been several times translated into German, by Penzel (Lemgo, 1775-1777, 4 Bde. 8vo), Groskund (Berlin, Stettin, 1831-1834. 4 Thle.), and Forbiger (Stuttgart, 1856-1862. 2 Bde.), and very recently into English by H. C. Hamilton and W. Falconer (London, Bell [Bohn], 1887). 3 vols. This has a useful index.

The great French translation of Strabo, made by order of Napoleon, with very full notes by Gosselin and others, is still the most useful translation: _Géographie du Strabon trad. du grec en française_ (Paris, 1805-1819). 5 vols. 4to.

[335] The Geography was first printed, in a Latin translation, at Vincentia, in 1475; the date 1462 in the Bononia edition being recognized as a misprint, probably for 1482. The history of the book has been described by Lelewel in the appendix to his _Histoire de la Géographie_, and more fully in Winsor’s _Bibliography of Ptolemy’s Geography_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1884), and in the section on Ptolemy by Wilberforce Eames in Sabin’s _Dictionary_, also printed separately.

[336] The _Phaenomena_ of Aratus was a poem which had great vogue both in Greece and Rome. It was commented upon by Hipparchus and Achilles Tatius (both of which commentaries are preserved, and are found in the _Uranologion_ of Petavius), and translated by Cicero.

[337] _Gemini elementa astronomiae_, also quoted by the first word of the Greek title, _Isagoge_. First edition, Altorph, 1590. The best edition is still that in the _Uranologion_ of Dionysius Petavius (Paris, 1630). It is also found in the rare translation of Ptolemy by Halma (Paris, 1828).

[338] _Κύκλικη θεώρια_ quoted as _Cleom. de sublimibus circulis_. The first edition was at Paris, 1539. 4to. It has been edited by Bake (Lugd. Bat., 1826), and Schmidt (Leips. 1832). Nothing is known of the life of Cleomedes. He wrote after the 1st cent. A.D., probably.

[339] It was first printed in the Plato of Basle, 1534. There is an English translation by Thomas Taylor, _The Commentaries of Proclus on the Timaeus of Plato_, in 2 vols. (London, 1820). Proclus was also the author of astronomical works which helped to keep Grecian learning alive in the early Middle Ages.

[340] The works of L. Annaeus Seneca were first printed in Naples, 1475, fol., but the _Questionum naturalium lib. vii._ were not included until the Venice ed. of 1490, which also contained the first edition of the _Suasoriae and Controversariae_ of M. Ann. Seneca. The _Tragoediae_ of L. Ann. Seneca were first printed about 1484 by A. Gallicus, probably at Ferrara.

[341] _Historiae naturalis libri xxxvii._ The first edition was the famous and rare folio of Joannes de Spira, Venice, 1469. I find record of ten other editions and three issues of Landino’s Italian translation before 1492.

[342] _C. Julii Solini Collectanea rerum memorabilium sive polyhistor._ Solinus lived probably in the third century A.D. His book was a great favorite in the Middle Ages, both in manuscript and in print, and was known by various titles, as _Polyhistor, De situ orbis_, etc. The first edition appeared without place or date, at Rome, about 1473, and in the same year at Venice, and it was often reprinted with the annotations of the most famous geographers. The best edition is that by Mommsen (Berlin, 1864). See Vol. II. p. 180.

[343] First edition, Milan, 1471. 4to. The best is that by Parthey, Berlin, 1867. A history and bibliography of this work is given in Vol. II. p. 180.

[344] _Commentariorum in somnium Scipionis libri duo._ The first edition was at Venice, 1472. There has been an edition by Jahn (2 vols. Quedlinburg, 1848, 1852), and by Eyssenhardt (Leipzig, 1868), and a French translation by various hands, printed in 3 vols. at Paris, 1845-47.

[345] _Descriptio orbis terrae; ora maritima._ The first edition appeared at Venice in 1488, with the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus. It is included in the _Geogr. Graec. min._ of Mueller. Muellenhof has treated of the latter poem at length in his _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_, i. 73-210.

[346] _Astronomicon libri v._ Manilius is an unknown personality, but wrote in the first half of the first century A. D. (First ed., Nuremberg, 1472 or 1473); Hyginus, _Poeticon Astronomicon_, 1st or 2d cent. A. D. (Ferrara, 1475).

[347] _De nuptiis philologiae et Mercurii_, first ed. Vicent., 1499.

[348] E. H. Bunbury, _Hist. of Anc. Geog. among the Greeks and Romans_ (London, 1879), in two volumes,—a valuable, well-digested work, but scant in citations. Ukert, _Geog. der Griechen and Römer_ (Weimar, 1816), very rich in citations, giving authorities for every statement, and useful as a summary.

Forbiger, _Handbuch der alten Geographie_ (Hamburg, 1877), compiled on a peculiar method, which is often very sensible. He first analyzes and condenses the works of each writer, and then sums up the opinions on each country and phase of the subject.

Vivien de St. Martin, _Histoire de la Géographie_ (Paris, 1873).

Peschel, _Geschichte der Erdkunde_ (2d ed., by S. Ruge, München, 1877). Perhaps reference is not out of place also to P. F. J. Gosselin’s _Géographie des Grecs analysée, ou les Systèmes d’Eratosthenes, de Strabon et de Ptolémée, comparés entre eux et avec nos connaissances modernes_ (Paris, 1790); and his later _Recherches sur la Geographie systématique et positive des anciens_ (1797-1813).

Cf. Hugo Berger, _Geschichte der wiss. Erdkunde der Griechen_ (Leipzig, 1887).

[349] _Geschichte der Griechischen Philosophie_ (Tübingen, 1856-62).

[350] Sir George Cornwall Lewis, _Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients_ (London, 1862).

Theodore Henri Martin, whose numerous papers are condensed in the article on “Astronomie” in Daremberg and Saglio’s _Dictionnaire de l’Antiquité_. Some of the more important distinct papers of Martin appeared in the _Mém. Acad. Inscrip. et Belles Lettres._

[351] See Cellarius, _Notit. orb. antiq._ i. ch. 2, _de rotunditate terrae_. See also Günther, _Aeltere und neuere Hypothese ueber die chronische Versetzung des Erdschwerpunktes durch Wassermassen_ (Halle, 1878).

[352] _De Natura Rerum._

[353] See _ante_, p. 31. In the second century St. Clement spoke of the “Ocean impassible to man, and the worlds beyond it.” _1st Epist. to Corinth._ ch. 20. (_Apostolic Fathers_, Edinb. 1870, p. 22.)

[354] Legrand d’Aussy, _Image du Monde_. _Notices et extraits de la Bibliothèque du Roi_, etc., v. (1798), p. 260. It is also said that the earth is round, so that a man could go all round it as an insect can walk all round the circumference of a pear. This notable poem has been lately studied by Fant, but is still unprinted. It was known to Abulfeda, that if two persons made the journey described, they would on meeting differ by two days in their calendar (Peschel, _Gesch. d. Erdkunde_, p. 132).

[355] A. Jourdain, _Recherches critique sur l’âge et l’origin des traductions latines d’Aristote, et sur des commentaires Grecs et Arabes employés par les docteurs scolastiques_ (Paris, 1843). See also _De l’influence d’Aristote et de ses interprètes sur la découverte du nouveau-monde, par Ch. Jourdain_ (Paris, 1861).

[356] See Vol. II., ch. i., Critical Essay.

[357] Cf. a bibliographical note in St. Martin’s _Histoire de la Géographie_ (1873), p. 296. The well-known _Examen Critique_ of Humboldt, the _Recherches sur la géographie_ of Walckenaer, the _Géographie du moyen-âge_ of Lelewel, with a few lesser monographic papers like Fréville’s “Mémoire sur la Cosmographie du moyen-âge,” in the _Revue des Soc. Savantes_, 1859, vol. ii., and Gaffarel’s “Les relations entre l’ancient monde et l’Amérique, étaient-elles possible au moyen-âge,” in the _Bull. de la Soc. Normande de Géog._, 1881, vol. iii. 209, will answer most purposes of the general reader; but certain special phases will best be followed in Letronne’s _Des opinions cosmographiques des Pères de l’Eglise, rapprocher des doctrines philosophiques de la Grece_, in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, Mars, 1834, p. 601, etc. The Vicomte Santarem’s _Essai sur l’histoire de la cosmographie et de la cartographie pendant le moyen-âge, et sur les progrès de la géographie après les grandes découvertes du xv^e siècle_ (Paris, 1849-52), in 3 vols., was an introduction to the great _Atlas_ of mediæval maps issued by Santarem, and had for its object the vindication of the Portuguese to be considered the first explorers of the African coast. He is more interested in the burning zone doctrine than in the shape of the earth. H. Wuttke’s _Ueber Erdkunde und Kultur des Mittelalters_ (Leipzig, 1853) is an extract from the _Serapeum_. G. Marinelli’s _Die Erdkunde bei den Kirchenvätern_ (Leipzig, 1884, pp. 87) is very full on Cosmas, with drawings from the MS. not elsewhere found; Siegmund Günther’s _Die Lehre von der Erdrundung u. Erdbewegung im Mittelalter bei den Occidentalen_ (Halle, 1877), pp. 53, and his _Die Lehre von der Erdrundung u. Erdbewegung bei den Arabern und Hebräern_ (Halle, 1877), pp. 127, give numerous bibliographical references with exactness. Specially interesting is Charles Jourdain’s _De l’influence d’Aristote et de ses interprètes aux la découverte du nouveau monde_ (Paris, 1861), where we read (p. 30): “La pensée dominante de Colomb était l’hypothèse de la proximité de l’Espagne et de l’Asie, et ... cette hypothèse lui venait d’Aristote et des scolastiques;” and again (p. 24): “Ce n’est pas à Ptolémée ... que le moyen âge a emprunté l’hypothèse d’une communication entre l’Europe et l’Asie par l’océan Atlantique.... Cette conséquence, qui n’avait par éschappé à Eratosthène, n’est pas énoncée par Ptolémée tandis qu’elle retrouve de la manière la plus expresse chez Aristote.”

[358] See also _ante_, p. 37.

[359] Plato, _Phaedo_, 108; Plutarch, _De facie_.

[360] Aristotle, _De caelo_, ii. 13.

[361] Ctesias, _On India_, ch. v. (ed. Didot, p. 80), says the rising sun appears ten times larger in India than in Greece. Strabo, _Geogr._ iii. 1, § 5, quotes Posidonius as denying a similar story of the setting sun as seen from Gades.

Whether Herodotus had a similar idea when he wrote that in India the mornings were torrid, the noons temperate and the evenings cold (Herod. iii. 104), is uncertain. Also see Dionysius Periegetes, _Periplus_, 1109-1111, in _Geographi Graeci minores_. _Ed. C. Mueller_ (Paris, Didot, 1861, ii. 172). Rawlinson sees in it only a statement of climatic fact.

[362] _The True Key to Ancient Cosmogonies_, in the _Year Book of Boston University_, 1882, and separately, Boston, 1882; and in his _Paradise Found_, 4th ed. (Boston, 1885).

[363] Geminus, _Isagoge_, c. 13.

[364] “Ueber die Gestalt der Erde nach den Begriffen der Alten,” in _Kritische Blätter_, ii. (1790) 130.

[365] _Ueber Homerische Geographie und Weltkunde_ (Hanover, 1830).

[366] _Homerische Realien, I. 1. Homerische Cosmographie und Geographie_ (Leipzig, 1871).

[367] _Homer and the Homeric Age_ (London, 1858), ii. 334. The question of Aeaea, “where are the dancing places of the dawn” (_Od._ xii. 5), almost induces Gladstone to believe that Homer thought the earth cylindrical, but it may be doubted if the expression means more than an outburst of joy at returning from the darkness beyond ocean to the realm of light.

[368] “Mémoire sur la cosmographie Grecque à l’époque d’Homere et d’Hesiode,” in _Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscr. et des Belles Lettres_, xxviii. (1874) 1, 211-235.

[369] _Entwicklung der Ansichten des Alterthums ueber Gestalt und Grösse der Erde._ Leipzig, 1868. (Gymn. z. Insterburg.)

[370] _Die Kosmischen Systeme der Griechen_ (Berlin, 1851).

[371] See also Keppel, _Die Ansichten der alten Griechen und Römer von der Gestalt, Grösse, und Weltstellung der Erde_. (Schweinfurt, 1884.)

[372] For example, K. Jarz, “Wo sind die Homerischen Inseln Trinakie, Scherie, etc. zu suchen?” in _Zeitschr. für wissensch. Geogr._ ii. 10-18, 21.

[373] See Vol. II. p. 26. His son Ferdinand enlarges upon this. The passage in Seneca’s _Medea_ was a favorite. This is often considered rather as a lucky prophecy. Leibnitz, _Opera Philologica_ (Geneva, 1708), vi. 317. Charles Sumner’s “Prophetic Voices concerning America,” in _Atlantic Monthly_, Sept. 1867 (also separately, Boston, 1874). _Hist. Mag._ xiii. 176; xv. 140.

[374] Vol. II. 25. Harrisse, _Bib. Amer. Vet._ i. 262.

[375] Perizonius, in his note to the story of Silenus and Midas, quoted from Theopompus by Ælian in his _Varia Historiæ_ (Rome, 1545; in Latin, Basle, 1548; in English, 1576), quotes the chief references in ancient writers. Cf. Ælian, ed. by Perizonius, Lugd. Bat. 1701, p. 217. Among the writers of the previous century quoted by this editor are Rupertus, _Dissertationes mixtæ, ad Val. Max._ (Nuremberg, 1663). Math. Berniggerus, _Ex Taciti Germaniâ et Agricolâ questiones_ (Argent. 1640). Eras. Schmidt, _Dissert. de America_, which is annexed to Schmidt’s ed. of Pindar (Witelsbergæ, 1616), where it is spoken of as “Discursus de insula Atlantica ultra columnas Herculis qua America hodie dicitur.” Cluverius, _Introduction in univers. geogr._, vi. 21, § 2, supports this view, 1st ed., 1624. In the ed. 1729 is a note by Reiskius on the same side, with references (p. 667).

Of the same century is J. D. Victor’s _Disputatio de America_ (Jenæ, 1670).

In Brunn’s _Bibliotheca Danica_ are a number of titles of dissertations bearing on the subject; they are mostly old.

[376] Even the voyage of Kolaos, mentioned in Herodotus (iv. 152), is supposed by Garcia a voyage to America.

[377] _Mœurs des Sauvages_ (Paris, 1724).

[378] _Attempt to show that America must have been known to the Ancients_ (Boston, 1773).

[379] _History of America_, 1775.

[380] See Vol. II. p. 68. Humboldt (i. 191) adopts the view of Ortelius that the grand continent mentioned by Plutarch is America and not Atlantis. Cf. Brasseur’s _Lettres à M. le Duc de Valmy_, p. 57.

[381] Gaffarel has since elaborated this part of the book in some papers, “Les Grecs et les Romains ont-ils connu l’Amérique?” in the _Revue de Géographie_ (Oct. 1881, _et seq._), ix. 241, 420; x. 21, under the heads of traditions, theories, and voyages.

There are references in Bancroft’s _Native Races_, v. ch. 1; and in his _Cent. America_, vi. 70, etc.; in Short, _No. Amer. of Antiq._, 146, 466, 474; in DeCosta’s _Precolumbian Discovery_. Brasseur touches the subject in his introduction to his _Landa’s Relation_; Charles Jourdain, in his _De l’influence d’Aristote et de ses interprètes sur la découverte du nouveau monde_ (Paris, 1861), taken from the _Journal de l’Instruction Publique_. A recent book, W. S. Blackett’s _Researches_, etc. (Lond. 1883), may be avoided.

[382] Of lesser importance are these: Bancroft’s _Native Races_, iv. 364, v. 55; Short, 418; Stephens’s _Cent. Amer._, ii. 438-442; M’Culloh’s _Researches_, 171; Weise, _Discoveries of America_, p. 2; Campbell in _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Amér._ 1875, i. W. L. Stone asks if the moundbuilders were Egyptians (_Mag. Amer. History_, ii. 533).

[383] Of less importance are: Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v. 63-77, with references; Short, 145; Baldwin’s _Anc. America_, 162, 171; Warden’s _Recherches_, etc. The more general discussion of Humboldt, Brasseur (_Nat. Civ._), Gaffarel (_Rapport_), De Costa, etc., of course helps the investigator to clues.

The subject is mixed up with some absurdity and deceit. The Dighton Rock has passed for Phœnician (Stiles’ _Sermon_, 1783; Yates and Moulton’s _New York_). At one time a Phœnician inscription in Brazil was invented (_Am. Geog. Soc. Bull._ 1886, p. 364; St. John V. Day’s _Prehistoric Use of Iron_, Lond. 1877, p. 62). The notorious Cardiff giant, conveniently found in New York state, was presented to a credulous public as Phœnician (_Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Ap. 1875). The history of this hoax is given by W. A. McKinney in the _New Englander_, 1875, P. 759.

[384] Cf. Johr. Langius, _Medicinalium Epistolarum Miscellanea_ (Basle, 1554-60), with a chapter, “De novis Americi orbis insulis, antea ab Hannone Carthaginein repertis;” Gebelin’s _Monde Primitif_; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, iii. 313, v. 77; Short, 145, 209.

[385] A specimen is in M. V. Moore’s paper in the _Mag. of Amer. Hist._ (1884), xii. 113, 354. There are various fugitive references to Roman coins found often many feet under ground, in different parts of America. See for such, Ortelius, _Theatrum orbis terrarum_; Haywood’s _Tennessee_ (1820); _Hist. Mag._, v. 314; _Mag. Amer. Hist._, xiii. 457; Marcel de Serre, _Cosmogonie de Moise_, p. 32; and for pretended Roman inscriptions, Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Nat. Civ. Méx._, preface; _Journal de l’Instruction Publique_, Juin, 1853; Humboldt, _Exam. Crit._, i. 166; Gaffarel in _Rev. de Géog._, ix. 427.

[386] _Procli commentarius in Platonis Timaeum. Rec. C. E. C. Schneider. (Vratislaviae, 1847.) The Commentaries of Proclus on the Timaeus of Plato. Translated by Thomas Taylor_, 2 vols. 4º. (London, 1820.) Proclus lived A.D. 412-485. The passages of importance are found in the translation, vol. i. pp. 64, 70, 144, 148.

[387] Taylor, i. 64.

[388] _Procl. in Tim._ (Schneider), p. 126; Taylor, i. 148. Also in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. Mueller. (Paris, 1852), vol. iv. p. 443.

[389] _Geogr._ ii. § 3, § 6 (p. 103).

[390] _Hist. Nat._, ii. 92.

[391] The Atlantis mentioned by Pliny in _Hist. Nat._, vi. 36, is apparently entirely distinct from the Atlantis of Plato.

[392] Amm. Marc. xvii. 7, § 13. Fiunt autem terrarum motus modis quattuor, aut enim brasmatiae sunt, ... aut climatiae ... aut chasmatiae, qui grandiori motu patefactis subito voratrinis terrarum partes absorbent, ut in Atlantico mare Europaeo orbe spatiosor insula, etc. (Ed. Eyssenhardt, Berlin, 1871, p. 106).

[393] Martin, _Etudes sur le Timée_ (1841), i. 305, 306. The passage in question is in _Schol. ad Rempubl._, p. 327, Plato, ed. Bekker, vol. ix. p. 67.

[394] Cited in Aelian’s _Varia Historia_, iii. ch. 18. For the other references see above, pp. 23, 25, 26.

[395] Ammianus Marcellinus (xv. 9) quotes from Timagenes (who wrote in the first century a history of Gaul, now lost) a statement that some of the Gauls had originally immigrated from very distant islands and from lands beyond the Rhine (_ab insulis extimis_ confluxisse et tractibus transrhenanis) whence they were driven by wars and the incursions of the sea (Timag. in Mueller, _Frag. hist. of Graec._, iii. 323). It would seem incredible that this should be dragged into the Atlantis controversy, but such has been the case.

[396] Plutarch, _Solon_, at end. R. Prinz, _De Solonis Plutarchi fontibus_ (Bonnæ, 1857).

[397] _De Pallio, 2, Apol._, p. 32. Also by Arnobius, _Adversus gentes_, i. 5.

[398] Ed. Montfaucon, i. 114-125, ii. 131, 136-138, iv. 186-192, xii. 340.

[399] Gaffarel in _Revue de Géographie_, vi.

[400] _Platonis omnia opere cum comm. Proclii in Timaeum_, etc. (Basil. Valderus, 1534).

[401] _Ex Platoni Timaeo particula, Ciceronis libro de universitate respondens ... op. jo. Perizonii_ (Paris, Tiletanus, 1540; Basil. s. a.; Paris, Morell, 1551). _Interpret. Cicerone et Chalcidio_, etc. (Paris, 1579). _Le Timée de Platon, translaté du grec en français, par L. le Roy_, etc. (Paris, 1551, 1581). _Il dialogo di Platone, intitolato il Timaeo trad. da Sb. Erizzo, nuov. mandato en luce d. Gir. Ruscellii_ (Venet. 1558).

[402] _Birchrodii Schediasma de orbe novo non novo_ (Altdorf, 1683).

[403] The representation of Sanson is reproduced on p. 18. The full title of these curious maps is given by Martin, _Etudes sur le Timée_, i. 270, _notes_.

[404] _Plato, ed. Stallbaum_ (Gothae, 1838); vii. p. 99, note E. See also his _Prolegomena de Critia_, in the same volume, for further discussion and references.

[405] Cluverius, _Introduct._, ed. 1729, p. 667.

[406] _Examination of the legend of Atlantis in reference to protohistoric communications with America_, in the _Trans. Royal Hist. Soc._ (Lond., 1885), iii. p. 1-46.

[407] W. S. Blackett, _Researches into the lost histories of America; or, the Zodiac shown to be an old terrestrial map in which the Atlantic isle is delineated_, etc. (London, 1883), p. 31, 32. The work is not too severely judged by W. F. Poole, in the _Dial_ (Chicago), Sept. 84, _note_. The author’s reasons for believing that Atlantis could not have sunk are interesting in a way. The _Fourth Rept. Bur. of Ethnology_ (p. 251) calls it “a curiosity of literature.”

[408] E. F. Berlioux, _Les Atlantes: histoire de l’Atlantis, et de l’Atlas primitif_ (Paris, 1883). It originally made part of the first _Annuaire_ of the Faculté des lettres de Lyon (Paris, 1883).

[409] _Thesaurus Geogr._, 1587, under _Atlantis_. See also under _Gades_ and _Gadirus_. On folio 2 of his _Theatrum orbis terrarum_ he rejects the notion that the ancients knew America, but in the index, under _Atlantis_, he says _forte America_.

[410] Bartolomé de las Casas, _Historia de las Indias. Ed. De la Fuensanto de Valle and J. S. Rayon_ (Madrid, 1875), i. cap. viii. pp. 73-79.

[411] Taylor, in the introduction to the Timaeus, in his translation of Plato, regards as almost impious the doubts as to the truth of the narrative. _The Works of Plato_, vol. i. London, 1804.

[412] _Thes. Geogr._, s. v. _Gadirus_.

[413] _Athanasii Kircherii Mundus subterraneus in xii. libros digestus_ (Amsterd., 1678), pp. 80-83. He gives a cut illustrative of his views on p. 82.

[414] _Historia orbis terrarum geographica et civilis_, cap. 5, § 2, hist. insul. I. C. Becmann, 2d ed. (Francfort on Oder, 1680). Title from British Museum, as I have been unable to see the work. The _Allg. Deutsche Biographie_ says the first edition appeared in 1680. It was a book of considerable note in its day.

[415] De la Borde, _Histoire abregée de la mer du Sud_ (Paris, 1791).

[416] J. B. G. M. Bory de St. Vincent, _Essais sur les isles Fortunées et l’antique Atlantide_ (Paris, an xi. or 1803), ch. 7. Si les Canaries et les autres isles de l’ocean Atlantique offrent les débris d’un continent. pp. 427, etc. His map is given _ante_, p. 19.

[417] This is the second part of his _Iles de l’Afrique_ (Paris, 1848), belonging to the series _L’Univers. Histoire et description de tous les peuples_, etc. Cf. also his _Les îles fantastiques_ (Paris, 1845).

[418] G. R. Carli, _Delle Lettere Americane_, ii. (1780). Lettere, vii. and following; especially xiii. and following.

[419] Lyell, _Elements of Geology_ (Lond., 1841), p. 141; and his _Principles of Geology_, 10th ed. Buffon dated the separation of the new and old world from the catastrophe of Atlantis. _Epoques de la Nat._, ed. Flourens, ix. 570.

[420] _Quatres lettres sur la Méxique; Popul Vuh_, p. xcix, and his _Sources de l’histoire primitive du Méxique_, section viii. pp. xxiv, xxxiii, xxxviii and ix, in his edition of Diego da Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864). H. H. Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, iii. 112, 264, 480; v. 127, develops Brasseur’s theory. In his _Hist. Nat. Civilisées_ he compares the condition of the Colhua kingdom of Xibalba with Atlantis, and finds striking similarities. Le Plongeon in his _Sacred Mysteries_ (p. 92) accepts Brasseur’s theory.

[421] A. Retzius, _Present state of Ethnology in relation to the form of the human skull_ (Smithsonian Report, 1859), p. 266. The resemblance is not indorsed by M. Verneau, who has lately made a detailed study of the aborigines of the Canaries.

[422] F. Unger, _Die versunkene Insel Atlantis_ (Wien, 1860). Translated in the _Journal of Botany_ (London), January, 1865. Asa Gray had already called attention to the remarkable resemblance between the flora of Japan and that of eastern North America, but had not found the invention of a Pacific continent preferable to the hypothesis of a progress of plants of the temperate zone round by Behring’s Strait (_Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences_, vi. 377). Unger’s theory has been also more or less urged in Heer’s _Flora Tertiaria Helveticae_ (1854-58) and his _Urwelt der Schweitz_ (1865), and by Otto Ule in his _Die Erde_ (1874), i. 27.

[423] _Sitzungsberichte der Math. Phys. Classe d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch._ at Vienna, lvii. (1868) p. 12.

[424] The “Lost Atlantis” and the “Challenger” soundings, _Nature_, 26 April, 1877, xv. 553, with sketch map.

[425] J. Starkie Gardner, _How were the eocenes of England deposited?_ in _Popular Science Review_ (London), July, 1878, xvii. 282. Edw. H. Thompson, _Atlantis not a Myth_, in _Popular Science Monthly_, Oct., 1879, xv. 759; reprinted in _Journal of Science_, Lond., Nov. 1879.

[426] _Etude sur les rapports de l’Atlantis et de l’ancien continent avant Colomb_ (Paris, 1869).

[427] _Revue de Géographie_, Mars, Avril, 1880, tom. vi. et vii.

[428] See p. 46.

[429] _Ultima teoria sobre la Atlantida._ A paper read before the Geographical Society at Lisbon. I have seen only the epitome in _Bolletino della Società Geografica Italiana_, xvi. (1879), p. 693. Apparently the paper was published in 1881, in the proceedings of the fourth congress of Americanists at Madrid.

[430] Winchell, _Preadamites, or a demonstration of the existence of man before Adam_, etc. (Chicago, 1880), pp. 378 and fol.

[431] Ignatius Donnelly, _Atlantis: the Antediluvian World_ (N. Y., 1882).

[432] His work is much more than a defence of Plato. He attempts to show that Atlantis was the terrestrial paradise, the cradle of the world’s civilization. I suppose it was his book which inspired Mrs. J. Gregory Smith to write _Atla: a Story of the Lost Island_ (New York, 1886).

Donnelly’s book was favorably reviewed by Prof. Winchell (“Ancient Myth and Modern Fact,” _Dial_, Chicago, April, 1882, ii. 284), who declared that there was no longer serious doubt that the story was founded on fact. His theory was enthusiastically adopted by Mrs. A. A. Knight in _Education_ (v. 317), and somewhat more soberly by Rev. J. P. McLean in the _Universalist Quarterly_ (Oct., 1882, xxxix. 436, “The Continent of Atlantis”). I have not seen an article in _Kansas Review_ by Mrs. H. M. Holden, quoted in _Poole’s Index_ (_Kan. Rev._, viii. 435; also, viii. 236, 640). It was more carefully examined and its claims rejected by a writer in the _Journal of Science_ (London), (“Atlantis once more,” June, 1883; xx. 319-327). W. F. Poole doubts whether Mr. Donnelly himself was quite serious in his theorizing (“Discoveries of America: the lost Atlantis theory,” _Dial_, Sept., 1884, v. 97). Lord Arundel of Wardour controverted Donnelly in _The Secret of Plato’s Atlantis_ (London, 1885), and believes that the Atlantis fable originated in vague reports of Hanno’s voyage—a theory hardly less remarkable than the one it aims to displace. Lord Arundel’s book was reviewed in the _Dublin Review_ (Plato’s “Atlantis” and the “Periplus” of Hanno), July, 1886, xcix. 91.

[433] Renard, M., _Report on the Petrology of St. Paul’s Rocks, Challenger Report, Narrative_ (London, 1882), ii. Appendix B.

[434] _A search for “Atlantis” with the microscope_, in _Nature_, 9 Nov., 1882, xxvii. 25.

[435] _The microscopic evidence of a lost continent_, in _Science_, 29 June, 1883, i. 591.

[436] _Origines Celticae_ (London, 1883), i. 119, etc.

[437] _The discoveries of America to the year 1525_ (New York, 1884), ch. 1. Cf. Poole’s review of this jejune Work, quoted above, for some healthy criticism of this kind of writing (_Dial_, v. 97). Also a notice in the _Nation_, July 31, 1884.

The scientific theory of Atlantis is, I believe, supported by M. Jean d’Estienne in the _Revue des Questiones Scientifiques_, Oct., 1885, and by M. de Marçay, _Histoire des descouvertes et conquêtes de l’Amerique_ (Limoges, 1881), but I have seen neither. H. H. Howorth, _The Mammoth and the Flood_ (London, 1887), is struggling to revive the credit of water as the chief agent in the transformations of the earth’s surface, and relies much upon the deluge myths, but refuses to accept Atlantis. He thinks the zoölogic evidence proves the existence in pleistocene times of an easy and natural bridge between Europe and America, but sees no need of placing it across the mid-Atlantic (p. 262).

[438] _The naturall and morall historie of the East and West Indies_, etc., _written in Spanish by Joseph Acosta, and translated into English by E. G[rimeston]_ (London, 1604), p. 72, 73 (lib. i. ch. 22).

[439] _Notitiae orbis antiquae_ (Amsterdam, 1703-6), 2 vols. The first ed. was Cantab., 1703. “Atlantica insula Platonis quae similior fabulae est quam chorographiae,” lib. i. cap. xi. p. 32. In the _Additamentum de novo orbe an cognatus fuerit veteribus_ (tome ii. lib. iv. pp. 164-166) Cellarius speaks more guardedly, and quotes with approval the judgment of Perizonius, which has been given above (p. 22).

[440] _Essai sur l’explication historique donnée par Platon de sa République et de son Atlantide_ (in _Reflexions impartiales sur le progrès réal ou apparent que les sciences et les arts ont faits dans le xviii^e siècle en Europe_, Paris, 1780). The work is useful because it contains the Greek text (from a MS. in the Bibl. du Roi. Cf. _MSS. de la bibliothèque_, v. 261), the Latin translations of Ficinus and Serranus, several French translations, and the Italian of Frizzo and of Bembo.

[441] _Recherches sur les iles de l’océan Atlantique_, in the _Recherches sur la géographie des anciens_, i. p. 146 (Paris, 1797). Also in the French translation of Strabo (i. p. 268, note 3). Gosselin thought that Atlantis was nothing more than Fortaventure or Lancerote.

[442] _Geogr. d. Griechen u. Römer_, i. 1, p. 59; ii. 1, p. 192. Cf. Letronne’s _Essai sur les idées cosmographiques qui se rettachent au nom d’Atlas_, in the _Bull. Univ. des sciences_ (Ferussac), March, 1831.

[443] _Examen Crit._, i. 167-180; ii. 192.

[444] _The dialogues of Plato, translated by B. Jowett_ (N. Y., 1873), ii. p. 587 (Introduction to Critias).

[445] Bunbury, _History of ancient geography_, i. 402.

[446] _Etude sur le Timée de Platon_ (Paris, 1841), t. i. pp. 257-333.

[447] Paul Gaffarel, _Etude sur les rapports de l’Amérique et de l’ancien continent avant Christophe Colomb_ (Paris, 1869), ch. 1er; _L’Atlantide_, pp. 3-27. The same author has more lately handled the subject more fully in a series of articles: _L’Atlantide_, in the _Revue de Géographie_, April-July, 1880; vi. 241, 331, 421; vii. 21,—which is the most detailed account of the whole matter yet brought together.

[448] One of the most recent résumés of the question is that by Salone in the _Grande Encyclopédie_. (Paris, 1888, iv. p. 457). The _Encyclopædia Britannica_, by the way, regards the account, “if not entirely fictitious, as belonging to the most nebulous region of history.”

A few miscellaneous references, of no great significance, may close this list: _Amer. Antiquarian_, Sept., 1886; H. H. Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v. 123; J. S. Clarke’s _Progress of Maritime Discovery_, p. ii. Geo. Catlin’s _Lifted and Subsided Rocks of America_ (Lond., 1870) illustrates “The Cataclysm of the Antilles.” Dr. Chil, in the Nancy _Congrès des Américanistes_, i. 163. Foster’s _Prehistoric Races_, app. E. Haven’s _Archæol. U. S._ Irving’s _Columbus_, app. xxii. Major’s _Prince Henry_ (1868), p. 87. Nadaillac’s _Les Prem. Hommes_, ii. 114, and his _L’ Amérique préhistorique_, 561. John B. Newman’s _Origin of the Red Men_ (N. Y., 1852). Prescott’s _Mexico_, iii. 356. C. S. Rafinesque’s incomplete _American Nations_ (Philad.), and his earlier introduction to Marshall’s _Kentucky_, and his _Amer. Museum_ (1832). Two articles by L. Burke in his _Ethnological Journal_ (London), 1848: _The destruction of Atlantis_, July; _The continent of America known to the ancient Egyptians and other nations of remote antiquity_, Aug. The former article is only a reprint of Taylor’s trans. of Plato. Roisel’s _Etudes ante-historiques_ (Paris, 1874), devoted largely to the religion of the Atlanteans. Léon de Rosny’s “L’Atlantide historique” in the _Mém. de la Soc. d’Ethnographie_ (Paris, 1875), xiii. 33, 159, or _Revue Orientale et Américaine_. Short’s _No. Americans of Antiquity_, ch. 11. Daniel Wilson’s _Lost Atlantis_ (Montreal, 1886), in _Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada_, 1886, iv. Cf. also _Poole’s Index_, i. 73; ii. 27; and Larousse’s _Grand Dictionnaire_.

[449] _Legends and Superstitions of the Sea and of Sailors in all Lands and at all Times_ (Chicago and New York, 1885).

[450] _Légendes, croyances de la mer._ 2 vols. (Paris, 1886.) See ch. 9 in 1^{ere} série.

[451] _L’Elysée transatlantique et l’Eden Occidental_ (Mai-Juin, Nov.-Dec., 1883), vii. 273; viii. 673.

[452] _Paradise Found: the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole_ (Boston, 1885), 4th ed.

[453] Eumenius (?), in the third century A.D., is doubtful about the existence even of the Fortunate Isles (i. e. the Canaries). _Eumenii panegyricus Constantino Aug._, vii., in Valpy’s _Panegyrici veteres_ (London, 1828), iii. p. 1352. Baehrens credits this oration to an unknown author. Mamertinus appears to know them from the poets only (_Ibid._ p. 1529).

[454] _Saggio sulla nautica antica dei Veneziani_, n. p., n. d. (Venice, 1783); French translation (Venice, 1788).

[455] _Il mappamondo di Fra Mauro descritto ed illustrato_ (Venice, 1806). _Di Marco Polo e degli altri viaggiatori veneziani ... con append. sopra le antiche mappe lavorate in Venezia_ (Venice, 1818).

[456] ii. 156, etc.

[457] D’Avezac: _Iles d’Afrique_ (Paris, 1848) 2^e _partie_; _Iles connues des Arabes_, pp. 15; _Les îles de Saint-Brandan_, pp. 19; _Les îsles nouvellement trouvées du quinzième siècle_, pp. 24. The last two pieces had been previously published under the title _Les îles fantastiques de l’Ocean occidental au moyen âge_, in the _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_ (Mars, Avril, 1845), 2d série, i. 293; ii. 47.

[458] _Les îsles fantastiques de l’Atlantique au moyen âge._ Lyon [1883], pp. 15. This is apparently extracted from the _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Lyon_ for 1883.

[In _Poole’s Index_ is a reference to an article on imaginary islands in _London Society_, i. 80, 150.]

[459] “Zur Geschichte der Erdkunde in der letzten Hälfte des Mittelalters. Die Karten der seefahrenden Völker Süd-Europas bis zum ersten Druck der Erdbeschreibung des Ptolemaeus.” _Jahresbericht_, vi. vii. (1870). Accompanying the article are sketches of the principal mediæval maps, which are useful if access to the more trustworthy reproductions cannot be had.

[460] _Sammlung mittelalterlicher Welt- und Seekarten italienischen Ursprungs_, etc. (Venice, 1886), especially pp. 14-22, and under the notices of particular maps in the second part.

[461] _The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator_, etc. London, 1868.

[462] The position of these islands and the fact that the Arabs believed that they were following Ptolemy in placing in them the first meridian seems almost conclusive in favor of the Canaries; but M. D’Avezac is inclined in favor of the Azores, because the Arabs place in the Eternal Isles certain pillars and statues warning against further advance westward, which remind him of the equestrian statues of the Azores, and because Ebn Sáyd states that the Islands of Happiness lie between the Eternal Islands and Africa.

[463] D’Avezac, _Iles d’Afrique_, ii. 15. _Géographie d’Abul-Fada trad. par M. Reinand et M. Guiyard_ (Paris, 1848-83). 2 vols. The first volume contains a treatise on Arabian geographers and their systems. _Géographie d’Edrisi trad. par M. Jaubert_ (Paris, 1836-40). 2 vols. 4to (Soc. de Géogr. de Paris, _Recueil de Voyages_, v., vi.) Cf. Cherbonneau on the Arabian geographers in the _Revue de Géographie_ (1881).

[464] Humboldt, _Examen Crit._, ii. 163; D’Avezac, _Iles d’Afrique_, ii. 19; St. Malo’s voyage by Beauvois, _Rev. Hist. Relig._, viii. 986.

[465] _Les voyages de Saint Brandan et des Papoe dans l’Atlantique au moyen-âge_, published by the Soc. de Géogr. de Rochefort (1881). See also his _Rapports de l’Amérique et de l’ancien continent_ (Paris, 1869), p. 173-183. The article _Brenden_ in Stephen’s _Dict. of National Biography_, vol. vi. (London, 1886), should be consulted.

[466] 16 May; _Maii_, tom. ii. p. 699.

[467] _La légende latine de S. Brandaines, avec une traduction inédite_, etc. (Paris, 1836). M. Jubinal gives a full account of all manuscripts.

[468] _St. Brandan, a mediæval legend of the sea, in English prose and verse_ (London, 1844). The student of the subject will find use for _Les voyages de Saint Brandan à la recherche du paradis terrestre, legend en vers du XII^e siècle, avec introduction par Francisque Michel_ (Paris, 1878), and “La legende Flamande de Saint Brandan et du bibliographie” by Louis de Backer in _Miscellanées bibliographiques_, 1878, p. 191.

[469] _Nova typis transacta navigatio._ _Novi orbis India occidentalis_, etc. (1621), p. 11.

[470] Honoré d’Autun, _Imago Mundi_, lib. i. cap. 36. In _Maxima Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum_ (Lugd., 1677), tom. xx. p. 971.

[471] Humboldt (_Examen Critique_, ii. 172) quotes these islands from Sanuto Torsello (1306). They appear on a map of about 1350, preserved in St. Mark’s Library at Venice (Wuttke, in _Jahresber. d. Vereins für Erdkunde zu Dresden_, xvi. 20), as “_I fortunate I beate, 368,_” in connection with _La Montagne de St. Brandan_, west of Ireland. They are also in the Medicean Atlas of 1351, and in Fra Mauro’s map and many others.

[472] _Noticias de la historia general de las islas de Canaria_, by D. Jos. de Viera y Clavijo, 4 vols. 4to (Madrid, 1772-83). Humboldt, _Examen_, ii. 167. D’Avezac, _Iles d’Afrique_, ii. 22, etc. _Les îles fortunées ou archipel des Canaries_ [by E. Pégot-Ogier], 2 vols. (Paris, 1862), i. ch. 13. Saint-Borondon (_Aprositus_), pp. 186-198. _Teneriffe and its six satellites_, by O. M. Stone, 2 vols. (London, 1887), i. 319. This mirage probably explains the _Perdita_ of Honoré and the _Aprositos_ of Ptolemy. Cf. O. Peschel’s _Abhandlungen zur Erd- und Völkerkunde_ (Leipzig, 1877), i. 20. A similar story is connected with Brazil.

[473] M. Buache in his _Mémoire sur l’Isle Antillia_ (_Mém. Inst. de France, Sciences math. et phys._, vi., 1806), read on a copy of the Pizigani map of 1367, sent to him from Parma, the inscription, _Ad ripas Antilliae or Antullio_. Cf. Buache’s article in German in _Allg. Geogr. Ephemeriden_, xxiv. 129. Humboldt (_Examen_, ii. 177) quotes Zurla (_Viaggi_, ii. 324) as denying that such an inscription can be made out on the original: but Fischer (_Sammlung von Welt-karten_, p. 19) thinks this form of the name can be made out on Jomard’s fac-simile. Wuttke, however, thinks that the word Antillia is not to be made out, and gives the inscription as _Hoc sont statua q fuit ut tenprs A cules_, and reads _Hoc sunt statuae quae fuerunt antea temporibus Arcules = Herculis_ (Wuttke, _Zur Geschichte der Erdkunde in der letzten Haelfte des Mittelalters_, p. 26, in _Jahresbericht des Vereins für Erdkunde zu Dresden_, vi. and vii., 1870). The matter is of interest in the story of the equestrian statue of Corvo. According to the researches of Humboldt, this story first appears in print in the history of Portugal by Faria y Sousa (_Epitome de las historias Portuguezas_, Madrid, 1628. _Historia del Reyno de Portugal_, 1730), who describes on the “Mountain of the Crow,” in the Azores, a statue of a man on horseback pointing westward. A later version of the story mentions a western promontory in _Corvo_ which had the form of a person pointing westward. Humboldt (ii. 231), in an interesting sketch, connects this story with the Greek traditions of the columns of Hercules at Gades, and with the old opinion that beyond no one could pass; and with the curious Arabic stories of numberless columns with inscriptions prohibiting further navigation, set up by _Dhoulcarnain_, an Arabian hero, in whose personality Hercules and Alexander the Great are curiously compounded (see _Edrisi_). Humboldt quotes from Buache a statement that on the Pizigani map of 1367 there is near Brazil (Azores) a representation of a person holding an inscription and pointing westward.

[474] Fernan Colomb, _Historia_, ch. 9; Horn, _De Originibus Amer._ p. 7, quoted by Gaffarel in his _Les îles fantastiques_, p. 3, _note_ 1, 2. D’Avezac, _Iles d’Afrique_, ii. 27, quotes a similar passage from Medina (_Arte naviguar_), who found it in the Ptolemy dedicated to Pope Urban (1378-1389). According to D’Avezac (_Iles_, ii. 28), a “geographical document” of 1455 gives the name as _Antillis_, and identifies it with Plato’s _Atlantis_.

[475] Formaleoni, _Essai_, 148.

[476] D’Avezac marks as wrong the reading _Sarastagio_ of Humboldt.

[477] D’Avezac, _Iles d’Afrique_, ii. 29; Gaffarel, _Iles fantastiques_, 12. Fischer (_Sammlung_, 20) translates _Satanaxio, Satanshand_, but thinks the island of _Deman_, which appears on the Catalan chart of 1375, is meant by the first half of the title. The Catalan map, fac-similed by Buchon and Foster in the _Notices et extraits des documents_, xiv. 2, has been more exactly reproduced in the _Choix des documents géographiques conservées à la Bibl. Nat._ (Paris, 1883).

[478] Peter Martyr, in 1493, states that cosmographers had determined that Hispaniola and the adjacent isles were _Antillae insulae_, meaning doubtless the group surrounding Antillia on the old maps (_Decades_, i. p. 11, ed. 1583); but the name was not popularly applied to the new islands until after Wytfliet and Ortelius had so used it (Humboldt, _Examen_, ii. 195, etc.). But Schöner, in the dedicatory letter of his globe of 1523, says that the king of Castile through Columbus has discovered _Antiglias Hispaniam Cubam quoque_ (Stevens, _Schöner_, London, 1888, fac-simile of letter). In the same way the name Seven Cities was applied to the pueblos of New Mexico by their first discoverers, and Brazil passed from an island to the continent.

[479] Humboldt identified it with _Terceira_, but Fischer questions whether St. Michael does not agree better with the easterly position constantly assigned to Brazil.

[480] The Bianco map of 1436 has, on the ocean sheets, five groups of small islands, from south to north: (1) Canaries; (2) Madeira and Porto Santo; (3) _luto_ and _chapisa_; (4) _d. brasil, di colonbi, d. b. ntusta, d. sanzorzi_; (5) _coriios_ and _corbo marinos_; (6) _de ventura_; (7) _de brazil_. West of the third and fourth lies _Antillia_, and N. W. of the fifth a corner of _de laman satanaxio_, while west of six and seven are numerous small islands unnamed. On the ocean sheet of the Bianco of 1448, we have (2) Madeira and Porto Santo; (3) _licongi_ and _coruo marin_; (4) _de braxil, zorzi_, etc.; (5) _coriios_ and _coruos marinos_; (6) _y. d. mam debentum_; (7) _y. d. brazil d. binar_. There is no Antillia and no Satanaxio, but west of (3) and (4) are two other groups: (1) _yd. diuechi marini, y de falconi_; (2) _y fortunat de s^o. beati. blandan, dinferno, de ipauion, beta ixola, dexerta_. There is not much to be hoped from such geography.

[481] Over against Africa he has an _Isola dei Dragoni_. On the Pizigani map of 1367 the Brazil which lies W. of North France is accompanied by a cut of two ships, a dragon eating a man, and a legend stating that one cannot sail further on account of monsters. There was a dragon in the Hesperian isles, and some have connected it with the famous dragon-tree of the Canaries.

[482] _Examen_, ii. 216, etc.

[483] For an account of the Irish MSS. see Eugene O’Curry, _Lectures on the MS. material of ancient Irish history_ (Dublin, 1861), lect. ix. p. 181; H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, _Introduction a l’étude de la littérature Celtique_, 2 vols. (Paris, 1883), i. chap. 8, p. 349, etc.; also _Essai d’un catalogue de littérature épique d’Irlande_, by the same author (Paris, 1883). For accounts of the voyages see O’Curry, p. 252, and especially p. 289, where a sketch of that of the sons of _Ua Corra_ is given. A list of the voyages is given by D’Arbois de Jubainville in his _Essai_, under _Longeas_ (involuntary voyages) and _Immram_ (voluntary voyages), with details about MSS. and references to texts and translations (_Mailduin_, p. 151; _Ua Corra_, 152). See also Beauvois, _Eden occidental, Rev. de l’Hist. des Relig._, viii. 706, 717, for voyages of _Mailduin_ and the sons of _Ua Corra_, and of other voyages. Also Joyce, _Old Celtic romances_ (London, 1879). Is M. Beauvois in earnest when he suggests that the talking birds discovered by Mailduin (and also by St. Brandan) were probably parrots, and their island a part of South America?

[484] The name is derived by Celtic scholars from _breas_, large, and _i_, island.

[485] _Gulielmi de Worcester Itineraria_, ed. J. Nasmyth (Cantab., 1778), p. 223, 267. I take the quotation from _Notes and Queries_, Dec. 15, 1883, 6th series, viii. 475. The latter passage is quoted in full in _Bristol, past and present_, by Nicholls and Taylor (London, 1882), iii. 292. Cf. H. Harrisse’s _C. Colomb._, i. 317.

[486] _Cal. State Papers, Spanish_, i. p. 177.

[487] _Irish Minstrelsy, or bardic remains of Ireland_, etc., 2 vols. (London, 1831), i. 368.

[488] This is very nearly its position in the _Arcano del Mare_ of Dudley, 1646 (Europe 28), where it is called “disabitata e incerta.”

[489] i. 369. _O-Brazile, or the enchanted island, being a perfect relation of the late discovery and wonderful disenchantment of an island on the North [sic] of Ireland_, etc. (London, 1675).

[490] John T. O’Flaherty, _Sketch of the History and antiquities of the southern islands of Aran_, etc. (Dublin, 1884, in _Roy. Irish Acad. Trans._, vol. xiv.)

[491] _On Hy Brasil, a traditional island off the west coast of Ireland, plotted in a MS. map written by Le Sieur Tassin_, etc., in the _Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland_ (1879-80), vol. xv. pt. 3, pp. 128-131, _fac-simile of map_.

[492] In an atlas issued 1866, I observe _Mayda_ and _Green Rock_.

[493] Harrisse would put it in 1482. See Vol. II. p. 90.

[494] Also in his _Bib. Amer. Vet._, p. xvi.

[495] The various versions of the letter are as follows: _Ulloa_ (_Historie_, 1571, ch. 8). Dalla città di Lisbona per dritto verso ponente sono in detta carta ventisei spazi, ciascun de’ quali contien dugento, & cinquanta miglia, fino alla ... città di Quisai, la quale gira cento miglia, che sono trentacinque leghe.... Questo spazio e quasi la terza parte della sfera.... E dalla’ Isola di Antilia, che voi chiamate di sette città, ... fino alla ... isola di Cipango sono dieci spazi, che fanno due mila & cinquecento miglia, cioè dugento, & venticinque leghe.

_Barcia._ Hallareis en un mapa, que ai desde Lisboa, à la famosa ciudad de Quisay, tomando el camino derecho à Poniente, 26 espacios, cada uno de 150 millas. Quisai’ tiene 35 leguas de ambitu.... De la isla Antilla hasta la de Cipango se quentan diez espacios, que hacen 225 leguas.

_Las Casas_: Y de la ciudad de Lisboa, en derecho por el Poniente, son en la dicha carta 26 espacios, y en cada uno dellos hay 250 millas hasta la ... ciudad de Quisay, la cual etiene al cerco 100 millas, que son 25 leguas, ... (este espacio es cuasi la tercera parte de la sfera) ... é de la isla de Antil, ... Hasta la ... isla de Cipango hay 10 espacios que son 2,500 millas, es á sabre, 225 leguas.

_Columbus’s copy_: A civitate vlixiponis per occidentem indirecto sunt .26. spacia in carta signata quorum quodlibet habet miliaria .250. usque ad nobilisim[am], et maxima ciuitatem quinsay. Circuit enim centum miliaria ... hoc spatium est fere tercia pars tocius spere.... Sed ab insula antilia vobis nota ad insulam ... Cippangu sunt decem spacia.

[496] Cf. “Les îles Atlantique,” by Jacobs-Beeckmans in the _Bull. de la Soc. géog. d’Anvers_, i. 266, with map.

[497] Of these collections, those of Kunstmann and Jomard are not uncommon in the larger American libraries. A set of the Santarem series is very difficult to secure complete, but since the description of these collections in Vol. II. was written, a set has been secured for Harvard College library, and I am not aware of another set being in this country. The same library has the Ongania series. The maps in this last, some of which are useful in the present study, are the following:—

1. Arabic marine map, xiiith cent. (Milan); 2. Visconte, 1311 (Florence); 3. Carignano, xivth cent. (Florence); 4. Visconte, 1318 (Venice); 5. Anonymous, 1351 (Florence); 6. Pizigani, 1373 (Milan); 7. Anon., xivth cent. (Venice); 8. Giroldi, 1426 (Venice); 9. Bianco, 1430, (Venice); 10. Anon., 1447 (Venice); 11. Bianco, 1448 (Milan); 12. Not issued; 13. Anon., Catalan, xvth cent. (Florence); 14. Leardo, 1452; 15. Fra Mauro, 1457 (Venice); 16. Cantino, 1501-3 (Modena). This has not been issued in this series, but Harrisse published a fac-simile in colors in connection with his _Les Corte-Real_, etc., Paris, 1883. 17. Agnese, 1554 (Venice). The names on these photographs are often illegible; how far the condition of the original is exactly reproduced in this respect it is of course impossible to say without comparison.

[498] The notions prevailing so far back as the first century are seen in the map of Pomponius Mela in Vol. II. p. 180.

[499] Vol. II. p. 36.

[500] Lelewel (ii. 119) gives a long account of Sanuto and his maps, and so does Kunstmann in the _Mémoires_ (vii. ch. 2, 1855) of the Royal Bavarian Academy; but a more perfect inventory of his maps is given in the _Studi biog. e bibliog._ of the Italian Geographical Society (1882, i. 80; ii. 50). Cf. Peschel, _Gesch. der Erdkunde_, Ruge, ed. 1877, p. 210. Sanuto’s map of 1320 was first published in his _Liber Secretorum fidelium crucis_ (Frankfort, 1811. Cf. reproduction in St. Martin’s _Atlas_, pl. vi. no. 3). Further references are in Winsor’s _Kohl Maps_, no. 12. It is in part reproduced by Santarem.

[501] Cf. _Amer. Geog. Soc. Journal_, xii. 177, and references in the _Kohl Maps_, nos. 13 and 14.

[502] Vol. II. p. 38.

[503] Cf. references in Vol. II. 38.

[504] Cf. _Studi_, etc., ii. no. 392.

[505] Cf. Desimoni’s _Le carte nautiche Italiane del medio evo a proposito di un libro del Prof. Fischer_ (Genoa, 1888).

[506] Cf. Vol. II. 38 for references; and Lelewel and Santarem’s Atlases.

[507] Cf. _Studi_, etc., vol. ii. pp. viii, 67, 72, with references.

[508] Cf. Pietro Amat in the _Mem. Soc. Geografica_, Roma, 1878; _Studi_, etc., ii. 75; Winsor’s _Bibliog. Ptolemy_, sub anno 1478.

[509] Cf. account of inaugurating busts of Fra Mauro and John Cabot, in _Terzo Congresso Geografico internazionale_ (held at Venice, Sept., 1881, and published at Rome, 1882), i. p. 33.

[510] Asa Gray, in _Darwiniana_, p. 203. Cf. his _Address_ before Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1827.

[511] The subject of these pre-Columbian claims is examined in almost all the general works on early discovery. Cf. Robertson’s _America_; J. S. Vater’s _Untersuchungen über Amerikas Bevölkerung aus dem alten Continent_ (Leipzig, 1810); Dr. F. X. A. Deuber’s _Geschichte der Schiffahrt im Atlantischen Ozean_ (Bamberg, 1814); Ruge, _Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_ (ch. 2); Major’s _Select Letters of Columbus_, introd.; C. A. A. Zestermann’s _Memoir on the Colonization of America in antehistoric times, with critical observations by E. G. Squier_ (London, 1851); _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_ (ii. 404); “Les précurseurs de Colomb” in _Études par les Pères de la Compagnie de Jesus_ (Leipzig, 1876); Oscar Dunn in _Revue Canadienne_, xii. 57, 194, 305, 871, 909,—not to name numerous other periodical papers. Paul Gaffarel, in his “Les relations entre l’ancien monde et l’Amérique étaient-elles possibles au moyen âge?” (_Soc. Normande de Géog. Bulletin_, 1881, p. 209), thinks that amid the confused traditions there is enough to convince us that we have no right to determine that communication was impossible.

[512] _MSS. de la bibliothèque royale_ (Paris, 1787), i. 462.

[513] De Costa in _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._ xii. (1880) p. 159, etc., with references.

[514] Humboldt, _Views of Nature_, p. 124. He also notes the drifting of Eskimo boats to Europe.

[515] _Tratado de las cinco zonas habitables._

[516] Respecting these Christian Irish see the supplemental chapters of Mallet’s _Northern Antiquities_ (London, 1847); Dasent’s _Burnt Njal_, i. p. vii.; Moore’s _History of Ireland_; Forster’s _Northern Voyages_; Worsaae’s _Danes and Norwegians in England_, 332. Cf. on the contact of the two races H. H. Howorth on “The Irish monks and the Norsemen” in the _Roy. Hist. Soc. Trans._ viii. 281.

[517] Conybeare remarks that jarl, naturalized in England as earl, has been displaced in its native north by graf.

[518] It has sometimes been contended that a bull of Gregory IV, in A.D. 770, referred to Greenland, but Spitzbergen was more likely intended, though its known discovery is much later. A bull of A.D. 835, in Pontanus’s _Rerum Daniarum Historia_, is also held to indicate that there were earlier peoples in Greenland than those from Iceland. Sabin (vi. no. 22,854) gives as published at Godthaab, 1859-61, in 3 vols., the Eskimo text of Greenland Folk Lore, collected and edited by natives of Greenland, with a Danish translation, and showing, as the notice says, the traditions of the first descent of the Northmen in the _eighth_ century.

[519] Known as the Katortuk church.

[520] An apocryphal story goes that one of these churches was built near a boiling spring, the water from which was conducted through the building in pipes for heating it! The Zeno narrative is the authority for this. Cf. Gay’s _Pop. Hist. U. S._ i. 79.

[521] The Westribygd, or western colony, had in the fourteenth century 90 settlements and 4 churches; the Eystribygd had 190 settlements, a cathedral and eleven churches, with two large towns and three or four monasteries.

[522] R. G. Haliburton, in the _Popular Science Monthly_, May, 1885, p. 40, gives a map in which Bjarni’s course is marked as entering the St. Lawrence Gulf by the south, and emerging by the Straits of Belle Isle.

[523] Dated 1135, and discovered in 1824.

[524] Distinctly shown in the diverse identifications of these landmarks which have been made.

[525] On the probabilities of the Vinland voyages, see Worsaae’s _Danes and Norwegians in England_, etc., p. 109.

[526] _Grönland’s Hist. Mindesmaeker_, iii. 9.

[527] The popular confidence in this view is doubtless helped by Montgomery, who has made it a point in his poem on Greenland, canto v. De Courcy (_Hist. of the Church in America_, p. 12) is cited by Howley (_Newfoundland_) as asserting that the eastern colony was destroyed by “a physical cataclysm, which accumulated the ice.” On the question of a change of climate in Greenland, see J. D. Whitney’s _Climatic Changes_ (_Mus. Comp. Zoöl. Mem._, 1882, vii. 238).

[528] Rink (_Danish Greenland_, 22) is not inclined to believe that there has been any material climatic change in Greenland since the Norse days, and favors the supposition that some portion of the finally remaining Norse became amalgamated with the Eskimo and disappeared. If the reader wants circumstantial details of the misfortunes of their “last man,” he can see how they can be made out of what are held to be Eskimo traditions in a chapter of Dr. Hayes’s _Land of Desolation_.

Nordenskjöld (_Voyage of the Vega_) holds, such is the rapid assimilation of a foreign stock by a native stock, that it is not unlikely that what descendants may exist of the lost colonists of Greenland may be now indistinguishable from the Eskimo.

Tylor (_Early Hist. Mankind_, p. 208), speaking of the Eskimo, says: “It is indeed very strange that there should be no traces found among them of knowledge of metal-work and of other arts, which one would expect a race so receptive of foreign knowledge would have got from contact with the Northmen.”

Prof. Edward S. Morse, in his very curious study of _Ancient and Modern Methods of Arrow Release_ (Salem, 1885,—_Bull. Essex Inst._, xvii.) p. 52, notes that the Eskimo are the only North American tribe practising what he calls the “Mediterranean release,” common to all civilized Europe, and he ventures to accept a surmise that it may have been derived from the Scandinavians.

[529] Given by Schlegel, Egede (citing Pontanus), and Rafn; and a French version is in the _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog._, 2d series, iii. 348. It is said to be preserved in a copy in the Vatican. M. F. Howley, _Ecclesiastical Hist. of Newfoundland_ (Boston, 1888), p. 43, however, says “Abbé Garnier mentions a bull of Pope Nicholas V, of date about 1447, concerning the church of Greenland; but on searching the Bullarium in the Propaganda library, Rome, in 1885, I could not find it.”

[530] Laing’s _Heimskringla_, i. 146.

[531] E. B. Tylor on “Old Scandinavian Civilization among the modern Esquimaux,” in the _Journal of the Anthropological Inst._ (1884), xiii. 348, shows that the Greenlanders still preserve some of the Norse customs, arising in part, as he thinks, from some of the lost Scandinavian survivors being merged in the savage tribes. Their recollection of the Northmen seems evident from the traditions collected among them by Dr. Rink in his _Eskimoiske Eventyr og Sagn_ (Copenhagen, 1866); and their dress, and some of their utensils and games, as it existed in the days of Egede and Crantz, seem to indicate the survival of customs.

[532] _Cosmos_, Bohn’s ed., ii. 610; _Examen Crit._, ii. 148.

[533] Cf. _Geographie de Edrisi, traduite de l’arabe en français d’après deux manuscrits de la bibliothèque du Roi, et accompagnée de notes, par G. Amédée Jaubert_ (Paris, 1836-40), vol. i. 200; ii. 26. Cf. _Recueil des Voyages et Mémoires de la Société de Géographie de Paris_, vols. v., vi. The world-map by Edrisi does not indicate any knowledge of this unknown world. Cf. copies of it in St. Martin’s _Atlas_, pl. vi; Lelewel, _Atlas_, pl. x-xii; Peschel’s _Gesch. der Erdkunde_, ed. by Ruge, 1877, p. 144; _Amer. Geog. Soc. Journal_, xii. 181; _Allg. Geog. Ephemeriden_, ix. 292; Gerard Stein’s _Die Entdeckungsreisen in alter und neuer Zeit_ (1883).

Guignes (_Mém. Acad. des Inscriptions_, 1761, xxviii. 524) limits the Arab voyage to the Canaries, and in _Notices et Extraits des MSS. de la bibliothèque du Roi_, ii. 24, he describes a MS. which makes him believe the Arabs reached America; and he is followed by Munoz (_Hist. del Nuevo Mondo_, Madrid, 1793). Hugh Murray (_Discoveries and Travels in No. Amer._, Lond., 1829, i. p. II) and W. D. Cooley (_Maritime Discovery_, 1830, i. 172) limit the explorations respectively to the Azores and the Canaries. Humboldt (_Examen Crit._, 1837, ii. 137) thinks they may possibly have reached the Canaries; but Malte Brun (_Géog. Universelle_, 1841, i. 186) is more positive. Major (_Select Letters of Columbus_, 1847) discredits the American theory, and in his _Prince Henry_ agrees with D’Avezac that they reached Madeira. Lelewel (_Géog. du Moyen Age_, ii. 78) seems likewise incredulous. S. F. Haven (_Archæol. U. S._) gives the theory and enumerates some of its supporters. Peschel (_Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_, 1858) is very sceptical. Gaffarel (_Etudes_, etc., p. 209) fails to find proof of the American theory. Gay (_Pop. History U. S._, i. 64) limits their voyage to the Azores.

[534] Given as A.D. 1380; but Major says, 1390. _Journal Royal Geog. Soc._, 1873, p. 180.

[535] De Costa, _Verrazano the Explorer_ (N. Y., 1880), pp. 47, 63, contends that Benedetto Bordone, writing his _Isole del Monde_ in 1521, and printing it in 1528, had access to the Zeno map thirty years and more earlier than its publication. This, he thinks, is evident from the way in which he made and filled in his outline, and from his drawing of “Islanda,” even to a like way of engraving the name, which is in a style of letter used by Bordone nowhere else. Humboldt (_Cosmos_, Bohn’s ed., ii. 611) has also remarked it as singular that the name Frislanda, which, as he supposed, was not known on the maps before the Zeni publication in 1538, should have been applied by Columbus to an island southerly from Iceland, in his _Tratado de las cinco zonas habitables_. Cf. De Costa’s _Columbus and the Geographers of the North_ (1872), p. 19. Of course, Columbus might have used the name simply descriptively,—cold land; but it is now known that in a sea chart of perhaps the fifteenth century, preserved in the Ambrosian library at Milan, the name “Fixlanda” is applied to an island in the position of Frislanda in the Zeno chart, while in a Catalan chart of the end of the fifteenth century the same island is apparently called “Frixlanda” (_Studi biog. e bibliog. della soc. geog. ital._, ii. nos. 400, 404). “Frixanda” is also on a chart, A.D. 1471-83, given in fac-simile to accompany Wuttke’s “Geschichte der Erdkunde” in the _Jahrbuch des Vereins für Erdkunde_ (Dresden, 1870, tab. vi.).

[536] Irving’s _Columbus_ takes this view.

[537] J. P. Leslie’s _Man’s Origin and Destiny_, p. 114, for instance.

[538] Brevoort (_Hist. Mag._, xiii. 45) thinks that the “Isola Verde” and “Isle de Mai” of the fifteenth-century maps, lying in lat. 46° north, was Newfoundland with its adjacent bank, which he finds in one case represented. Samuel Robertson (_Lit. & Hist. Soc. Quebec, Trans._ Jan. 16) goes so far as to say that certain relics found in Canada may be Basque, and that it was a Basque whaler, named Labrador, who gave the name to the coast, which the early Portuguese found attached to it! We find occasional stories indicating knowledge of distant fishing coasts at a very early date, like the following:—

“In the yeere 1153 it is written that there came to Lubec, a citie of Germanie, one canoa with certaine indians, like unto a long barge, which seemed to have come from the coast of Baccalaos, which standeth in the same latitude that Germanie doth” (_Galvano_, Bethune’s edition, p. 56).

[539] W. D. Whitney, _Life and Growth of Language_, p. 258, says: “No other dialect of the old world so much resembles in structure the American languages.” Cf. Farrar’s _Families of Speech_, p. 132; Nott and Gliddon’s _Indigenous Races_, 48; H. de Charencey’s _Des affinités de la langue Basque avec les idiomes du Nouveau Monde_ (Paris and Caen, 1867); and Julien Vinson’s “La langue basque et les langues Américaines” in the _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_ (Nancy, 1875), ii. 46. On the other hand, Joly (_Man before Metals_, 316) says: “Whatever may be said to the contrary, Basque offers no analogy with the American dialects.”

These linguistic peculiarities enter into all the studies of this remarkable stock. Cf. J. F. Blade’s _Etude sur l’origine des Basques_ (Paris, 1869); W. B. Dawkins in the _Fortnightly Review_, Sept., 1874, and his _Cave Hunting_, ch. 6, with Brabrook’s critique in the _Journal Anthropological Institute_, v. 5; and Julien Vinson on “L’Ethnographie des Basques” in _Mém. de la Soc. d’Ethnographie, Session de 1872_, p. 49, with a map.

[540] But see Vol. III. 45; IV. 3. Forster (_Northern Voyages_, book iii. ch. 3 and 4) contends for these pre-Columbian visits of the European fishermen. Cf. Winsor’s _Bibliog. of Ptolemy_, sub anno 1508. The same currents and easterly trade-winds which helped Columbus might easily have carried chance vessels to the American coasts, as we have evidence, apparently, in the stern-post of a European vessel which Columbus saw at Guadaloupe. Haven cites Gumilla (_Hist. Orinoco_, ii. 208) as stating that in 1731 a bateau from Teneriffe was thrown upon the South American coast. Cf. J. P. Casselius, _De Navigationibus fortuitis in Americam, ante Columbum factis_ (Magdeburg, 1742); Brasseur’s _Popul Vuh_, introd.; Hunt’s _Merchants’ Mag._ xxv. 275.

[541] Francisque-Michel, _Le Pays Basque_, 189, who says that the Basques were acquainted with the coasts of Newfoundland a century before Columbus (ch. 9).

Humboldt (_Cosmos_, Eng. ed. ii. 142) is not prepared to deny such early visits of the Basques to the northern fishing grounds. Cf. Gaffarel’s _Rapport_, p. 212. Harrisse (_Notes on Columbus_, 80) goes back very far: “The Basques and Northmen, we feel confident, visited these shores as early as the seventh century.”

There are some recent studies on these early fishing experiences in Ferd. Duro’s _Disquisiciones nauticas_ (1881), and in E. Gelcich’s “Der Fischgang des Gascogner and die Entdeckung von Neufundland,” in the _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_ (1883), vol. xviii. pp. 249-287.

[542] Cf. M. Hamconius’ _Frisia: seu de viris erbusque Frisiæ illustribus_ (Franckeræ, 1620), and L. Ph. C. v. d. Bergh’s _Nederlands annspraak op de ontdekking van Amerika voor Columbus_ (Arnheim, 1850). Cf. Müller’s _Catalogue_ (1877), nos. 303, 1343.

[543] Watson’s bibliog. in Anderson, p. 158.

A Biscayan merchant, a subject of Navarre, is also said to have discovered the western lands in 1444. Cf. André Favyn, _Hist. de Navarre_, p. 564; and G. de Henao’s _Averignaciones de las Antigüedades? de Cantabria_, p. 25.

Galvano (Hakluyt Soc. ed., p. 72) recounts the story of a Portuguese ship in 1447 being driven westward from the Straits of Gibraltar to an island with seven cities, where they found the people speaking Portuguese; who said they had deserted their country on the death of King Roderigo. “All these reasons seem to agree,” adds Galvano, “that this should be that country which is called Nova Spagna.”

It was the year (1491) before Columbus’ voyage that the English began to send out from Bristol expeditions to discover these islands of the seven cities, and others having the same legendary existence. Cf. Ayala, the Spanish ambassador to England, in _Spanish State Papers_, i. 177. Cf. also Irving’s _Columbus_, app. xxiv., and Gaffarel’s _Etude sur la rapports_, etc., p. 185.

[544] See Vol. II. p. 34.

[545] See Vol. II. p. 34, where is a list of references, which may be increased as follows: Bachiller y Morales, _Antigüedades Americanas_ (Havana, 1845). E. de Freville’s _Mémoire sur le Commerce maritime de Rouen_ (1857), i. 328, and his _La Cosmographie du moyen age, et les découvertes maritimes des Normands_ (Paris, 1860), taken from the _Revue des Sociétés Savantes_. Gabriel Gravier’s _Les Normands sur la route des Indes_, (Rouen, 1880). Cf. _Congrès des Américanistes in Compte Rendu_ (1875), i. 397.

[546] “Ethnography and Philology of America,” in H. W. Bates, _Central America, West Indies, and South America_ (Lond., 1882). This was the opinion of Prescott (_Mexico_, Kirk’s ed., iii. 398), and he based his judgment on the investigations of Waldeck, Voyage dans la Yucatan, and Dupaix, _Antiquités Méxicaines_. Stephens (_Central America_) holds similar views. Cf. Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, i. 327; ii. 43. Dall (_Third Rep. Bur. Ethnol._, 146) says: “There can be no doubt that America was populated in some way by people of an extremely low grade of culture at a period even geologically remote. There is no reason for supposing, however, that immigration ceased with these original people.”

[547] Cf. references in H. H. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, v. 39; _Amerika’s Nordwest Küste; Neueste Ergebnisse ethnologischer Reisen_ (Berlin, 1883), and the English version, _The Northwest Coast of America. Being Results of Recent Ethnological Researches from the collections of the Royal Museums at Berlin. Published by the Directors of the Ethnological Department_ (New York, 1883).

[548] Cf. his _Observations on some remains of antiquity_ (1796).

[549] Different shades of belief are abundant: F. Xavier de Orrio’s _Solucion del gran problema_ (Mexico, 1763); Fischer’s _Conjecture sur l’origine des Américaines_; Adair’s _Amer. Indians;_ G. A. Thompson’s _New theory of the two hemispheres_ (London, 1815); Adam Hodgson’s _Letters from No. Amer._ (Lond., 1824); J. H. McCulloh’s _Researches_ (Balt., 1829), ch. 10; D. B. Warden’s “Recherches sur les Antiquités de l’Amérique” in the _Antiquités Méxicaines_ (Paris, 1834), vol. ii.; E. G. Squier’s _Serpent Symbol_ (N. Y., 1851); Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Hist. des Nations Civilisées_, i. 7; José Perez in _Revue Orientale et Américaine_ (Paris, 1862), vol. viii.; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, v. 30, 31, with references; Winchell’s _Preadamites_, 397; a paper on Asiatic tribes in North America, in _Canadian Institute Proceedings_ (1881), i. 171. Dabry de Thiersant, in his _Origine des Indiens du nouv. monde_ (Paris, 1883), reopens the question, and Quatrefages even brings the story of Moncacht-Ape (see _post_, Vol. V. p. 77) to support a theory of frequent Asiatic communication. Tylor (_Early Hist. Mankind_, 209) says that the Asiatics must have taught the Mexicans to make bronze and smelt iron; and (p. 339) he finds additional testimony in the correspondence of myths, but Max Müller (_Chips_, ii. 168) demurs. Nadaillac, in his _L’Amérique préhistorique_, discussed this with the other supposable connections of the American people, and generally disbelieved in them; but Dall, in the English translation, summarily dismisses all consideration of them as unworthy a scientific mind; but points out what the early Indian traditions are (p. 526).

A good deal of stress has been laid at times on certain linguistic affiliations. Barton, in his _New Views_, sought to strengthen the case by various comparative vocabularies. Charles Farcy went over the proofs in his _Antiquités de l’Amérique: Discuter la valeur des documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’Amérique avant la conquête des Européens, et déterminer s’il existe des rapports entre les langues de l’Amérique et celles des tribus de l’Afrique et de l’Asie_ (Paris, 1836). H. H. Bancroft (_Native Races_, v. 39) enumerates the sources of the controversy. Roehrig (_Smithsonian Report_, 1872) finds affinities in the languages of the Dakota or Sioux Indians. Pilling (_Bibliog. of Siouan languages_, p. 11) gives John Campbell’s contributions to this comparative study. In the _Canadian Institute Proceedings_ (1881), vol. i. p. 171, Campbell points out the affinities of the Tinneh with the Tungus, and of the Choctaws and Cherokees with the Koriaks. Cf. also _Ibid_., July, 1884. Dall and Pinart pronounce against any affinity of tongues in the _Contributions to Amer. Ethnology_ (Washington), i. 97. Cf. Short, _No. Amer. of Antiq._, 494; Leland’s _Fusang_, ch. 10.

[550] Behring’s Straits, first opened, as Wallace says, in quaternary times, are 45 miles across, and are often frozen in winter. South of them is an island where a tribe of Eskimos live, and they keep constant communication with the main of Asia, 50 miles distant, and with America, 120 miles away. Robertson solved the difficulty by this route. Cf. _Contributions to Amer. Ethnology_ (1877), i. 95-98; Warden’s _Recherches_; Maury, in _Revue des deux Mondes_, Ap. 15, 1858; Peschel’s _Races of Men_, p. 401; F. von Hellwald in _Smithsonian Report_, 1866; Short, p. 510; Bancroft, _Native Races_, v. 28, 29, 54; and Chavanne’s _Lit. of the Polar Regions_, 58, 194—the last page shows a list of maps. Max Müller (_Chips_, ii. 270) considers this theory a postulate only.

[551] _Contrib. to Amer. Ethnology_, i. 96; Lyell’s _Principles of Geology_, 8th ed., 368; A. Ragine’s _Découverte de l’Amérique du Kamtchatka et des îles Aléoutiennes_ (St. Petersburg, 1868, 2d ed.); Pickering’s _Races of Men_; Peschel’s _Races of Men_, 397; Morgan’s _Systems of Consanguinity_. Dall (_Tribes of the Northwest_, in Powell’s _Rocky Mountain Region_, 1877, p. 96) does not believe in the Aleutian route.

On the drifting of canoes for long distances see Lyell’s _Principles of Geology_, 11th ed., ii. 472; Col. B. Kennon in Leland’s _Fousang; Rev. des deux Mondes_, Apr., 1858; Vining, ch. 1. Cf. Alphonse Pinart’s “Les Aléoutes et leur origine,” in _Mém. de la Soc. d’Ethnographie, session de 1872_, p. 155.

[552] Cf. references in H. H. Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, v. 54. We have an uncorroborated story of a Tartar inscription being found. Cf. Kalm’s _Reise_, iii. 416; _Archæologia_ (London, 1787), viii. 304.

[553] Gomara makes record of such floating visitors in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Horace Davis published in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._ (Apr., 1872) a record of Japanese vessels driven upon the northwest coast of America and its outlying islands in a paper “On the likelihood of an admixture of Japanese blood on our northwest coast.” Cf. A. W. Bradford’s _American Antiquities_ (N. Y., 1841); Whymper’s _Alaska_, 250; Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, v. 52, with references; _Contributions to Amer. Ethnol._, i. 97, 238; De Roquefeuil’s _Journal du Voyage autour du Monde_ (1876-79), etc. It is shown that the great Pacific current naturally carries floating objects to the American coast. Davis, in his tract, gives a map of it. Cf. Haven, _Archæol. U. S._, p. 144; _Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc._ (1883), xv. p. 101, by Thomas Antisell; and _China Review_, Mar., Apr., 1888, by J. Edkins.

[554] _Recherches sur les navigations des Chinois du côte de l’Amérique et sur quelques peuples situés à l’extrémité orientale de l’Asie_ (Paris, 1761). It is translated in Vining, ch. 1.

[555] _Examen Critique_, ii. 65, and _Ansichten der Natur_, or _Views of Nature_, p. 132.

[556] Much depends on the distance intended by a Chinese _li_. Klaproth translated the version as given by an early Chinese historian of the seventh century, Li Yan Tcheou, and Klaproth’s version is Englished in Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, v. 33-36. Klaproth’s memoir is also translated in Vining, ch. 3. Some have more specifically pointed to Saghalien, an island at the north end of the Japan Sea. Brooks says there is a district of Corea called Fusang (_Science_, viii. 402). Brasseur says the great Chinese encyclopædia describes Fusang as lying east of Japan, and he thinks the descriptions correspond to the Cibola of Castañeda.

[557] Again with a commentary in _The Continental Mag._ (New York, vol. i.). Subjected to the revision of Neumann, it is reproduced in Leland’s _Fusang_ (Lond., 1875). Cf. Vining, ch. 6, who gives also (ch. 10) the account in Shan-Hai-king as translated by C. M. Williams in _Mag. Amer. Hist._, April, 1883.

[558] The pamphlets are translated in Vining, ch. 4 and 5. Paravey held to the Mexican theory, and he at least convinced Domenech (_Seven years’ residence in the great deserts of No. Amer._, Lond., 1860). Paravey published several pamphlets on subjects allied to this. His _Mémoire sur l’origine japonaise, arabe et basque de la civilisation des peuples du plateau de Bogota d’après les travaux de Humboldt et Siebold_ (Paris, 1835) is a treatise on the origin of the Muyscas or Chibchas. Jomard, in his _Les Antiquités Américaines au point de vue des progrès de la géographie_ (Paris, 1817) in the _Bull. de la Soc. Géog._, had questioned the Asiatic affiliations, and Paravey replied in a _Réfutation de l’opinion émise par Jomard que les peuples de l’Amérique n’ont jamais en aucun rapport avec ceux de l’Asie_ (Paris, 1849), originally in the _Annales de philosophie Chrétienne_ (May, 1849).

[559] Also in the _Rev. Archéologique_ (vols. x., xi.), and epitomized in Leland. Cf. also Dr. A. Godron on the Buddhist mission to America in _Annales des Voyages_ (Paris, 1864), vol. iv., and an opposing view by Vivien de St. Martin in _L’Année géographique_ (1865), iii. p. 253, who was in turn controverted by Brasseur in his _Monuments Anciens du Méxique_.

[560] This paper is reprinted in Leland.

[561] Cf. also his _Variétés Orientales_, 1872; and his “L’Amérique, etait-elle connue des Chinois à l’époque du déluge?” in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., iii. 191.

[562] S. W. Williams, in the _Journal of the American Oriental Soc._ (vol. xi.), in controverting the views of Leland, was inclined to find Fusang in the Loo-choo Islands. This paper was printed separately as _Notices of Fusang and other countries lying east of China in the Pacific ocean_ (New Haven, 1881).

[563] A good deal of labor has been bestowed to prove this identity of Fusang with Mexico. It is held to be found in the myths and legends of the two people by Charency in his _Mythe de Votan, étude sur les origines asiatiques de la civilisation américaine_ (Alençon, 1871), drawn from the _Actes de la Soc. philologique_ (vol. ii.); and he has enforced similar views in the _Revue des questions historiques_ (vi. 283), and in his _Djemschid et Quetzalcohuatl. L’histoire légendaire de la Nouvelle-Espagne rapprochée de la source indo-européenne_ (Alençon, 1874). Humboldt thought it strange, considering other affinities,—as for instance in the Mexican calendars,—that he could find no Mexican use of phallic symbols; but Bancroft says they exist. Cf. _Native Races_, iii. 501; also see v. 40, 232; Brasseur’s _Quatre Lettres_, p. 202; and John Campbell’s paper on the traditions of Mexico and Peru as establishing such connections, in the _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Amér._ (Nancy, 1875), i. 348. Dr. Hamy saw in a monument found at Copan an inscription which he thought was the Taë-kai of the Chinese, the symbol of the essence of all things (_Bull. de la Soc. de Géog._, 1886, and _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xvi. 242, with a cut of the stone). Dall controverts this point (_Science_, viii. 402).

Others have dwelt on the linguistic resemblances. B. S. Barton in his _New Views_ pressed this side of the question. The presence of a monosyllabic tongue like the Otomi in the midst of the polysyllabic languages of Mexico has been thought strongly to indicate a survival. Cf. Manuel Najera’s _Disertacion sobre la lengua Othomi_, Mexico, 1845, and in _Amer. Philos. Soc. Trans._, n. s., v.; Ampère’s _Promenade en Amérique_, ii. 301; Prescott’s _Mexico_, iii. 396; Warden’s _Recherches_ (in Dupaix), p. 125; Latham’s _Races of Men_, 408; Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, iii. 737; v. 39, with references. Others find Sanskrit roots in the Mexican. E. B. Tylor has indicated the Asiatic origin of certain Mexican games (_Journal of the Anthropol. Inst._, xxiv.). Ornaments of jade found in Nicaragua, while the stone is thought to be native only in Asia, is another indication, and they are more distinctively Asiatic than the jade ornaments found in Alaska (_Peabody Mus. Reports_, xviii. 414; xx. 548; _Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc._, Jan., 1886).

On the general question of the Asiatic origin of the Mexicans see Dupaix’s _Antiquités Méxicaines_, with included papers by Lenoir, Warden, and Farcy; the _Report_ on a railroad route from the Mississippi, 1853-54 (Washington); Whipple’s and other _Reports_ on the Indian tribes; John Russell Bartlett’s _Personal Narrative_ (1854); Brasseur’s _Popul Vuh_, p. xxxix; Viollet le Duc’s belief in a “yellow race” building the Mexican and Central American monuments, in Charnay’s _Ruines Américaines_, and Charnay’s traces of the Buddhists in the _Popular Science Monthly_, July, 1879, p. 432; Le Plongeon’s belief in the connection of the Maya and Asiatic races in _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Apr. 30, 1879, p. 113; and some papers on the ancient Mexicans and their origin by the Abbé Jolibois, Col. Parmentier, and M. Emile Guimet, which, prepared for the Soc. de Géog. de Lyon, were published separately as _De l’origine des Anciens Peuples du Méxique_ (Lyon, 1875).

A few other incidental discussions of the Fusang question are these: R. H. Major in _Select Letters of Columbus_ (1847); J. T. Short in _The Galaxy_ (1875) and in his _No. Americans of Antiquity_; Nadaillac in his _L’Amérique préhistorique_, 544; Gay’s _Pop. Hist. U. S._ calls the story vague and improbable. In periodicals we find: _Gentleman’s Mag._, 1869, p. 333 (reprinted in _Hist. Mag._, Sept., 1869, xvi. 221), and 1870, reproduced in _Chinese Recorder_, May, 1870; Nathan Brown in _Amer. Philolog. Mag._, Aug., 1869; Wm. Speer in _Princeton Rev._, xxv. 83; _Penn Monthly_, vi. 603; _Mag. Amer. Hist._, Apr., 1883, p. 291; _Notes and Queries_, iii. 58, 78; iv. 19; _Notes and Queries in China and Japan_, Apr., May, 1869; Feb., 1870. Chas. W. Brooks maintained on the other hand (_Proc. California Acad. Sciences_, 1876; cf. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, v. 51), that the Chinese were emigrants from America. There is a map of the supposed Chinese route to America in the _Congrès des Américanistes_ (Nancy, 1875), vol. i.; and Winchell, _Pre-Adamites_, gives a chart showing different lines of approach from Asia. Stephen Powers (_Overland Monthly_, Apr., 1872, and _California Acad. Sciences_, 1875) treats the California Indians as descendants of the Chinese,—a view he modifies in the _Contrib. to Amer. Ethnology_, vol. iii., on “Tribes of California.” It is claimed that Chinese coin of the fifteenth century have been found in mounds on Vancouver’s Island. Cf. G. P. Thurston in _Mag. Amer. Hist._, xiii. p. 457. The principal lists of authorities are those in Vining (app.), and Watson’s in Anderson’s _America not discovered by Columbus_.

[564] From Easter Island to the Galapagos is 2,000 miles, thence to South America 600 more. On such long migrations by water see Waitz, _Introduction to Anthropology_, Eng. transl., p. 202. On early modes of navigation see Col. A. Lane Fox in the _Journal Anthropological Inst._ (1875), iv. 399. Otto Caspari gives a map of post-tertiary times in his _Urgeschichte der Menschheit_ (Leipzig, 1873), vol. i., in which land is made to stretch from the Marquesas Islands nearly to South America; while large patches of land lie between Asia and Mexico, to render migration practicable. Andrew Murray, in his _Geographical Distribution of Mammals_ (London, 1866), is almost compelled to admit (p. 25) that as complete a circuit of land formerly crossed the southern temperate regions as now does the northern; and Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, holds much the same opinion. The connection of the flora of Polynesia and South America is discussed by J. D. Hooker in the _Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of the Erebus and Terror, 1839-43_, and in his _Flora of Tasmania_. Cf. _Amer. Journal of Science and Arts_, Mar., May, 1854; Jan., May, 1860.

[565] _Races of Men._

[566] _Compte Rendu_, 1877, p. 79; 1883, p. 246; the latter being called “Polynesian Antiquities, a link between the ancient civilizations of Asia and America.” Further discussions of the Polynesian migrations will be found as follows: A. W. Bradford’s _Amer. Antiquities_ (N. Y., 1841); Gallatin (_Am. Eth. Soc. Trans._, i. 176) disputed any common linguistic traces, while Bradford thought he found such; Lesson and Martinet’s _Les Polynésiens, leur origine, leurs migrations, leur langage_; Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, ii. 344; Jules Garnier’s “Les migrations polynésiennes” in _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris_, Jan., June, 1870; G. d’Eichthal’s “Etudes sur l’histoire primitive des races océaniennes et Américaines” in _Mem. de la Soc. Ethnologique_ (vol. ii.); Marcoy’s _Travels in South America_; C. Staniland Wake’s _Chapters on Man_, p. 200; a “Rapport de la Polynésie et l’Amérique” in the _Mémoires de la Soc. Ethnologique_, ii. 223; A. de Quatrefages de Bréau’s _Les Polynésiens et leurs migrations_ (Paris, 1866), from the _Revue des deux Mondes_, Feb., 1864; O. F. Peschel in _Ausland_, 1864, p. 348; W. H. Dall in _Bureau of Ethnology Rept._, 1881-82, p. 147. Allen’s paper, already referred to, gives references.

[567] Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v. 44, with references, p. 48, epitomizes the story. Cf. Short, 151. There was a tradition of giants landing on the shore (Markham’s _Cieza de Leon_, p. 190). Cf. Forster’s _Voyages_, 43.

[568] A belief in the Asiatic connection has taken some curious forms. Montesinos in his _Memorias Peruanas_ held Peru to be the Ophir of Solomon. Cf. Gotfriedus Wegner’s _De Navigationis Solomonæis_ (Frankfort, 1689). Horn held Hayti to be Ophir, and he indulges in some fantastic evidences to show that the Iroquois, _i. e._ Yrcas, were Turks! Cf. Onffroy de Thoron in _Le Globe_, 1869. C. Wiener in his _L’Empire des Incas_ (ch. 2, 4) finds traces of Buddhism, and so does Hyde Clarke in his _Khita-Peruvian Epoch_ (1877). Lopez has written on _Les Races Aryennes de Pérou_ (1871). Cf. Robert Ellis, _Peruvia Scythica_. _The Quicha Language of Peru, its derivation from Central Asia with the American languages in general_ (London, 1875). Grotius held that the Peruvians were of Chinese stock. Charles Pickering’s ethnological map gives a Malay origin to the islands of the Gulf of Mexico and a part of the Pacific coast, the rest being Mongolian.

[569] The story is given in English by De Costa (_Pre-Columbian Disc. of America_, p. 85) from the _Landnámabók_, no. 107. Cf. _Saga of Thorfinn Karlsefne_, ch. 13, and that of Erik the Red. Leif is said in the sagas to have met shipwrecked white people on the coasts visited by him (_Hist. Mag._, xiii. 46).

[570] _Antiquitates Americanæ_, 162, 183, 205, 210, 211, 212, 214, 319, 446-51.

[571] Brinton in _Hist. Mag._, ix. 364; Rivero and Tschudi’s _Peru_.

[572] Schöning’s _Heimskringla_. _Grönlands Historiske Mindesmærker_, i. 150.

[573] _Eyrbyggja Saga_, ch. 64, and given in English in De Costa’s _Pre-Columbian Discovery_, p. 89. Cf. Sir Walter Scott’s version of this saga and the appendix of Mallet’s _Northern Antiquities_

[574] Traces of Celtic have been discovered by some of the philologists, when put to the task, in the American languages. Cf. Humboldt, _Relation Historique_, iii. 159. Lord Monboddo held such a theory.

[575] Brinton’s _Myths of the New World_, 176. One of the earliest accounts which we have of the Cherokees is that by Henry Timberlake (London, 1765), and he remarks on their lighter complexion as indicating a possible descent from these traditionary white men.

[576] Richard Broughton’s _Monasticon Britannicum_ (London, 1655), pp. 131, 187.

[577] _A Memoir on the European Colonization of America in antehistoric times_ was contributed to the _Proceedings_ of the American Ethnological Society in 1851, to which E. G. Squier added some notes, the original paper being by Dr. C. A. A. Zestermann of Leipzig. The aim was to prove, by the similarity of remains, the connection of the peoples who built the mounds of the Ohio Valley with the early peoples of northwestern Europe, a Caucasian race, which he would identify with the settlers of Irland it Mikla, and with the coming of the white-bearded men spoken of in Mexican traditions, who established a civilization which an inundating population from Asia subsequently buried from sight. This European immigration he places at least 1,200 years before Christ. Squier’s comments are that the monumental resemblances referred to indicate similar conditions of life rather than ethnic connections.

The other advocate was Eugène Beauvois in a paper published in the _Compte Rendu du Congrès des Américanistes_ (Nancy, 1875, p. 4) as _La découverte du nouveau monde par les irlandais et les premières traces du christianisme en Amérique avant l’an 1000_, accompanied by a map, in which he makes Irland it Mikla correspond to the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Again, in the session at Luxembourg in 1877, he endeavored to connect the Irish colony with the narrative of the seaman in the Zeno accounts, in a paper which he called _Les Colonies Européennes du Markland et de l’Escociland au xiv. Siècle, et les vestiges qui en subsistèrent jusqu’aux xvi^e et xvii^e Siècles_, and in which he identifies the Estotiland of the Frislanda mariner. M. Beauvois again, at the Copenhagen meeting of the same body, read a paper on _Les Relations précolumbiennes des Gaels avec le Méxique_ (Copenhagen, 1883, p. 74), in which he elicited objections from M. Lucien Adam. Beauvois belongs to that class of enthusiasts somewhat numerous in these studies of pre-Columbian discoveries, who have haunted these Congresses of Americanists, and who see overmuch. Other references to these Irish claims are to be found in Laing’s _Heimskringla_, i. 186; Beamish’s _Discovery of America_ (London, 1841); Gravier’s _Découverte de l’Amérique_, p. 123, 137, and his _Les Normands sur la route, etc._, ch. 1; Gaffarel’s _Etudes sur les rapports de l’Amérique_, pp. 201, 214; Brasseur’s introd. to his _Popul Vuh_; De Costa’s _Pre-Columbian Discovery_, pp. xviii, xlix, lii; Humboldt’s _Cosmos_ (Bohn), ii. 607; Rask in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, xviii. 21; _Journal London Geog. Soc._, viii. 125; Gay’s _Pop. Hist. U. S._, i. 53; and K. Wilhelmi’s _Island, Hvitramannaland, Grönland und Vinland, oder Der Norrmänner Leben auf Island und Grönland und deren Fahrten nach Amerika schon über 500 Jahre vor Columbus_ (Heidelberg, 1842).

[578] The account in the Landnámabók is briefly rehearsed in ch. 8 of C. W. Paijkull’s _Summer in Iceland_ (London, 1868).

[579] There are various editions, of which the best is called that of Copenhagen, 1843. The _Islendingabók_, a sort of epitome of a lost historical narrative, is considered an introduction to the _Landnámabók_. Much of the early story will be found in Latin in the _Islenzkir Annáler, sive Annales Islandici ab anno Christi 803 ad anno 1430_ (Copenhagen, 1847); in the _Scripta historica Islandorum de rebus veterum Borealium_, published by the Royal Soc. of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen, 1828-46; and in Jacobus Langebek’s _Scriptores Rerum Danicarum medii ævi_ (Copenhagen, 1772-1878,—the ninth volume being a recently added index).

[580] A convenient survey of this early literature is in chapter 1 of the _History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North, from the most ancient times to the present, by Frederick Winkel Horn, revised by the author, and translated by Rasmus B. Anderson_ (Chicago, 1884). The text is accompanied by useful bibliographical details. Cf. B. F. De Costa in _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._ (1880), xii. 159.

[581] Saxo Grammaticus acknowledges his dependence on the Icelandic sagas, and is thought to have used some which had not been yet put into writing.

[582] Baring-Gould in his _Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas_ (London, 1863) gives in his App. D a list of thirty-five published sagas, sixty-six local histories, twelve ecclesiastical annals, and sixty-nine Norse annals. Cf. the eclectic list in Laing’s _Heimskringla_, i. 17.

Konrad Maurer has given an elaborate essay on this early literature in his _Ueber die Ausdrücke: altnordische, altnorwegische und isländische Sprache_ (Munich, 1867), which originally appeared in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Bavarian Academy.

G. P. Marsh translated P. E. Müller’s “Origin, progress, and decline of Icelandic historical literature” in _The American Eclectic_ (N. Y., 1841,—vols. i., ii.). In 1781, Lindblom printed at Paris a French translation of Bishop Troil’s _Lettres sur l’Islande_, which contained a catalogue of books on Iceland and an enumeration of the Icelandic sagas. (Cf. Pinkerton’s _Voyages_, vol. i.) Chavanne’s _Bibliography of the Polar Regions_, p. 95, has a section on Iceland.

Solberg’s list of illustrative works, appended to Anderson’s version of Horn’s _Lit. of the Scandinavian North_, is useful so far as the English language goes. Periodical contributions also appear in _Poole’s Index_ (p. 622) and _Supplement_, p. 214.

Burton (_Ultima Thule_, i. 239) enumerates the principal writers on Iceland from Arngrimur Jónsson down, including the travellers of this century.

[583] The more general histories of Scandinavia, like Sinding’s English narrative,—not a good book, but accessible,—yield the comparisons more readily.

[584] There are also German (Gotha, 1844-75) and French versions (Paris). The best German version, _Geschichte Schwedens_ (Hamburg and Gotha, 1832-1887), is in six volumes, a part of the _Geschichte der europäischen Staaten_. Vol. 1-3, by E. G. Geijer, is translated by O. P. Leffler; vol. 4, by F. F. Carlson, is translated by J. G. Petersen; vol. 5, 6, by F. F. Carlson.

[585] Published in German at Lübeck in 1854 as _Das heroische Zeitalter der Nordisch-Germanischen Völker und die Wikinger-Züge_.

[586] Maurer had long been a student of Icelandic lore, and his _Isländische Volkssagen der Gegenwart gesammelt und verdeutscht_ (Leipzig, 1860) is greatly illustrative of the early north. Conybeare (_Place of Iceland in the History of European Institutions_, preface) says: “To any one writing on Iceland the elaborate works of the learned Maurer afford at once a help and difficulty: a help in so far as they shed the fullest light upon the subjects; a difficulty in that their painstaking completeness has brought together well-nigh everything that can be said.”

[587] What is known as the Kristni Saga gives an account of this change. Cf. Eugène Beauvois, _Origines et fondation du plus ancien évêché du nouveau monde. Le diocèse de Gardhs en Grœnland, 986-1126_ (Paris, 1878), an extract from the _Mémoires de la Soc. d’Histoire, etc., de Beaune_; C. A. V. Conybeare’s _Place of Iceland in the history of European institutions_ (1877); Maurer’s _Beiträge zur Rechtsgeschichte des germanischen Nordens_; Wheaton’s _Northmen_; Worsaae’s _Danes and Norwegians in England_, p. 332; Jacob Rudolph Keyser’s _Private Life of the Old Northmen_, as translated by M. R. Barnard (London, 1868), and his _Religion of the Northmen_, as translated by B. Pennock (N. Y., 1854); _Quarterly Review_, January, 1862; and references in McClintock and Strong’s _Cyclopædia_, under Iceland.

[588] Such are the Swedish work of A. M. Strinhold, known in the German of E. F. Frisch as _Wikingzüge, Staatsverfassung und Sitten der alten Scandinaver_ (Hamburg, 1839-41).

A summarized statement of life in Iceland in the early days is held to be well made out in Hans O. H. Hildebrand’s _Lifvet þå Island under Sagotiden_ (Stockholm, 1867), and in A. E. Holmberg’s _Nordbon under Hednatiden_ (Stockholm). J. A. Worsaae published his _Vorgeschichte des Nordens_ at Hamburg in 1878. It was improved in a Danish edition in 1880, and from this H. F. Morland Simpson made the _Prehistory of the North, based on contemporary materials_ (London, 1886), with a memoir of Worsaae (d. 1885), the foremost scholar in this northern lore.

[589] This book is recognized as one of the best commentaries and most informing books on Icelandic history, and this writer’s introduction to Gudbrand Vigfússon’s _Icelandic-English Dictionary_ (3 vols., Cambridge, Eng., 1869, 1870, 1874) is of scholarly importance.

[590] The millennial celebration of the settlement of Iceland in 1874 gave occasion to a variety of books and papers, more or less suggestive of the early days, like Samuel Kneeland’s _American in Iceland_ (Boston. 1876); but the enumeration of this essentially descriptive literature need not be undertaken here.

[591] _Antiquitates Americanæ_, pp. 1-76, with an account of the Greenland MSS. (p. 255). Müller’s _Sagenbibliothek_. Arngrimur Jónsson’s _Grönlandia_ (Iceland, 1688). A fac-simile of the title is in the _Carter-Brown Catalogue_, ii., no. 1356. A translation by Rev. J. Sephton is in the _Proc. Lit. and Philos. Soc. of Liverpool_, vol. xxxiv. 183, and separately, Liverpool, 1880. There is a paper in the _Jahresbericht der geographischen Gesellschaft in München für 1885_ (Munich, 1886), p. 71, by Oskar Brenner, on “Grönland im Mittelalter nach einer altnorwegischen Quelle.”

Some of the earliest references are: Christopherson Claus’ _Den Grölandske Chronica_ (Copenhagen, 1608), noticed in the _Carter-Brown Catalogue_, ii., no. 64. Gerald de Veer’s _True and perfect description of three voyages_ speaks in its title (_Carter-Brown_, ii. 38) of “the countrie lying under 80 degrees, which is thought to be Greenland, where never man had been before.” Antoine de la Sale wrote between 1438 and 1447 a curious book, printed in 1527 as _La Salade_, in which he refers to Iceland and Greenland (Gronnellont), where white bears abound (Harrisse, _Bib. Am. Vet._, no. 140).

[592] This book is now rare. Dufossé prices it at 50 francs; F. S. Ellis,—London. 1884, at £5.5.0. Before Torfæus, probably the best known book was Isaac de la Peyrère’s _Relation du Groenland_ (Paris, 1647). It is one of the earliest books to give an account of the Eskimos. It was again printed in 1674 in _Recueil de Voyages du Nord_. A Dutch edition at Amsterdam in 1678 (_Nauwkenrige Beschrijvingh van Groenland_) was considerably enlarged with other matter, and this edition was the basis of the German version published at Nuremberg, 1679. Peyrère’s description will be found in English in a volume published by the Hakluyt Society in 1855, where it is accompanied by two maps of the early part of the seventeenth century. Cf. Carter-Brown, ii., no. 1192, note; Sabin, x. p. 70.

[593] Pilling (_Eskimo Bibliog._, p. 20) gives the most careful account of editions. Cf. Sabin, v. 66. A Dutch translation at Haarlem in 1767 was provided with better and larger maps than the original issue; and this version was again brought out with a changed title in 1786. There was a Swedish ed. at Stockholm in 1769, and a reprint of the original German at Leipzig in 1770, and it is included in the _Bibliothek der neuesten Reisebeschreibungen_ (Frankfort, 1779-1797), vol. xx. Cf. Carter-Brown, ii., nos. 1443, 1576, 1577, 1671, 1728.

[594] This constitutes in 3 vols. a sort of supplement to the _Antiquitates Americanæ_, Cf. _Dublin Review_, xxvii. 35; _Bulletin de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris_, 3d ser., vol. vi., and a synopsis of the _Mindesmæker_ in _The Sacristy_, Feb. 1, 1871 (London).

[595] The principal ruin is that of a church, and it will be found represented in the Antiquitates Americanæ, and again by Nordenskjöld, Steenstrup, J. T. Smith (_Discovery of America_, etc.), Horsford; and, not to name more, in Hayes’s _Land of Desolation_ (and in the French version in _Tour du Monde_, xxvi.).

[596] Rafn in his _Americas arctiske landes Gamle Geographie efter de Nordiske Oldskrifter_ (Copenhagen, 1845) gives the seals of some of the Greenland bishops, various plans of the different ruins, a view of the Katortok church with its surroundings, engraving of the different runic inscriptions, and a map of the Julianehaab district.

[597] This tendency of the Scandinavian writers is recognized among themselves. Horn (Anderson’s translation, 324) ascribes it to “an unbridled fancy and want of critical method rather than to any wilful perversion of historical truth. This tendency owed its origin to an intense patriotism, a leading trait in the Swedish character, which on this very account was well-nigh incorrigible.”

[598] Dasent translates from the preface to _Egils Saga_ (Reikjavik, 1856): “The sagas show no wilful purpose to tell untruths, but simply are proofs of _the beliefs and turns of thought of men in the age when the sagas were reduced to writing_” (_Burnt Njal_, i. p. xiii).

[599] Rink (_Danish Greenland_, p. 3) says of the sagas that “they exist only in a fragmentary condition, and bear the general character of popular traditions to such a degree that they stand much in need of being corroborated by collateral proofs, if we are wholly to rely upon them in such a question as an ancient colonization of America.” So he proceeds to enumerate the kind of evidence, which is sufficient in Greenland, but is wholly wanting in other parts of America, and to point out that the trustworthiness of the sagas of the Vinland voyages exists only in regard to their general scope.

Dasent, in the introduction of Vigfússon’s _Icelandic Dictionary_, says of the sagas: “Written at various periods by scribes more or less fitted for the task, they are evidently of very varying authority.” The Scandinavian authorities class the sagas as mythical histories, as those relating to Icelandic history (subdivided into general, family, personal, ecclesiastical), and as the lives of rulers.

[600] Anderson’s translation, _Lit. of the Scand. North_, p. 81.

[601] Laing (_Heimskringla_, i. 23) says: “Arne Magnussen was the greatest antiquary who never wrote; his judgments and opinions are known from notes, selections, and correspondence, and are of great authority at this day in the saga literature. Torfæus consulted him in his researches.”

[602] _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, xviii. 20.

[603] Oswald Moosmüller’s _Europäer in Amerika vor Columbus_ (Regensburg, 1879, p. 4) enumerates the manuscripts in the royal library in Copenhagen.

[604] A. E. Wollheim’s _Die Nat. lit. der Scandinavier_ (Berlin, 1875-77), p. 47. Turner’s _Anglo Saxons_, book iv. ch. 1. Mallet’s _No. Antiq._ (1847), 393

[605] Cf. G. H. Pertz, _Monumenta Germaniæ historica_, 1846, vol. vii. cap. 247. Of the different manuscripts, some call Vinland a “regio” and others an “insula.”

[606] Discovered in the seventeenth century in a monastery on an island close by the Icelandic coast, and now in the royal library in Copenhagen. Cf. Laing’s introduction to his edition of the _Heimskringla_, vol. i. p. 157. Horn says of this codex: “The book was written towards the end of the fourteenth century by two Icelandic priests, and contains in strange confusion and wholly without criticism a large number of sagas, poems, and stories. No other manuscript confuses things on so vast a scale.” Anderson’s translation of Horn’s _Lit. of the Scandin. North_, p. 60. Cf. _Flateyjarbok. En Samling af Norske Konge-Sagaer med indskudte mindre fortællinger om Begivenheder i og Udenfor Norge samt Annaler_ (Christiania, 1860); and Vigfússon’s and Unger’s edition of 1868, also at Christiania. The best English account of the _Codex Flatoyensis_ is by Gudbrand Vigfússon in the preface to his _Icelandic Sagas_, published under direction of the Master of the Rolls, London, 1887, vol. i. p. xxv.

[607] For texts, see C. C. Rafn’s edition of _Kong Olaf Tryggvesons Saga_ (Copenhagen, 1826), and Munch’s edition of _Kong Olaf Tryggvesön’s Saga_ (Christiania, 1853). Cf. also P. A. Munch’s _Norges Konge-Sagaer_ of Snorri Sturleson, Sturla Thordsson, etc. (Christiania, 1859).

[608] The _Codex Flatoyensis_ says that it was sixteen winters after the settlement of Greenland before Leif went to Norway, and that in the next year he sailed to Vinland.

[609] _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, xviii. 21.

[610] These sagas are given in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin in Rafn’s _Antiquitates Americanæ_ (Copenhagen, 1837). Versions or abstracts, more or less full, of all or of some of them are given by Beamish, in his _Discovery of America by the Northmen_ (London, 1841), whose text is reprinted by Slafter, in his _Voyages of the Northmen_ (Boston, 1877). J. Elliot Cabot, in the Mass. Quart. Review, March, 1849, copied in part in Higginson’s _Amer. Explorers_. Blackwell, in his supplementary chapters to Mallet’s _Northern Antiquities_ (London, Bohn’s library). B. F. De Costa, in his _Pre-Columbian Discovery of America_ (Albany, 1868). Eben Norton Horsford, in his _Discovery of America by Norsemen_ (Boston, 1888). Beauvois, in his _Découvertes des Scandinaves en Amérique_ (Paris, 1859). P. E. Müller, in his _Sagabibliothek_ (Copenhagen, 1816-20), and a German version of part of it by Lachmann, _Sagenbibliothek des Scandinavischen Alterthums in Aussügen_ (Berlin, 1816).

[611] When, however, Peringskiöld edited the Heimskringla, in 1697, he interpolated eight chapters of a more particular account of the Vinland voyages, which drew forth some animadversions from Torfæus in 1705, when he published his _Historia Vinlandiæ_. It was later found that Peringskiöld had drawn these eight chapters from the _Codex Flatoyensis_, which particular MS. was unknown to Torfæus. When Laing printed his edition of the _Heimskringla, The Sea Kings of Norway_ (London, 1844), he translated these eight chapters in his appendix (vol. iii. 344). Laing (_Heimskringla_, i. 27) says: “Snorro Sturleson has done for the history of the Northmen what Livy did for the history of the Romans,”—a rather questionable tribute to the verity of the saga history, in the light of the most approved comments on Livy. Cf. Horn, in Anderson’s translation, _Lit. of the Scandinavian North_ (Chicago, 1884), p. 56, with references, p. 59.

[612] J. Fulford Vicary’s _Saga Time_ (Lond., 1887). Some time in the fifteenth century, a monk, Thomas Gheysmer, made an abridgment of Saxo, alleging that he “had said much rather for the sake of adornment than in behalf of truth.” The Canon Christiern Pederson printed the first edition of Saxo at Paris in 1514 (Anderson’s Horn’s _Lit. Scandin. North_, p. 102). This writer adds: “The entire work rests exclusively on oral tradition, which had been gathered by Saxo, and which he repeated precisely as he had heard it, for in the whole chronicle there is no trace of criticism proper.... Saxo must also undoubtedly have had Icelandic sagamen as authorities for the legendary part of his work; but there is not the slightest evidence to show that he ever had a written Icelandic saga before him.... In this part of the work he betrays no effort to separate fact from fiction, ... and he has in many instances consciously or unconsciously adorned the original material.” Horn adds that the last and best edition is that of P. E. Müller and J. Velchow, _Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica_ (Copenhagen, 1839).

[613] Humboldt (_Crit. Exam._, ii. 120) represented that Ortelius referred to these voyages in 1570; but Palfrey (_Hist. New England_, i. 51) shows that the language cited by Humboldt was not used by Ortelius till in his edition of 1592, and that then he referred to the Zeno narrative.

[614] See _post_, Vol. IV. p. 492.

[615] His account is followed by Malte Brun in his _Précis de la Géographie_ (i. 395). Cf. also _Annales des Voyages_ (Paris, 1810), x. 50, and his _Géographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1841). Pinkerton, in his _Voyages_ (London, 1814), vol. xvii., also followed Torfæus.

[616] J. J. Wahlstedt’s _Iter in Americam_ (Upsala, 1725). Cf. _Brinley Catal._, i. 59.

[617] _Observatio historica ad Frisonum navigatione fortuita in Americam sec. xi. facta_ (Magdeburg, 1741).

[618] _Franklin’s Works_, Philad., 1809, vol. vi.; Sparks’s ed., viii. 69.

[619] This is the book which furnished the text in an English dress (London, 1770) known as _Northern Antiquities_, and a part of his account is given in the _American Museum_ (Philad., 1789). In the Edinburgh edition of 1809 it is called: _Northern antiquities: or a description of the manners, customs, religion and laws, of the ancient Danes, including those of our Saxon ancestors. With a translation of the Edda and other pieces, from the ancient Icelandic tongue. Translated from “L’introduction à l’histoire de Dannemarc, &c.,” par Mons. Mallet. With additional notes by the English translator [Bishop Percy], and Goranson’s Latin version of the Edda_. In 2 vols. The chapters defining the locations are omitted, and others substituted, in the reprint of the _Northern Antiquities_ in Bohn’s library.

[620] There are French and English versions.

[621] Edinburgh, 1818; Boston, 1831.

[622] _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, 1865, p. 184.

[623] _Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopædia._

[624] Allibone, iii. 2667.

[625] Irving, in reviewing the book in the _No. Am. Rev._, Oct., 1832, avoided the question of the Norse discovery. (Cf. his _Spanish Papers_, vol. ii., and Rice’s _Essays from the No. Am. Rev._) C. Robinson, in his _Discoveries in the West_ (ch. 1), borrows from Wheaton.

[626] Octavo ed., i. pp. 5, 6.

[627] Orig. ed., iii. 313; last revision, ii. 132.

[628] This society, Kongelige Nordiske Oldskrift-Selskab, since 1825, has been issuing works and periodicals illustrating all departments of Scandinavian archæology (cf. Webb, in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, viii. 177), and has gathered cabinets and museums, sections of which are devoted to American subjects. C. C. Rafn’s _Cabinet d’antiquités Américaines à Copenhague_ (Copenhagen, 1858); _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xiv. 316; Slafter’s introd. to his _Voyages of the Northmen_.

[629] _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, viii. 81; _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1865; _N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg._, 1865, p. 273; _To-day_, ii. 176.

[630] Professor Willard Fiske has paid particular attention to the early forms of the Danish in the Icelandic literature. In 1885 the British Museum issued a _Catalogue of the books printed in Iceland from A.D. 1578 to 1880 in the library of the British Museum_. In 1886 Mr. Fiske privately printed at Florence _Bibliographical Notices, i.: Books printed in Iceland, 1578-1844, a supplement to the British Museum Catalogue,_ which enumerates 139 titles with full bibliographical detail and an index. He refers also to the principal bibliographical authorities. Laing’s introduction to the _Heimskringla_ gives a survey.

[631] Cf. list of their several issues in Scudder’s _Catal. of Scient. Serials_, nos. 640, 654, and the Rafn bibliography in Sabin, xvi. nos. 67,466-67,486. In addition to its Danish publications, the chief of which interesting to the American archæologist being the _Antiquarisk Tidsskrift_ (1845-1864), sometimes known as the _Revue Archéologique et Bulletin_, the society, under its more familiar name of Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, has issued its _Mémoires_, the first series running from 1836 to 1860, in 4 vols., and the second beginning in 1866. These contain numerous papers involving the discussion of the Northmen voyages, including a condensed narrative by Rafn, “Mémoire sur la découverte de l’Amérique au 10^e siècle,” which was enlarged and frequently issued separately in French and other languages (1838-1843), and is sometimes found in English as a _Supplement to the Antiquitates Americanæ_, and was issued in New York (1838) as _America discovered in the tenth century_. In this form (_Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, viii. 187) it was widely used here and in Europe to call attention to Rafn’s folio, _Antiquitates Americanæ_.

The _Mémoires_ also contained another paper by Rafn, _Aperçu de l’ancienne géographie des régions arctiques de l’Amérique, selon les rapports contenus dans les Sagas du Nord_ (Copenhagen, 1847), which also concerns the Vinland voyages, and is repeated in the _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_ (1849), i. 277.

[632] _Antiqvitates Americanæ sive scriptores septentrionales rerum ante-Columbianarum in America. Samling af de i nordens oldskrifter indeholdte efterretninger om de gamle nordboers opdagelsesreiser til America fra det 10de til det 14de aarhundrede. Edidit Societas regia antiquariorum Septentrionalium_ (Hafniæ, 1837). CONTENTS: Præfatio.—Conspectus codicum membraneorum, in quibus terrarum Americanarum mentio fit.—America discovered by the Scandinavians in the tenth century. (An abstract of the historical evidence contained in this work.)—Pættir af Eireki Rauda ok Grænlendingum.—Saga Porfinns Karlsefnis ok Snorra Porbrandssonar.—Breviores relationes: De inhabitatione Islandiæ; De inhabitatione Grœnlandiæ; De Ario Maris filio; De Björne Breidvikensium athleta; De Gudleivo Gudlœgi filio; Excerpta ex annalibus Islandorum; Die mansione Grœnlandorum in locis Borealibus; Excerpta e geographicis scriptis veterum Islandorum; Carmen Færöicum, in quo Vinlandiæ mentio fit; Adami Bremensis Relatio de Vinlandia; Descriptio quorumdam monumentorum Europæorum, quæ in oris Grönlandiæ ocidentalibus reperta et detecta sunt; Descriptio vetusti monumenti in regione Massachusetts reperti; Descriptio vetustorum quorundam monumentorum in Rhode Island.—Annotationes geographicæ; Islandia et Grönlandia; Indagatio Arctoarum Americæ regionum.—Indagatio Orientalium Americæ regionum.—Addenda et emendanda.—Indexes. The larger works are in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin.

Cf. also his _Antiquités Américaines d’après les monuments historiques des Islandais et des anciens Scandinaves_ (Copenhagen, 1845). An abstract of the evidence is given in the _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_ (viii. 114), and it is upon this that H. H. Bancroft depends in his _Native Races_ (v. 106). Cf. also _Ibid._ v. 115-116; and his _Cent. America_, i. 74. L. Dussieux in his _Les Grands Faits de l’Histoire de la Géographie_ (Paris, 1882; vol. i. 147, 165) follows Rafn and Malte-Brun. So does Brasseur de Bourbourg in his _Hist. de Nations Civilisées_, i. 18; and Bachiller y Morales in his _Antigüedades Americanas_ (Havana, 1845).

Great efforts were made by Rafn and his friends to get reviews of his folio in American periodicals; and he relied in this matter upon Dr. Webb and others, with whom he had been in correspondence in working up his geographical details (_Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, ii. 97, 107; viii. 189, etc.), and so late as 1852 he drafted in English a new synopsis of the evidence, and sent it over for distribution in the United States (_Ibid._ ii. 500; _New Jersey Hist. Soc. Proc._, vi.; _N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg._, 1853, p. 13). So far as weight of character went, there was a plenty of it in his reviewers: Edward Everett in the _No. Amer. Rev._, Jan., 1838; Alexander Everett in the _U. S. Magazine and Democratic Review_ (1838); George Folsom in the _N. Y. Review_ (1838); H. R. Schoolcraft in the _Amer. Biblical Repository_ (1839). Cf. _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, viii. 182-3; _Poole’s Index_, 28, 928.

[633] Bohn’s ed., English transl., ii. 603; Lond. ed., 1849, ii. 233-36. Humboldt expresses the opinion that Columbus, during his visit to Iceland, got no knowledge of the stories, so little an impression had they made on the public mind (_Cosmos_, Bohn, ii. 611), and that the enemies of Columbus in his famous lawsuit, when every effort was made to discredit his enterprise, did not instance his Iceland experience, should be held to indicate that no one in southern Europe believed in any such prompting at that time. Wheaton and Prescott (_Ferdinand and Isabella_, orig. ed., ii. 118, 131) hold similar opinions. (Cf. Vol. II. p. 33.) Dr. Webb says that Irving held back from accepting the stories of the saga, for fear that they could be used to detract from Columbus’ fame. Rafn and his immediate sympathizers did not fail to make the most of the supposition that Columbus had in some way profited by his Iceland experience. Laing thinks Columbus must have heard of the voyages, and De Costa (_Columbus and the Geographers of the North_) thinks that the bruit of the Northmen voyages extended sufficiently over Europe to render it unlikely that it escaped the ears of Columbus. Cf. further an appendix in Irving’s _Columbus_, and Mallet’s _Northern Antiquities_, Bohn’s ed., 267, in refutation of the conclusions of Finn Magnusen in the _Nordisk Tidsskrift_. It has been left for the unwise and overtopped advocates of a later day, like Goodrich and Marie A. Brown, to go beyond reason in an indiscriminate denunciation of the Genoese. The latter writer, in her _Icelandic Discoverers of America_ (Boston, 1888), rambles over the subject in a jejune way, and easily falls into errors, while she pursues her main purpose of exposing what she fancies to be a deep-laid scheme of the Pope and the Catholic Church to conceal the merits of the Northmen and to capture the sympathies of Americans in honoring the memory of Columbus in 1892. It is simply a reactionary craze from the overdone raptures of the school of Roselly de Lorgues and the other advocates of the canonization of Columbus, in Catholic Europe.

[634] This book is for the sagas the basis of the most useful book on the subject, Edmund Farwell Slafter’s _Voyages of the Northmen to America_. _Including extracts from Icelandic Sagas relating to Western voyages by Northmen in the 10th and 11th centuries in an English translation by Nathaniel Ludlow Beamish; with a synopsis of the historical evidence and the opinion of professor Rafn as to the places visited by the Scandinavians on the coast of America_. _With an introduction_ (Boston, 1877), published by the Prince Society. Slafter’s opinion is that the narratives are “true in their general outlines and important features.”

[635] _Island, Huitramannaland, Grönland und Vinland_ (Heidelberg, 1842).

[636] _Die Entdeckung von Amerika durch die Isländer im zehnten und eilften Jahrhundert_ (Braunschweig, 1844). Cf. E. G. Squier’s _Discovery of America by the Northmen, a critical review of the works of Hermes, Rafn and Beamish_ (1849).

[637] Cf. his paper in the _Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Trans._, 1865.

[638] Beauvois also made at a later period other contributions to the subject: _Les derniers vestiges du Christianisme prêchés du X^e au XIV^e siècles dans le Markland et le Grande-Irlande, les porte-croix de la Gaspésie at de l’Arcadie_ (Paris, 1877) which appeared originally in the _Annales de philosophie Chrétiennes_, Apr., 1877; and _Les Colonies européennes du Markland at de l’Escociland au XIV^e siècle et les vestiges qui en subsistèrent jusqu’aux XVI^e et XVII^e siècle_ (Luxembourg, 1878), being taken from the _Compte Rendu_ of the Luxembourg meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes.

[639] _Prehistoric Man_, 3d ed., ii. 83, 85. Cf. also his _Historic Footprints in America_, extracted from the _Canadian Journal_, Sept., 1864.

[640] Joseph Williamson, in the _Hist. Mag._, Jan., 1869 (x. 30), sought to connect with the Northmen certain ancient remains along the coast of Maine.

[641] He was rather caustically taken to account by Henry Cabot Lodge, in the _No. Am. Review_, vol. cxix. Cf. Michel Hardy’s _Les Scandinaves dans l’Amérique du Nord_ (Dieppe, 1874). An April hoax which appeared in a Washington paper in 1867, about some runes discovered on the Potomac, had been promptly exposed in this country (_Hist. Mag._, Mar. and Aug., 1869), but it had been accepted as true in the _Annuaire de la Société Américaine_ in 1873, and Gaffarel (_Etudes sur les Rapports de l’Amérique avant Columbus_, Paris, 1869, p. 251) and Gravier (p. 139) was drawn into the snare. (Cf. Whittlesey’s _Archæol. frauds_ in the _Western Reserve Hist. Soc. Tracts_, no. 9, and H. W. Haynes in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, Jan., 1888, p. 59.) In a later monograph, _Les Normands sur la route des Indes_ (Rouen, 1880), Gravier, while still accepting the old exploded geographical theories, undertook further to prove that the bruits of the Norse discoveries instigated the seamen of Normandy to similar ventures, and that they visited America in ante-Columbian days.

[642] There is an authorized German version, _Die erste Entdeckung von Amerika_, by Mathilde Mann (Hamburg, 1888).

[643] _American in Iceland_ (Boston, 1876).

[644] _Land of Desolation_ (New York, 1872). There is a French version in the _Tour du Monde_, xxvi.

[645] _Lectures delivered in America_ (Philad., 1875),—third lecture.

[646] _Europäer in Amerika vor Columbus, nach Quellen bearbeitet von P. Oswald Moosmüller_ (Regensburg, 1879).

[647] _Larger History of the United States_ (N. Y., 1886).

[648] _Discoveries of America_ (N. Y., 1884).

[649] Particularly Beauvois, already mentioned, and Dr. E. Löffler, on the Vinland Excursions of the Ancient Scandinavians, at the Copenhagen meeting, _Compte Rendu_ (1883), p. 64. Cf. also Michel Hardy’s _Les Scandinaves dans l’Amérique du Nord au X^e Siècle_ (Dieppe, 1874).

[650] R. G. Haliburton, in _Roy. Geog. Soc. Proc._ (Jan., 1885); Thomas Morgan, in _Roy. Hist. Soc. Trans._ iii. 75.

[651] E. N. Horsford’s _Discovery of America by the Northmen_ (Boston, 1888); Anderson’s _America not discovered by Columbus_, 3d ed., p. 30; _N. Y. Nation_, Nov. 17, 1887; _Mag. Amer. Hist._, Mar., 1888, p. 223.

[652] Remarks of Wm. Everett and Chas. Deane in the society’s _Proceedings_, May, 1880.

[653] _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, Dec., 1887. The most incautious linguistic inferences and the most uncritical cartological perversions are presented by Eben Norton Horsford in his _Discovery of America by the Northmen—address at the unveiling of the statue of Leif Eriksen, Oct. 29, 1887_ (Boston, 1888). Cf. Oscar Brenner in _Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung_ (Munich, Dec. 6, 1888). A trustful reliance upon the reputations of those who have in greater or less degree accepted the details of the sagas characterizes a paper by Mrs. Ole Bull in the _Mag. of Amer. Hist._, Mar., 1888. She is naturally not inclined to make much allowance for the patriotic zeal of the northern writers.

[654] The best list is in P. B. Watson’s “Bibliog. of Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America,” originally in the _Library Journal_, vi. 259, but more complete in Anderson’s _America not discovered by Columbus_ (3d ed., Chicago, 1883). Cf. also Chavanne’s _Literature of the Polar Regions_; Th. Solberg’s Bibliog. of Scandinavia, in English, with magazine articles, in F. W. Horn’s _Hist. of the lit. of the Scandinavian North_ (1884, pp. 413-500). There is a convenient brief list in Slafter’s _Voyages of the Northmen_ (pp. 127-140), and a not very well selected one in Marie A. Brown’s _Icelandic Discoverers_. _Poole’s Index_ indicates the considerable amount of periodical discussions. The Scandinavian writers are mainly referred to by Miss Brown and Mrs. Bull.

[655] Forster finds a corruption of Norvegia (Norway) in Norumbega. Rafn finds the Norse elements in the words Massachusetts, Nauset, and Mount Hope (_Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, viii. 194-198). The word Hole, used as synonymous to harbor in various localities along the Vineyard Sound, has been called a relic of the Icelandic Holl, a hill (_Mag. Amer. Hist._, June, 1882, p. 431; Jos. S. Fay in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, xii. 334; and in Anderson, _America not discovered by Columbus_, 3d ed.).

Brasseur de Bourbourg in his _Nations civilisées du Méxique_, and more emphatically in his _Grammaire Quichée_, had indicated what he thought a northern incursion before Leif, in certain seeming similarities to the northern tongues of those of Guatemala. Cf. also _Nouv. Annales des Voyages_, 6th ser., xvi. 263; _N. Y. Tribune_, Nov. 21, 1855; Bancroft’s _Native Races_, iii. 762.

[656] _De origine gentium Americanarum_ (1642).

[657] _Nouv. Ann. des Voyages_, 6th ser., vols. iii. and vi.

[658] In Charnay’s _Ruines_, etc. (Paris, 1867).

[659] _Découverte de l’America par les Normands_ (Paris, 1864).

[660] H. H. Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v. 115-16, gives references on the peopling of America from the northwest of Europe.

[661] _Trans. Roy. Soc. Lit._, xiv. 1887; also printed separately as _Mythology, legends and Folk-lore of the Algonquins_. Cf. also his _Algonquin Legends of New England_ (1885). Cf. D. G. Brinton in _Amer. Antiquarian_, May, 1885.

[662] Mr. Mitchell, of the U. S. Coast Survey, has attended to this part of the subject, and Horsford (p. 28) quotes his MS. He finds on the Massachusetts coast what he thinks a sufficient correspondence to the description of the sagas.

[663] So plain a matter as the length of the longest summer day would indubitably point to an absolute parallel of latitude as determining the site of Vinland, if there was no doubt in the language of the saga. Unfortunately there is a wide divergence of opinion in the meaning of the words to be depended upon, even among Icelandic scholars; and the later writers among them assert that Rafn (_Antiq. Amer._ 436) and Magnusen in interpreting the language to confirm their theory of the Rhode Island bays have misconceived. Their argument is summarized in the French version of Wheaton. John M’Caul translated Finn Magnusen’s “Ancient Scandinavian divisions of the times of day,” in the _Mémoire de la Soc. Roy. des Antiq. du Nord_ (1836-37). Rask disputes Rafn’s deductions (_Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, xviii. 22). Torfæus, who is our best commentator after all, says it meant Newfoundland. Robertson put it at 58° north. Dahlmann in his _Forschungen_ (vol. i.) places it on the coast of Labrador. Horsford (p. 66) at some length admits no question that it must have been between 41° and 43° north. Cf. Laing’s _Heimskringla_, i. 173; Palfrey’s _New England_, i. 55; De Costa’s _Pre-Columbian Disc._, p. 33; Weise’s _Discoveries of America_, 31; and particularly Vigfússon in his _English-Icelandic Dictionary_ under “Eykt.”

[664] “The discovery of America,” says Laing (_Heimskringla_, i. 154), “rests entirely upon documentary evidence which cannot, as in the case of Greenland, be substantiated by anything to be discovered in America.” Laing and many of the commentators, by some strange process of reasoning, have determined that the proof of these MS. records being written before Columbus’ visit to Iceland in 1477 is sufficient to establish the priority of discovery for the Northmen, as if it was nothing in the case that the sagas may or may not be good history; and nothing that it was the opinion entertained in Europe at that time that Greenland and the more distant lands were not a new continent, but a prolongation of Europe by the north. It is curious, too, to observe that, treating of events after 1492, Laing is quite willing to believe in any saga being “filled up and new invented,” but is quite unwilling to believe anything of the kind as respects those written anterior to 1492; and yet he goes on to prove conclusively that the _Flatoyensis Codex_ is full of fable, as when the saga man makes the eider-duck lay eggs where during the same weeks the grapes ripen and intoxicate when fresh, and the wheat forms in the ear! Laing nevertheless rests his case on the _Flatoyensis Codex_ in its most general scope, and calls poets, but not antiquaries, those who attempt to make any additional evidence out of imaginary runes or the identification of places.

[665] It must be remembered that this divergence was not so wide to the Northmen as it seems to us. With them the Atlantic was sometimes held to be a great basin that was enclasped from northwestern Europe by a prolongation of Scandinavia into Greenland, Helluland, and Markland, and it was a question if the more distant region of Vinland did not belong rather to the corresponding prolongation of Africa on the south. Cf. De Costa, _Pre-Columbian Disc._, 108; _Hist. Mag._, xiii. 46.

[666] He wrote “Here for the first time will be found indicated the precise spot where the ancient Northmen held their intercourse.” The committee of the Mass. Hist. Soc. objected to this extreme confidence. _Proceedings_, ii. 97, 107, 500, 505.

[667] Reproduction of part of the plate in the _Antiquitates Americanæ_, after a drawing by J. R. Bartlett. The engravings of the rock are numerous: _Mem. Amer. Acad._, iii.; the works of Beamish, J. T. Smith, Gravier, Gay, Higginson, etc.; Laing’s _Heimskringla_; the French ed. of Wheaton; Hermes’ _Entdeckung von America_; Schoolcraft’s _Ind. Tribes_, i. 114, iv. 120; Drake’s ed., Philad., 1884, i. p. 88; the Copenhagen _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_, p. 70, from a photograph. The Hitchcock Museum at Amherst, Mass., had a cast, and one was shown at the Albany meeting (1836) of the Am. Asso. for the Adv. of Science. The rock was conveyed by deed in 1861 to the Roy. Soc. of Northern Antiquaries (_Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, v. 226; vi. 252), but the society subsequently relinquished their title to a Boston committee, who charged itself with the care of the monument; but in doing so the Danish antiquaries disclaimed all belief in its runic character (_Mag. Amer. Hist._, iii. 236).

[668] De Costa, _Pre-Col. Disc._, 29; _N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg._, xviii. 37; Gay, _Pop. Hist._, i. 41; _Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll._, viii. 72; _Am. Geog. Soc. Journal_, 1870, p. 50; _Amer. Naturalist_, Aug. and Sept., 1879.

[669] _Am. Ass. Adv. Science, Proc._ (1856), ii. 214.

[670] Cf. paper on the site of Vinland in _Hist. Mag._, Feb., 1874, p. 94; Alex. Farnum’s _Visit of the Northmen to Rhode Island_ (_R. I. Hist. Tracts_, no. 2, 1877). The statement of the sagas that there was no frost in Vinland and grass did not wither in winter compels some of the identifiers to resort to the precession of the equinox as accounting for changes of climate (Gay’s _Pop. Hist._, i. 50).

[671] E. G. Squier in _Ethnological Journal_, 1848; Wilson’s Prehist. Man, ii. 98; _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, i. 392; Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes_, iv. 118; _Mém. de la Soc. royale des Antiq. du Nord_, 1840-44, p. 127.

[672] _Amer. Philos. Soc. Proc._, May 2, 1884 (by Henry Phillips, Jr.); _Numismatic and Antiq. Soc. of Philad., Proc._, 1884, p. 17; Geo. S. Brown’s _Yarmouth_ (Boston, 1888).

[673] Wilson’s _Prehist. Man_, ii. 98; _Amer. Asso. Adv. Science, Proc._, 1856, p. 214; _Séance annuelle de la Soc. des Antiq. du Nord_, May 14, 1859; H. W. Haynes in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, Jan., 1888, p. 56. The Monhegan inscription, as examined by the late C. W. Tuttle and J. Wingate Thornton, was held to be natural markings (_Mag. Amer. Hist._, ii. 308; _Pulpit of the Revolution_, 410). Charles Rau cites a striking instance of the way in which the lively imagination of Finn Magnusen has misled him in interpreting weather cracks on a rock in Sweden (_Mag. Amer. Hist._, ii. 83).

[674] _N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg._, 1854, p. 185.

[675] _Antiquitates Americanæ_, 335, 371, 401; _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct., 1868, p. 13; W. J. Miller’s _Wampanoag Indians_.

[676] Cf. list of inscribed rocks in the _Proceedings_ (vol. ii.) of the Davenport Acad. of Natural Sciences.

[677] The stone with its inscription early attracted attention, but Danforth’s drawing of 1680 is the earliest known. Cotton Mather, in a dedicatory epistle to Sir Henry Ashurst, prefixed to his _Wonderful Works of God commemorated_ (Boston, 1690), gave a cut of a part of the inscription; and he communicated an account with a drawing of the inscription to the Royal Society in 1712, which appears in their _Philosophical Transactions_. Dr. Isaac Greenwood sent another draft to the Society of Antiquaries in London in 1730, and their _Transactions_ in 1732 has this of Greenwood. In 1768 Professor Stephen Sewall of Cambridge made a copy of the natural size, which was sent in 1774 by Professor James Winthrop to the Royal Society. Dr. Stiles says that Sewall sent it to Gebelin, of the French Academy, whose members judged them to be Punic characters. Stiles himself, in 1783, in an election sermon delivered at Hartford, spoke of “the visit by the Phœnicians, who charged the Dighton Rock and other rocks in Narragansett Bay with Punic inscriptions remaining to this day, which last I myself have repeatedly seen and taken off at large.” Cf. Thornton’s _Pulpit of the Revolution_, p. 410. The _Archæologia_ (London, viii. for 1786) gave various drawings, with a paper by the Rev. Michael Lort and some notes by Charles Vallancey, in which the opinion was expressed that the inscription was the work of a people from Siberia, driven south by hordes of Tartars. Professor Winthrop in 1788 filled the marks, as he understood them, with printer’s ink, and in this way took an actual impression of the inscription. His copy was engraved in the _Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences_ (vol. ii. for 1793). It was this copy by Winthrop which Washington in 1789 saw at Cambridge, when he pronounced the inscription as similar to those made by the Indians, which he had been accustomed to see in the western country during his life as a surveyor. Cf. _Belknap Papers, Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll._, ii. 76, 77, 81; _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, x. 114. In 1789 there was also presented to the Academy a copy made by Joseph Gooding under the direction of Francis Baylies (_Belknap Papers_, ii. 160). In the third volume of the Academy’s _Memoirs_ there are papers on the inscription by John Davis and Edward A. Kendall; Davis (1807) thinking it a representation of an Indian deer hunt, and Kendall later, in his _Travels_ (vol. ii. 1809), assigns it to the Indians. This description is copied in Barber’s _Historical Collections of Mass._ (p. 117). In 1812 a drawing was made by Job Gardner, and in 1825 there was further discussion in the _Mémoires de la Société de Géographie de Paris_, and in the _Hist. of New York_ by Yates and Moulton. In 1831 there was a cut in Ira Hill’s _Antiquities of America explained_ (Hagerstown, Md.) This was in effect the history of the interest in the rock up to the appearance of Rafn’s _Antiquitates Americanæ_, in which for the first time the inscription was represented as being the work of the Northmen. This belief is now shared by few, if any, temperate students. The exuberant Anderson thinks that the rock removes all doubt of the Northmen discovery (_America not discovered by Columbus_, pp. 21, 23, 83). The credulous Gravier has not a doubt. Cf. his _Notice sur le roc de Dighton et le séjour des Scandinaves en Amérique au commencement du XI^e siècle_ (Nancy, 1875), reprinted from the _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_, i. 166, giving Rafn’s drawing. The Rev. J. P. Bodfish accepts its evidence in the _Proc. Second Pub. Meeting U. S. Cath. Hist. Soc._ (N. Y., 1886).

[678] _Pre-Columbian Discovery of America_, p. lvii. The _Brinley Catalogue_, iii. 5378, gives Dammartin’s _Explification de la Pierre de Taunston_ (Paris? 1840-50) as finding in the inscription an astronomical theme by some nation foreign to America. Buckingham Smith believed it to be a Roman Catholic invocation, around which the Indians later put their symbols (_Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Apr. 29, 1863, p. 32). For discussions more or less extensive see Laing’s _Heimskringla_, i. 175; Haven in _Smithsonian Contributions_, 1856, viii. 133, in a paper on the “Archæology of the United States;” Charles Rau in _Mag. Amer. Hist._, Feb., 1878; Apr., 1879; and in _Amer. Antiquarian_, i. 38; Daniel Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, ii. 97; J. R. Bartlett in _Rhode Island Hist. Soc. Proc._, 1872-73, p. 70; Haven and others in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct., 1864, and Oct., 1867; H. H. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, v. 74; Drake’s _N. E. Coast; North American Rev._, 1874; _Amer. Biblical Repository_, July, 1839; _Historical Mag._, Dec., 1859, and March, 1869; Lelewel’s _Moyen Age_, iii.; H. W. Williams’s transl. of Humboldt’s _Travels_, i. 157, etc.

[679] Schoolcraft wavered in his opinion. (Cf. Haven, 133.) He showed Gooding’s drawing to an Algonkin chief, who found in it a record of a battle of the Indians, except that some figures near the centre did not belong to it, and these Schoolcraft thought might be runic, as De Costa has later suggested; but in 1853 Schoolcraft made no reservation in pronouncing it entirely Indian (_Indian Tribes_, i. 112; iv. 120; pl. 14). Wilson (_Prehist. Man_, ii., ch. 19) is severe on Schoolcraft. On the general character of Indian rock inscriptions,—some of which in the delineations accompanying these accounts closely resemble the Dighton Rock,—see Mallery in the _Bureau of Ethnology, Fourth Report_, p. 19; Lieut. A. M. Wheeler’s Report on Indian tribes in _Pacific Rail Road Reports_, ii.; J. G. Bruff on those of Green River in the Sierra Nevada, in _Smithsonian Rept._ (1872); _American Antiquarian_, iv. 259; vi. 119; _Western Reserve Hist. Soc. Tracts_, nos. 42, 44, 52, 53, 56; T. Ewbank’s _No. Amer. Rock Writing_ (Morrisania, 1866); Brinton’s _Myths of the New World_, p. 10; Tylor’s _Early Hist. Mankind_; Dr. Richard Andree’s _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgard, 1878). It is Mallery’s opinion that no “considerable information of value in an historical point of view will be obtained directly from the interpretations of the Pictographs in North America.”

[680] Palfrey, i. p. 57; Higginson’s _Larger Hist._, 44; Gay’s _Pop. Hist._, i. 59, 60; Laing’s _Heimskringla_, i. 183; Charles T. Brooks’s _Controversy touching the old stone mill in Newport_ (Newport, 1851); Peterson’s _Rhode Island_; Drake’s _New England Coast_; Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes_, iv. 120; Bishop’s _Amer. Manufactures_, i. 118; C. S. Pierce in _Science_, iv. 512, who endeavored by measurement to get at what was the unit of measure used,—an effort not very successful. Cf. references in _Poole’s Index_, p. 913.

Gaffarel accepts the Rafn view in his _Etudes sur la rapports_, etc., 282, as does Gravier in his _Normands sur la route_, p. 168; and De Costa (_Pre-Columbian Disc._, p. lviii) intimates that “all is in a measure doubtful.” R. G. Hatfield (_Scribner’s Monthly_, Mar., 1879) in an illustrated paper undertook to show by comparison with Scandinavian building that what is now standing is but the central part of a Vinland baptistery, and that the projection which supported the radiating roof timbers is still to be seen. This paper was answered by George C. Mason (_Mag. Amer. Hist._, iii. 541, Sept., 1879, with other remarks in the _Amer. Architect_, Oct. 4, 1879), who rehearsed the views of the local antiquaries as to its connection with Gov. Arnold. Cf. _Reminiscences of Newport_, by Geo. C. Mason, 1884.

[681] _Hist. Mag._, Apr., 1862, p. 123; _N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg._, 1865, p. 372; Abner Morse’s _Traces of the Ancient Northmen in America_ (Aug., 1861), with a _Supplement_ (Boston, 1887).

[682] _Mémoires de la Soc. roy. des Antiq. du Nord_, 1843; _New Jersey Hist. Soc. Proc._, vi.; Stone’s _Brant_, ii. 593-94; Schoolcraft’s _Ind. Tribes_, i. 127; _Smithsonian Rept._, 1883, p. 902; Dr. Kneeland in _Peabody Mus. Repts._, no. 20, p. 543. The skeleton was destroyed by fire about 1843.

[683] Dawkins in his _Cave Hunters_ accounts them survivors of the cave dwellers of Europe. Cf. Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_. A. R. Grote (_Amer. Naturalist_, Apr., 1877) holds them to be the survivors of the palæolithic man.

[684] E. Beauvois’ _Les Skroelings, Ancêtres des Esquimaux_ (Paris, 1879); B. F. DeCosta in _Pop. Science Monthly_, Nov., 1884; A. S. Packard on their former range southward, in the _American Naturalist_, xix. 471, 553, and his paper on the Eskimos of Labrador, in _Appleton’s Journal_, Dec. 9, 1871 (reprinted in Beach’s _Indian Miscellany_, Albany, 1877). Humboldt holds them to have been driven across America to Europe (_Views of Nature_, Bohn’s ed., 123). Ethnologists are not wholly agreed as to the course of their migrations. The material for the ethnological study of the Eskimos must be looked for in the narratives of the Arctic voyagers, like Scoresby, Parry, Ross, O’Reilly, Kane, C. F. Hall, and the rest; in the accounts by the missionaries like Egede, Crantz, and others; by students of ethnology, like Lubbock (_Prehist. Times_, ch. 14); Prichard (_Researches_, v. 367); Waitz (_Amerikaner_, i. 300); the Abbé Morillot (_Mythologie et légendes des Esquimaux du Groenland in the Actes de la Soc. Philologique_ (Paris, 1875), vol. iv.); Morgan (_Systems of Consanguinity_, 267), who excludes them from his Ganowanian family; Irving C. Rosse on the northern inhabitants (_Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._, 1883, p. 163); Ludwig Kumlien in his _Contributions to the natural history of Arctic America_, made in connection with the Howgate polar expedition, 1877-78, in _Bull. of the U. S. Naval Museum_ (Washington, 1879), no. 15; and his paper in the _Smithsonian Report_ (1878). There are several helpful papers in the _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_ (London), vol. i., by Richard King, on their intellectual character; vol. iv. by P. C. Sutherland; vol. vii. by John Rae on their migrations, and W. H. Flower on their skulls; vol. ix. by W. J. Sollars on their bone implements. For other references see Bancroft, _Native Races_, i. 41, 138; _Poole’s Index_, p. 424, and _Supplement_, p. 146.

[685] This evidence is of course rather indicative of a geological antiquity not to be associated with the age of the Northmen. Cf. Murray’s _Distribution of Animals_, 128; Howarth’s _Mammoth and Flood_, 285.

[686] Rink, born in 1819 in Copenhagen, spent much of the interval from 1853 to 1872 in Greenland. Pilling (_Bibl. Eskimo Language_, p. 80) gives the best account of Rink’s publications. His principal book is _Grönland geographisch und statistisch beschrieben_ (Stuttgart, 1860). The English reader has access to his _Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo_, translated by Rink himself, and edited by Dr. Robert Brown (London, 1875); to _Danish Greenland, its people and its products_, ed. by Dr. Brown (London, 1877). Rink says of this work that in its English dress it must be considered a new book. He also published _The Eskimo tribes; their distribution and characteristics, especially in regard to language. With a comparative vocabulary_ (Copenhagen, etc., 1887). He also considered their dialects as divulging the relationship of tribes in the _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_ (xv. 239); and in the same journal (1872, p. 104) he has written of their descent. Rink also furnished to the _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_, a paper on the traditions of Greenland (Nancy, 1875, ii. 181), and (Luxembourg, 1877, ii. 327) another on “L’habitat primitif des Esquimaux.”

Dr. Brown has also considered the “Origin of the Eskimo” in the _Archæological Review_ (1888), no. 4.

[687] _Alaska and its Resources_, p. 374; and in _Contributions to Amer. Ethnology_, i. 93.

[688] “On the origin and migrations of the Greenland Esquimaux” in the _Journal Royal Geog. Soc._, 1865; “The Arctic highlanders” in the _Lond. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._ (1866), iv. 125, and in _Arctic Geography and Ethnology_ (London, 1875), published by the Royal Geog. Society.

[689] _American Antiquarian_, Jan., 1888. Cf. other papers by him in the _Proc. Roy. Soc. of Canada_, vol. v. “A year among the Eskimos” in the _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._, 1887, xix. p. 383; “Reise in Baffinland” in the proceedings of the Berlin Gesellschaft für Erdkunde (1885). Cf. Pilling’s Eskimo Bibliog., p. 12; and for linguistic evidences of tribal differences, pp. 69-72, 81-82. Cf. also H. H. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, iii. 574, and Lucien Adam’s “En quoi la langue Esquimaude, deffère-t-elle grammaticalement des autres langues de l’Amérique du Nord?” in the _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Amér._ (Copenhagen), p. 337.

Anton von Etzel’s _Grönland, geographisch und statistisch beschrieben aus Dänischen Quellschriften_ (Stuttgart, 1860) goes cursorily over the early history, and describes the Eskimos. Cf. F. Schwatka in _Amer. Magazine_, Aug., 1888.

[690] There is an easy way of tracing these accounts in Joel A. Allen’s _List of Works and Papers relating to the mammalian orders of Cete and Sirenia_, extracted from the _Bulletin of Hayden’s U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey_ (Washington, 1882). It is necessary to bear in mind that Spitzbergen is often called Greenland in these accounts.

[691] His book, _Det gamle Grönlands nye Perlustration_, etc., was first published at Copenhagen in 1729. Pilling (_Bibliog. of the Eskimo language_, p. 26) was able to find only a single copy of this book, that in the British Museum. Muller (_Books on America_, Amsterdam, 1872, no. 648) describes a copy. This first edition escaped the notice of J. A. Allen, whose list is very carefully prepared (nos. 217, 220, 226, 230, 235). There were two German editions of this original form of the book, Frankfort, 1730, and Hamburg, 1740, according to the _Carter-Brown Catalogue_ (ii. 448, 647), but Pilling gives only the first. The 1729 edition was enlarged in the Copenhagen edition of 1741, which has a map, “Gronlandia Antiqua,” showing the east colony and west colony, respectively, east and west of Cape Farewell. This edition is the basis of the various translations: In German, Copenhagen, 1742, using the plates of the 1741 ed.; Berlin, 1763. In Dutch, Delft, 1746. In French, Copenhagen, 1763. In English, London, 1745; abstracted in the _Philosoph. Transactions Royal Soc._ (1744), xlii. no. 47; and again, London (1818), with an historical introduction based on Torfæus and La Peyrère. Crantz epitomizes Egede’s career in Greenland.

The bibliography in Sabin’s _Dictionary_ (vi. 22,018, etc.) confounds the Greenland journal (1770-78) of Hans Egede’s grandson, Hans Egede Saabye (b. 1746; d. 1817), with the work of the grandfather. This journal is of importance as regards the Eskimos and the missions among them. There is an English version: _Greenland: extracts from a journal kept in 1770 to 1778. Prefixed an introduction; illus. by chart of Greenland, by G. Fries. Transl. from the German_ _[by H. E. Lloyd]_ (London, 1818). The map follows that of the son of Hans, Paul Egede, whose _Nachrichten von Grönland aus einem Tagebuche von Bischof Paul Egede_ (Copenhagen, 1790) must also be kept distinct. Pilling’s _Bibliog. of the Eskimo language_ affords the best guide.

[692] An English translation by Macdougall was published in London in 1837 (Pilling, p. 38; Field, no. 619). A French version of Graah’s introduction with notes by M. de la Roquette was published in 1835. Cf. _Journal Royal Geog. Soc._, i. 247. After Graah’s publication Rafn placed the Osterbygden on the west coast in his map. Graah’s report (1830) is in French in the _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris_, 1830.

[693] On the present scant, if not absence of, population on the east coast of Greenland, see J. D. Whitney’s _Climatic Changes of later geological times_ (_Mus. of Comp. Zoöl. Mem._, vii. p. 303, Cambridge, 1882).

[694] The changes in opinion respecting the sites of the colonies and the successive explorations are followed in the _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_ by Steenstrup (p. 114) and by Valdemar-Schmidt, “Sur les Voyages des Danois au Groenland” (195, 205, with references). Cf. on these lost colonies and the search for them _Westminster Review_, xxvii. 139; _Harper’s Monthly_, xliv. 65 (by I. I. Hayes); _Lippincott’s Mag._, Aug., 1878; _Amer. Church Rev._, xxi. 338; and in the general histories, La Peyrère (Dutch transl., Amsterdam, 1678); Crantz (Eng. transl., 1767, p. 272); Egede (Eng. ed., 1818, introd.); and Rink’s _Danish Greenland_, ch. 1.

[695] The original of Bardsen’s account has disappeared, but Rafn puts it in Latin, translating from an early copy found in the Faröe Islands (_Antiquitates Américanæ_, p. 300). Purchas gives it in English, from a copy which had belonged to Hudson, being translated from a Dutch version which Hudson had borrowed, the Dutch being rendered by Barentz from a German version. Major also prints it in _Voyages of the Zeni_. He recognizes in Bardsen’s “Gunnbiorn’s Skerries” the island which is marked in Ruysch’s map (1507) as blown up in 1456 (see Vol. III. p. 9).

[696] Hakluyt, however, prints some pertinent verses by Meredith, a Welsh bard, in 1477.

[697] _Murphy Catal._, no. 1489; Sabin, x. p. 322; _Carter-Brown Catal._ for eds. of 1584, 1697, 1702, 1774, 1811, 1832, etc.

[698] In the seventeenth century there were a variety of symptoms of the English eagerness to get the claims of Madoc substantiated, as in Sir Richard Hawkins’s _Observations_ (Hakluyt Soc., 1847), and James Howell’s _Familiar Letters_ (London, 1645). Belknap (_Amer. Biog._, 1794, i. p. 58) takes this view of Hakluyt’s purpose; but Pinkerton, _Voyages_, 1812, xii. 157, thinks such a charge an aspersion. The subject was mentioned with some particularity or incidentally by Purchas, Abbott (_Brief Description_, London, 1620, 1634, 1677), Smith (_Virginia_), and Fox (_North-West Fox_). Sir Thomas Herbert in his _Relation of some Travaile into Africa and Asia_ (London, 1634) tracks Madoc to Newfoundland, and he also found Cymric words in Mexico, which assured him in his search for further proofs (Bohn’s _Lowndes_, p. 1049; Carter-Brown, ii. 413, 1166).

The _Nieuwe en onbekende Weereld_ of Montanus (Amsterdam, 1671) made the story more familiar. It necessarily entered into the discussions of the learned men who, in the seventeenth century, were busied with the question of the origin of the Americans, as in De Laet’s _Notæ ad dissertationem Hugonis Grotii_ (Paris, 1643), who is inclined to believe the story, as is Hornius in his _De Originibus Americaniis_ (1652).

[699] Cf. Catlin’s _No. Amer. Indians_, i. 207; ii. 259, 262.

[700] _Gentleman’s Magazine_. It is reprinted in H. H. Bancroft’s _Native Races_, v. 119, and in Baldwin’s _Anc. America_, 286. Cf. John Paul Marana, Letters writ by a Turkish Spy, 1691, and later. The story had been told in _The British Sailors’ Directory_ in 1739 (Carter-Brown, iii. 599).

[701] Warden’s _Recherches_, p. 157; Amos Stoddard’s _Sketches of Louisiana_ (Philad., 1812), ch. 17, and _Philad. Med. and Physical Journal_, 1805; with views _pro_ and _con_ by Harry Toulmin and B. S. Barton.

[702] The book was reprinted by Sabin, N. Y., 1865, with an introduction by Horatio Gates Jones.

[703] _An inquiry into the truth of the tradition concerning the discovery of America by Prince Madog_ (Lond., 1791), and _Further Observations ... containing the account given by General Bowles, the Creek or Cherokee Indian, lately in London, and by several others, of a Welsh tribe of Indians now living in the western parts of North America_ (Lond., 1792,—Field’s _Ind. Bibliog._, nos. 1664-65). Carey’s _American Museum_ (April, May, 1792), xi. 152, etc., gave extracts from Williams.

[704] _The Welsh Indians, or a collection of papers respecting a people whose ancestors emigrated from Wales to America with Prince Madoc, and who are now said to inhabit a beautiful country on the west side of the Mississippi_ (London, 1797). He finds these conditions in the Padoucas. Goodson, _Straits of Anian_ (Portsmouth, 1793), p. 71, makes Padoucahs out of “Madogwys”!

[705] _Chambers’ Journal_, vi. 411, mentioning the Asguaws.

[706] _Letter on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the No. Amer. Indians_ (N. Y., 1842).

[707] He convinced, for instance, Fontaine in his _How the World was Peopled_, p. 142.

[708] On the variety of complexion among the Indians, see Short’s _No. Amer. of Antiq._, p. 189; McCulloh’s _Researches_; Haven, _Archæol. U. S._, 48; Morton in _Schoolcraft_, ii. 320; _Ethnolog. Journal_, London, July, 1848; App. 1849, commenting on Morton.

[709] Pilling, _Bibliog. of Siouan languages_ (Washington, 1887, p. 48), enumerates the authorities on the Mandan tongue. The tribe is now extinct. Cf. Morgan’s _Systems of Consanguinity_, p. 181.

[710] See also _Smithsonian Report_, 1885, Part ii. pp. 80, 271, 349, 449. Ruxton in _Life in the Far West_ (N. Y., 1846) found Welsh traces in the speech of the Mowquas, and S. Y. McMaster in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1865, heard Welsh sounds among the Navajos.

[711] Filson in his _Kentucke_ has also pointed out this possibility.

[712] The bibliography of the subject can be followed in Watson’s list, already referred to, and in that in the _Amer. Bibliopolist_, Feb., 1869. A few additional references may help complete these lists: Stephens’s _Literature of the Cymry_, ch. 2; the Abbé Domenech’s _Seven Years in the Great Desert of America_; Tytler’s _Progress of Discovery_; Moosmüller’s _Europäer in Amerika vor Columbus_ (Regensburg, 1879, ch. 21); Gaffarel’s _Rapport_ etc., p. 216; _Analytical Mag._, ii. 409; _Atlantic Monthly,_ xxxvii. 305; _No. Am. Rev._ (by E. E. Hale), lxxxv. 305; _Antiquary_, iv. 65; _Southern Presbyterian Rev._, Jan., April, 1878; _Notes and Queries_, index.

[713] This Ptolemy map is reproduced in Gravier’s _Les Normands sur la route_, etc., 6th part, ch. 1; and in Nordenskjöld’s _Studien und Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1805), p. 25. The Ptolemy of 1562 has the same plate.

[714] J. R. Forster’s _Discoveries in the Northern Regions_. His confidence was shared by Eggers (1794) in his _True Site of Old East Greenland_ (Kiel), who doubts, however, if the descriptions of Estotiland apply to America. It was held to be a confirmation of the chart that both the east and west Greenland colonies were on the side of Davis’s Straits.

[715] Buache reproduced the map, and read in 1784, before the Academy of Inscriptions in Paris, his _Mémoire sur la Frisland_, which was printed by the Academy in 1787, p. 430.

[716] _Dissertazione intorno ai viaggi e scoperte settentrionali di Nicolo e Antonio Fratelli Zeni._ This paper was substantially reproduced in the same writer’s _Di Marco Polo e degli altri Viaggiatori veneziani più illustri dissertazioni_ (Venice, 1818).

[717] _Annales des Voyages_ (1810), x. 72; _Précis de la Géographie_ (1817).

[718] _Nordisk Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed_ (Copenhagen, 1834), vol. i. p. 1; _Royal Geog. Soc. Journal_ (London, 1835), v. 102; _Annales des Voyages_ (1836), xi.

George Folsom, in the _No. Amer. Rev._, July, 1838, criticised Zahrtmann, and sustained an opposite view. T. H. Bredsdorff discussed the question in the _Grönlands Historiske Mindesmæker_ (iii. 529); and La Roquette furnished the article in Michaud’s Biog. _Universelle_.

[719] Major also, in his paper (_Royal Geog. Soc. Journal_, 1873) on “The Site of the Lost Colony of Greenland determined, and the pre-Columbian discoveries of America confirmed, from fourteenth century documents,” used the Zeno account and map in connection with Ivan Bardsen’s Sailing Directions in placing the missing colony near Cape Farewell. Major epitomized his views on the question in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, Oct., 1874. Sir H. C. Rawlinson commented on Major’s views in his address before the Royal Geog. Society (_Journal_, 1873, p. clxxxvii).

Stevens (_Bibl. Geographica_, no. 3104) said: “If the map be genuine, the most of its geography is false, while a part of it is remarkably accurate.”

[720] _I viaggi e la Carta dei Fratelli Zeno Veneziani_ (Florence, 1878), and a _Studio Secondo_ (_Estratto dall. Archivio Storico Italiano_) in 1885.

[721] “Zeniernes Rejse til Norden et Tolkning Forsoeg,” with a fac-simile of the Zeni map.

[722] Nordenskjöld’s _Om bröderna Zenos resor och de äldsta kartor öfner Norden_ was published at Stockholm in 1883, as an address on leaving the presidency of the Swedish Academy, April 12, 1882; and in the same year, at the Copenhagen meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes, he presented his _Trois Cartes précolumbiennes, représentant une partie de l’Amérique_ (Greenland), which included facsimiles of the Zeno (1558) and Donis (1482) maps with that of Claudius Clavus (1427). This last represents “Islandia” lying midway alone in the sea between “Norwegica Regio” and “Gronlandia provincia.” The “Congelatum mare” is made to flow north of Norway, so as almost to meet the northern Baltic, while north of this frozen sea is an Arctic region, of which Greenland is but an extension south and west. The student will find these and other maps making part of the address already referred to, which also makes part in German of his _Studien und Forschungen veranlasst durch meine Reisen im hohen Norden, autorisirte deutsche Ausgabe_ (Leipzig, 1885). The maps accompanying it not already referred to are the usual Ptolemy map of the north of Europe, based on a MS. of the fourteenth century; the “Scandinavia” from the _Isolario_ of Bordone, 1547; that of the world in the MS. _Insularium illustratum_ of Henricus Martellus, of the fifteenth century, in the British Museum, copied from the sketch in José de Lacerda’s _Exame dos Viagens do Doutor Livingstone_ (Lisbon, 1867); the “Scandinavia” and the “Carta Marina” in the Venetian Ptolemy of 1548; the map of Olaus Magnus in 1567; the chart of Andrea Bianco (1436); the map of the Basle ed. (1532) of Grynæus’ _Novis Orbis_; that of Laurentius Frisius (1524). He gives these maps as the material possible to be used in 1558 in compiling a map, and to show the superiority of the Zeno chart. Cf. _Nature_, xxviii. 14; and Major in _Royal Geog. Soc. Proc._, 1883, p. 473.

[723] “Zeni’ernes Reiser i Norden” in the publication of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries (Copenhagen, 1883), in which he compares the Zeno Frislanda with the maps of Iceland. He also communicated to the Copenhagen meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes “Les voyages des frères Zeni dans le Nord” (_Compte Rendu_, p. 150).

[724] This also appeared in the _Geog. Tidsskrift_, vii. 153, accompanied by facsimiles of the Zeni map, with Ruscelli’s alteration of it (1561), and of the maps of Donis (1482), Laurentius Frisius (1525), and of the Ptolemy of 1548.

[725] _Roy. Geog. Soc. Journal_ (1879), vol. xlix. p. 398, “Zeno’s Frisland is Iceland and not the Faröes,”—and the same views in “Nautical Remarks about the Zeni Voyages” in _Compte Rendu, Cong. des Amér._ (Copenhagen, 1883), p. 183.

[726] “Zeno’s Frisland is not Iceland, but the Faröes” in _Roy. Geog. Soc. Journal_ (1879), xlix. 412.

[727] _Géog. du Moyen Age_, iii. 103.

[728] _Discovery of Maine_, 92.

[729] Dudley, _Arcano del Mare_, pl. lii, places Estotiland between Davis and Hudson’s Straits; but Torfæus doubts if it is Labrador, as is “commonly believed.” Lafitau (_Mœurs des Sauvages_) puts it north of Hudson Bay. Forster calls it Newfoundland. Beauvois (_Les colonies Européenes du Markland at de l’Escociland_) makes it include Maine, New Brunswick, and part of Lower Canada. These are the chief varieties of belief. Steenstrup is of those who do not recognize America at all. Hornius, among the older writers, thought that Scotland or Shetland was more likely to have been the fisherman’s strange country. Santarem (_Hist. de la Cartographie_, iii. 141) points out an island, “Y Stotlandia,” in the Baltic, as shown on the map of Giovanni Leardo (1448) at Venice.

In P. B. Watson’s _Bibliog. of Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America_ there is the fullest but not a complete list on the subject, and from this and other sources a few further references may be added: Belknap’s _Amer. Biography_; Humboldt’s _Examen Critique_, ii. 120; Asher’s _Henry Hudson_, p. clxiv; Gravier’s _Découverte de l’Amérique_, 183; Gaffarel’s _Etude sur l’Amérique avant Colomb_, p. 261, and in the _Revue de Géog._, vii., Oct., Nov., 1880, with the Zeno map as changed by Ortelius; De Costa’s _Northmen in Maine_; Weise’s _Discoveries of America_, p. 44; Goodrich’s _Columbus_; Peschel’s _Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_ (1858), and Ruge’s work of the same title; Guido Cora’s _I precursori di Cristoforo Colombo_ (Rome, 1886), taken from the _Bollettino della soc. geog. italiana_, Dec., 1885; Gay’s _Pop. Hist. U. S._ (i. 76); Foster’s _Prehistoric Races_; _Studi biog. e bibliog. soc. geog. ital._, 2d ed., 1882, p. 117; P. O. Moosmüller’s _Europäer in Amerika vor Columbus,_ ch. 24; _Das Ausland_, Oct. 11, Dec. 27, 1886; _Nature_, xxviii. p. 14.

Geo. E. Emery, Lynn, Mass., issued in 1877 a series of maps, making Islandia to be Spitzbergen, with the East Bygd of the Northmen at its southern end; Frisland, Iceland; and Estotiland, Newfoundland.

[730] Sabin, x., no. 42,675.

[731] There are editions with annotations by Robert Ingram, at Colchester, Eng., 1792; and by Santiago Perez Junquera, at Madrid, 1881. Theoph. Spizelius’ _Elevatio relationis Montezinianæ de repertis in America tribubus Israeliticis_ (Basle, 1661) is a criticism (Leclerc, 547; Field, 1473). One Montesinos had professed to have found a colony of Jews in Peru, and had satisfied Manasseh Ben Israel of his truthfulness.

[732] Cf. collations in Stevens’s _Nuggets_, p. 728, and his _Hist. Coll._, ii. no. 538; Brinley, iii. no. 5463; Field, no. 1551, who cites a new edition in 1652, called _Digitus Dei: new discoveryes, with some arguments to prove that the Jews (a nation) a people ... inhabit now in America ... with the history of Ant: Montesinos attested by Mannasseh Ben Israell_. A divine, John Dury, had urged Thorowgood to publish, and had before this, in printing some of the accounts of the work of Eliot and others among the New England Indians, announced his belief in the theory.

[733] Cotton Mather (_Magnalia_, iii. part 2) tells how Eliot traced the resemblances to the Jews in the New England Indians.

[734] 2d ed., 1727. Cf. Sibley’s _Harvard Graduates_, ii. p. 361; Carter-Brown, iii. 401.

[735] _The History of the American Indians, particularly those Nations adjoining to the Mississippi, East and West Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, and Virginia: Containing an Account of their Origin, Language, Manners, Religious and Civil Customs, Laws, Form of Government, etc., etc., with an Appendix, containing a Description of the Floridas, and the Missisipi Lands, with their productions_ (London, 1775). His arguments are given in Kingsborough’s Mex. Antiq., viii. Bancroft (_Nat. Races_, v. 91) epitomizes them. Adair’s book appeared in a German translation at Breslau (1782).

[736] _Observations on the language of the Muhhekaneew Indians, in which ... some instances of analogy between that and the Hebrew are pointed out_ (New Haven, 1788). Cf. on the contrary, Jarvis before the N. Y. Hist. Soc. in 1819.

[737] _Essay upon the propagation of the Gospel, in which there are facts to prove that many of the indians in America are descended from the Ten Tribes_ (Philad., 1799; 2d ed., 1801).

[738] _A Star in the West, or an attempt to discover the long lost Ten Tribes of Israel_ (Trenton, N. J., 1816).

[739] _View of the Hebrews, or the tribe of Israel in America_ (Poultney, Vt., 1825).

[740] _A view of the Amer. Indians, shewing them to be the descendants of the Ten Tribes of Israel_ (Lond., 1828).

[741] _Discourse on the evidences of the Amer. Indians being the descendants of the lost tribes of Israel_ (N. Y., 1837). It is reprinted in Maryatt’s _Diary in America_, vol. ii.

[742] _Hist. of the Wyandotte Mission_ (Cincinnati, 1840); Thomson’s _Ohio Bibliog._, 409.

[743] _Manners, &c. of the N. Amer. Indians_ (Lond., 1841). Cf. _Smithsonian Rept._, 1885, ii. 532.

[744] Mainly in vol. vii.; but see vi. 232, etc. Cf. Short, 143, 460, and Bancroft, _Nat. Races_ (v. 26), with an epitome of Kingsborough’s arguments (v. 84). Mrs. Barbara Anne Simon in her _Hope of Israel_ (Lond., 1829) advocated the theory on biblical grounds; but later she made the most of Kingsborough’s amassment of points in her _Ten Tribes of Israel historically identified with the aborigines of the Western Hemisphere_ (London, 1836).

[745] The recognition of the theory in the Mormon bible is well known. Bancroft (v. 97) epitomizes its recital, following Bertrand’s _Mémoires_. There is a repetition of the old arguments in a sermon, _Increase of the Kingdom of Christ_ (N. Y., 1831), by the Indian William Apes; and in _An Address_ by J. Madison Brown (Jackson, Miss., 1860). Señor Melgar points out resemblances between the Maya and the Hebrew in the _Bol. Soc. Méx. Geog._, iii. Even the Western mounds have been made to yield Hebrew inscriptions (_Congrès des Amér._, Nancy, ii. 192).

Many of the general treatises on the origin of the Americans have set forth the opposing arguments. Garcia did it fairly in his _Origen de los Indios_ (1607; ed. by Barcia, 1729), and Bancroft (v. 78-84) has condensed his treatment. Brasseur (_Hist. Nat. Civ._, i. 17) rejects the theory of the ten tribes; but is not inclined to abandon a belief in some scattered traces. Short (pp. 135, 144) epitomizes the claims. Gaffarel covers them in his _Etude sur les rapports de l’Amérique_ (p. 87) with references, and these last are enlarged in Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, v. 95-97.

[746] Varnhagen’s _L’origine touranienne des Américains Tupis-Caraïbes et des anciens Egyptiens, indiquée principalement par la philologie comparée: traces d’une ancienne migration en Amérique, invasion du Brésil par les Tupis_ (Vienne, 1876). Labat’s _Nouveau Voyage aux isles de l’Amérique_ (Paris, 1722), vol. ii. ch. 23. Sieur de la Borde’s _Relation de l’origine, mœurs, coutumes, etc. des Caraibes_ (Paris, 1764). Robertson’s America. James Kennedy’s _Probable origin of the Amer. Indians, with particular reference to that of the Caribs_ (Lond., 1854), or _Journal of the Ethnolog. Soc._ (vol. iv.). _London Geog. Journal_, iii. 290.

[747] Cf. Peter Martyr, Torquemada, and later writers, like La Perouse, McCulloh, Haven (p. 48), Gaffarel (_Rapport_, 204), J. Perez in _Rev. Orientale et Amér._, viii., xii.; Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, iii. 458. Brinton (_Address_, 1887) takes exception to all such views. Cf. Quatrefages’ _Human Species_ (N. Y., 1879, pp. 200, 202).

[748] Cf. Beccari in _Kosmos_, Apr., 1879; De Candolle in _Géographie botanique_ (1855).

[749] Santarem, _Hist. de la Cartog._, iii. 76, refers to maps of the fourteenth century in copies of Ranulphus Hydgen’s _Polychronicon_, in the British Museum and in the Advocates’ library at Edinburgh, which show a land in the north, called in the one Wureland and in the other Wyhlandia.

[750] _Mag. Am. Hist._, April, 1883, p. 290. Cf. Vol. II. p. 28. The name used is “Grinlandia.”

[751] Mauro’s map was called by Ramusio, who saw it, an improved copy of one brought from Cathay by Marco Polo. It is preserved in the Biblioteca Marciana at Venice. It was made by Mauro under the command of Don Alonso V., and Bianco assisted him. The exact date is in dispute; but all agree to place it between 1457 and 1460. A copy was made on vellum in 1804, which is now in the British Museum. Our cut follows one corner of the reproduction in Santarem’s _Atlas_. A photographic fac-simile has been issued in Venice by Ongania, and St. Martin (_Atlas_, p. vii) follows this fac-simile. Ruge (_Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_) gives a modernized and more legible reproduction. There are other drawings in Zurla’s _Fra Mauro_; Vincent’s _Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients_ (1797, 1807); Lelewel’s _Moyen Age_ (pl. xxxiii). Cf. _Studi della Soc. Geografia Italia_ (1882), ii. 76, for references.

[752] Rafn gives a large map of Iceland with the names of a.d. 1000. On the errors of early and late maps of Iceland see Baring-Gould’s _Ultima Thule_, i. 253. On the varying application of the name Thule, Thyle, etc., to the northern regions or to particular parts of them, see R. F. Burton’s _Ultima Thule, a Summer in Iceland_ (London, 1875), ch. 1. Bunbury (_Hist. Anc. Geog._, ii. 527) holds that the Thule of Marinus of Tyre and of Ptolemy was the Shetlands. Cf. James Wallace’s _Description of the Orkney islands_ (1693,—new ed., 1887, by John Small) for an essay on “the Thule of the Ancients.”

[753] There are other reproductions of the map in full, in Nordenskjöld’s _Vega_, i. 51; in his _Broderna Zenos_, and in his _Studien_, p. 31. Cf. also the present _History_, II., p. 28, for other bibliographical detail; Hassler, _Buchdruckergeschichte Ulm’s_; D’Avezac’s _Waltzemüller_, 23; Wilberforce Eames’s _Bibliography of Ptolemy_, separately, and in Sabin’s _Dictionary_; and Winsor’s _Bibliog. of Ptolemy’s Geography_.

[754] Cf. D’Avezac in _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog._, xx. 417.

[755] See Vol. II. p. 41. There is another sketch in Nordenskjöld’s _Studien_, etc., p. 33, which is reduced from a fac-simile given in José de Lacerda’s _Exame dos Viagens do Doutor Livingstone_ (Lissabon, 1867). The present extract is from Santarem, pl. 50. Cf. O. Peschel in _Ausland_, Feb. 13, 1857, and his posthumous _Abhandlungen_, i. 213.

[756] See references in Vol. II. p. 105.

[757] See Vol. II. p. 108.

[758] See _post_, Vol. IV. p. 35; and Kohl’s _Discovery of Maine_, p. 174. Cf. Winsor’s _Bibliog. of Ptolemy_, sub anno 1511.

[759] He holds that the 1513 Ptolemy map was drawn in 1501-4, and was engraved before Dec. 10, 1508.

[760] See Vol. II. p. 115.

[761] Winsor’s _Bibliog. of Ptolemy_, sub anno 1511.

[762] See Vol. II. p. 111. Winsor’s _Ptolemy_, sub anno 1513. Reisch, in 1515, seems to have been of the same opinion. Cf. the bibliography of Reisch’s _Margarita Philosophia_ in Sabin’s _Dictionary_, vol. xvi., and separately, prepared by Wilberforce Eames. Reisch’s map is given _post_, Vol. II. p. 114. Another sketch of this map, with an examination of the question, where the name “Zoana Mela,” applied on it to America, came from, is given by Frank Wieser in the _Zeitschrift für Wissensch. Geographie_ (Carlsruhe), vol. v., a sight of which I owe to the author, who believes Waldseemüller made the map.

[763] The map is given, _post_, Vol. II. 175. Cf. also Nordenskjöld, _Studien_, p. 53.

[764] Cf. Winsor’s _Bibliog. of Ptolemy_, sub anno 1522.

[765] Winsor’s _Bibliog. of Ptolemy_, sub anno 1525. This map is no. 49, “Gronlandiæ et Russiæ.” Cf. Witsen’s _Noord en Oost Tartctrye_ (1705), vol. ii.

[766] Winsor’s _Kohl Collection_, no. 102.

[767] Given _post_, Vol. III. p. 17.

[768] Given _post_, Vol. III. p. 11.

[769] _Jahrb. des Vereins für Erdkunde in Dresden_ (1870), tab. vii. A similar feature is in the map described by Peschel in the _Jahresbericht des Vereins für Erdkunde in Leipzig_ (1871). It is also to be seen in the Homem map of about 1540 (given in Vol. II. p. 446), and in the map which Major assigns to Baptista Agnese, and which was published in Paris in 1875 as a _Portulan de Charles Quint._ (Cf. Vol. II. p. 445.)

[770] There is a fac-simile of Ziegler’s map in Vol. II. 434; also in Goldsmid’s ed. of Hakluyt (Edinb., 1885), and in Nordenskjöld’s _Vega_, i. 52.

[771] The map (1551) of Gemma Frisius in Apian is much the same.

[772] In the Basle ed. of the _Historia de Gentium_. Cf. Nordenskjöld’s _Vega_, vol. i., who says that the map originally appeared in Magnus’s _Auslegung und Verklarung der Neuen Mappen von den Alten Goettenreich_ (Venice, 1539); and is different from the map which appeared in the intermediate edition of 1555 at Rome, a part of which is also annexed.

[773] The same is done in the Ptolemy of 1548 (Venice). There is a fac-simile in Nordenskjöld’s _Studien_, p. 35.

[774] See Vol. IV. p. 84.

[775] We find it in the Nancy globe of about 1540 (see Vol. IV. p. 81); in the Mercator gores of 1541 (Vol. II. p. 177); and in the Ruscelli map of 1544 (Vol. II. p. 432), where Greenland (Grotlandia) is simply a neck connecting Europe with America; and in Gastaldi “Carta Marina,” in the Italian Ptolemy of 1548, where it is a protuberance on a similar neck (see Vol. II. 435; IV. 43; and Nordenskjöld’s _Studien_, 43). The Rotz map of 1542 seems to be based on the same material used by Mercator in his gores, but he adds a new confusion in calling Greenland the “Cost of Labrador.” Cf. Winsor’s _Kohl Maps_, no. 104. The “Grutlandia” of the Vopellio map of 1556 is also continuous with Labrador (see Vol. II. 436; IV. 90).

[776] See Vol. IV. pp. 42, 82.

[777] In the edition of 1562, which repeated the map, the cartographer Moletta (Moletius) testified that its geography had been confirmed “by letters and marine charts sent to us from divers parts.”

[778] Winsor’s _Bibliog. of Ptolemy_, sub anno 1561.

[779] Lok’s map of 1582 calls it “Groetland,” the landfall of “Jac. Scolvus,” the Pole. Cf. Vol. III. 40.

[780] For Mercator’s map, see Vol. II. 452; IV. 94, 373. Ortelius’ separate map of Scandia is much the same. It is the same with the map of Phillipus Gallæus, dated 1574, but published at Antwerp in 1585 in the _Theatri orbis terrarum Enchiridion_. Gilbert’s map in 1576 omits the “Grocland” (Vol. III. 203). Both features, however, are preserved in the Judæis of 1593 (Vol. IV. 97), in the Wytfliet of 1597 (Vol. II. 459), in Wolfe’s Linschoten in 1598 (Vol. III. 101), and in Quadus in 1600 (Vol. IV. 101). In the Zaltière map of 1566 (Vol. II. 451; IV. 93), in the Porcacchi map of 1572 (Vol. II. 96, 453; IV. 96), and in that of Johannes Martines of 1578, the features are too indefinite for recognition. Lelewel (i. pl. 7) gives a Spanish mappemonde of 1573.

[781] In fac-simile in Nordenskjöld’s _Vega_, i. 247.

[782] Vol. III p. 98.

[783] A paper by H. Rink in the _Geografisk Tidskrift_ (viii. 139) entitled “Ostgrönländerne i deres Forhold till Vestgrönländerne og de övrige Eskimostammer,” is accompanied by drafts of the map of G. Tholacius, 1606, and of Th. Thorlacius, 1668-69,—the latter placing East Bygd on the east coast near the south end. K. J. V. Steenstrup, on Osterbygden in _Geog. Tidskrift_, viii. 123, gives facsimiles of maps of Jovis Carolus in 1634; of Hendrick Doncker in 1669. Sketches of maps by Johannes Meyer in 1652, and by Hendrick Doncker in 1666, are also given in the _Geografisk Tidskrift_, viii. (1885), pl. 5.

[784] _Voyages des Pais Septentrionaux,_—a very popular book.

[785] _Chips from a German Workshop_, i. 327.

[786] _Archæological Tour_, p. 202.

[787] The earliest fixed date for the founding of Tenochtitlan (Mexico city) is 1325. Brasseur tells us that Carlos de Sigüenza y Gongora made the first chronological table of ancient Mexican dates, which was used by Boturini, and was improved by Leon y Gama,—the same which Bustamante has inserted in his edition of Gomara. Gallatin (_Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, i.) gave a composite table of events by dates before the Conquest, which is followed in Brantz Mayer’s _Mexico as it was_, i. 97. Ed. Madier de Montjau, in his _Chronologie hiéroglyphico-phonétique des Rois Astéques de 1352 à 1522_, takes issue with Ramirez on some points.

[788] Bancroft (v. 199) gives references to those writers who have discussed this question of giants. Bandelier’s references are more in detail (_Arch. Tour_, p. 201). Short (p. 233) borrows largely the list in Bancroft. The enumeration includes nearly all the old writers. Acosta finds confirmation in bones of incredible largeness, often found in his day, and then supposed to be human. Modern zoölogists say they were those of the Mastodon. Howarth, _Mammoth and the Flood_, 297.

[789] See _Native Races_, ii. 117; v. 24, 27.

[790] Sometimes it is said they came from the Antilles, or beyond, easterly, and that an off-shoot of the same people appeared to the early French, explorers as the Natchez Indians. We have, of course, offered to us a choice of theories in the belief that the Maya civilization came from the westward by the island route from Asia. This misty history is nothing without alternatives, and there are a plenty of writers who dogmatize about them.

[791] _Constituciones diocesanas del obispado de Chiappas_ (Rome, 1702).

[792] _Nat. Races_, v. 160.

[793] _Hist. Nations Civilisées_, i. 37, 150, etc. _Popul Vuh_, introd., sec. v. Bancroft relates the Votan myth, with references, in _Nat. Races_, iii. 450. Brasseur identifies the Votanites with the Colhuas, as the builders of Palenqué, the founders of Xibalba, and thinks a branch of them wandered south to Peru. There are some stories of even pre-Votan days, under Igh and Imox. Cf. H. De Charency’s “Myth d’Imos,” in the _Annales de philosophie Chrétienne_, 1872-73, and references in Bancroft, v. 164, 231.

[794] _Native Races_, ii. 121, etc.

[795] Bancroft (v. 236) points to Bradford, Squier, Tylor, Viollet-le-Duc, Bartlett, and Müller, with Brasseur in a qualified way, as in the main agreeing in this early disjointing of the Nashua stock, by which the Maya was formed through separation from the older race.

[796] Enforced, for instance, by one of the best of the later Mexican writers, Orozco y Berra, in his _Geografía de las lenguas y Carta Ethnografica de México_ (Mexico, 1865).

[797] Tylor, _Anahuac_, 189, and his _Early Hist. Mankind_, 184. Orozco y Berra, _Geog._, 124. Bancroft, v. 169, note. The word Maya was first heard by Columbus in his fourth voyage, 1503-4. We sometimes find it written Mayab. It is usual to class the people of Yucatan, and even the Quiché-Cakchiquels of Guatemala and those of Nicaragua, under the comprehensive term of Maya, as distinct from the Nahua people farther north.

[798] _Nat. Races_, v. 186.

[799] Brinton, with his view of myths, speaks of the attempt of the Abbé Brasseur to make Xibalba an ancient kingdom, with Palenqué as its capital, as utterly unsupported and wildly hypothetical (_Myths_, 251).

[800] Perhaps by Gucumatz (who is identified by some with Quetzalcoatl), leading the Tzequiles, who are said to have appeared from somewhere during one of Votan’s absences, and to have grown into power among the Chanes, or Votan’s people, till they made Tulan, where they lived, too powerful for the Votanites. Bancroft (v. 187) holds this view against Brasseur.

[801] Perhaps Ococingo, or Copan, as Bancroft conjectures (v. 187).

[802] As Sahagún calls it, meaning, as Bancroft suggests, Tabasco.

[803] Short (p. 248) points out that the linguistic researches of Orozco y Berra (_Geografía de las Lenguas de México_, 1-76) seem to confirm this.

[804] See p. 158.

[805] Kirk says (Prescott’s _Mexico_): “Confusion arises from the name of Chichimec, originally that of a single tribe, and subsequently of its many offshoots, being also used to designate successive hordes of whatever race.” Some have seen in the Waiknas of the Mosquito Coast, and in the Caribs generally, descendants of these Chichimecs who have kept to their old social level. The Caribs, on other authority, came originally from the stock of the Tupis and Guaranis, who occupied the region south of the Amazon, and in Columbus’s time they were scattered in Darien and Honduras, along the northern regions of South America, and in some of the Antilles (Von Martius, _Beiträge sur Ethnographie and Sprachenkunde Amerika’s zumal Brasilìens_, Leipzig, 1867). Bancroft (ii. 126) gives the etymology of Chichimec and of other tribal designations. Cf. Buschmann’s _Ueber die Aztekischen Ortsnamen_ (Berlin, 1853). Bandelier (_Archæol. Tour_, 200; _Peabody Mus. Repts._, ii. 393) says he fails to discover in the word anything more than a general term, signifying a savage, a hunter, or a warrior, Chichimecos, applied to roving tribes. Brasseur says that Mexican tradition applies the term Chichimecs generically to the first occupants of the New World.

[806] These names wander and exchange consonants provokingly, and it may be enough to give alphabetically a list comprised of those in Prichard (_Nat. Hist. Man_) and Orozco y Berra (_Geografía_), with some help from Gallatin in the _American Ethno. Soc. Trans._, i., and other groupers of the ethnological traces: Chinantecs, Chatinos, Cohuixcas, Chontales, Colhuas, Coras, Cuitatecs, Chichimecs, Cuextecas (Guaxtecas, Huastecs), Mazetecs, Mazahuas, Michinacas, Miztecs, Nonohualcas, Olmecs, Otomís, Papabucos, Quinames, Soltecos, Totonacs, Triquis, Tepanecs, Tarascos, Xicalancas, Zapotecs. It is not unlikely the same people may be here mentioned under different names. The diversity of opinions respecting the future of these vapory existences is seen in Bancroft’s collation (v. 202). Torquemada tells us about all that we know of the Totonacs, who claim to have been the builders of Teotihuacan. Bancroft gives references (v. 204) for the Totonacs, (p. 206) for the Otomís, (p. 207) for the Mistecs and Zapotecs, and (p. 208) for the Huastecs.

[807] Bancroft, ii. 97. Brasseur, _Nat. Civ._, i. ch. 4, and his _Palenqué_ ch. 3.

[808] Called Huehue-Tlapallan, as Brasseur would have it.

[809] Following Motolinía and other early writers.

[810] _Native Races_, v. 219, 616.

[811] Bandelier, _Archæol. Tour_, 253.

[812] Kingsborough, ix. 206, 460; Veytia, i. 155, 163. Of the Quetzalcoatl myth there are references elsewhere. P. J. J. Valentini has made a study of the early Mexican ethnology and history in his “Olmecas and Tultecas,” translated by S. Salisbury, Jr., and printed in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct. 21, 1882. On Quetzalcoatl in Cholula, see Torquemada, translated in Bancroft, iii. 258.

[813] This wide difference covers intervening centuries, each of which has its advocates. Short carries their coming back to the fourth century (p. 245), but Clavigero’s date of A.D. 544 is more commonly followed. Veytia makes it the seventh century. Bancroft (v. 211, 214) notes the diversity of views.

[814] Bancroft (v. 322) in a long note collates the different statements of the routes and sojourns in this migration. Cf. Short, p. 259.

[815] Cf. Kirk in Prescott, i. 10. It must be confessed that it is rather in the domain of myth than of history that we must place all that has been written about the scattering of the Toltec people at Babel (Bancroft, v. 19), and their finally reaching Huehue-Tlapallan, wherever that may have been. The view long prevalent about this American starting-point of the Nahuas, Toltecs, or whatever designation may be given to the beginners of this myth and history, placed it in California, but some later writers think it worth while to give it a geographical existence in the Mississippi Valley, and to associate it in some vague way with the moundbuilders and their works (Short, _No. Amer. of Antiq._, 251, 253). There is some confusion between Huehue-Tlapallan of this story and the Tlapallan noticed in the Spanish conquest time, which was somewhere in the Usumacinta region, and if we accept Tollan, Tullan, or Tula as a form of the name, the confusion is much increased (Short, pp. 217-220). Bancroft (v. 214) says there is no sufficient data to determine the position of Huehue-Tlapallan, but he thinks “the evidence, while not conclusive, favors the south rather than the north” (p. 216). The truth is, about these conflicting views of a northern or southern origin, pretty much as Kirk puts it (Prescott, i. 18): “All that can be said with confidence is, that neither of the opposing theories rests on a secure and sufficient basis.” The situation of Huehue-Tlapallan and Aztlan is very likely one and the same question, as looking to what was the starting-point of all the Nahua migrations, extending over a thousand years.

[816] Bancroft, v. 217.

[817] Torquemada, Boturini, Humboldt, Brasseur, Charnay, Short, etc.

[818] _Nat. Races_ (v. 222).

[819] In support of the California location, Buschmann, in his _Ueber die Spuren der Aztekischen Sprache im nördlichen Mexico und höheren Amerikanischen Norden_ (Berlin, 1854), finds traces of the Mexican tongue in those of the recent California Indians. Linguistic resemblances to the Aztec, even so far north as Nootka, have been traced, but later philologists deny the inferences of relationship drawn from such similarity (Bancroft, iii. p. 612). The linguistic confusion in aboriginal California is so great that there is a wide field for tracing likenesses (_Ibid._ iii. 635). In the _California State Mining Bureau, Bulletin no. 1_ (Sacramento, 1888), Winslow Anderson gives a description of some desiccated human remains found in a sealed cave, which are supposed to be Aztec. There are slight resemblances to the Aztec in the Shoshone group of languages (Bancroft, iii. 660), and the same author arranges all that has been said to connect the Mexican tongue with those of New Mexico and neighboring regions (iii. 664). Buschmann, who has given particular attention to tracing the Aztec connections at the north, finds nothing to warrant anything more than casual admixtures with other stocks (_Die Lautveränderung Aztekischer Wörter_, Berlin, 1855, and _Die Spuren der Aztekischen Sprachen_, Berlin, 1859). See Short (p. 487) for a summary.

[820] Bancroft (v. 305) cites the diverse views; so does Short to some extent (pp. 246, 258, etc.). Cf. Brinton’s _Address_ on “Where was Aztlan?” p. 6; Short, 486, 490; Nadaillac, 284; Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, i. 327.

Brinton (_Myths of the New World_, etc., 89; _Amer. Hero. Myths_, 92) holds that Aztlan is a name wholly of mythical purport, which it would be vain to seek on the terrestrial globe. This cradle region of the Nahuas sometimes appears as the Seven Caves (Chicomoztoc), and Duran places them “in Teoculuacan, otherwise called Aztlan, a country toward the north and connected with Florida.” The Seven Caves were explained by Sahagún as a valley, by Clavigero as a city, by Schoolcraft and others as simply seven boats in which the first comers came from Asia; Brasseur makes them and Aztlan the same; others find them to be the seven cities of Cibola,—so enumerates Brinton (_Myths_, 227), who thinks that the seven divisions of the Nahuas sprung from the belief in the Seven Caves, and had in reality no existence.

Gallatin has followed out the series of migrations in the _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, i. 162. Dawson, _Fossil Men_ (ch. 3), gives his comprehensive views of the main directions of these early migrations. Brasseur follows the Nahuas (_Popul Vuh_, introd., sect. ix.). Winchell (_Pre-Adamites_) thinks the general tendency was from north to south. Morgan finds the origin of the Mexican tribes in New Mexico and in the San Juan Valley (_Peabody Mus. Rept._, xii. 553. Cf. his article in the _North Am. Rev._, Oct., 1869). Humboldt (_Views of Nature_, 207) touches the Aztec wanderings.

There are two well-known Aztec migration maps, first published in F. G. Carreri’s _Giro del Mondo_; in English as “Voyage round the world,” in Churchill’s _Voyages_, vol. iv., concerning which see Bancroft, ii. 543; iii. 68, 69; Short, 262, 431, 433; Prescott, iii. 364, 382. Orozco y Berra (_Hist. Antiq. de Mexico_, iii. 61) says that these maps follow one another, and are not different records of the same progress. Humboldt (_Vues_, etc., ii. 176) gives an interpretation of them in accordance with Sigüenza’s views, which is the one usually followed, and Bancroft (v. 324) epitomizes it. Ramirez says that the copies reproduced in Humboldt, Clavigero, and Kingsborough are not so correct as the engraving given in Garcia y Cubas’s _Atlas geogrâfico, estadistico e histórico de la Republica Mejicana_ (April, 1858). Bancroft (ii. 544) gives it as reproduced by Ramirez. It is also in the Mexican edition of Prescott, and in Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes_. Cf. Delafield’s _Inquiry_ (N. Y., 1839) and Léon de Rosny’s _Les doc. écrits de l’antiq. Amér._ (Paris, 1882). The original is preserved in the Museo Nacional of Mexico. A palm-tree on the map, near Aztlan, has pointed some of the arguments in favor of a southern position for that place, but Ramirez says it is but a part of a hieroglyphic name, and has no reference to the climate of Aztlan (Short, p. 266). F. Von Hellwald printed a paper on “American migrations,” with notes by Professor Henry, in the _Smithsonian Report_, 1866, pp. 328-345. Short defines as “altogether the most enlightened treatment of the subject” the paper of John H. Becker, “Migrations des Nahuas,” in the _Compte rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_ (Luxembourg, 1877), i. 325. This paper finds an identification of the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés, the Huehue-Tlapallan of the Toltecs, the Amaquemecan of the Chichimecs, and the Oztotlan (Aztlan) of the Aztecs in The valleys of the Rio Grande del Norte and Rio Colorado, as was Morgan’s view. Short (p. 249) summarizes his paper. Bancroft (v. 289) shows the diversity of views respecting Amaquemecan.

[821] _Native Races_, v. 167, recapitulates the proofs against the northern theory. J. R. Bartlett, _Personal Narrative_, ii. 283, finds no evidence for it. The successive sites of their sojourns as they passed on their journeys are given as Tlapallan, Tlacutzin, Tlapallanco, Jalisco, Atenco, Iztachnexuca, Tollatzinco, Tollan or Tula,—the last, says Bancroft, apparently in Chiapas. If there was not such confusion respecting the old geography, these names might decide the question.

[822] Writers usually place the beginnings of credible history at about this period. Brasseur and the class of writers who are easily lifted on their imagination talk about traces of a settled government being discernible at periods which they place a thousand years before Christ.

[823] References in Bancroft, v. 247, with Brasseur for the main dependence, in his use of the _Codex Chimalpòpoca_ and the _Memorial de Colhuacan_.

[824] Charnay (Eng. trans., ch. 8 and 9) calls it a rival city of Tula or Tollan, rebuilt by the Chichimecs on the ruins of a Toltec city.

[825] If one wants the details of all this, he can read it in Veytia, Brasseur (_Nat. Civilisées_ and _Palenqué_, ch. viii.), and Bancroft, the latter giving references (v. 285).

[826] It is frequently stated that there was a segregated migration to Central America. Bancroft (v. 168, 285), who collates the authorities, finds nothing of the kind implied. He thinks the mass remained in Anáhuac. The old view as expressed by Prescott (i. 14) was that “much the greater number probably spread over the region of Central America and the neighboring isles, and the traveller now speculates on the majestic ruins of Mitla and Palenqué as possibly the work of this extraordinary people.” Kirk, as Prescott’s editor, refers to the labors of Orozco y Berra (_Geografía de las Lenguas de México_, 122), followed by Tylor, (_Anahuac_, 189) as establishing the more recent view that this southern architecture, “though of a far higher grade, was long anterior to the Toltec dominion.”

[827] _Amer. Ethno. Soc. Trans._, i.

[828] Bancroft (v. 287) says: “It is probable that the name Toltec, a title of distinction rather than a national name, was never applied at all to the common people.”

[829] Brinton’s main statement is in his _Were the Toltecs an historic nationality? Read before the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 2, 1887_ (Phila., 1887); published also in their _Proceedings_, 1887, p. 229. Cf. also Brinton’s _Amer. Hero. Myths_ (Phil., 1882), p. 86, where he throws discredit on the existence of the alleged Toltec king Quetzalcoatl (whom Sahagún keeps distinct from the mythical demi-god); and earlier, in his _Myths of the New World_ (p. 29), he had suggested that the name Toltec might have “a merely mythical signification.” Charnay, who makes the Toltecs a Nahuan tribe, had defended their historical status in a paper on “La Civilisation Tolteque,” in the _Revue d’Ethnographie_ (iv., 1885); and again, two years later, in the same periodical, he reviewed adversely Brinton’s arguments. (Cf. _Saturday Review_, lxiii. 843.) Otto Stoll, in his _Guatemala, Reisen und Schilderungen_ (Leipzig, 1886), is another who rejects the old theory.

[830] _Archæol. Tour_, 253.

[831] _Archæol. Tour_, 7. Sahagún identifies the Toltecs with the “giants,” and if these were the degraded descendants of the followers of Votan, Sahagún thus earlier established the same identity.

[832] _Archæol. Tour_, 191. The fact that the names which we associate with the Toltecs are Nahua, only means that Nahua writers have transmitted them, as Bandelier thinks. Cf. also Bandelier’s citation in the _Peabody Mus. Reports_, vol. ii. 388, where he speaks of our information regarding the Toltecs as “limited and obscure.” He thinks it beyond question that they were Nahuas; and the fact that their division of time corresponds with the system found in Yucatan, Guatemala, etc., with other evidences of myths and legends, leads him to believe that the aborigines of more southern regions were, if not descendants, at least of the same stock with the Toltecs, and that we are justified in studying them to learn what the Toltecs were. He finds that Veytia, in his account of the Toltecs, beside depending on Sahagún and Torquemada, finds a chief source in Ixtlilxochitl, and locates Huehue-Tlapallan in the north; and Veytia’s statements reappear in Clavigero.

The best narratives of the Toltec history are those in Veytia, _Historia Antigua de Méjico_ (Mexico, 1806); Brasseur’s _Hist. Nations Civilisées_ (vol. i.), and his introduction to his _Popul Vuh_; and Bancroft (v. ch. 3 and 4): but we must look to Ixtlilxochitl, Torquemada, Sahagún, and the others, if we wish to study the sources. In such a study we shall encounter vexatious problems enough. It is practically impossible to arrange chronologically what Ixtlilxochitl says that he got from the picture-writings which he interpreted. Bancroft (v. 209) does the best he can to give it a forced perspicuity. Wilson (_Prehisoric Man_, i. 245) not inaptly says: “The history of the Toltecs and their ruined edifices stands on the border line of romance and fable, like that of the ruined builders of Carnac and Avebury.”

[833] Short (page 255) points out that Bancroft unadvisedly looks upon these Chichimecs as of Nahua stock, according to the common belief. Short thinks that Pimentel (_Lenguas indigenas de México_, published in 1862) has conclusively shown that the Chichimecs did not originally speak the Nahua tongue, but subsequently adopted it. Short (page 256) thinks, after collating the evidence, that it is impossible to determine whence or how they came to Anáhuac.

[834] Bancroft, v. 292, gives the different views. Cf. Kirk in Prescott, i. 16.

[835] These events are usually one thing or another, according to the original source which you accept, as Bancroft shows (v. 303). The story of the text is as good as any, and is in the main borne out by the other narratives.

[836] Bancroft, v. 308. Cf., on the arrival of the Mexicans in the valley, Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Reports_, ii. 398) and his references.

[837] Prescott, i., introduction ch. 6, tells the story of their golden age.

[838] Cf. the map in Lucien Biart’s _Les Aztèques_ (Paris, 1885). Prescott says the maps in Clavigero, Lopez, and Robertson defy “equally topography and history.” Cf. note on plans of the city and valley in Vol. II. pp. 364, 369, 374, to which may be added, as showing diversified views, those in Stevens’s _Herrera_ (London, 1740), vol. ii.; Bordone’s _Libro_ (1528); Icazbalceta’s _Coll. de docs._, i. 390; and the Eng. translation of Cortes’ despatches, 333.

[839] This is placed A.D. 1325. Cf. references in Bancroft (v. 346).

[840] On the conquest of the Tecpanecas by the Mexicans, see the references in Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Reports_, ii. 412).

[841] For details of the period of the Chichimec ascendency, see Bancroft (v. ch. 5-7), Brasseur (_Nat. Civil._ ii.), and the authorities plentifully cited in Bancroft.

[842] On the nature of the Mexican confederacy see Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Reports_, ii. 416). He enumerates the authorities upon the point that no one of the allied tribes exercised any powers over the others beyond the exclusive military direction of the Mexicans proper (_Peabody Mus. Reports_, ii. 559). Orozco y Berra (_Geografía_, etc.) claims that there was a tendency to assimilate the conquered people to the Mexican conditions. Bandelier claims that “no attempt, either direct or implied, was made to assimilate or incorporate them.” He urges that nowhere on the march to Mexico did Cortés fall in with Mexican rulers of subjected tribes. It does not seem to be clear in all cases whether it was before or after the confederation was formed, or whether it was by the Mexicans or Tezcucans that Tecpaneca, Xochimilca, Cuitlahuac, Chalco, Acolhuacan, and Quauhnahuac, were conquered. Cf. Bandelier in _Peabody Mus. Reports_, ii. 691. As to the tributaries, see _Ibid._ 695.

[843] Cf. Brasseur’s _Nations Civ._ ii. 457, on Tezcuco in its palmy days.

[844] Sometimes written Mochtheuzema, Moktezema. The Aztec Montezuma must not, as is contended, be confounded with the hero-god of the New Mexicans. Cf. Bancroft, iii. 77, 171; Brinton’s _Myths_, 190; Schoolcraft’s _Ind. Tribes_, iv. 73; Tylor’s _Prim. Culture_, ii. 384; Short, 333.

[845] This has induced some historians to call these wars “holy wars.” Bandelier discredits wholly the common view, that wars were undertaken to secure victims for the sacrificial stone (_Archæol. Tour_, 24). But in another place (_Peabody Mus. Reports_, ii. 128) he says: “War was required for the purpose of obtaining human victims, their religion demanding human sacrifices at least eighteen times every year.”

[846] As to these carvings, which have not yet wholly disappeared, see _Peabody Mus. Reports_, ii. 677, 678. There is a series of alleged portraits of the Mexican kings in Carbajal-Espinosa’s _Hist. de Mexico_ (Mexico, 1862). See pictures of Montezuma II. in Vol. II. 361, 363, and that in Ranking, p. 313.

[847] Bancroft (v. 466) enumerates the great variety of such proofs of disaster, and gives references (p. 469). Cf. Prescott, i. p. 309.

[848] Tezozomoc (cap. 106) gives the description of the first bringing of the news to Montezuma of the arrival of the Spaniards on the coast.

[849] Brinton’s _Amer. Hero Myths_, 139, etc. See, on the prevalence of the idea of the return at some time of the hero-god, Brinton’s _Myths of the New World_, p. 160. “We must remember,” he says, “that a fiction built on an idea is infinitely more tenacious of life than a story founded on fact.” Brinton (_Myths_, 188) gathers from Gomara, Cogolludo, Villagutierre, and others, instances to show how prevalent in America was the presentiment of the arrival and domination of a white race,—a belief still prevailing among their descendants of the middle regions of America who watch for the coming of Montezuma (_Ibid._ p. 190). Brinton does not seem to recognize the view held by many that the Montezuma of the Aztecs was quite a different being from the demi-god of the Pueblas of New Mexico.

[850] It is not easy to reconcile the conflicting statements of the native historians respecting the course of events during the Aztec supremacy, such is the mutual jealousy of the Mexican and Tezcucan writers. Brasseur has satisfied himself of the authenticity of a certain sequence and character of events (_Nations Civilisées_), and Bancroft simply follows him (v. 401). Veytia is occupied more with the Tezcucans than with the Aztecs. The condensed sketch here given follows the main lines of the collated records. We find good pictures of the later history of Mexico and Tlascala, before the Spaniards came, in Prescott (i. book 2d, ch. vi., and book 3d, ch. ii.). Bancroft (v. ch. 10) with his narrative and references helps us out with the somewhat monotonous details of all the districts of Mexico which were outside the dominance of the Mexican valley, as of Cholula, Tlascala, Michoacan, and Oajaca, with the Miztecs and Zapotecs, inhabiting this last province.

[851] Bancroft (v. 543-553).

[852] It is so held by Stephens, Waldeck, Mayer, Prichard, Ternaux-Compans, not to name others.

[853] Vol. v. 617.

[854] The Maya calendar and astronomical system, as the basis of the Maya chronology, is explained in the version which Perez gave into Spanish of a Maya manuscript (translated into English by Stephens in his _Yucatan_), and which Valentini has used in his “Katunes of Maya History,” in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct. 1879. On the difficulties of the subject see Brasseur’s _Nations Civilisées_ (ii. ch. 1). Cf. also his _Landa_, section xxxix., and page 366, from the “Cronologia antigua de Yucatan.” Cf. further, Cyrus Thomas’s _MS. Troano_, ch. 2, and Powell’s _Third Report Bur. of Ethn._, pp. xxx and 3; Ancona’s _Yucatan_, ch. xi.; Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, ii. ch. 24, with references; Short, ch. 9; Brinton’s _Maya Chronicles_, introduction, p. 50.

[855] Bancroft (v. 624) epitomizes the Perez manuscript given by Stephens, the sole source of this Totul Xiu legendary.

[856] Brasseur’s _Nations Civilisées_ (i., ii.), with the Perez manuscript, and Landa’s _Relacion_, are the sufficient source of the Yucatan history. Bancroft’s last chapter of his fifth volume summarizes it.

[857] See Vol. II. p. 402.

[858] See Vol. II. p. 397.

[859] _Central America_, ii. 452.

[860] See Vol. II. p. 414.

[861] See Vol. II. p. 343.

[862] See Vol. II. p. 412.

[863] See Vol. II. p. 417. Cf. Prescott’s _Mexico_, i. 50; Bancroft (_Nat. Races_, ii. ch. 14) epitomizes the information on the laws and courts of the Nahua; Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Repts._, ii. 446), referring to Zurita’s Report, which he characterizes as marked for perspicacity, deep knowledge, and honest judgment, speaks of it as embodying the experience of nearly twenty years,—eleven of which were passed in Mexico,—and in which the author gave answers to inquiries put by the king. “If we could obtain,” says Bandelier, “all the answers given to these questions from all parts of Spanish America, and all as elaborate and truthful as those of Zurita, Palacio, and Ondegardo, our knowledge of the aboriginal history and ethnology of Spanish America would be much advanced.” Zurita’s Report in a French translation is in Ternaux-Compans’ _Collection_; the original is in Pacheco’s _Docs. inéditos_, but in a mutilated text.

[864] See Vol. II. p. 346.

[865] It is much we owe to the twelve Franciscan friars who on May 13, 1524, landed in Mexico to convert and defend the natives. It is from their writings that we must draw a large part of our knowledge respecting the Indian character, condition, and history. These Christian apostles were Martin de Valencia, Francisco de Soto, Martin de Coruña, Juan Xuares, Antonio de Ciudad Rodrigo, Toribio de Benavente, Garcia de Cisneros, Luis de Fuensalida, Juan de Ribas, Francisco Ximenez, Andrés de Cordoba, Juan de Palos.

From the _Historia_ of Las Casas, particularly from that part of it called _Apologética historia_, we can also derive some help. (Cf. Vol. II. p. 340.)

[866] Brasseur, _Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 147; Leclerc, p. 168.

[867] Herrera is furthermore the source of much that we read in later works concerning the native religion and habits of life. See Vol. II. p. 67.

[868] Cf. Vol. II. p. 418.

[869] _Anales del Museo Nacional_, iii. 4, 120; Brinton’s _Am. Hero Myths_, 78. Bandelier, in _N. Y. Hist. Soc. Proc._, November, 1879, used a portion of the MS. as printed by Sir Thomas Phillipps (_Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, i. 115) under the title of _Historia de los Yndios Mexicanos, por Juan de Tovar; Cura et impensis Dni Thomæ Phillipps, Bart._ (privately printed at Middle Hill, 1860. See _Squier Catalogue_, no. 1417). The document is translated by Henry Phillipps, Jr., in the _Proc. Amer. Philosophical Soc._ (Philad.), xxi. 616.

[870] Vol. II. p. 419. Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, p. 59. He used a MS. copy in the Force collection.

[871] This is true of Acosta and Davila Padilla. The bibliography of Acosta has been given elsewhere (Vol. II. p. 420). His books v., vi., and vii. cover the ancient history of the country. He used the MSS. of Duran (Brasseur, _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, p. 2), and his correspondence with Tobar, preserved in the Lenox library, has been edited by Icazbalceta in his _Don Fray Zumárraga_ (Mexico, 1881). Of the _Provincia de Santiago_ and the _Varia historia_ of Davila Padilla, the bibliography has been told in another place. (Cf. Vol. II. pp. 399-400[; Sabin, v. 18780-1; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, p. 53; _Del Monte Library_, no. 126.) Ternaux was not wrong in ascribing great value to the books.]

[872] Peter of Ghent. Cf. Vol. II. p. 417.

[873] _Chronica Compendiosissima ab exordio mundi per Amandum Zierixcensem, adjectæ sunt epistolæ ex nova maris Oceani Hispania ad nos transmissæ_ (Antwerp, 1534). The subjoined letters here mentioned are, beside that referred to, two others written in Mexico (1531), by Martin of Valencia and Bishop Zumárraga (Sabin, i. no. 994; Quaritch, 362, no. 28583, £7 10). Icazbalceta (_Bib. Mex. del Siglo xvi._, i. p. 33) gives a long account of Gante. There is a French version of the letter in Ternaux’s _Collection_.

[874] See Vol. II. p. 397. Cf. Prescott, ii. 95. The first part of the _Historia_ is on the religious rites of the natives; the second on their conversion to Christianity; the third on their chronology, etc.

[875] Cf. Icazbalceta’s _Bibl. Mexicana_, p. 220, with references; Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_, no. 2600, etc.

[876] Pilling, no. 2817, etc.

[877] Properly, Bernardino Ribeira; named from his birthplace, Sahagún, in Spain. Chavero’s _Sahagún_ (Mexico, 1877).

[878] A few data can be added to the account of Sahagún given in Vol. II. p. 415. J. F. Ramirez completes the bibliography of Sahagún in the _Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia de Madrid_, vi. 85 (1885). Icazbalceta, having told the story of Sahagún’s life in his edition of Mendieta’s _Hist. Eclesiastica Indiana_ (México, 1870), has given an extended critical and bibliographical account in his _Bibliografía Mexicana_ (México, 1886), vol. i. 247-308. Other bibliographical detail can be gleaned from Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_, p. 677, etc.; Icazbalceta’s _Apuntes_; Beristain’s _Biblioteca_; the _Bibliotheca Mexicana_ of Ramirez. The list in Adolfo Llanos’s _Sahagún y su historia de México_ (_Museo Nac. de Méx. Anales_, iii., pt. 3, p. 71) is based chiefly on Alfredo Chavero’s _Sahagún_ (México, 1877). Brasseur de Bourbourg, in his _Palenqué_ (ch. 5), has explained the importance of what Brevoort calls Sahagún’s “great encyclopædia of the Mexican Empire.” Rosny (_Les documents écrits de l’Antiquité Américaine_, p. 69) speaks of seeing a copy of the _Historia_ in Madrid, accompanied by remarkable Aztec pictures. Bancroft, referring to the defective texts of Sahagún in Kingsborough and Bustamante, says: “Fortunately what is missing in one I have always found in the other.” He further speaks of the work of Sahagún as “the most complete and comprehensive, so far as aboriginal history is concerned, furnishing an immense mass of material, drawn from native sources, very badly arranged and written.” Eleven books of Sahagún are given to the social institutions of the natives, and but one to the conquest. Jourdanet’s edition is mentioned elsewhere (Vol. II.).

[879] See Vol. II. p. 421.

[880] Those who used him most, like Clavigero and Brasseur de Bourbourg, complain of this. Torquemada, says Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 119), “notwithstanding his unquestionable credulity, is extremely important on all questions of Mexican antiquities.”

[881] _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. 105.

[882] Cf. Vol. II. 417; Prescott, i. 13, 163, 193, 196; Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v. 147; Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, i. 325. It must be confessed that with no more authority than the old Mexican paintings, interpreted through the understanding of old men and their traditions, Ixtlilxochitl has not the firmest ground to walk on. Aubin thinks that Ixtlilxochitl’s confusion and contradictions arise from his want of patience in studying his documents; and some part of it may doubtless have arisen from his habit, as Brasseur says (_Annales de Philosophie Chrétienne_, May, 1855, p. 329), of altering his authorities to magnify the glories of his genealogic line. Max Müller (_Chips from a German Workshop_, i. 322) says of his works: “Though we must not expect to find in them what we are accustomed to call history, they are nevertheless of great historical interest, as supplying the vague outlines of a distant past, filled with migrations, wars, dynasties and revolutions, such as were cherished in the memory of the Greeks in the time of Solon.” In addition to his _Historia Chichimeca_ and his _Relaciones_, (both of which are given by Kingsborough, while Ternaux has translated portions,)—the MS. of the _Relaciones_ being in the Mexican archives,—Ixtlilxochitl left a large mass of his manuscript studies of the antiquities, often repetitionary in substance. Some are found in the compilation made in Mexico by Figueroa in 1792, by order of the Spanish government (Prescott, i. 193). Some were in the Ramirez collection. Quaritch (_MS. Collections_, Jan., 1888, no. 136) held one from that collection, dated about 1680, at £16, called _Sumaria Relacion_, which concerned the ancient Chichimecs. Those which are best known are a _Historia de la Nueva España_, or _Historia del Reyno de Tezcuco_, and a _Historia de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe_, if this last is by him.

[883] _Annales de Philosophie Chrétienne_, May, 1855, p. 326.

[884] In his _Quatre Lettres_, p. 24, he calls it the sacred book of the Toltecs. “C’est le Livre divin lui-même, c’est le Teoamoxtli.”

[885] Brasseur’s _Lettres à M. le due de Valmy, Lettre seconde_.

[886] _Catálogo_, pp. 17, 18.

[887] Brasseur, _Bibl. Mex. Guat._, p. 47; _Pinart-Brasseur Catal._, no. 237.

[888] It has been announced that Bandelier is engaged in a new translation of _The Annals of Quauhtitlan_ for Brinton’s _Aboriginal Literature series_. Cf. Bancroft, iii. 57, 63, and in vol. v., where he endeavors to patch together Brasseur’s fragments of it. Short, p. 241.

[889] Humboldt says that Sigüenza inherited Ixtlilxochitl’s collection; and that it was preserved in the College of San Pedro till 1759.

[890] _Giro del mondo_, 1699, vol. vi. Cf. Kingsborough, vol. iv. Robertson attacked Carreri’s character for honesty, and claimed it was a received opinion that he had never been out of Italy. Clavigero defended Carreri. Humboldt thinks Carreri’s local coloring shows he must have been in Mexico.

[891] Cf. the bibliog., in Vol. II., p. 425, of his _Storia Antica del Messico_.

[892] We owe to him descriptions at this time of the collections of Mendoza, of that in the Vatican, and of that at Vienna. Robertson made an enumeration of such manuscripts; but his knowledge was defective, and he did not know even of those at Oxford.

[893] Robertson was inclined to disparage Clavigero’s work, asserting that he could find little in him beyond what he took from Acosta and Herrera “except the improbable narratives and fanciful conjectures of Torquemada and Boturini.” Clavigero criticised Robertson, and the English historian in his later editions replied. Prescott points out (i. 70) that Clavigero only knew Sahagún through the medium of Torquemada and later writers. Bancroft (_Nat. Races_, v. 149; _Mexico_, i. 700) thinks that Clavigero “owes his reputation much more to his systematic arrangement and clear narration of traditions that had before been greatly confused, and to the omission of the most perplexing and contradictory points, than to deep research or new discoveries.”

[894] See Vol. II. p. 418. Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Hist. des Nations Civilisées_, p. xxxii. Clavigero had described it.

[895] He had collected nearly 500 Mexican paintings in all. Aubin (_Notices_, etc., p. 21) says that Boturini nearly exhausted the field in his searches, and with the collection of Sigüenza he secured all those cited by Ixtlilxochitl and the most of those concealed by the Indians,—of which mention is made by Torquemada, Sahagún, Valadés, Zurita, and others; and that the researches of Bustamante, Cubas, Gondra, and others, up to 1851, had not been able to add much of importance to what Boturini possessed.

[896] This portion of his collection has not been traced. The fact is indeed denied.

[897] _Idea de una nueva historia general de la America septentrional_ (Madrid, 1746); Carter-Brown, iii. 817; Brasseur’s _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, p. 26; Field, _Ind. Bibliog._, no. 159; Pinart, _Catalogue_, no. 134; Prescott, i. 160.

[898] Brasseur, _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, p. 152.

[899] Prescott, i. 24. Harrisse, _Bib. Am. Vet._, calls Veytia’s the best history of the ancient period yet (1866) written.

[900] A second ed. (Mexico, 1832) was augmented with notes and a life of the author, by Carlos Maria de Bustamante; Field, _Ind. Bibliog._, no. 909; Brasseur’s _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, p. 68.

[901] Prescott, i. 133. Gama and others collected another class of hieroglyphics, of less importance, but still interesting as illustrating legal and administrative processes used in later times, in the relations of the Spaniards with the natives; and still others embracing Christian prayers, catechisms, etc., employed by the missionaries in the religious instruction (Aubin, _Notice_, etc., 21). Humboldt (vol. xiii., pl. p. 141) gives “a lawsuit in hieroglyphics.”

There was published (100 copies) at Madrid, in 1878, _Pintura del Gobernador, Alcaldes y Regidores de México, Codice en geroglíficos Méxicanos y en lengua Castellana y Azteca, Existente en la Biblioteca del Excmo Señor Duque de Osuna_,—a legal record of the later Spanish courts affecting the natives.

[902] Humboldt describes these collections which he knew at the beginning of the century, speaking of José Antonio Pichardo’s as the finest.

[903] _Notice sur une collection d’antiquités Mexicaines, being an extract from a Mémoire sur la peinture didactique et l’Écriture figurative des Anciens Mexicains_ (Paris, 1851; again, 1859-1861). Cf. papers in _Revue Américaine et Orientale_, 1st ser., iii., iv., and v. Aubin says that Humboldt found that part of the Boturini collection which had been given over to the Mexican archivists diminished by seven eighths. He also shows how Ternaux-Compans (_Crauatés Horribles_, p. 275-289), Rafael Isidro Gondra (in Veytia, _Hist. Ant. de Mex._, 1836, i. 49), and Bustamante have related the long contentions over the disposition of these relics, and how the Academy of History at Madrid had even secured the suppression of a similar academy among the antiquaries in Mexico, which had been formed to develop the study of their antiquities. It was as a sort of peace-offering that the Spanish king now caused Veytia to be empowered to proceed with the work which Boturini had begun. This allayed the irritation for a while, but on Veytia’s death (1769) it broke out again, when Gama was given possession of the collection, which he further increased. It was at Gama’s death sold at auction, when Humboldt bought the specimens which are now in Berlin, and Waldeck secured others which he took to Europe. It was from Waldeck that Aubin acquired the Boturini part of his collection. The rest of the collection remained in Mexico, and in the main makes a part at present of the Museo Nacional. But Aubin is a doubtful witness.

Aubin says that he now proposed to refashion the Boturini collection by copies where he could not procure the originals; to add others, embracing whatever he could still find in the hands of the native population, and what had been collected by Veytia, Gama, and Pichardo. In 1851, when he wrote, Aubin had given twenty years to this task, and with what results the list of his MSS., which he appends to the account we have quoted, will show.

These include in the native tongue:—

_a._ History of Mexico from A.D. 1064 to 1521, in fragments, from Tezozomoc and from Alonso Franco, annotated by Domingo Chimalpain (a copy).

_b._ Annals of Mexico, written apparently in 1528 by one who had taken

## part in the defence of Mexico (an original).

_c._ Several historical narratives on European paper, by Domingo Chimalpain, coming down to A.D. 1591, which have in great part been translated by Aubin, who considers them the most important documents which we possess.

_d._ A history of Colhuacan and Mexico, lacking the first leaf. This is described as being in the handwriting of Ixtlilxochitl, and Aubin gives the dates of its composition as 1563 and 1570. It is what has later been known as the _Codex Chimalpopoca_.

_e._ Zapata’s history of Tlaxcalla.

_f._ A copy by Loaysa of an original, from which Torquemada has copied several chapters.

[904] The chief of the Boturini acquisition he enumerates as follows:—

_a._ Toltec annals on fifty leaves of European paper, cited by Gama in his _Descripcion histórica_. Cf. Brasseur, _Nations Civilisées_, p. lxxvi.

_b._ Chichimec annals, on Indian paper, six leaves, of which ten pages consist of pictures, the original so-called _Codex Chimalpopoca_, of which Gama made a copy, also in the Aubin collection, as well as Ixtlilxochitl’s explanation of it. Aubin says that he has used this account of Ixtlilxochitl to rectify that historian’s blunders.

_c._ Codex on Indian paper, having a picture of the Emperor Xolotl.

_d._ A painting on prepared skin, giving the genealogy of the Chichimecan chiefs, accompanied by the copies made by Pichardo and Boturini. Cf. _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, 2d ser., i. 283.

_e._ A synchronical history of Tepechpan and of Mexico, on Indian paper, accompanied by a copy made by Pichardo and an outline sketch of that in the Museo Nacional.

Without specifying others which Aubin enumerates, he gives as other acquisitions the following in particular:—

_a._ Pichardo’s copy of a Codex Mexicanus, giving the history of the Mexicans from their leaving Aztlan to 1590.

_b._ An original Mexican history from the departure from Aztlan to 1569.

_c._ Fragments which had belonged to Sigüenza.

[905] _Notice sur une Collection, etc._, p. 12.

[906] _Hist. des Nations Civilisées_ (i. pp. xxxi, lxxvi, etc.; cf. Müller’s _Chips_, i. 317, 320, 323). Brasseur in the same place describes his own collection; and it may be further followed in his _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, and in the _Pinart Catalogue_. Dr. Brinton says that we owe much for the preservation during late years of Maya MSS. to Don Juan Pio Perez, and that the best existing collection of them is that of Canon Crescencio Carrillo y Ancona. José F. Ramirez (see Vol. II. p. 398) is another recent Mexican collector, and his MSS. have been in one place and another in the market of late years. Quaritch’s recent catalogues reveal a number of them, including his own MS. _Catálogo de Colecciones_ (Jan., 1888, no. 171), and some of his unpublished notes on Prescott, not included in those “notas y ecclarecimientos” appended to Navarro’s translation of the _Conquest of Mexico_ (_Catal._, 1885, no. 28,502). The several publications of Léon de Rosny point us to scattered specimens. In his _Doc. écrits de l’Antiquité Amér._ he gives the fac-simile of a colored Aztec map. A MS. in the collection of the Corps Legislatif, in Paris, and that of the Codex Indiæ Meridionalis are figured in his _Essai sur le déchiffrement, etc._ (pl. ix, x). In the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France, n. s._, vol. i., etc., we find plates of the Mappe Tlotzin, and a paper of Madier de Montjau, “sur quelques manuscrits figuratifs de l’Ancien Méxique.” Cf. also _Anales del Museo_, viii.

Cf. for further mention of collections the _Revue Orientale et Américaine_; Cyrus Thomas in the _Am. Antiquarian_, May, 1884 (vol. vi.); and the more comprehensive enumeration in the introduction to Domenech’s _Manuscrit pictographique_. Orozco y Berra, in the introduction to his _Geografia de las Lenguas y Carta Etnográfica_ (Mexico, 1864), speaks of the assistance he obtained from the collections of Ramirez and of Icazbalceta.

[907] See Vol. II. p. 418.

[908] See Vol. II. p. 418. Bandelier calls this French version “utterly unreliable.”

[909] This is Beristain’s title. Torquemada, Vetancurt, and Sigüenza cite it as _Memorias históricas_; Brasseur, _Bib. Mexico-Guat._, p. 122.

[910] Cf. “Les Annales Méxicaines,” by Rémi Siméon in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., vol. ii.

[911] It is cited by Chavero as _Codex Zumárraga_.

[912] _Hist. Nat. Civ._, ii. 577.

[913] _Aboriginal Amer. Authors_, p. 29. Cf. Bandelier’s _Bibliography of Yucatan_ in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., vol. i. p. 82. Cf. the references in Brasseur, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, and in Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v.

[914] Cf. _Mem. of Berendt_, by Brinton (Worcester, 1884).

[915] Cf. Brinton on the MSS. in the languages of Cent. America, in _Amer. Jour. of Science_, xcvii. 222; and his _Books of Chilan Balam, the prophetic and historical records of the Mayas of Yucatan_ (Philad., 1882), reprinted from the _Penn Monthly_, March, 1882. Cf. also the _Transactions of the Philad. Numismatic and Antiquarian Soc._

[916] This is in the alphabet adopted by the early missionaries. The volume contains the “Books of Chilan Balam,” written “not later than 1595,” and also the “Chac Xulub Chen,” written by a Maya chief, Nakuk Pech, in 1562, to recount the story of the Spanish conquest of Yucatan.

[917] This was in 1843, when Stephens made his English translation from Pio Perez’s Spanish version, _Antigua Chronologia Yucateca_; and from Stephens’s text, Brasseur gave it a French rendering in his edition of Landa. (Cf. also his _Nat. Civilisées_, ii. p. 2.) Perez, who in Stephens’s opinion (_Yucatan_, ii. 117) was the best Maya scholar in that country, made notes, which Valentini published in his “Katunes of Maya History,” in the _Pro. of the Amer. Antiq. Soc._, Oct., 1879 (Worcester, 1880), but they had earlier been printed in Carrillo’s _Hist. y Geog. de Yucatan_ (Merida, 1881). Bancroft (_Nat. Races_, v. 624) reprints Stephens’s text with notes from Brasseur.

The books of Chilan Balam were used both by Cogolludo and Lizana; and Brasseur printed some of them in the _Mission Scientifique au Méxique_. They are described in Carrillo’s _Disertacion sobre la historia de lengua Maya ó Yucateca_ (Merida, 1870).

[918] Brasseur, _Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 30. See Vol. II. p. 429. The Spanish title is _Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan_.

[919] From the _Proc. of the Amer. Philos. Soc._, xxiv.

[920] Cf. Bandelier in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., vol. i. p. 88.

[921] The second edition was called _Los tres Siglos de la Dominacion Española en Yucatan_ (Campeche and Merida, 2 vols., 1842, 1845). It was edited unsatisfactorily by Justo Sierra. Cf. Vol. II. p. 429; Brasseur, _Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 47.

This, like Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor’s _Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza, reduccion, y progressos de la de el Lacandon, y otras naciones de Indios Barbaros, de la mediacion de el Reyno de Gautimala, a las Provincias de Yucatan, en la America Septentrional_ (Madrid, 1701), (which, says Bandelier, is of importance for that part of Yucatan which has remained unexplored), has mostly to do with the Indians under the Spanish rule, but the books are not devoid of usefulness in the study of the early tribes.

Of the modern comments on the Yucatan ancient history, those of Brasseur in his _Nations Civilisées_ are more to be trusted than his introduction to his edition of Landa, which needs to be taken with due recognition of his later vagaries; and Brinton has studied their history at some length in the introduction to his _Maya Chronicles_. The first volume of Eligio Ancona’s _Hist. de Yucatan_ covers the early period. See Vol. II. p. 429. Brinton calls it “disappointingly superficial.” There is much that is popularly retrospective in the various and not always stable contributions of Dr. Le Plongeon and his wife. The last of Mrs. Le Plongeon’s papers is one on “The Mayas, their customs, laws, religion,” in the _Mag. Amer. Hist._, Aug., 1887. Bancroft’s second volume groups the necessary references to every phase of Maya history. Cf. Charnay, English translation, ch. 15; and Geronimo Castillo’s _Diccionario Histórico, biográfico y monumental de Yucatan_ (Mérida, 1866). Of Crescencio Carrillo and his _Historia Antigua de Yucatan_ (Mérida, 1881), Brinton says: “I know of no other Yucatecan who has equal enthusiasm or so just an estimate of the antiquarian riches of his native land” (_Amer. Hero Myths_, 147). Bastian summarizes the history of Yucatan and Guatemala in the second volume of his _Culturländer des alten Amerika_.

[922] _Yucatan_, ii. 79.

[923] See C. H. Berendt on the hist. docs. of Guatemala in _Smithsonian Report_, 1876. There is a partial bibliography of Guatemala in W. T. Brigham’s _Guatemala the land of the Quetzal_ (N. Y., 1887), and another by Bandelier in the _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., vol. i. p. 101. The references in Brasseur’s _Hist. Nations Civilisées_, and in Bancroft’s _Native Races_, vol. v., will be a ready means for collating the early sources.

[924] Scherzer and Brasseur are somewhat at variance here.

[925] “There are some coincidences between the Old Testament and the Quiché MS. which are certainly startling.” Müller’s _Chips_, i. 328.

[926] _Wanderungen durch die mittel-Amerikanischen Freistaaten_ (Braunschweig, 1857—an English translation, London, 1857).

[927] Leclerc, no. 1305.

[928] H. H. Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, ii. 115; iii., ch. 2, and v. 170, 547, gives a convenient condensation of the book, and says that Müller misconceives in some parts of his summary, and that Baldwin in his _Ancient America_, p. 191, follows Müller. Helps, _Spanish Conquest_, iv. App., gives a brief synopsis,—the first one done in English.

[929] Max Müller dissents from this. _Chips_, i. 326. Müller reminds us, if we are suspicious of the disjointed manner of what has come down to us as the _Popul Vuh_, that “consecutive history is altogether a modern idea, of which few only of the ancient nations had any conception. If we had the exact words of the _Popul Vuh_, we should probably find no more history there than we find in the Quiché MS. as it now stands.”

[930] Cf. _Aborig. Amer. Authors_, p. 33.

[931] _The names of the gods in the Kiché Myths of Central America_ (Philad., 1881), from the _Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc._ He gives his reasons (p. 4) for the spelling _Kiché_.

[932] Cf. _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., vol. i. 109; and his paper, “On the Sources of the Aboriginal Hist. of Spanish America,” in the _Am. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc._, xxvii. 328 (Aug., 1878). In the _Peabody Mus. Eleventh Report_, p. 391, he says of it that “it appears to be for the first chapters an evident fabrication, or at least accommodation of Indian mythology to Christian notions,—a pious fraud; but the bulk is an equally evident collection of original traditions of the Indians of Guatemala, and as such the most valuable work for the aboriginal history and ethnology of Central America.”

[933] _Hist. Nat. Civ._, i. 47. _S’il existe des sources de l’histoire primitive du Méxique dans les monuments égyptiens et de l’histoire primitive de l’ancien monde dans les monuments Américains?_ (1864), which is an extract from his _Landa’s Relation_. Cf. Bollaert, in the _Royal Soc. of Lit. Trans._, 1863. Brasseur (_Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 45; Pinart, no. 231) also speaks of another Quiché document, of which his MS. copy is entitled _Titulo de los Señores de Totonicapan, escrito en lengua Quiché, el año de 1554, y traducido al Castellano el año de 1834, por el Padre Dionisio José Chonay, indígena_, which tells the story of the Quiché race somewhat differently from the _Popul Vuh_.

[934] See Vol. II. p. 419.

[935] It stands in Brasseur’s _Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 13, as _Memorial de Tecpan-Atitlan_ (_Solola_), _histoire des deux familles royales du royaume des Cakchiquels d’Iximché ou Guatémala, rédigé en langue Cakchiquèle par le prince Don Francisco Ernantez Arana-Xahila, des rois Ahpozotziles_, where Brasseur speaks of it as analogous to the _Popul Vuh_, but with numerous and remarkable variations. The MS. remained in the keeping of Xahila till 1562, when Francisco Gebuta Queh received it and continued it (_Pinart Catalogue_, no. 35).

[936] See Vol. II. 419; Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v. 564; Bandelier in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, i. 105. Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Repts._, ii. 391) says that it is now acknowledged that the _Recordacion florida_ of Fuentes y Guzman is “full of exaggerations and misstatements.” Brasseur (_Bib. Mex.-Guat._, pp. 65, 87), in speaking of Fuentes’ _Noticia histórica de los indios de Guatemala_ (of which manuscript he had a copy), says that he had access to a great number of native documents, but profited little by them, either because he could not read them, or his translators deceived him. Brasseur adds that Fuentes’ account of the Quiché rulers is “un mauvais roman qui n’a pas le sens commun.” This last is a manuscript used by Domingo Juarros in his _Compendio de la historia de la ciudad de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1808-1818, in two vols.—become rare), but reprinted in the _Museo Guatemalteco_, 1857. The English translation, by John Baily, a merchant living in Guatemala, was published as a _Statistical and Commercial History of Guatemala_ (Lond., 1823). Cf. Vol. II. p. 419. Francisco Vazquez depended largely on native writers in his _Crónica de la Provincia de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1714-16). (See Vol. II. p. 419.)

[937] See note in Bancroft, iii. 451.

[938] Vol. II. 419. Helps (iii. 300), speaking of Remesal, says: “He had access to the archives of Guatemala early in the seventeenth century, and he is one of those excellent writers so dear to the students of history, who is not prone to declamation, or rhetoric, or picturesque writing, but indulges us largely by the introduction everywhere of most important historical documents, copied boldly into the text.”

[939] Vol. II. 419.

[940] Vol. II. 417.

[941] E. G. Squier printed in 1860 (see Vol. II. p. vii.) Diego Garcia de Palacio’s _Carta dirigida al Rey de España, año 1576_, under the English title of _Description of the ancient Provinces of Guazacupan, Izalco, Cuscatlan, and Chiquimula in Guatemala_, which is also included in Pacheco’s _Coleccion_, vol. vi. Bandelier refers to Estevan Aviles’ _Historia de Guatemala desde los tiempos de los Indios_ (Guatemala, 1663). A good reputation belongs to a modern work, Francisco de Paula Garcia Pelaez’s _Memorias para la Historia del antiguo reyno de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1851-53, in three vols.).

[942] For details follow the references in Brasseur’s _Nat. Civil._; Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_; Stephens’s _Nicaragua_, ii. 305, etc. See the introd. of Brinton’s _Güegüence_ (Philad., 1883), for the Nahuas and Mangues of Nicaragua.

[943] Leclerc, no. 1070. Bancroft summarized the history of these ancient peoples in his vol. ii. ch. 2, and goes into detail in his vol. v.

[944] He condenses the early Mexican history in his _Mexico_, i. ch. 7. There are recent condensed narratives, in which avail has been had of the latest developments, in Baldwin’s _Ancient America_, ch. 4, and Short’s _North Americans of Antiquity_.

[945] Mrs. Alice D. Le Plongeon has printed various summarized popular papers, like the “Conquest of the Mayas,” in the _Mag. Amer. Hist._, April and June, 1888.

[946] A list of Squier’s published writings was appended to the _Catalogue of Squier’s Library_, prepared by Joseph Sabin (N. Y., 1876), as sold at that time. By this it appears that his earliest study of these subjects was a review of Buxton’s _Migrations of the Ancient Mexicans_, read before the London Ethnolog. Soc., and printed in 1848 in the _Edinb. New Philosoph. Mag._, vol. xlvi. His first considerable contribution was his _Travels in Cent. America, particularly in Nicaragua, with a description of its aboriginal monuments_ (London and N. Y., 1852-53). He supplemented this by some popular papers in _Harper’s Mag._, 1854, 1855. (Cf. _Hist. Mag._, iv. 65; _Putnam’s Mag._, xii. 549.) A year or two later he communicated papers on “Les Indiens Guatusos du Nicaragua,” and “Les indiens Xicaques du Honduras,” to the _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_ (1856, 1858), and “A Visit to the Guajiquero Indians” to _Harper’s Mag._, 1859. In 1860, Squier projected the publication of a _Collection_ of documents, but only a letter (1576) of Palacio was printed (Icazbalceta, _Bibl. Mex._, i. p. 326). He had intended to make the series more correct and with fewer omissions than Ternaux had allowed himself. His material, then the result of ten years’ gathering, had been largely secured through the instrumentality of Buckingham Smith. (See Vol. II. p. vii.)

[947] “Art of war and mode of warfare of the Ancient Mexicans” (_Peabody Mus. Rept._, no. x.).

“Distribution and tenure of lands, and the customs with respect to inheritance among the ancient Mexicans” (_Ibid._ no. xi.).

“Special organizations and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans” (_Ibid._ no. xii.).

These papers reveal much thorough study of the earlier writers on the general condition of the ancient people of Mexico, and the student finds much help in their full references. It was this manifestation of his learning that led to his appointment by the Archæological Institute,—the fruit of his labor in their behalf appearing in his _Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico, 1881_, which constitutes the second volume (1884) of the _Papers_ of that body. In his third section he enlarges upon the condition of Mexico at the time of the Conquest. His explorations covered the region from Tampico to Mexico city.

[948] _Library of Aboriginal American Literature_, (Philadelphia.)

[949] James H. McCulloh, an officer of the U. S. army, published _Researches on America_ (Balt., 1816), expanded later into _Researches, philosophical and antiquarian, concerning the original History of America_ (Baltimore, 1829). His fifth and sixth parts concern the “Institutions of the Mexican Empire,” and “The nations inhabiting Guatemala” (Field, no. 987).

G. F. Lyon’s _Journal of a residence and tour in the Republic of Mexico_ (Lond., 1826, 1828).

Brantz Mayer’s _Mexico as it was and as it is_, and his more comprehensive _Mexico, Aztec, Spanish and Republican_ (Hartford, 1853), which includes an essay on the ancient civilization. Mayer had good opportunities while attached to the United States legation in Mexico, but of course he wrote earlier than the later developments (Field, no. 1038).

The distinguished English anthropologist, E. B. Tylor’s _Anahuac; or, Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and modern_ (London, 1861), is a readable rendering of the outlines of the ancient history, and he describes such of the archæological remains as fell in his way.

H. C. R. Becher’s _Trip to Mexico_ (London, 1880) has an appendix on the ancient races.

F. A. Ober’s _Travels in Mexico_ (1884).

[950] The important papers are:—Tome I. Brasseur de Bourbourg. _Esquisses d’histoire, d’archéologie, d’ethnographie et de linguistique._ Gros. _Renseignements sur les monuments anciens situés dans les environs de Mexico._—Tome II. Br. de Bourbourg. _Rapport sur les ruines de Mayapan et d’Uxmal au Yucatan._ Hay. _Renseignements sur Texcoco._ Dolfus, Montserrat et Pavie. _Mémoires et notes géologiques._—Tome III. Doutrelaine. _Rapports sur les ruines de Mitla, sur la pierre de Tlalnepantla, sur un mss. mexicain (avec fac-simile)._ Guillemin Tarayre. _Rapport sur l’exploration minéralogique des régions mexicaines._ Siméon. _Note sur la numération des anciens Mexicains._

[951] He says the work is very rare. A copy given by him is in Harvard College library. _Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 26.

[952] His _Palenqué_, at a later day, was published by the French government (_Quatre Lettres, avant-propos_).

[953] Introduction of his _Hist. Nations Civilisées_.

[954] Tome I. xcii. et 440 pp. _Les temps héroïques et l’histoire de l’empire des Toltèques._—Tome II. 616 pp. _L’histoire du Yucatan et du Guatémala, avec celle de l’Anahuac durant le moyen âge aztèque, jusqu’à la fondation de la royauté à Mexico._—Tome III. 692 pp. _L’histoire des Etats du Michoacan et d’Oaxaca et de l’empire de l’Anahuac jusqu’à l’arrivée des Espagnols. Astronomie, religion, sciences et arts des Aztèques, etc._—Tome IV. vi. et 851 pp. _Conquête du Mexique, du Michoacan et du Guatémala, etc. Etablissement des Espagnols et fondation de l’Eglise catholique. Ruine de l’idolâtrie, déclin et abaissement de la race indigène, jusqu’à la fin du xvi^e siècle._

In his introduction (p. lxxiv) Brasseur gives a list of the manuscript and printed books on which he has mainly depended, the chief of which are: Burgoa, Cogolludo, Torquemada, Sahagún, Remesal, Gomara (in Barcia), Lorenzana’s _Cortes_, Bernal Diaz, Vetancurt’s _Teatro Mexicano_ (1698), Valades’ _Rhetorica Christiana_ (1579), Juarros, Pelaez, Leon y Gama, etc.

[955] Kirk’s _Prescott_, i. 10. There are lists of Brasseur’s works in his own _Bibliothèque Mex.-Guatémalienne_, p. 25; in the _Pinart Catalogue_, no. 141, etc.; Field, p. 43; Sabin, ii. 7420. Cf. notices of his labors by Haven in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct., 1870, p. 47; by Brinton in _Lippincott’s Mag._, i. 79. There is a _Sommaire des voyages scientifiques et des travaux de géographie, d’histoire, d’archéologie et de Philologie américaines, publiés par l’abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg_ (St. Cloud, 1862).

[956] _Abor. Amer. Authors_, 57.

[957] Cf. Bandelier, _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. 93; Field, no. 176; H. H. Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, ii. 116, 780; v. 126, 153, 236, 241,—who says of Brasseur that “he rejects nothing, and transforms everything into historic fact;” but Bancroft looks to Brasseur for the main drift of his chapter on pre-Toltec history. Cf. Brinton’s _Myths of the New World_, p. 41.

[958] Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v. 176; Baldwin, _Anc. America_.

[959] Reference may be made to H. T. Moke’s _Histoire des peuples Américains_ (Bruxelles, 1847); Michel Chevalier’s “Du Mexique avant et pendant la Conquête,” in the _Revue des deux Mondes_, 1845, and his _Le Méxique ancien et moderne_ (Paris, 1863); and some parts of the Marquis de Nadaillac’s _L’Amérique préhistorique_ (Paris, 1883). A recent popular summary, without references, of the condition and history of ancient Mexico, is Lucien Biart’s _Les Aztèques, histoire, mœurs, coutumes_ (Paris, 1885), of which there is an English translation, _The Aztecs, their history_, etc., translated by J. L. Garnier (Chicago, 1887).

[960] Leclerc, no. 1147; Field, no. 620; Squier, no. 427; Sabin, vii. 28,255; Bandelier in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. 116. It has never yet been reprinted. The early date, as well as its rarity, have contributed to give it, perhaps, undue reputation. It is worth from £3 to £4.

[961] Leclerc, no. 1119. See Vol. II. p. 415.

[962] Leclerc, no. 2079; Brasseur, _Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 113.

[963] For the _Historia de Mexico_ of Carbajal Espinosa, see Vol. II. p. 428. Cf. Alfred Chavero’s _México á través de los Siglos_.

[964] Discrediting Gomara’s statement that De Ayllon found tribes near Cape Hatteras who had tame deer and made cheese from their milk, Dr. Brinton says: “Throughout the continent there is not a single authentic instance of a pastoral tribe, not one of an animal raised for its milk, nor for the transportation of persons, and very few for their flesh. It was essentially a hunting race.” (_Myths of the New World_, 21.) He adds: “The one mollifying element was agriculture, substituting a sedentary for a wandering life, supplying a fixed dependence for an uncertain contingency.”

[965] See Vol. II. p. 98.

[966] It was two years earlier, in 1517, that Hernandez de Cordova had first noticed the ruins of the Yucatan coast, though Columbus, in 1502, near Yucatan had met a Maya vessel, which with its navigators had astonished him.

[967] “No writer,” says Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 674), “has been more prolific in pictures of pomp, regal wealth and magnificence, than Bernal Diaz. Most of the later writers have placed undue reliance on his statements, assuming that the truthfulness of his own individual feelings was the result of cool observation. Any one who has read attentively his _Mémoirs_ will become convinced that he is in fact one of the most unreliable eye-witnesses, so far as general principles are concerned.... Cortes had personal and political motives to magnify and embellish the picture. If his statements fall far below those of his troopers in thrilling and highly-colored details, there is every reason to believe that they are the more trustworthy.... In the descriptions by Cortes we find, on the whole, nothing but a barbarous display common to other Indian celebrations of a similar character.”

Bandelier’s further comment is (_Ibid._ ii. 397) “A feudal empire at Tezcuco was an invention of the chroniclers, who had a direct interest, or thought to have one, in advancing the claims of the Tezcucan tribe to an original supremacy.”

Bandelier again (_Ibid._ ii. 385) points out the early statements of the conquerors, and of their annalists, which have prompted the inference of a feudal condition of society; but he refers to Ixtlilxochitl as “the chief originator of the feudal view;” and from him Torquemada draws his inspiration. Wilson (_Prehist. Man_, i. 242) holds much the same views.

[968] _Peabody Mus. Tenth Rept._ vol. ii. 114.

[969] Bandelier (“Art of War, etc.,” in _Peabody Mus. Rept._ x. 113) again says of De Pauw’s _Recherches philosophiques sur les Américaines_, that it is “a very injudicious book, which by its extravagance and audacity created a great deal of harm. It permitted Clavigero to attack even Robertson, because the latter had also applied sound criticism to the study of American aboriginal history, and by artfully placing both as upon the same platform, to counteract much of the good effects of Robertson’s work.”

[970] _Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 114.

[971] In regard to the nature of the chief-of-men we find, among much else of the first importance in the study of the Mexican government, an exposition in Sahagún (lib. vi. cap. 20), which seems to establish the elective and non-hereditary character of the office. It was “this office and its attributes,” says Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 670), “which have been the main stays of the notion that a high degree of civilization prevailed in aboriginal Mexico, in so far as its people were ruled after the manner of eastern despotisms.” Bandelier (_Ibid._ ii. 133) says: “It is not impossible that the so-called empire of Mexico may yet prove to have been but a confederacy of the Nahuatlac tribe of the valley, with the Mexicans as military leaders.” His argument on the word translated “king” is not convincing.

[972] _Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 435.

[973] Introd. to _Conquest of Mexico_. See Vol. II. p. 426. In the Appendix to his third volume, Prescott, relying mainly on the works of Dupaix and Waldeck, arrived at conclusions as respects the origin of the Mexican civilization, and its analogies with the Old World, which accord with those of Stephens, whose work had not appeared at the time when Prescott wrote.

[974] _Houses and House Life_, p. 222.

[975] Bancroft (ii. 92) says: “What is known of the Aztecs has furnished material for nine tenths of all that has been written on the American civilized nations in general.”

[976] _Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and Modern_ (London, 1861). Tylor enlarges upon what he considers the evidences of immense populations; and respecting some of their arts he adds, from inspection of specimens of their handicraft, that “the Spanish conquerors were not romancing in the wonderful stories they told of the skill of the native goldsmiths.” On the other hand, Morgan (_Houses and House Life_, 223) thinks the figures of population grossly exaggerated.

[977] Vol. II. p. 427.

[978] When we consider that Rome, Constantinople, and Jerusalem, in spite of rapine, siege and fire, still retain numerous traces of their earliest times, and that not a vestige of the Aztec capital remains to us except its site, we must assume, in Wilson’s opinion (_Prehistoric Man_, i. 331), that its edifices and causeways must have been for the most part more slight and fragile than the descriptions of the conquerors implied. Morgan instances as a proof of the flimsy character of their masonry, that Cortes in seventeen days levelled three fourths of the city of Mexico. But, adds Wilson, “so far as an indigenous American civilization is concerned, no doubt can be entertained, and there is little room for questioning, that among races who had carried civilization so far, there existed the capacity for its further development, independently of all borrowed aid” (p. 336). The Baron Nordenskjöld informs me that there is in the library at Upsala a MS. map of Mexico by Santa Cruz (d. 1572) which contains numerous ethnographical details, not to be found in printed maps of that day.

[979] _Native Races_, ii. 159.

[980] _Ibid._ ii. 133.

[981] Bancroft has recently epitomized his views afresh in the _Amer. Antiquarian_, Jan., 1888.

[982] Bancroft wrote in San Francisco, it will be remembered.

[983] It was for Bandelier, in his “Social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans” (_Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 557), to demonstrate the proposition that tribal society based, according to Morgan, upon kin, and not political society, which rests upon territory and property, must be looked for among the ancient Mexicans.

[984] Morgan’s _Houses_, etc., 225. Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Rept._, vol. ii. 114) speaks of the views advanced by Morgan in his “Montezuma’s Dinner,” as “a bold stroke for the establishment of American ethnology on a new basis.” It must be remembered that Bandelier was Morgan’s pupil.

[985] _Ibid._ 222.

[986] Morgan says of his predecessors, “they learned nothing and knew nothing” of Indian society.

[987] _Ibid._ 223.

[988] In this he of course assumes that the ruins in Spanish America are of communal edifices.

[989] Bandelier’s papers are in the second volume of the _Reports of the Peabody Museum_ at Cambridge. He contends in his “Art of Warfare among the Ancient Mexicans,” that he has shown the non-existence of a military despotism, and proved their government to be “a military democracy, originally based upon communism in living.” A similar understanding pervades his other essay “On the social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans.” Morgan and Bandelier profess great admiration for each other,—Morgan citing his friend as “our most eminent scholar in Spanish American history” (_Houses_, etc., 84), and Bandelier expresses his deep feeling of gratitude, etc. (_Archæolog. Tour_, 32). This affectionate relation has very likely done something in unifying their intellectual sympathies. The _Ancient Society, or researches in the lines of human progress from savagery through barbarism to civilization_ (N. Y. 1877), of Morgan is reflected very palpably in these papers of Bandelier. The accounts of the war of the conquest, as detailed in Bancroft’s _Mexico_ (vol. i.), and the views of their war customs (_Native Races_, ii. ch. 13), contrasted with Bandelier’s ideas,—who finds in Parkman’s books “the natural parallelism between the forays of the Iroquois and the so-called conquests of the Mexican confederacy” (_Archæol. Tour_, 32), and who reduces the battle of Otumba to an affair like that of Custer and the Sioux (_Art of Warfare_),—give us in the military aspects of the ancient life the opposed views of the two schools of interpreters.

[990] Being vol. iv. of the _Contributions to No. Amer. Ethnol._ in Powell’s _Survey of the Rocky Mt. Region_. Some of Morgan’s cognate studies relating to the aboriginal system of consanguinity and laws of descent are in the _Smithsonian Contributions_, xvii., the _Smithsonian Misc. Coll._ ii., _Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans._ vii., and _Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc._, 1857.

[991] Morgan in this, his last work, condenses in his first chapter those which were numbered 1 to 4 in his _Ancient Society_, and in succeeding sections he discusses the laws of hospitality, communism, usages of land and food, and the houses of the northern tribes, of those of New Mexico, San Juan River, the moundbuilders, the Aztecs, and those in Yucatan and Central America. Among these he finds three distinct ethnical stages, as shown in the northern Indian, higher in the sedentary tribes of New Mexico, and highest among those of Mexico and Central America. S. F. Haven commemorated Morgan’s death in the _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Apr., 1880.

[992] Cf. Bandelier on “the tenure of lands” in _Peabody Mus. Repts._ (1878), no. xi., and Bancroft in _Nat. Races_, ii. ch. 6, p. 223.

[993] Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 391) points out that when Martin Ursúa captured Tayasál on Lake Petin, the last pueblo inhabited by Maya Indians, he found “all the inhabitants living brutally together, an entire relationship together in one single house,” and Bandelier refers further to Morgan’s _Ancient Society_, Part 2, p. 181.

[994] Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 673) accepts the views of Morgan, calling it “a rude clannish feast,” given by the official household of the tribe as a part of its daily duties and obligations.

[995] On the character of the Tecpan (council house, or official house) of the Mexicans, which the early writers translate “palace,” with its sense of magnificence, see Bandelier (_Peabody Mus. Repts._ ii. 406, 671, etc.), with his references. Morgan holds that Stephens is largely responsible for the prevalence of erroneous notions regarding the Mayas, by reason of using the words “palaces” and “great cities” for defining what were really the pueblos of these southern Indians. Bancroft (ii. 84), referring to the ruins, says: They have “the highest value as confirming the truth of the reports made by Spanish writers, very many, or perhaps most, of whose statements respecting the wonderful phenomena of the New World, without this incontrovertible material proof, would find few believers among the skeptical students of the present day.” Bancroft had little prescience respecting what the communal theorists were going to say of these ruins.

[996] Cf. Bancroft’s _Cent. America_, i. 317. Sir J. William Dawson, in his _Fossil Men_ (p. 83), contends that Morgan has proved his point, and he calls the ruins of Spanish America “communistic barracks” (p. 50). Higginson, in the first chapter of his _Larger History_, which is a very excellent, condensed popular statement of the new views which Morgan inaugurated, says of him very truly, that he lacked moderation, and that there is “something almost exasperating in the positiveness with which he sometimes assumes as proved that which is only probable.”

[997] Bancroft in his foot-notes (vol. ii.) embodies the best bibliography of this ancient civilization. Cf. Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, i. ch. 14; C. Hermann Berendt’s “Centres of ancient civilization and their geographical distribution,” an _Address before the Amer. Geog. Soc._ (N. Y. 1876); Draper’s _Intellectual Development of Europe_; Brasseur’s _Ms. Troano_; Humboldt’s _Cosmos_ (English transl. ii. 674); Michel Chevalier in the _Revue de deux Mondes_, Mar.-July, 1845, embraced later in his _Du Méxique avant et pendant la Conquête_ (Paris, 1845); Brantz Mayer’s _Mexico as it was; The Galaxy_, March, 1876; _Scribner’s Mag._ v. 724; _Overland Monthly_, xiv. 468; De Charency’s _Hist. du Civilisation du Méxique_ (_Revue des Questions historiques_), vi. 283; Dabry de Thiersant’s _Origine des indiens du Nouveau Monde_ (Paris, 1883); Peschel’s _Races of Men_, 441; Nadaillac’s _Les premiers hommes et les temps préhistoriques_, ii. ch. 9, etc.

[998] For the bibliography of his works see Brunet, Sabin, Field, etc. The octavo edition of his _Vues_ has 19 of the 69 plates which constitute the _Atlas_ of the large edition. See the chapter on Peru for further detail.

[999] John Lloyd Stephens, _Incidents of travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan_, Lond. and N. Y. 1841,—various later eds., that of London, 1854, being “revised from the latest Amer. ed., with additions by Frederick Catherwood.” Stephens started on this expedition in 1839, and he was armed with credentials from President Van Buren. He travelled 3000 miles, and visited eight ruined cities, as shown by his route given on the map in vol. i. Cf. references in Allibone, ii. p. 2240; _Poole’s Index_, p. 212; his _Incidents of Travel in Yucatan_ will be mentioned later.

Frederick Catherwood’s _Views of Ancient Monuments in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan_ (Lond. 1844) has a brief text (pp. 24) and 25 lithographed plates. Some of the original drawings used in making these plates were included in the _Squier Catalogue_, p. 229. (Sabin’s _Dict._ iii. no. 11520.) Captain Lindesay Brine, in his paper on the “Ruined Cities of Central America” (_Journal Roy. Geog. Soc._ 1872, p. 354; _Proc._ xvii. 67), testifies to the accuracy of Stephens and Catherwood. These new developments furnished the material for numerous purveyors to the popular mind, some of them of the slightest value, like Asahel Davis, whose _Antiquities of Central America_, with some slight changes of title, and with the parade of new editions, were common enough between 1840 and 1850.

[1000] Viollet le Duc, in his _Histoire de l’habitation humaine depuis les temps préhistoriques_ (Paris, 1875), has given a chapter (no. xxii.) to the “Nahuas and Toltecs.” Views more or less studied, comprehensive, and restricted are given in R. Cary Long’s _Ancient Architecture of America, its historic value and parallelism of development with the architecture of the Old World_ (N. Y. 1849), an address from the _N. Y. Hist. Soc. Proc._ 1849, p. 117; R. P. Greg on “the Fret or Key Ornament in Mexico and Peru,” in the _Archæologia_ (London), vol. xlvii. 157; and a popular summary on “the pyramid in America,” by S. D. Peet, in the _American Antiquarian_, July, 1888, comparing the mounds of Cholula, Uxmal, Palenqué, Teotihuacan, Copan, Quemada, Cohokia, St. Louis, etc. John T. Short summarizes the characteristics of the Nahua and Maya styles (_No. Amer. of Antiquity_, 340, 359). There are chapters on their architecture in Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, ii.; but the references in his vol. iv. are most helpful.

[1001] Vols. v. vi. vii. on “Ancient Mexican Civilization,” “Pyramid of Teotihuacan,” “Sacrificial Calendar Stone,” “Central America at time of Conquest,” “Ruins at Palenque and Copan,” “Ruins of Uxmal,” etc.

[1002] Duplicates were placed in the Nat. Museum at Washington by the liberality of Pierre Lorillard.

[1003] The English translation is condensed in parts: _The ancient cities of the New World: being travels and explorations in Mexico and Central America from 1857-1882_. _Translated from the French by J. Gonino and Helen S. Conant._ (London, 1887.) Some of his notable results were the discovery of stucco ornaments in the province of Iturbide, among ruins which he unfortunately named Lorillard City (Eng. tr. ch. 22). The palace at Tula is also figured in Brocklehurst’s _Mexico to-day_, ch. 25. The discovery of what Charnay calls glass and porcelain is looked upon as doubtful by most archæologists, who believe the specimens to be rather traces of Spanish contact.

[1004] Bancroft, iv. 453, and references.

[1005] Bandelier (p. 235) is confident that it was built by an earlier people than the Nahuas.

[1006] Cf. Bandelier, p. 247. Short, p. 236.

[1007] Bancroft (v. 200) gives references on these points, and

## particular note may be taken of Veytia, i. 18, 155, 199; and Brasseur,

_Hist. Nations Civ._ iv. 182. Cf. also Nadaillac, p. 351. Bandelier (_Archæolog. Tour_, 248, 249) favors the gradual growth theory, and collates early sources (p. 250). Bancroft (iv. 474) holds that we may feel very sure its erection dates back of the tenth, and perhaps of the seventh, century.

[1008] Bandelier’s idea (p. 254) is that as the Indians never repair a ruin, they abandoned this remaining mound after its disaster, and transplanted the worship of Quetzalcoatl to the new mound, since destroyed, while the old shrine was in time given to the new cult of the Rain-god.

[1009] As Bancroft thinks; but Bandelier says that it was not of this mound, but of the temple which stood where the modern convent stands, that this count was made. _Arch. Tour_, 242.

[1010] _Storia Ant. del Messico_, ii. 33.

[1011] _Vues_, i. 96 pl. iii., or pl. vii., viii. in folio ed.; _Essai polit._, 239. The later observers are: Dupaix (_Antiq. Mex._, and in Kingsborough, v. 218; with iv. pl. viii.). Bancroft remarks on the totally different aspects of Castañeda’s two drawings. Nebel, in his _Viaje pintoresco y Arqueolójico sobre la república Mejicana_, 1829-34 (Paris, 1839, folio), gave a description and a large colored drawing. Of the other visitors whose accounts add something to our knowledge, Bancroft (iv. 471) notes the following: J. R. Poinsett, _Notes on Mexico_ (London, 1825). W. H. Bullock, _Six Months in Mexico_ (Lond., 1825). H. G. Ward, _Mexico in 1827_ (Lond., 1828). Mark Beaufoy, _Mex. Illustrations_ (Lond., 1828), with cuts. Charles Jos. Latrobe, _Rambles in Mexico_ (Lond., 1836). Brantz Mayer, _Mexico as it was_ (N. Y., 1854); _Mexico, Aztec, etc._ (Hartford, 1853); and in Schoolcraft, _Ind. Tribes_, vi. 582. Waddy Thompson, _Recoll. of Mexico_ (N. Y., 1847). E. B. Tylor, _Anahuac_ (Lond., 1861), p. 274. A. S. Evans, _Our Sister Republic_ (Hartford, 1870). Summaries later than Bancroft’s will be found in Short, p. 369, and Nadaillac, p. 350. Bancroft adds (iv. 471-2) a long list of second-hand describers.

[1012] It is illustrated with a map of the district of Cholula (p. 158), a detailed plan of the pyramid or mound (Humboldt is responsible for the former term) as it stands amid roads and fields (p. 230), and a fac-simile of an old map of the pueblo of Cholula (1581).

Bandelier speaks of the conservative tendencies of the native population of this region, giving a report that old native idols are still preserved and worshipped in caves, to which he could not induce the Indians to conduct him (p. 156); and that when he went to see the _Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco_, or some native pictures of the 16th century, representing the Conquest, and of the highest importance for its history, he was jealously allowed but one glance at them, and could not get another (_Archæol. Tour_, p. 123). He adds: “The difficulty attending the consultation of any documents in the hands of Indians is universal, and results from their superstitious regard for writings on paper. The bulk of the people watch with the utmost jealousy over their old papers.... They have a fear lest the power vested in an original may be transferred to a copy” (pp. 155-6).

[1013] Pinart, no. 590.

[1014] He repeats Alzate’s plate of the restoration of the ruins.

[1015] Bancroft refers (iv. 483) to various compiled accounts, to which may be added his own and Short’s (p. 371). Cf. F. Boncourt in the _Revue d’Ethnographie_ (1887).

[1016] Prescott, Kirk ed., i. 12. See the map of the plateau of Anahuac in Ruge, _Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeck._, i. 363.

[1017] Cf. Gros in the _Archives de la Com. Scient. du Méxique_, vol. i.; H. de Saussure on the _Découverte des ruines d’une ancienne ville Méxicaine située sur le plateau de l’Anahuac_ (Paris, 1858,—_Bull. Soc Géog. de Paris_).

[1018] The same is true of the earliest Spanish buildings. Icazbalceta (_México en 1554_, p. 74) says that the soil is constantly accumulating, and the whole city gradually sinks.

[1019] Bancroft (iv. 505, 516, with references) says that such objects, when brought to light by excavations, have not always been removed from their hiding-places; and he argues that beneath the city there may yet be “thousands of interesting monuments.” Cf. B. Mayer’s _Mexico as it was_, vol. ii.

Bandelier (_Archæol. Tour_, Part ii. p. 49) gives us valuable “Archæological Notes about the City of Mexico,” in which he says that Alfredo Chavero owns a very large oil painting, said to have been executed in 1523, giving a view of the aboriginal city and the principal events of the Conquest. It shows that the ancient city was about one quarter the size of the modern town.

We find descriptions of the city before the conquerors transformed it, in Brasseur’s _Hist. Nations Civ._ iii. 187; iv. line 13; and in Bancroft (ii. ch. 18) there is a collation of authorities on Nahua buildings, with specific references on the city of Mexico (ii. p. 567). Bandelier describes with citations its military aspects at the time of the Conquest (_Peabody Mus. Reports_, x. 151).

The movable relics found in Mexico are the following:—

1. The calendar stone. See annexed cut.

2. Teoyamique. See cut in the appendix of this volume.

3. Sacrificial stone. See annexed cut.

4. Indio triste. See annexed cut.

5. Head of a serpent, discovered in 1881. Cf. Bandelier’s _Archæol. Tour_, p. 69.

6. Human head. Cf. Bancroft, iv. 518. All of the above, except the calendar stone, are in the Museo Nacional.

7. Gladiatorial stone, discovered in 1792, but left buried. Cf. B. Mayer’s _Mexico_, 123; Bancroft, iv. 516; Kingsborough, vii. 94; Sahagún, lib. ii.

8. A few other less important objects. Cf. Bandelier, _Archæol. Tour_, 52.

Antonio de Leon y Gama, who unfortunately had no knowledge of the writings of Sahagún, has discussed most of these relics in his _Descripcion histórico y Cronológico de las dos Piedras &_. (2d ed. Bustamante, 1832.)

[1020] Bancroft, iv. 520, with authorities, p. 523. Cf. _American Antiquarian_, May, 1888.

[1021] Bancroft’s numerous references make a foot-note (iv. 530). He adds a plan from Almaraz, and says that the description of Linares (_Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin_, 30, i. 103) is mainly drawn from Almaraz. It is believed, but not absolutely proven, that the mounds were natural ones, artificially shaped (Bandelier, 44). The extent of the ruins is very great, and it is a current belief that the city in its prime must have been very large. The whole region is exceptionally rich in fragmentary and small relics, like pottery, obsidian implements, and terra-cotta heads. Cf. for these last, _Lond. Geog. Soc. Journal_, vii. 10; Thompson’s _Mexico_, 140; Nebel, _Viaje_; Mayer’s _Mexico as it was_, 227 (as cited in Bancroft, iv. 542); and later publications like T. U. Brocklehurst’s _Mexico to-day_ (Lond., 1883), and Zelia Nuttall’s “Terra Cotta Heads from Teotihuacan,” in the _Amer. Journal of Archæology_ (June and Sept. 1886), ii. 157, 318.

Bancroft judges that the ruins date back to the sixth century, and says that these mounds served for models of the Aztec teocallis. On the commission already referred to was Antonio García y Cubas, who conducted some personal explorations, and in describing these in a separate publication, _Ensayo de un Estudio Comparativo entre las Pirámides Egípcias y Mexicanas_ (Mexico, 1871), he points out certain analogies of the American and Egyptian structures, which will be found in epitome in Bancroft (iv. 543). In discussing the monoliths of the ruins, Amos W. Butler (_Amer. Antiquarian_, May, 1885), in a paper on “The Sacrificial Stone of San Juan Teotihuacan,” advanced some views that are controverted by W. H. Holmes in the _Amer. Journal of Archæology_ (i. 361), from whose foot-notes a good bibliography of the subject can be derived. Bandelier (_Archæol. Tour_, 42) thinks that because no specific mention is made of them in Mexican tradition, it is safe to infer that these monuments antedate the Mexicans, and were in ruins at the time of the Conquest.

[1022] The early writers make little mention of the place except as one of the halting-places of the Aztec migration. Torquemada has something to say (quoted in _Soc. Mex. Geog. Bol._, 2º, iii. 278, with the earliest of the modern accounts by Manuel Gutierrez, in 1805). Capt. G. F. Lyon (_Journal of a residence and tour in Mexico_, London, 1828) visited the ruins in 1828. Pedro Rivera in 1830 described them in Márcos de Esparza’s _Informe presentado al Gobierno_ (Zacatecas, 1830,—also in _Museo Méxicano_, i. 185, 1843). The plan in Nebel’s Viaje (copied in Bancroft, iv. 582) was made for Governor García, by Berghes, a German engineer, in 1831, who at the time was accompanied by J. Burkart (_Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico_, Stuttgart, 1836), who gives a plan of fewer details. Bancroft (iv. 579) thinks Nebel’s views of the ruins the only ones ever published, and he enumerates various second-hand writers (iv. 579).

Cf. Fegeux, “Les ruines de la Quemada,” in the _Revue d’Ethnologie_, i. 119. The noticeable features of these ruins are their massiveness and height of walls, their absence of decoration and carved idols, and the lack of pottery and the smaller relics. Their history, notwithstanding much search, is a blank.

[1023] Cf. Bandelier, p. 320.

[1024] Bandelier, p. 276.

[1025] Ramirez, ed. 1867.

[1026] His brief account is copied by Mendieta and Torquemada, and is cited in Bandelier, p. 324.

[1027] _Geog. Descripcion_, ii. cited in Bandelier, 324. Cf. _Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin_, vii. 170.

[1028] Bandelier says (p. 279) that he saw them in the library of the Institute of Oaxaca, and that, though admirable, they have a certain tendency to over-restoration,—the besetting sin of all explorers who make drawings.

[1029] Cf. Field, no. 1612.

[1030] _Ruines_, etc., 261, and Viollet le Duc, p. 74; _Anciens Villes_, ch. 24.

[1031] There is a _Rapport sur les ruines_, by Doutrelaine, in the _Archives de la Commission Scientifique du Méxique_ (vol. iii.); Nadaillac (p. 364) and Short (p. 361) have epitomized results, and Louis H. Aymé gives some _Notes on Mitla_ in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1882, p. 82; Bancroft (iv. 391) enumerates various second-hand descriptions.

[1032] I do not understand Bandelier’s statement (p. 277) that it is taken from Bancroft’s plan, which it only resembles in a general way.

[1033] Bancroft classifies their architectural peculiarities (iv. pp. 267-279).

[1034] See Vol. II. ch. 3. Bancroft (ii. p. 784) collates the early accounts of the habitations of the people, and (iv. 254, 260, 261) the descriptions of the ruins and statelier edifices, as seen by these explorers.

[1035] _For. Q. Rev._, xviii. 251.

[1036] Cf. _Poole’s Index_, p. 1439.

[1037] Bancroft, iv. 145; Field, no. 1138; Leclerc, no. 1217; Pilling, p. 2767; _Dem. Review_, xi. 529. Cf. _Poole’s Index_, P. 1439.

[1038] _Registro Yucateco_, ii. 437; _Diccionario Universal_ (México, 1853), x. 290.

[1039] Bandelier, _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. 92, calls the paper “not very valuable.”

[1040] This gentleman, since the death of his father, of the same name, succeeded, after an interval, the elder antiquary in the president’s chair of the American Antiquarian Society.

[1041] Cf. Short, p. 396. Le Plongeon retorts (_Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. 282) by telling his critic that he had never been in Yucatan. Considering the effect of contact in many of those who have written of the ruins, it may be a question if the implication is valuable as a piece of criticism. Mr. Salisbury and Dr. Le Plongeon reported from time to time in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._ the results of the latter’s investigations, and the researches to which they gave rise. Those in April, 1876, and April, 1877, of these _Proceedings_, were privately printed by Mr. Salisbury, as _The Mayas_, etc. In April, 1878, Mr. Salisbury reported upon the “Terra-cotta figures from Isla Mujeres.” In Oct., 1878, there were communications from Dr. Le Plongeon, and from Alice D. Le Plongeon, his wife. In April, 1879, Dr. Le Plongeon communicated a letter on the affinities of Central America and the East. Since this the Le Plongeons have found other channels of communication. Dr. Le Plongeon expanded his somewhat extravagant notions of Oriental affinities in his _Sacred mysteries among the Mayas and the Quiches, 11,500 years ago; their relation to the sacred mysteries of Egypt, Greece, Chaldea, and India. Freemasonry in times anterior to the temple of Solomon_ (New York, 1886).

His preface is largely made up with a rehearsal of his rebuffs and in complaints of the want of public appreciation of his labors. He is, however, as confident as ever, and deciphers the bas-reliefs and mural inscriptions of Chichen-Itza by “the ancient hieratic Maya alphabet” which he claims to have discovered, and shows this alphabet in parallel columns with that of Egypt as displayed by Champollion and Bunsen. Mrs. Le Plongeon published her _Vestiges of the Mayas_ in New York, in 1881, and gathered some of her periodical writings in her _Here and There in Yucatan_ (N. Y., 1886). Cf. her letter on the ancient records of Yucatan in _The Nation_, xxix. 224.

[1042] Baldwin (p. 125), in a condensed way, and likewise Short (ch. 8) and Bancroft (iv. ch. 5), more at length, have mainly depended on Stephens. Cf. references in Bancroft, iv. 147, and Bandelier’s list in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. 82, 95. E. H. Thompson has contributed papers in _Ibid._ Oct., 1886, p. 248, and April, 1887, p. 379, and on the ruins of Kich-Moo and Chun-Kal-Cin in April, 1888, p. 162. Brasseur, beside his _Hist. Nat. Civ._, ii. 20, has something in his introduction to his _Relation de Landa_. The description of the ruins at Zayi, which Stephens gives, shows that some of the rooms were filled solid with masonry, and he leaves it as an unaccountable fact; but Morgan (_Houses and House Life_, p. 267) thinks it shows that the builders constructed a core of masonry, over which they reared the walls and ceilings, which last, after hardening, were able to support themselves, when the cores were removed; and that in the ruins at Zayi we see the cores unremoved.

[1043] Cf. the _pros_ and _cons_ in Waldeck and Charnay. Waldeck first named the ornaments as “Elephants’ trunks” (_Voy. Pitt._ p. 74). There are cuts in Stephens, reproduced in Bancroft. There is also a cut in Norman. Cf. E. H. Thompson in _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1887, p. 382.

[1044] Stephens, _Yucatan_, ii. 265, gives an ancient Indian map (1557), and extracts from the archives of Mani, which lead him to infer that at that time it was an inhabited Indian town.

[1045] Bancroft (iv. 151) gives various references to second-hand descriptions, noted before 1875, to which may be added those in Short, p. 347; Nadaillac, 334; Amer. Antiquarian, vii. 257, and again, July, 1888.

Probably the most accurate of the plans of the ruins is that of Stephens (_Yucatan_, i. 165), which is followed by Bancroft (iv. 153). Brasseur’s report has a plan, and others, all differing, are given by Waldeck (pl. viii.), Norman (p. 155), and Charnay (_Ruines_, p. 62). Views and cuts of details are found in Waldeck, Stephens, Charnay,—whence later summarizers like Bancroft, Baldwin, and Short have drawn their copies; while special cuts are copied in Armin (_Das Heutige Mexico_); Larenaudière (_Mexique et Guatemala_, Paris, 1847); Le Plongeon (_Sacred Mysteries_); Ruge (_Zeitalter der Entdeckungen_, p. 357); Morgan (_Houses_, etc., ch. xi.), and in various others. One can best trace the varieties and contrasts of the different accounts of the various edifices in Bancroft’s collations of their statements. His constant citation, even to scorn them, of the impertinencies of George Jones’s _Hist. of Anc. America_ (London, 1842),—the later notorious Count Johannes,—was hardly worth while.

[1046] Landa described the ruins. _Relation_, p. 340.

[1047] All other accounts are based on these. Bancroft, who gives the best summary (iv. 221), enumerates many of the second-hand writers, to whom Short (p. 396) must be added. Stephens gives a plan (ii. 290) which Bancroft (iv. 222) follows; and it apparently is worthy of reasonable confidence, which cannot be said of Norman’s. The ruins present some features not found in others, and the most interesting of such may be considered the wall paintings, one representing a boat with occupants, which Stephens found on the walls of the building called by him the Gymnasium, because of stone rings projecting from the walls (see annexed cut), which were supposed by him to have been used in ball games. Norman calls the same building the Temple; Charnay, the Cirque; but the native designation is Iglesia.

[1048] _Yucatan_, i. 94. Cf. Bancroft, _Native Races_, ii. 117; v. 164, 342.

[1049] Bancroft collates the views of different writers (iv. 285). He himself holds that these buildings are more ancient than those of Anáhuac; consequently he rejects the arguments of Stephens, that it was by the Toltecs, after they migrated south from Anáhuac, that these constructions were raised (_Native Races_, v. 165, and for references, p. 169). Charnay (_Bull. de la Soc. de Géog._, Nov., 1881) believes they were erected between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.

It is well known now that the concentric rings are a useless guide in tropical regions to determine the age of trees, though in the past, the immense size of trees as well as the deposition of soil have been used to determine the supposed ages of ruins. Waldeck counted a ring a year in getting two thousand years for the time since the abandonment of Palenqué; but Charnay (Eng. tr. _Ancient Cities_, p. 260) says that these rings are often formed monthly. Cf. Nadaillac, p. 323.

[1050] So called because near a modern village of that name, founded by the Spaniards about 1564. Bancroft (iv. 296) says the ruins are ordinarily called by the natives Casas de Piedra. Ordoñez calls them Nachan, but without giving any authority, and some adopt the Aztec equivalent Calhuacan, city of the serpents. Because Xibalba is held by some to be the name of the great city of this region in the shadowy days of Votan, that name has also been applied to the ruins. Otolum, or the ruined place, is a common designation thereabouts, but Palenqué is the appellation in use by most travellers and writers.

[1051] The fact is, that widely distinct estimates have been held, some dating them back into the remotest antiquity, and others making them later than the Conquest. Bancroft (iv. 362) collates these statements. Cf. Dr. Earl Flint in _Amer. Antiquarian_, iv. 289. Morelet identifies them with the Toltec remains, supposing them to be the work of that people after their emigration, and to be of about the same age as Mitla. Charnay (_Anc. Cities of the New World_, p. 260) claims that Cortes knew the place as the religious metropolis of the Acaltecs. On the question of Cortes’ knowledge see _Science_, Feb. 27, 1885, p. 171; and _Ibid._ (by Brinton) March 27, 1885, p. 248.

[1052] The original is in the Roy. Acad. of Hist. at Madrid (Brasseur, _Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 125), and is called _Descripcion del terreno publacion antigua_.

[1053] Field, no. 231; Sabin, xvii. p. 292. The report of Rio was brief, and as we would judge now, superficial. Dupaix treats him disparagingly. The appended essay by Cabrera, an Italian, is said to have been largely filched from Ramon’s paper, which had been confidentially placed in his hands (Short, 207). A Spanish text of Cabrera is in the Museo Nacional. Cf. Brasseur (_Bib. Mex.-Guat._), p. 30; Pinart, no. 186. It is a question if the plates, which constituted the most interesting part of the English book, be Rio’s after all; for though they profess to be engraved after his drawings, they are suspiciously like those made by Castañeda, twenty years after Rio’s visit (Bancroft, iv. 290). David B. Warden translated Rio’s report in the _Recueil de voyages et de Mémoires, par la Soc. de in Géog. de Paris_. (vol. ii.), and gave some of the plates. (Cf. Warden’s _Recherches sur les antiquités de l’Amérique Septentrionale_, Paris, 1827, in _Mém. de la Soc. de Géog._) There is a German version, _Beschreibung einer alten Stadt_ (Berlin, 1832), by J. H. von Minutoli, which is provided with an introductory essay.

[1054] Sabin, x. 209, 213. Cf. _Annales de Philos. Chrétienne_, xi.

[1055] _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris_, ix. (1828) 198. Dupaix, i. 2d div. 76.

[1056] “Palenque et autres lieux circonvoisins,” in Dupaix, i. 2d div. 67 (in English in _Literary Gazette_, London, 1831, no. 769, and in _Lond. Geog. Soc. Journal_, iii. 60). Cf. _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris_, 1832. He is overenthusiastic, as Bandelier thinks (_Amer. Ant. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. p. 111).

[1057] The report by Angrand, which induced this purchase, is in the work as published.

[1058] He had described them in his _Hist. Nat. Civ._, i. ch. 3.

[1059] The book usually sells for about 150 francs.

[1060] Given, also enlarged, in the folio known as Catherwood’s _Views_.

[1061] The German version was made from this (Jena, 1872).

[1062] Particularly ch. 13, 14. Charnay is the last of the explorers of Palenqué. All the other accounts of the ruins found here and there are based on the descriptions of those who have been named, or at least nothing is added of material value by other actual visitors like Norman (_Rambles in Yucatan_, p. 284). Bancroft (iv. 294) enumerates a number of such second-hand describers. The most important work since Bancroft’s summary is Manuel Larrainzar’s _Estudios sobre la historia de America, sus ruinas y antigüedades, y sobre el orígen de sus habitantes_ (Mexico, 1875-78), in five vols., all of whose plates are illustrations from the ruins of Palenqué, which are described and compared with other ancient remains throughout the world. Cf. Brühl, _Culturvölker d. alt. Amerikas_. Plans of the ruins will be found in Waldeck (pl. vii., followed mainly by Bancroft, iv. 298, 307), Stephens (ii. 310), Dupaix (pl. xi.), Kingsborough (iv. pl. 13), and Charnay (ch. 13 and 14). The views of the ruins given by these authorities mainly make up the stock of cuts in all the popular narratives.

The most interesting of the carvings is what is known as the Tablet of the Cross, which was taken from one of the minor buildings, and is now in the National Museum at Washington. It has often been engraved, but such representations never satisfied the student till they could be tested by the best of Charnay’s photographs. (Engravings in Brasseur and Waldeck, pl. 21, 22; Rosny’s _Essai sur le déchiffrement_, etc.; Minutoli’s _Beschreibung einer alten Stadt in Guatimala_ (Berlin, 1832); Stephens’s _Cent. Amer._, ii.; Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, iv. 333; Charnay, _Les anciens Villes_, and Eng. transl. p. 255; Nadaillac, 325; _Powell’ s Rept._, i. 221; cf. p. 234; _Amer. Antiquarian_, vii. 200.) The most important discussion of the tablet is Charles Rau’s _Palenqué Tablet in the U. S. National Museum_ (Washington, 1879), being the _Smithsonian Contri. to Knowledge_, no. 331, or vol. xxii. It contains an account of the explorations that have been made at Palenqué, and a chapter on the “Aboriginal writing in Mexico, Central America, and Yucatan, with some account of the attempted translations of Maya hieroglyphics.” Rau’s conclusion is that it is a Phallic symbol. Cf. a summary in _Amer. Antiquarian_, vi., Jan., 1884, and in _Amer. Art Review_, 1880, p. 217. Rau’s paper was translated into Spanish and French: _Tablero del Palenque en el Museo nacional de los Estados-Unidos_ [traducido por Joaquin Davis y Miguel Perez], in the _Anales del Museo nacional_. Tomo 2, pp. 131-203. (México, 1880.) _La Stèle de Palenqué du Musée national des Etats-Unis, à Washington. Traduit de l’Anglais avec autorisation de l’auteur._ In the _Annales du Musée Guimet_, vol. x. (Paris, 1887.) Rau’s views were criticised by Morgan.

There are papers by Charency on the interpretation of the hieroglyphs in _Le Muséon_ (Paris, 1882, 1883).

The significance of the cross among the Nahuas and Mayas has been the subject of much controversy, some connecting it with a possible early association with Christians in ante-Columbian days (Bancroft, iii. 468). On this later point see Bamps, _Les traditions relatives à l’homme blanc et au signe de la cruz en Amérique à l’Epoque précolumbienne_, in the _Compte rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_ (Copenhagen, 1883), p. 125; and “Supposed vestiges of early Christian teaching in America,” in the _Catholic Historical Researches_ (vol. i., Oct., 1885). The symbolism is variously conceived. Bandelier (_Archæol. Jour._) holds it to be the emblem of fire, indeed an ornamented fire-drill, which later got mixed up with the Spanish crucifix. Brinton (_Myths of the New World_, 95) sees in it the four cardinal points, the rain-bringers, the symbol of life and health, and cites (p. 96) various of the early writers in proof. Brinton (_Am. Hero Myths_, 155) claims to have been the first to connect the Palenqué cross with the four cardinal points. The bird and serpent—the last shown better in Charnay’s photograph than in Stephens’s cut—is (_Myths_, 119) simply a rebus of the air-god, the ruler of the winds. Brinton says that Waldeck, in a paper on the tablet in the _Revue Américaine_ (ii. 69), came to a similar conclusion. Squier (_Nicaragua_, ii. 337) speaks of the common error of mistaking the tree of life of the Mexicans for the Christian symbol. Cf. Powell’s _Second Rept., Bur. of Ethnol._, p. 208; the _Fourth Rept._, p. 252, where discredit is thrown upon Gabriel de Mortillet’s _Le Signe de la cross avant le Christianisme_ (Paris, 1866); Joly’s _Man before Metals_, 339; and Charnay’s _Les Anciens Villes_ (or Eng. transl. p. 85). Cf. for various applications the references in Bancroft’s index (v. p. 671).

[1063] Both were alike, and one was broken in two. There are engravings in Waldeck, pl. 25; Stephens, ii. 344, 349; Squier’s _Nicaragua_, 1856, ii. 337; Bancroft, iv. 337.

[1064] These have been the subject of an elaborate folio, thought, however, to be of questionable value, _Die Steinbildwerke von Copân und Quiriguâ, aufgenommen von Heinrich Meye; historisch erläutert und beschrieben von Dr. Julius Schmidt_ (Berlin, 1883), of which there is an English translation, _The stone sculptures of Copán and Quiriguá_; translated from the German by A.D. Savage (New York, 1883). It gives twenty plates, Catherwood’s plates, and the cuts in Stephens, with reproductions in accessible books (Bancroft, iv. ch. 3; Powell’s _First Rept. Bur. Ethn._ 224; Ruge’s _Gesch. des Zeitalters; Amer. Antiquarian_, viii. 204-6), will serve, however, all purposes.

[1065] Squier says: “There are various reasons for believing that both Copan and Quirigua antedate Olosingo and Palenqué, precisely as the latter antedate the ruins of Quiché, Chichen-Itza, and Uxmal, and that all of them were the work of the same people, or of nations of the same race, dating from a high antiquity, and in blood and language precisely the same that was found in occupation of the country by the Spaniards.”

[1066] Named apparently from a neighboring village.

[1067] Ref. in Bancroft, iv. 79.

[1068] This account can be found in Pacheco’s _Col. Doc. inéd._ vi. 37, in Spanish; in Ternaux’s _Coll._ (1840), imperfect, and in the _Nouv. Annales des Voyages_, 1843, v. xcvii. p. 18, in French; in Squier’s _Cent. America_, 242, and in his ed. of Palacio (N. Y. 1860), in English; and in Alexander von Frantzius’s _San Salvador und Honduras im Jahre_ 1576, with notes by the translator and by C. H. Berendt.

[1069] Stephens, _Cent. Am._, i. 131, 144; Warden, 71; _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_, xxxv. 329; Bancroft, iv. 82; _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris_, 1836, v. 267; Short, 56, 82,—not to name others.

[1070] His account is in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Trans._, ii.; _Bull. Soc. de Géog._ 1835; Dupaix, a summary, i. div. 2, p. 73; Bradford’s _Amer. Antiq._, in part. Galindo’s drawings are unknown. Stephens calls his account “unsatisfactory and imperfect.”

[1071] _Central America_, i. ch. 5-7; _Views of Anc. Mts._ It is Stephens’s account which has furnished the basis of those given by Bancroft (iv. ch. 3); Baldwin, p. 111; Short, 356; Nadaillac, 328, and all others. Bancroft in his bibliog. note (iv. pp. 79-81), which has been collated with my own notes, mentions others of less importance,

## particularly the report of Center and Hardcastle to the Amer. Ethnol.

Soc. in 1860 and 1862, and the photographs made by Ellerley, which Brasseur (_Hist. Nat. Civ._ i. 96; ii. 493; _Palenqué_, 8, 17) found to confirm the drawings and descriptions of Catherwood and Stephens.

Stephens (_Cent. Am._, i. 133) made a plan of the ruins reproduced in _Annales des Voyages_ (1841, p. 57), which is the basis of that given by Bancroft (iv. 85). Dr. Julius Schmidt, who was a member of the Squier expedition in 1852-53, furnished the historical and descriptive text to a work which in the English translation by A.D. Savage is known as _Stone Sculptures of Copán and Quiriguá, drawn by Heinrich Meye_ (N. Y., 1883). What Stephens calls the Copan idols and altars are considered by Morgan (_Houses and House Life_, 257), following the analogy of the customs of the northern Indians, to be the grave-posts and graves of Copan chiefs. Bancroft (iv. ch. 3) covers the other ruins of Honduras and San Salvador; and Squier has a paper on those of Tenampua in the _N. Y. Hist. Soc. Proc._, 1853.

[1072] Stephens’s _Central America_, ii. ch. 7; and _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_, vol. lxxxviii. 376, derived from Catherwood.

[1073] Other travellers who have visited them are John Baily, _Central America_ (Lond. 1850); A. P. Maudsley, _Explorations in Guatemala_ (Lond. 1883), with map and plans of ruins, in the _Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc._ p. 185; W. T. Brigham’s _Guatemala_ (N. Y., 1886). Bancroft (iv. 109) epitomizes the existing knowledge; but the remains seem to be less known than any other of the considerable ruins. There are a few later papers: G. Williams on the Antiquities of Guatemala, in the _Smithsonian Report_, 1876; Simeon Habel’s “Sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumalhuapa in Guatemala” in the _Smithson. Contrib._ xxii. (Washington, 1878), or “Sculptures de Santa (Lucia) Cosumalwhuapa dans le Guatémala, avec une rélation de voyages dans l’Amérique Centrale et sur les cótes occidentales de l’Amérique du Sud, par S. Habel. Traduit de l’anglais, par J. Pointet,” with eight plates, in the _Annales du Musée Guimet_, vol. x. pp. 119-259 (Paris, 1887); Philipp Wilhelm Adolf Bastian’s “Stein Sculpturen aus Guatemala,” in the _Jahrbuch der k. Museen zu Berlin_, 1882, or “Notice sur les pierres sculptées du Guatémala récemment acquises par le Musée royal d’ethnographie de Berlin. Traduit avec autorisation de l’auteur par J. Pointet,” in the _Annales du Musée Guimet_, vol. x. pp. 261-305 (Paris, 1887); and C. E. Vreeland and J. F. Bransford, on the _Antiquities at Pantaleon, Guatemala_ (Washington, 1885), from the _Smithsonian Report_ for 1884.

[1074] _Nicaragua; its people, scenery, monuments, and the proposed interoceanic canal_ (N. Y., 1856; revised 1860), a portion (pp. 303-362) referring to the modern Indian occupants. Squier was helped by his official station as U. S. chargé d’affaires; and the archæological objects brought away by him are now in the National Museum at Washington. He published separate papers in the _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._ ii.; _Smithsonian Ann. Rept._ v. (1850); _Harper’s Monthly_, x. and xi. Cf. list in Pilling, nos. 3717, etc.

[1075] His explorations were in 1865-66. He carried off what he could to the British Museum.

[1076] Like Bedford Pim and Berthold Seemann’s _Dottings on the Roadside in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mosquito_ (Lond., 1869).

[1077] J. F. Bransford’s “Archæological Researches in Nicaragua,” in the _Smithsonian Contrib._ (Washington, 1881). Karl Bovallius’s _Nicaraguan Antiquities_, with plates (Stockholm, 1886), published by the Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography, figures various statues and other relics found by the author in Nicaragua, and he says that his drawings are in some instances more exact than those given by Squier before the days of photography. In his introduction he describes the different Indian stocks of Nicaragua, and disagrees with Squier. He gives a useful map of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

[1078] It is only of late years that they have been kept apart, for the elder writers like Kingsborough, Stephens, and Brantz Mayer, confounded them.

[1079] The Father Alonzo Ponce, who travelled through Yucatan in 1586, is the only writer, according to Brinton (_Books of Chilan Balam_, p. 5), who tells us distinctly that the early missionaries made use of aboriginal characters in giving religious instruction to the natives (_Relacion Breve y Verdadera_).

[1080] Leon y Gama tells us that color as well as form seems to have been representative.

[1081] See references on the accepted difficulties in _Native Races_, ii. 551. Mrs. Nuttall claims to have observed certain complemental signs in the Mexican graphic system, “which renders a misinterpretation of the Nahuatl picture-writings impossible” (_Am. Asso. Adv. Science, Proc._, xxxv. Aug., 1886); _Peabody Mus. Papers_, i. App.

[1082] _Prehist. Man_, ii. 57, 64, for his views

[1083] Bancroft, _Native Races_, ii. ch. 17 (pp. 542, 552) gives a good description of the Aztec system, with numerous references; but on this system, and on the hieroglyphic element in general, see Gomara; Bernal Diaz; Motolinia in Icazbalceta’s _Collection_, i. 186, 209; Ternaux’s _Collection_, x. 250; Kingsborough, vi. 87; viii. 190; ix. 201, 235, 287, 325; Acosta, lib. vi. cap. 7; Sahagún, i. p. iv.; Torquemada, i. 29, 30, 36, 149, 253; ii. 263, 544; Las Casas’s _Hist. Apologética_; Purchas’s _Pilgrimes_, iii. 1069; iv. 1135; Clavigero, ii. 187; Robertson’s _America_; Boturini’s _Idea_, pp. 5, 77, 87, 96, 112, 116; Humboldt’s _Vues_, i. 177, 192; Veytia, i. 6, 250; Gallatin in _Am. Ethn. Soc. Trans._ i. 126, 165; Prescott’s _Mexico_, i. ch. 4; Brasseur’s _Nat. Civ._, i. pp. xv, xvii; Domenech’s _Manuscrit pictographique_, introd.; Mendoza, in the _Boletin Soc. Mex._ Geog., 2^{de} ed. i. 896; Madier de Montjau’s _Chronologie hiéroglyphico-phonetic des rois Aztèques, de 1322 à 1522_, with an introduction “sur l’Ecriture Méxicaine;” Lubbock’s _Prehistoric Times_, 279, and his _Origin of Civilization_, ch. 2; E. B. Tylor’s _Researches into the Early Hist. of Mankind_, 89; Short’s _No. Amer. of Antiq._, ch. 8; Müller’s _Chips_, i. 317; The Abbé Jules Pipart in _Compte-rendu, Congrès des Amér._ 1877, ii. 346; Isaac Taylor’s _Alphabets_; Foster’s _Prehistoric Races_, 322; Nadaillac, 376, not to cite others. Bandelier has discussed the Mexican paintings in his paper “On the sources for aboriginal history of Spanish America” in _Am. Asso. Adv. Science, Proc._, xxvii. (1878). See also _Peabody Mus. Reports_, ii. 631; and Orozco y Berra’s “Códice Mendozino” in the _Anales del Museo Nacional_, vol. i. Mrs. Nuttall’s views are in the _Peabody Mus., Twentieth Report_, p. 567. Quaritch (_Catal._ 1885, nos. 29040, etc.) advertised some original Mexican pictures; a native MS. pictorial record of a part of the Tezcuco domain (supposed A.D. 1530), and perhaps one of the “pinturas” mentioned by Ixtlilxochitl; a colored Mexican calendar on a single leaf of the same supposed date and origin; with other MSS. of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. (Cf. also his _Catal._, Jan., Feb., 1888.)

The most important studies upon the Aztec system have been those of Aubin. Cf. his _Mémoire sur la peinture didactique et l’écriture figurative des Anciens Méxicains_, in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, iii. 225 (_Revue Orient. et Amér._), in which he contended for the rebus-like character of the writings. He made further contributions to vols. iv. and v. (1859-1861). Cf. his “Examen des anciennes peintures figuratives de l’ancien Méxique,” in the new series of _Archives_, etc., vol. i.; and the introd. to Brasseur’s _Nations Civilisées_, p. xliv.

[1084] Bancroft (_Nat. Races_, ii. ch. 24) translates these from Landa, Peter Martyr, Cogulludo, Villagutierre, Mendieta, Acosta, Benzoni, and Herrera, and thinks all the modern writers (whom he names, p. 770) have drawn from these earlier ones, except, perhaps, Medel in _Nouv. Annales des Voyages_, xcvii. 49. Cf. Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, ii. 61. It will be seen later that Holden discredits the belief in any phonetic value of the Maya system. But compare on the phonetic value of the Mexican and Maya systems, Brinton in _Amer. Antiquarian_ (Nov. 1886); Lazarus Geiger’s _Contrib. to the Hist. of the Development of the Human Race_ (Eng. tr. by David Asher). London, 1880, p. 75; and Zelia Nuttall in _Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. Proc._, Aug. 1886.

[1085] Dr. Bernoulli, who died at San Francisco, in California, in 1878, and whose labors are commemorated in a notice in the _Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft_ (vi. 710) at Basle, found at Tikal, in Guatemala, some fragments of sculptured panels of wood, bearing hieroglyphics as well as designs, which he succeeded in purchasing, and they were finally deposited in 1879 in the Ethnological Museum in Basle, where Rosny saw them, and describes them, with excellent photographic representations, in his _Doc. Ecrits de l’Antiq. Amér._ (p. 97). These tablets are the latest additions to be made to the store already possessed from Palenqué, as given by Stephens in his _Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan_; those of the Temple of the Cross at Palenqué, after Waldeck’s drawings in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_ (ii., 1864); that from Kabah in Yucatan, given by Rosny in his _Archives Paléographiques_ (i. p. 178; Atlas, pl. xx.), and one from Chichen-Itza, figured by Le Plongeon in _L’Illustration_, Feb. 10, 1882; not to name other engravings. Rosny holds that Rau’s _Palenqué Tablet_ (Washington, 1879) gives the first really serviceably accurate reproduction of that inscription. Cf. on Maya inscriptions, Bancroft, ii. 775; iv. 91, 97, 234; Morelet’s _Travels_; and Le Plongeon in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. 246. This last writer has been thought to let his enthusiasm—not to say dogmatism—turn his head, under which imputation he is not content, naturally (_Ibid._ p. 282).

[1086] “Landa’s alphabet a Spanish fabrication,” appeared in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1880. In this, Philipp J. J. Valentini interprets all that the old writers say of the ancient writings to mean that they were pictorial and not phonetic; and that Landa’s purpose was to devise a vehicle which seemed familiar to the natives, through which he could communicate religious instruction. His views have been controverted by Léon de Rosny (_Doc. Ecrits de la Antiq. Amér._ p. 91); and Brinton (_Maya Chronicles_, 61), calls them an entire misconception of Landa’s purpose.

[1087] _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, n. s., i. 251.

[1088] _Troano_ MS., p. viii.

[1089] _Relation_, Brasseur’s ed., section xli.

[1090] This is given in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, ii. pl. iv.; in Brasseur’s ed. of Landa; in Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, ii. 779; in Short, 425; Rosny (_Essai sur le déchiff._ etc., pl. xiii.) gives a “Tableau des caractères phonétique Mayas d’après Diégo de Landa et Brasseur de Bourbourg.”

[1091] _Manuscrit Troano Etudes sur le système graphique et la langue des Mayas_ (Paris, 1869-70)—the first volume containing a fac-simile of the Codex in seventy plates, with Brasseur’s explications and

## partial interpretation. In the second volume there is a translation

of Gabriél de Saint Bonaventure’s _Grammaire Maya_, a “Chrestomathie” of Maya extracts, and a Maya lexicon of more than 10,000 words. Brasseur published at the same time (1869) in the _Mémoires de la Soc. d’Ethnographie a Lettre à M. Léon de Rosny sur la découverte de documents relatifs à la haute antiquité américaine, et sur le déchiffrement et l’interprétation de l’écriture phonétique et figurative de la langue Maya_ (Paris, 1869). He explained his application of Landa’s alphabet in the introduction to the _MS. Troano_, i. p. 36. Brasseur later confessed he had begun at the wrong end of the MS. (_Bib. Mex.-Guat._, introd.). The pebble-shape form of the characters induced Brasseur to call them _calculiform_; and Julien Duchateau adopted the term in his paper “Sur l’écriture calculiforme des Mayas” in the _Annuaire de la Soc. Amér._ (Paris, 1874), iii. p. 31.

[1092] _L’écriture hiératique_, and _Archives de la Soc. Am. de France_, n. s., ii. 35.

[1093] _Ancient Phonetic Alphabets of Yucatan_ (N. Y., 1870), p. 7.

[1094] It is the development of a paper given at the Nancy session of the Congrès des Américanistes (1875). Landa’s alphabet with the variations make 262 of the 700 signs which Rosny catalogues. He printed his “Nouvelles Recherches pour l’interpretation des caractères de l’Amérique Centrale” in the _Archives_, etc., iii. 118. There is a paper on Rosny’s studies by De la Rada in the Compte-rendu of the Copenhagen session (p. 355) of the Congrès des Américanistes. Rosny’s _Documents écrits de l’antiquité Américaine_ (Paris, 1882), from the _Mémoires de la Société d’Ethnographie_ (1881), covers his researches in Spain and Portugal for material illustrative of the pre-Columbian history of America. Cf. also his “Les sources de l’histoire anté columbienne du nouveau monde,” in the _Mémoires de la Soc. d’Ethnographie_ (1877). For the titles in full of Rosny’s linguistic studies, see Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_, p. 663.

[1095] _Anthropol. Review_, May, 1864; _Memoirs of the Anthropol. Soc._, i.

[1096] _Memoirs_, etc., ii. 298.

[1097] _Memoirs_, etc., 1870, iii. 288; _Trans. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Britain_.

[1098] Introd. to Cyrus Thomas’s _MS. Troano_.

[1099] _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, _n. s._, i. 250.

[1100] _Actes de la Soc. philologique_, March, 1870. Cf. _Revue de Philologie_, i. 380; _Recherches sur le Codex Troano_ (Paris, 1876); _Actes_, etc., March, 1878; Baldwin’s _Anc. America_, App.

[1101] Cf. _Sabin’s Amer. Bibliopolist_, ii. 143.

[1102] _Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, Powell’s Survey_, vol. v. Cf. also his _Phonetic elements in the graphic system of the Mayas and Mexicans_ in the _Amer. Antiquarian_ (Nov., 1886), and separately (Chicago, 1886), and his _Ikonomic method of phonetic writing_ (Phila., 1886). Thomas in _The Amer. Antiquarian_ (March, 1886) points out the course of his own studies in this direction.

[1103] Cf. Short, p. 425. Dr. Harrison Allen in 1875, in the _Amer. Philosophical Society’s Transactions_, made an analysis of Landa’s alphabet and the published codices. Rau, in his _Palenqué Tablet of the U. S. Nat. Museum_ (ch. 5), examines what had been done up to 1879. In the same year Dr. Carl Schultz-Sellack wrote on “Die Amerikanischen Götter der vier Weltgegenden und ihre Tempel in Palenqué,” touching also the question of interpretation (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, vol. xi.); and in 1880 Dr. Förstemann examined the matter in his introduction to his reproduction of the Dresden Codex.

[1104] _Studies in Central American picture-writing_ (Washington, 1881), extracted from the _First Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_. His method is epitomized in _The Century_, Dec., 1881. He finds Stephens’s drawings the most trustworthy of all, Waldeck’s being beautiful, but they embody “singular liberties.” His examination was confined to the 1500 separate hieroglyphs in Stephens’s _Central America_. Some of Holden’s conclusions are worth noting: “The Maya manuscripts do not possess to me the same interest as the stones, and I think it may be certainly said that all of them are younger than the Palenqué tablets, far younger than the inscriptions at Copan.” “I distrust the methods of Brasseur and others who start from the misleading and unlucky alphabet handed down by Landa,” by forming variants, which are made “to satisfy the necessities of the interpreter in carrying out some preconceived idea.” He finds a rigid adherence to the standard form of a character prevailing throughout the same inscription. At Palenqué the inscriptions read as an English inscription would read, beginning at the left and proceeding line by line downward. “The system employed at Palenqué and Copan was the same in its general character, and almost identical even in details.” He deciphers three proper names: “all of them have been pure picture-writing, except in so far as their rebus character may make them in a sense phonetic.” Referring to Valentini’s _Landa Alphabet a Spanish Fabrication_, he agrees in that critic’s conclusions. “While my own,” he adds, “were reached by a study of the stones and in the course of a general examination, Dr. Valentini has addressed himself successfully to the solution of a special problem.” Holden thinks his own solution of the three proper names points of departure for subsequent decipherers. The Maya method was “pure picture-writing. At Copan this is found in its earliest state; at Palenqué it was already highly conventionalized.”

[1105] See references in Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, ii. 576.

[1106] Cogulludo’s _Hist. de Yucatan_, 3d ed., i. 604.

[1107] Prescott, i. 104, and references.

[1108] Dec. iv., lib. 8.

[1109] Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Troano MS._, i. 9. Cf. on the Aztec books Kirk’s Prescott, i. 103; Brinton’s _Myths_, 10; his _Aborig. Amer. Authors_, 17; and on the Mexican Paper, Valentini in _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, 2d s., i. 58.

[1110] Cf. Icazbalceta’s _Don Fray Juan de Zumárraga, primer Obispo y Arzobispo de México (1529-48)_. _Estudio biográfico y bibligráfico. Con un apéndice de documentos inéditos ó raros_ (Mexico, 1881). A part of this work was also printed separately (fifty copies) under the title of _De la destruction de antigüedades méxicanas atribuida á los misioneros en general, y particularmente al Illmo. Sr. D. Fr. Juan de Zumárraga, primer Obispo y Arzobispo de México_ (Mexico, 1881). In this he exhausts pretty much all that has been said on the subject by the bishop himself, by Pedro de Gante, Motolinía, Sahagún, Duran, Acosta, Davila Padilla, Herrera, Torquemada, Ixtlilxochitl, Robertson, Clavigero, Humboldt, Bustamante, Ternaux, Prescott, Alaman, etc. Brasseur (_Nat. Civil._, ii. 4) says of Landa that we must not forget that he was oftener the agent of the council for the Indies than of the Church. Helps (iii. 374) is inclined to be charitable towards a man in a skeptical age, so intensely believing as Zumárraga was. Sahagún relates that earlier than Zumárraga, the fourth ruler of his race, Itzcohuatl, had caused a large destruction of native writings, in order to remove souvenirs of the national humiliation.

[1111] Humboldt was one of the earliest to describe some of these manuscripts in connection with his _Atlas_, pl. xiii.

[1112] Cf. _Catal. of the Phillipps Coll._, no. 404. An original colored copy of the _Antiquities of Mexico_, given by Kingsborough to Phillipps, was offered of late years by Quaritch at £70-£100; it was published at £175. The usual colored copies sell now for about £40-£60; the uncolored for about £30-£35. It is usually stated that two copies were printed on vellum (British Museum, Bodleian), and ten on large paper, which were given to crowned heads, except one, which was given to Obadiah Rich. Squier, in the _London Athenæum_, Dec. 13, 1856 (Allibone, p. 1033), drew attention to the omission of the last signature of the _Hist. Chichimeca_ in vol. ix.

[1113] Rich, _Bibl. Amer. Nova_, ii. 233; _Gentleman’s Mag._, May, 1837, which varies in some particulars. Cf. for other details Sabin’s _Dictionary_, ix. 485; De Rosny in the _Rev. Orient et Amér._, xii. 387. R. A. Wilson (_New Conquest of Mexico_, p. 68) gives the violent skeptical view of the material.

[1114] Sabin, ix., no. 37,800.

[1115] Léon de Rosny (_Doc. écrits de l’Antiq. Amér._, p. 71) speaks of those in the Museo Archæológico at Madrid.

[1116] _Hist. Nueva España._

[1117] _Pilgrimes_, vol. iii. (1625). It is also included in Thevenot’s _Coll. de Voyages_ (1696), vol. ii., in a translation. Clavigero (i. 23) calls this copy faulty. See also Kircher’s _Œdipus Ægypticus_; Humboldt’s plates, xiii., lviii., lix., with his text, in which he quotes Du Palin’s _Study of Hieroglyphics_, vol. i. See the account in Bancroft, ii. 241.

[1118] Prescott, i. 106. He thinks that a copy mentioned in Spineto’s _Lectures on the Elements of Hieroglyphics_, and then in the Escurial, may perhaps be the original. Humboldt calls it a copy.

[1119] Humboldt placed some tribute-rolls in the Berlin library, and gave an account of them. See his pl. xxxvi.

[1120] Cf. references in Bancroft’s _Native Races_, ii. 529. The “Explicacion” of the MS. is given in Kingsborough’s volume v., and an “interpretation” in vol. vi.

[1121] Kingsborough’s “explicacion” and “explanation” are given in his vols. v. and vi. Rosny has given an “explication avec notes par Brasseur de Bourbourg” in his _Archives paléographiques_ (Paris, 1870-71), p. 190, with an atlas of plates. Cf. references in Bancroft, ii. 530; and in another place (iii. 191) this same writer cautions the reader against the translation in Kingsborough, and says that it has every error that can vitiate a translation. Humboldt thinks his own plates, lv. and lvi., of the codex carefully made.

[1122] Prescott says (i. 108) of this that it bears evident marks of recent origin, when “the hieroglyphics were read with the eye of faith rather than of reason.” Cf. Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, ii. 527.

[1123] Portions of it are also reproduced in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_; in Rosny’s _Essai sur le déchiffrement de l’Ecriture Hiératique_; and in Powell’s _Third Rept. Bur. of Ethnology_, p. 56. Cf. also Humboldt’s _Atlas_, pl. xiii.; and H. M. Williams’s translation of his _Aues_, i. 145.

[1124] It is known to have been given in 1665 by the Marquis de Caspi by Count Valerio Zani. There is a copy in the museum of Cardinal Borgia at Veletri.

[1125] Known to have been given in 1677 by the Duke of Saxe-Eisenach to the Emperor Leopold. Some parts are reproduced in Robertson’s _America_, Lond., 1777, ii. 482.

[1126] Humboldt, _Vues des Cordillères_, p. 89; pl. 15, 27, 37; Prescott, i. 106. There is a single leaf of it reproduced in Powell’s _Third Rept. Bur. of Eth._, p. 33.

[1127] Cf. his _Denkwürdigkeiten der Dresdener Bibliothek_ (1744), p. 4.

[1128] Stephens (_Central America_, ii. 342, 453; _Yucatan_, ii. 292, 453) was in the same way at a loss respecting the conditions of the knowledge of such things in his time. Cf. also Orozco y Berra, _Geografia de las Lenguas de México_, p. 101.

[1129] _Die Mayahandschrift der königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Dresden; herausgegeben von E. Förstemann_ (Leipzig, 1880). Only thirty copies were offered for sale at two hundred marks. There is a copy in Harvard College library. Parts of the manuscript are found figured in different publications: Humboldt’s _Vues des Cordillères_, ii. 268, and pl. 16 and 45; Wuttke’s _Gesch. der Schrift. Atlas_, pl. 22, 23 (Leipzig, 1872); _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., vol. i. and ii.; Silvestre’s _Paléographie Universelle_; Rosny’s _Les Ecritures figuratives et hiéroglyphiques des peuples anciens et modernes_ (Paris, 1860, pl. v.), and in his _Essai sur le déchiffrement_, etc.; Ruge, _Zeitalter der Entdeckungen_, p. 559. Cf. also Le Noir in _Antiquités Méxicaines_, ii. introd.; Förstemann’s separate monographs, _Der Maya apparat in Dresden (Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen_, 1885, p. 182), and _Erläuterungen zur Mayahandschrift der königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Dresden_ (Dresden, 1886); Schellhas’ _Die Maya-Handschrift zu Dresden_ (Berlin, 1886); C. Thomas on the numerical signs in _Arch. de la Soc. Am. de France_, n. s., iii. 207.

[1130] Cf. Powell’s _Third Rept. Eth. Bureau_, p. 32

[1131] Brinton’s _Maya Chronicles_, 66; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s _Troano_ (1868).

[1132] It constitutes vol. ii. and iii. of the series.

_Mission scientifique au Méxique et dans l’Amérique Centrale. Ouvrages publiés par ordre de l’Empereur et par les soins du Ministre de l’Instruction publique_ (Paris, 1868-70), under the distinctive title: _Linguistique, Manuscrit Troano. Etudes sur le système graphique et la langue des Mayas, par Brasseur de Bourbourg_ (1869-70).

Rosny, who compared Brasseur’s edition with the original, was satisfied with its exactness, except in the numbering of the leaves; and Brasseur (_Bibl. Mex.-Guat._, 1871) confessed that in his interpretation he had read the MS. backwards. The work was reissued in Paris in 1872, without the plates, under the following title: _Dictionnaire, Grammaire et Chrestomathie de la langue maya, précédés d’une étude sur les système graphique des indigènes du Yucatan (Méxique)_ (Paris, 1872).

Brasseur’s _Rapport, addressé à son Excellence M. Duruy_, included in the work, gives briefly the abbé’s exposition of the MS. Professor Cyrus Thomas and Dr. D. G. Brinton, having printed some expositions in the _American Naturalist_ (vol. xv.) united in an essay making vol. v. of the _Contributions to North American Ethnology_ (Powell’s survey) under the title: _A Study of the Manuscript Troano by Cyrus Thomas, with an introduction by D. G. Brinton_ (Washington, 1882), which gives facsimiles of some of the plates. Thomas calls it a kind of religious calendar, giving dates of religious festivals through a long period, intermixed with illustrations of the habits and employments of the people, their houses, dress, utensils. He calls the characters in a measure phonetic, and not syllabic. Cf. Rosny in the _Archives de la Soc. Am. de France_, n. s., ii. 28; his _Essai sur le déchiffrement_, etc. (1876); Powell’s _Third Rept. Bur. of Eth._, xvi.; Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, ii. 774; and Brinton’s _Notes on the Codex Troano and Maya Chronology_ (Salem, 1881).

[1133] Cf. _Science_, iii. 458.

[1134] _Codex Cortesianus. Manuscrit hiératique des anciens Indiens de l’Amérique centrale conservé au Musée archéologique de Madrid. Photographié et publié pour la première fois, avec une introduction, et un vocabulaire de l’écriture hiératique yucatéque par Léon de Rosny_ (Paris, 1883). At the end is a list of works by De Rosny on American archæology and paleography.

[1135] _Archives de la Soc. Am. de France_, n. s., ii. 25.

[1136] _Bib. Mex.-Guat._, p. 95.

[1137] Cf. Rosny in _Archives paléographiques_ (Paris, 1869-71), pl. 117, etc.; and his _Essai sur le dé chiffrement_, etc., pl. viii., xvi.

[1138] [Mr. Markham made a special study of this point in the _Journal of the Roy. Geog. Soc_. (1871), xli. p. 281, collating its authorities. Cf. the views of Marcoy in _Travels in South America_, tr. by Rich, London, 1875.—ED.]

[1139] Except those portions which Garcilasso de la Vega has embodied in his _Commentaries_.

[1140] It is, of course, necessary to consider the weight to be attached to the statements of different authors; but the most convenient method of placing the subject before the reader will be to deal in the present chapter with general conclusions, and to discuss the comparative merits of the authorities in the Critical Essay on the sources of information.

[1141] For special study, see Paz Soldan’s _Geografía del Peru_; Menendez’ _Manual de Geografía del Peru_; and Wiener’s _L’Empire des Incas_, ch. i.—ED.

[1142] “Jusqu’à present on n’a pas retrouvé le maïs, d’une manière certaine, a l’état sauvage” (De Candolle’s _Géographie botanique raisonnée_, p. 951).

[1143] De Candolle, p. 983.

[1144] There is a wild variety in Mexico, the size of a nut, and attempts have been made to increase its size under cultivation during many years, without any result. This seems to show that a great length of time must have elapsed before the ancient Peruvians could have brought the cultivation of the potato to such a high state of perfection as they undoubtedly did.

[1145] Some years ago a priest named Cabrera, the cura of a village called Macusani, in the province of Caravaya, succeeded in breeding a cross between the wild vicuña and the tame alpaca. He had a flock of these beautiful animals, which yielded long, silken, white wool; but they required extreme care, and died out when the sustaining hand of Cabrera was no longer available. There is also a cross between a llama and an alpaca, called _guariso_, as large as the llama, but with much more wool. The guanaco and llama have also been known to form a cross; but there is no instance of a cross between the two wild varieties,—the guanaco and vicuña. The extremely artificial life of the alpaca, which renders that curious and valuable animal so absolutely dependent on the ministrations of its human master, and the complete domestication of the llama, certainly indicate the lapse of many centuries before such a change could have been effected.

[1146] [Cf. remarks of Daniel Wilson in his _Prehistoric Man_, i. 243.—ED.]

[1147] The name is of later date. One story is that, when an Inca was encamped there, a messenger reached him with unusual celerity, whose speed was compared with that of the “_huanaco_.” The Inca said, “_Tia_” (sit or rest), “_O! huanaco_.”

[1148] Basadre’s measurement is 32 inches by 21.

[1149] Quoted by Garcilasso de la Vega, Pte. I. lib. III. cap. 1.

[1150] Basadre mentions a carved stone brought from the department of Ancachs, in Peru, which had some resemblances to the stones at Tiahuanacu. A copy of it is in possession of Señor Raimondi.

[1151] [Cf. plans and views in Squier’s _Peru_, ch. 24.—ED.]

[1152] Cap. 94.

[1153] See page 238.

[1154] The name of the place where these remains are situated is Concacha, from the Quichua word “_Cuncachay_,”—the act of holding down a victim for sacrifice; literally, “to take by the neck.”

[1155] The names of this god were _Con-Illa-Tici-Uira-cocha_, and he was the _Pachayachachic_, or Teacher of the World. _Pacha_ is “time,” or “place;” also “the universe.” “_Yachachic_,” a teacher, from “_Yachachini_,” “I teach.” _Con_ is said to signify the creating Deity (_Betanzos, Garcia_). According to Gomara, Con was a creative deity who came from the north, afterwards expelled by Pachacamac, and a modern authority (Lopez, p. 235) suggests that _Con_ represented the “cult of the setting sun,” because _Cunti_ means the west. _Tici_ means a founder or foundation, and _Illa_ is light, from _Illani_, “I shine:” “The Origin of Light” (_Montesinos. Anonymous Jesuit._ Lopez suggests “_Ati_,” an evil omen,—the Moon God); or, according to one authority, “Light Eternal” (_The anonymous Jesuit_). _Vira_ is a corruption of _Pirua_, which is said by some authorities to be the name of the first settler, or the founder of a dynasty; and by others to mean a “depository,” a “place of abode;” hence a “dweller,” or “abider.” _Cocha_ means “ocean,” “abyss,” “profundity,” “space.” _Uira-cocha_, “the Dweller in Space.” So that the whole would signify “God: the Creator of Light:” “the Dweller in Space: the Teacher of the World.”

Some authors gave the meaning of _Uira-cocha_ to be “foam of the sea:” from _Uira_ (_Huira_), “grease,” or “foam,” and _Cocha_, “ocean,” “sea,” “lake.” Garcilasso de la Vega pointed out the error. In compound words of a nominative and genitive, the genitive is invariably placed first in Quichua; so that the meaning would be “a sea of grease,” not “grease of the sea.” Hence he concludes that _Uira-cocha_ is not a compound word, but simply a name, the derivation of which he does not attempt to explain. Blas Valera says that it means “the will and power of God;” not that this is the signification of the word, but that such were the godlike attributes of the being who was known by it. Acosta says that to _Ticsi Uira-cocha_ they assigned the chief power and command over all things. The anonymous Jesuit tells us that _Illa Ticsi_ was the original name, and that _Uira-cocha_ was added later.

Of these names, _Illa Ticci_ appears to have been the most ancient.

[1156] Cieza de Leon and Salcamayhua.

[1157] Montesinos calls the ancient people, who were peaceful and industrious, _Hatu-runa_, or “Great men.” See also Matienza (MS. Brit. Mus.).

[1158] _The anonymous Jesuit_, p. 178. A work referred to by Oliva as having been written by Blas Valera also mentions some of the early kings by name. (See Saldamando, _Jesuitas del Peru_, p. 22.)

[1159] _Cachi_ (“salt”) was the Inca’s instruction in rational life, _Uchu_ (“pepper”) was the delight the people derived from this teaching, and _Sauca_ (“joy”) means the happiness afterward experienced.

[1160] G. de la Vega.

[1161] Molina, p. 7.

[1162] Pirua?

[1163] Cieza de Leon; Herrera.

[1164] Salcamayhua.

[1165] Blas Valera allows a period of 600 years for the existence of the Inca dynasty, which throws its origin back to the days of Alfred the Great. Garcilasso allows 400 years, which would make its rise to be contemporary with Henry II of England. But twelve generations, allowing twenty-five years for each, would only occupy 300 years.

[1166] Erroneously called _Aymaras_ by the Spaniards. The name, which really belongs to a branch of the Quichua tribe, was first misapplied to the Colla language by the Jesuits at Juli, and afterwards to the whole Colla race.

[1167] Don Modesto Basadre tells us that he sent an Indian messenger, named Alejo Vilca, from Puno to Tacna, a distance of 84 leagues, who did it in 62 hours, his only sustenance being a little dried maize and coca,—over four miles an hour for 152 miles.

[1168] Fray Ludovico Geronimo de Oré, a native of Guamanga, in Peru, was the author of _Rituale seu Manuale ac brevem formam administrandi sacramenta juxta ordinem S. Ecclesiæ Romanœ, cum translationibus in linguas provinciarum Peruanorum_, published at Naples in 1607.

[1169] Cf. Note 1, following this chapter.

[1170] _Chucu_ means a head-dress; _Huaman_, a falcon; _Huacra_, a horn.

[1171] [Ramusio’s plan of Cuzco is given in Vol. II. p. 554, with references (p. 556) to other plans and descriptions; to which may be added an archæological examination by Wiener, in the _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris_, Oct., 1879, and in his _Pérou et Bolivie_, with an enlarged plan of the town, showing the regions of different architecture; accounts in Marcoy’s _Voyage à travers l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1869; or Eng. transl. i. 174), and in Nadaillac’s _L’Amérique préhistorique_, and by Squier in his Peru, and in his _Remarques sur la Géographie du Pérou_, p. 20.—ED.]

[1172] It is related by Betanzos that one day this Inca appeared before his people with a very joyful countenance. When they asked him the cause of his joy, he replied that Uira-cocha Pachayachachic had spoken to him in a dream that night. Then all the people rose up and saluted him as Viracocha Inca, which is as much as to say,—“King and God.” From that time he was so called. Garcilasso gives a different version of the same tradition, in which he confuses Viracocha with his son.

[1173] Cieza de Leon, ii. 138-44.

[1174] Salcamayhua, 91.

[1175] Blas Valera says 42, Balboa 33, years.

[1176] [The ruins of Atahualpa’s palace are figured in Wiener’s _Pérou et Bolivie_, and in Cte. de Gabriac’s _Promenade à travers l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1868), p. 196.—ED.]

[1177] The meanings of the names of these Incas are significant. Manco and Rocca appear to be proper names without any clear etymology. The rest refer to mental attributes, or else to some personal peculiarity. Sinchi means “strong.” Lloque is “left-handed.” Yupanqui is the second person of the future tense of a verb, and signifies “you will count.” Garcilasso interprets it as one who will count as wise, virtuous, and powerful. Ccapac is rich; that is, rich in all virtues and attributes of a prince. Mayta is an adverb, “where;” and Salcamayhua says that the constant cry and prayer of this Inca was, “Where art thou, O God?” because he was constantly seeking his Creator. Yahuar-huaccac means “weeping blood,” probably in allusion to some malady from which he suffered. Pachacutec has already been explained. Tupac is a word signifying royal splendor, and Huayna means “youth.” Huascar is “a chain,” in allusion to a golden chain said to have been made in his honor, and held by the dancers at the festival of his birth. The meaning of Atahualpa has been much disputed. _Hualpa_ certainly means any large game fowl. _Hualpani_ is to create. _Atau_ is “chance,” or “the fortune of war.” Garcilasso, who is always opposed to derivations, maintains that Atahualpa was a proper name without special meaning, and that Hualpa, as a word for a fowl, is derived from it, because the boys in the streets, when imitating cock-crowing, used the word Atahualpa. But Hualpa formed part of the name of many scions of the Inca family long before the time of Atahualpa.

[1178] All authorities agree that Manco Ccapac was the first Inca, although Montesinos places him far back at the head of the Pirhua dynasty, and all agree respecting the second, Sinchi Rocca. Lloque Yupanqui, with various spellings, has the unanimous vote of all authorities except Acosta, who calls him “Iaguarhuarque.” But Acosta’s list is incomplete. Respecting Mayta Ccapac and Ccapac Yupanqui, all are agreed except Betanzos, who transposes them by an evident slip of memory. Touching Inca Rocca all are agreed, though Montesinos has Sinchi for Inca, and all agree as to Yahuar-huaccac. It is true that Cieza de Leon and Herrera call him Inca Yupanqui, but this is explained by Salcamayhua when he gives the full name,—Yahuar-huaccac Inca Yupanqui. All agree as to Uira-cocha. As to his successor, Betanzos, Cieza de Leon, Fernandez, Herrera, Salcamayhua, and Balboa mention the short reign of the deposed Urco. Cieza de Leon and Betanzos give Yupanqui as the name of Urco’s brother; all other authorities have Pachacutec. The discrepancy is explained by his names having been Yupanqui Pachacutec. This also accounts for Garcilasso de la Vega and Santillan having made Pachacutec and Yupanqui into two Incas, father and son. Betanzos also interpolates a Yamque Yupanqui. All are agreed with regard to Tupac Inca Yupanqui, Huayna Ccapac, Huascar, and Atahualpa. [There is another comparison of the different lists in Wiener, _L’Empire des Incas_, p. 53.—ED.]

[1179] [See an early cut of this sun-worship in Vol. II. p. 551.—ED.]

[1180] At Pachacamac there was a temple to the coast deity, called locally Pachacamac, and another to the sun; but none to the supreme Creator, one of whose epithets was Pachacamac.

[1181] Spanish authors mention a being called _Supay_, which they say was the devil. _Supay_, as an evil spirit, also occurs in the drama of Ollantay. It may have been some local _huaca_, but no devil as such, entered into the religious belief of the Incas.

[1182] Acosta, Polo de Ondegardo, Garcilasso de la Vega.

[1183] The mummies were those of Incas Uira-cocha, Tupac Yupanqui, and Huayna Ccapac; of Mama Runtu (wife of Uira-cocha) and Mama Ocllo (wife of Tupac Yupanqui).

[1184] Mentioned by Calancha (471) and Arriaga as an oracle at the village of Tauca, in Conchucos. Brinton has built up a myth which he credits to the whole Peruvian people, on the strength of a meaning applied to the word _Catequilla_, which is erroneous. It is exactly the same grammatical error that those etymologists fell into who thought that _Uira-cocha_ signified “foam of the sea.” (_Myths of the New World_, 154.)

[1185] A very interesting account of it, with a sketch, is given by Squier, p. 524.

[1186] _Huatana_ means a halter, from _huatani_, to seize; hence the tying up or encircling of the sun.

[1187] Authorities differ respecting the names of the months, and probably some months had more than one name. But the most accurate list, and that which is most in agreement with all the others, is the one adopted by the first Council of Lima, and given by Calancha. It is as follows:—

1. _Yntip Raymi_ (22 June-22 July), Festival of the Winter Solstice, or _Raymi_.

2. Chahuarquiz (22 July-22 Aug.), Season of ploughing.

3. Yapa-quiz (22 Aug.-22 Sept.), Season of sowing.

4. _Ccoya Raymi_ (22 Sept.-22 Oct.), Festival of the Spring Equinox. _Situa._

5. Uma Raymi (22 Oct.-22 Nov.), Season of brewing.

6. Ayamarca (22 Nov.-22 Dec.), Commemoration of the dead.

* * * * *

7. _Ccapac Raymi_ (22 Dec.-22 Jan.), Festival of the Summer Solstice. _Huaraca._

8. Camay (22 Jan.-22 Feb.), Season of exercises.

9. Hatun-poccoy (22 Feb.-22 March), Season of ripening.

* * * * *

10. _Pacha-poccoy_ (22 March-22 April), Festival of Autumn Equinox. _Mosoc Nina._

11. Ayrihua (22 April-22 May), Beginning of harvest.

12. Aymuray (22 May-22 June), Harvesting month. in Google’s copy

[1188] Judges xii. 39; 2 Kings iii. 27.

[1189] The sacrifices were called _runa_, _yuyac_, and _huahua_. The Spaniards thought that _runa_ and _yuyac_ signified men, and _huahua_ children. This was not the case when speaking of sacrificial victims. _Runa_ was applied to a male sacrifice, _huahua_ to the lambs, and _yuyac_ signified an adult or full-grown animal. The sacrificial animals were also called after the names of those who offered them, which was another cause of erroneous assumptions by Spanish writers. There was a law strictly prohibiting human sacrifices among the conquered tribes; and the statement that servants were sacrificed at the obsequies of their masters is disproved by the fact, mentioned by the anonymous Jesuit, that in none of the burial-places opened by the Spaniards in search of treasure were any human bones found, except those of the buried lord himself.

[1190] Prescott (I. p. 98, note) accepted the statement that human sacrifices were offered by the Incas, because six authorities, Sarmiento, Cieza de Leon, Montesinos, Balboa, Ondegardo, and Acosta—outnumbered the single authority on the other side, Garcilasso de la Vega, who, moreover, was believed to be prejudiced owing to his relationship to the Incas. Sarmiento and Cieza de Leon are one and the same, so that the number of authorities for human sacrifices is reduced to five. Cieza de Leon, Montesinos, and Balboa adopted the belief that human sacrifices were offered up, through a misunderstanding of the words _yuyac_ and _huahua_. Acosta had little or no acquaintance with the language, as is proved by the numerous linguistic blunders in his work. Ondegardo wrote at a time when he scarcely knew the language, and had no interpreters; for it was in 1554, when he was judge at Cuzco. At that time all the annalists and old men had fled into the forests, because of the insurrection of Francisco Hernandez Giron.

The authorities who deny the practice are numerous and important. These are Francisco de Chaves, one of the best and most able of the original conquerors; Juan de Oliva; the Licentiate Alvarez; Fray Marcos Jofre; the Licentiate Falcon, in his _Apologia pro Indis_; Melchior Hernandez, in his dictionary, under the words _harpay_ and _huahua_; the anonymous Jesuit in his most valuable narrative; and Garcilasso de la Vega. These eight authorities outweigh the five quoted by Prescott, both as regards number and importance. So that the evidence against human sacrifices is conclusive. The _Quipus_, as the anonymous Jesuit tells us, also prove that there was a law prohibiting human sacrifices.

The assertion that 200 children and 1,000 men were sacrificed at the coronation of Huayua Ccapac was made; but these “_huahuas_” were not children of men, but young lambs, which are called children; and the “_yuyac_” and “_runa_” were not men, but adult llamas. [Mr. Markham has elsewhere collated the authorities on this point (_Royal Commentaries_, i. 139). Cf. Bollaert’s _Antiq. Researches_, p. 124; and Alphonse Castaing on “Les Fêtes, Offrandes et Sacrifices dans l’Antiquité Peruvienne,” in the _Archives de la Société Américaine de France_, n. s. iii. 239.—ED.]

[1191] The sacrificial llamas bore the names of the youths who presented them. Hence the Spanish writers, with little or no knowledge of the language, assumed that the youths themselves were the victims. (See _ante_, p. 237.)

[1192] _Ñusta_, princess; _calli_, valorous; _sapa_, alone, unrivalled.

[1193] Of the first class were the _Tarpuntay_, or sacrificing priests, and the _Nacac_, who cut up the victims and provided the offerings, whether _harpay_ or bloody sacrifices, _haspay_ or bloodless sacrifices of flesh, or _cocuy_, oblations of corn, fruit, or coca. Molina mentions a custom called _Ccapac-cocha_ or _Cacha-huaca_, being the distribution of sacrifices. An enormous tribute came to Cuzco annually for sacrificial purposes, and was thence distributed by the Inca, for the worship of every huaca in the empire. The different sacrifices were sent from Cuzco in all directions for delivery to the priests of the numerous _huacas_. The ministering priests were called _Huacap Uillac_ when they had charge of a special idol, _Huacap Rimachi_ or _Huatuc_ when they received utterances from a deity while in a state of ecstatic frenzy called _utirayay_, and _Ychurichuc_ when they received confessions and ministered in private families. The soothsayers were a very numerous class. The _Hamurpa_ examined the entrails of sacrifices, and divined by the flight of birds. The _Llayca_, _Achacuc_, _Huatuc_, and _Uira-piricuc_ were soothsayers of various grades. The _Socyac_ divined by maize heaps, the _Pacchacuc_ by the feet of a large hairy spider, the _Llaychunca_ by odds and evens. The recluses were not only _Aclla-cuna_, or virgins congregated in temples under the charge of matrons called _Mama-cuna_. There were also hermits who meditated in solitary places, and appear to have been under a rule, with an abbot called _Tucricac_, and younger men serving a novitiate called _Huamac_. These _Huancaquilli_, or hermits, took vows of chastity (_titu_), obedience (_Huñicui_), poverty (_uscacuy_), and penance (_villullery_).

[1194] [The general works on the Inca civilization necessarily touch these points of their religious customs, and Mr. Markham’s volume on the _Rites and Laws of the Incas_ is a prime source of information. Hawk’s translation of Rivero and Von Tschudi (p. 151) gives references; but special mention may be made of Müller’s _Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen_; Castaing’s _Les Système religieux dans l’Antiquité peruvienne_, in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., iii. 86, 145; Tylor’s _Primitive Culture_; Brinton’s _Myths of the New World_; and Albert Réville’s _Lectures on the origin and growth of religion as illustrated by the native religions of Mexico and Peru. Delivered at Oxford and London, in April and May, 1884. Translated by Philip H. Wicksteed_ (London, 1884. Hibbart lectures).—ED.]

[1195] The Quichua language was spoken over a vast area of the Andean region of South America. The dialects only differ slightly, and even the language of the Collas, called by the Spaniards Aymara, is identical as regards the grammatical structure, while a clear majority of the words are the same. The general language of Peru belongs to that American group of languages which has been called agglutinative by William von Humboldt. These languages form new words by a process of junction which is much more developed in them than in any of the forms of speech in the Old World. They also have exclusive and inclusive plurals, and transitional forms of the verb combined with pronominal suffixes which are peculiar to them. In these respects the Quichua is purely an American language, and in spite of the resemblances in the sounds of some words, which have been diligently collected by Lopez (_Les Races Aryennes du Pérou_, par Vicente F. Lopez, Paris, 1871) and Ellis (_Peruvia Scythica_, by Robert Ellis, B. D., London, 1875), no connection, either as regards grammar or vocabulary, has been satisfactorily established between the speech of the Incas and any language of the Old World. Quichua is a noble language, with a most extensive vocabulary, rich in forms of the plural number, which argue a very clear conception of the idea of plurality; rich in verbal conjugations; rich in the power of forming compound nouns; rich in varied expression to denote abstract ideas; rich in words for relationships which are wanting in the Old World idioms; and rich, above all, in synonyms: so that it was an efficient vehicle wherewith to clothe the thoughts and ideas of a people advanced in civilization.

[1196] Garcilasso, _Com. Real._, i. lib. i. cap. 24, and lib. vii. cap. 1.

[1197] Among several kinds of flutes were the _chayña_, made of cane, the _pincullu_, a small wooden flute, and the _pirutu_, of bone. They also had a stringed instrument called _tinya_, for accompanying their songs, a drum, and trumpets of several kinds, one made from a sea-shell.

[1198] Blas Valera wrote upon the subject of Inca drugs, and I have given a list of those usually found in the bags of the itinerant Calahuaya doctors, in a foot-note at page 186 in vol. i. of my translation of the first part of the _Royal Commentaries_ of Garcilasso de la Vega. An interesting account of the Calahuaya doctors is given by Don Modesto Basadre in his _Riquezas Peruanas_, p. 17 (Lima, 1884).

[1199] In the church of Santa Anna.

[1200] [See pictures of Atahualpa in Vol. II. pp. 515, 516. For a colored plate of “Lyoux d’or péruviens,” emblems of royalty, see _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., i. pl. v.—ED.]

[1201] The truth of this use of gold by the Incas does not depend on the glowing descriptions of Garcilasso de la Vega. A golden breastplate and _topu_, a golden leaf with a long stalk, four specimens of golden fruit, and a girdle of gold were found near Cuzco in 1852, and sent to the late General Echenique, then President of Peru. The present writer had an opportunity of inspecting and making careful copies of them. His drawings of the breastplate and _topu_ were lithographed for Bollaert’s _Antiquarian Researches in Peru_, p. 146. The breastplate was 5-3/10 inches in diameter, and had four narrow slits for suspending it round the neck. The golden leaf was 12-7/10 inches long, including the stem; breadth of the base of the leaf, 3-1/10 inches. The models of fruit were 3 inches in diameter, and the girdle 18¼ inches long.

[1202] “The stones are of various sizes in different structures, ranging in length from one to eight feet, and in thickness from six inches to two feet. The larger stones are generally at the bottom, each course diminishing in thickness towards the top of the wall, thus giving a very pleasing effect of graduation. The joints are of a precision unknown in our architecture, and not rivalled in the remains of ancient art in Europe. The statement of the old writers, that the accuracy with which the stones of some structures were fitted together was such that it was impossible to introduce the thinnest knife-blade or finest needle between them, may be taken as strictly true. The world has nothing to show in the way of stone cutting and fitting to surpass the skill and accuracy displayed in the Inca structures of Cuzco.”

[1203] Place of serpents.

[1204] An unmarried prince of the blood royal; a nobleman. Father, in the Colla dialect.

[1205] A married prince of the blood royal.

[1206] A married princess; a lady of noble family.

[1207] An unmarried princess.

[1208] At the conquest there were 594, but a great number had been killed in the previous civil war.

[1209] Chiefs.

[1210] Principal chiefs.

[1211] Balboa, Montesinos, Santillana.

[1212] The male members of a _Chunca_ were divided into ten classes, with reference to age and consequent ability to work:—

1. _Mosoc-aparic_, “Newly begun.” A baby.

2. _Saya-huarma_, “Standing boy.” A child that could stand.

3. _Macta-puric_, “Walking child.” Child aged 2 to 8.

4. _Ttanta raquisic_, “Bread receiver.” Boy of 8.

5. _Puclacc huarma_, “Playing boy.” Boys from 8 to 16.

6. _Cuca pallac_, “Coca picker.” Age from 16 to 20. Light work.

7. _Yma huayna_, “As a youth.” Age 20 to 25.

8. _Puric ——_, “Able-bodied.” Head of a family; paying tribute.

9. _Chaupi-ruccu_, “Elderly.” Light service. Age 50 to 60.

10. _Puñuc ruccu_, “Dotage.” No work. Sixty and upwards.

A _Chunca_ consisted of ten _Purics_, with the other classes in proportion. The _Puric_ was married to one wife, and, while assisted by the young lads and the elderly men, he supported the children and the old people who could not work. The Peruvian laborer had many superstitions, but he was not devoid of higher religious feelings. This is shown by his practice when travelling. On reaching the summit of a pass he never forgot to throw a stone, or sometimes his beloved pellet of coca, on a heap by the roadside, as a thank-offering to God, exclaiming, _Apachicta muchani!_ “I worship or give thanks at this heap.” Festivals lightened his days of toil by their periodical recurrence, and certain family ceremonials were also recognized as occasions for holidays. There was a gathering at the cradling of a child, called _quirau_. When the child attained the age of one year, the _rutuchicu_ took place. Then he received the name he was to retain until he attained the age of puberty. The child was closely shorn, and the name was given by the eldest relation. With a girl the ceremony was called _quicuchica_, and there was a fast of two days imposed before the naming-day, when she assumed the dress called _aucalluasu_.

[1213] The _tupu_ was a measure of land sufficient to support one man and his wife. It was the unit of land measurement, and a _puric_ received _tupus_ according to the number of those dependent on him. In parts of Peru, especially on the road from Tarma to Xauxa, these small square fields, or _tupus_, may still be seen in great numbers, divided by low stone walls.

[1214] The shares for the _Inca_ and _Huaca_ varied according to the requirements of the state. If needful, the _Inca_ share was increased at the expense of the _Huaca_, but never at the expense of the people’s share.

[1215] From _Taripani_, I examine.

[1216] It should probably be _Apunaca_: _Apu_ is a chief, and _naca_ the plural suffix in the Colla dialect.

[1217] _Hatun_, great, and _uilca_, sacred. This official held a position equivalent to a Christian bishop.

[1218] [On the use of guano see Markham’s _Cieza de Leon_, p. 266, note.—ED.]

[1219] [Max Steffen, in his _Die Landwirtschaft bei den Altamerikanischen Kulturvölkern_ (Leipzig, 1883), gives a list of sources.—ED.]

[1220] [The llamas were used in ploughing. Cf. Humboldt’s _Views of Nature_, p. 125.—ED.]

[1221] A bronze instrument found at Sorata had the following composition, according to an analysis by David Forbes:—

Copper 88.05 Copper 94 Tin 11.42 Tin 6 Iron .36 ——— Silver .17 100 —————— 100.00

Humboldt gave the composition of a bronze instrument found at Vilcabamba as follows:—

[1222] _Fifteenth Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of Ethnology_, vol. iii. 2, p. 140 (Cambridge, 1882).

[1223] [Cf. the plates in the _Necropolis of Ancon_, and De la Rada’s _Les Vases Péruviens du Musée Archéologique de Madrid_, in the _Compte Rendu_ (p. 236) of the Copenhagen meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes.—ED.]

[1224] It is believed that some of the heads on the vases were intended as likenesses. One especially, in a collection at Cuzco, is intended, according to native tradition, for a portrait of Rumi-ñaui, a character in the drama of Ollantay.

[1225] _Prehistoric Man_, i. p. 110. A great number of specimens of Peruvian pottery are given in the works of Castelnau, Wiener, Squier, and in the atlas of the _Antigüedades Peruanas_. [Cf. also Marcoy’s _Voyage; Mémoires de la Soc. des Antiquaires du Nord_ (two plates); J. E. Price in the _Anthropological Journal_, iii. 100, and many of the books of Peruvian travel.—ED.]

[1226] [The narratives of the Spanish conquest necessarily throw much light, sometimes more than incidentally, upon the earlier history of the region. These sources are characterized in the critical essay appended to chapter viii. of Vol. II., and embrace bibliographical accounts of Herrera, Gomara, Oviedo, Andagoya, Xeres, Fernandez, Oliva, not to name others of less moment.—ED.]

[1227] See Note II. following this essay.

[1228] Vol. II. p. 573.

[1229] Cf. Vol. II. p. 546.

[1230] _Suma y narracion de los Incas, que los Indios llamaron Capaccuna que fueron señores de la ciudad del Cuzco y de todo lo á ella subjeto. Publícala M. Jiménez de la Espada_ (Madrid, 1880).

[1231] We learn from Leon Pinelo that one of the famous band of adventurers who crossed the line drawn by Pizarro on the sands of Gallo was an author (Antonio, ii. 645). But the _Relacion de la tierra que descubrió Don Francisco Pizarro_, by Diego de Truxillo, remained in manuscript and is lost to us. Francisco de Chaves, one of the most respected of the companions of Pizarro, who strove to save the life of Atahualpa, and was an intimate friend of the Inca’s brother, was also an author. Chaves is honorably distinguished for his moderation and humanity. He lost his own life in defending the staircase against the assassins of Pizarro. He left behind a copious narrative, and his intimate relations with the Indians make it likely that it contained much valuable information respecting Inca civilization. It was inherited by the author’s friend and relation, Luis Valera, but it was never printed, and the manuscript is now lost. The works of Palomino, a companion of Belalcazar, who wrote on the kingdom of Quito, are also lost, with the exception of a fragment preserved in the _Breve Informe_ of Las Casas. Other soldiers of the conquest, Tomas Vasquez, Francisco de Villacastin, Garcia de Melo, and Alonso de Mesa, are mentioned as men who had studied and were learned in all matters relating to Inca antiquities; but none of their writings have been preserved.

[1232] But not dedicated to the Conde de Nieva, as Prescott states, for that viceroy died in 1564.

[1233] B, 135.

[1234] Report by Polo de Ondegardo, translated by Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, 1873).

[1235] [See Vol. II. p. 571.—ED.]

[1236] [See Vol. II. p. 567-8, for bibliography.—ED.]

[1237] [See Vol. II. p. 542.—ED.]

[1238] Additional MSS. 5469, British Museum, folio, p. 274. See Vol. II. p. 571.

[1239] See _ante_, p. 6.

[1240] National Library at Madrid, B, 135.

[1241] _The fables and rites of the Incas, by Christoval de Molina_, translated and edited by Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, 1873).

[1242] [See. Vol. II. p. 576.—ED.]

[1243] For the bibliography of Acosta, see Vol. II. p. 420, 421.

[1244] Notices of the life and works of Acosta have been given in biographical dictionaries, and in histories of the Jesuits. An excellent biography will be found in a work entitled _Los Antiquos Jesuitas del Peru_, by Don Enrique Torres Saldamando, which was published at Lima in 1885. See also an introductory notice in Markham’s edition (1880).

[1245] Thus his lists of the Incas, of the names of months and of festivals, are very defective; and his list of names of stars, though copied from Balboa without acknowledgment, is incomplete.

[1246] Acosta was the chief source whence the civilized world of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, beyond the limits of Spain, derived a knowledge of Peruvian civilization. Purchas, in his _Pilgrimage_ (ed. of 1623, lib. v. p. 869; vi. p. 931), quotes largely from the learned Jesuit, and an abstract of his work is given in Harris’s _Voyages_ (lib. i. cap. xiii. pp. 751-799). He is much relied upon as an authority by Robertson, and is quoted 19 times in Prescott’s _Conquest of Peru_, thus taking the fourth place as an authority with regard to that work, since Garcilasso is quoted 89 times, Cieza de Leon 45, Ondegardo 41, Acosta 19.

[1247] Of whose parentage a pleasing story is told. He was a native of Truxillo, of French parents, his father being a metal-founder. When he was a small boy his father said to him, “Study, little Charles, study! and this bell that I am founding shall be rung for you when you are the bishop.” (“Estudiar, Carlete, estudiar! que con esta campana te han de repicar cuando seas obispo.”) Dr. Corni rose to be a prelate of great virtue and erudition, and an eloquent preacher. At last he became Bishop of Truxillo in 1620, and when he heard the chimes which were rung on his approach to the city, he said, “That bell which excels all the others was founded by my father.” (“Aquella campana que sobresale entre las demas le fundio mi padre.”)

[1248] _Papeles Varios de Indias._ MS. Brit. Mus.

[1249] This last work is devoted to the Spanish conquest.

[1250] In the series entitled _Coleccion de libros Españoles raros ó curiosos_, tom xvi. (Madrid, 1882.) [The original manuscript is in the library of the Real Academia de Historia at Madrid. Brasseur de Bourbourg had a copy (_Pinart Catalogue_, No. 638; _Bibl. Mex. Guat._, p. 103), which appeared also in the Del Monte sale (N. Y., June, 1888,—_Catalogue_, iii. no. 554). Cf. the present _History_, II. pp. 570, 577.—ED.]

[1251] _Relacion de las costumbres antiquas de los naturales del Peru. Anónima._ The original is among the manuscript in the National Library at Madrid. It was published as part of a volume entitled _Tres Relaciones de Antigüedades Peruanas_. _Publícalas el Ministerio de Fomento_ (Madrid, 1879).

[1252] _Narrative of the errors, false gods, and other superstitions and diabolical rites in which the Indians of the province of Huarochiri lived in ancient times, collected by Dr. Francisco de Avila, 1608: translated and edited by Clements R. Markham_ (Hakluyt Society, 1872). [There was a copy of the Spanish MS. in the E. G. Squier sale, 1876, no. 726.—ED.]

[1253] _Tratado de las idolatrias de los Indios del Peru._ This work is mentioned by Leon Pinelo as “una obra grande y de mucha erudicion,” but it was never printed.

[1254] _Contra idolatriam_, MS.

[1255] _Extirpacion de la idolatria del Peru, por el Padre Pablo Joseph de Arriaga_ (Lima, 1621, pp. 137).

[1256] [See Vol. II. p. 570. The _Historiæ Pervanæ ordinis Eremitarum S. P. Augustini libri octodecim (1651-52)_ is mainly a translation of Calancha. Cf. Sabin, nos. 8760, 9870.—ED.]

[1257] _Historia de Copacabana y de su milagrosa imagen, escrita por el R. P. Fray Alonso Ramos Gavilan_ (1620). The work of Ramos was reprinted from an incomplete copy at La Paz in 1860, and edited by Fr. Rafael Sans.

[1258] _Origen de los Indios del Nuevo Mundo_ (1607), and in Barcia (1729).

[1259] _Monarquia de los Incas del Peru._ Antonio says of this work, “Tertium quod promiserat adhuc latet nempe.”

[1260] _Historia general del Peru, origen y descendencia de los Incas, pueblos y ciudades, por P. Fr. Martin de Múrua_ (1618). [Cf. Markham’s _Cieza’s Travels_, Second Part, p. 12.—ED.]

[1261] He was a cousin of the poet of the same name, and of the dukes of Feria.

[1262] See Vol. II. pp. 290, 575.

[1263] The _Commentarios Reales_ (Part I.) of Garcilassos de la Vega contain 21 quotations from Blas Valera, 30 from Cieza de Leon (first part), 27 from Acosta, 11 from Gomara, 9 from Zarate, 3 from the _Republica de las Indias Occidentales_ of Fray Geronimo Roman, 2 from Fernandez, 4 from the Inca’s schoolfellow Alcobasa, and 1 from Juan Botero Benes.

[1264] In a learned pamphlet on the word _Uirakocha_,—“_Lexicologia Keshua por Leonardo Villar_” (pp. 16, double columns. Lima, 1887).

[1265] [The common expression of distrust is such as is shown by Hutchinson in his _Two Years in Peru_, who finds little to commend amid a constant glorification of the Incas to the prejudice of the older peoples; and by Marcoy in his _Travels in South America_, who speaks of his “simple and audacious gasconades” (Eng. trans. i. p. 186).—ED.]

[1266] Cf. the bibliography of the book in Vol. II. pp. 569, 570, 575.—ED.

[1267] By Clements R. Markham, in 1872.

[1268] [Cf. bibliog. of Herrera in Vol. II. pp. 67, 68.—ED.]

[1269] _Informaciones acerca del Señorio y Gobierno de los Ingas hechas, por mandado de Don Francisco de Toledo Virey del Peru_ (1570-72). Edited by Don Márcos Jiménez de la Espada, in the _Coleccion de libros Españoles raros ó curiosos_, Tomo xvi. (Madrid, 1882).

[1270] We first hear of Sarmiento in a memorial dated at Cuzco on March 4, 1572, in which he says that he was the author of a history of the Incas, now lost. We further gather that, owing to having found out from the records of the Incas that Tupac Inca Yupanqui discovered two islands in the South Sea, called _Ahuachumpi_ and _Ninachumpi_, Sarmiento sailed on an expedition to discover them at some time previous to 1564. Balboa also mentions the tradition of the discovery of these islands by Tupac Yupanqui. Sarmiento seems to have discovered islands which he believed to be those of the Inca, and in 1567 he volunteered to command the expedition dispatched by Lope de Castro, then governor of Peru, to discover the Terra Australis. But Castro gave the command to his own relation, Mandana. We learn, however, from the memorial of Sarmiento, that he accompanied the expedition, and that the first land was discovered through shaping a course in accordance with his advice. Sarmiento submitted a full report of this first voyage of Mandana, which is now lost, to the Viceroy Toledo. In 1579, Sarmiento was sent to explore the Straits of Magellan. In 1586, on his way to Spain, he was captured by an English ship belonging to Raleigh, and was entertained hospitably by Sir Walter at Durham House until his ransom was collected. From the Spanish captive his host obtained much information respecting Peru and its Incas. He could have no higher authority. One of the journals of the survey of Magellan Straits by Sarmiento was published at Madrid in 1768: _Viage al estrecho de Magellanes: por el Capitan Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, en los años 1579 y 1580_. See Vol. II. p. 616.

[1271] [Cf. Vol. II. p. 571.]

[1272] _Historia del Reino de Quito, en la America Meridional, escrita por el Presbitero Don Juan de Velasco nativo de Mismo Reino, año de 1789._ A Spanish edition, _Quito, Imprenta del Gobierno_, 1844, 3 Tomos, was printed from the manuscript, _Histoire du Royaume de Quito, por Don Juan de Velasco_ (_inédite_,) vol. ix. _Voyages, &c., par H. Ternaux Compans_ (Paris, 1840). This version, however, covers only a part of the work, of which the second volume only relates to the ancient history. [Cf. Vol. II. p. 576.—ED.]

[1273] [Cf. Vol. II. p. 578.—ED.]

[1274] [Cf. Vol. II. p. 577; Sabin’s _Dictionary_, xv. p. 439. The opinions of Prescott can be got at through _Poole’s Index_, p. 993. H. H. Bancroft, _Chronicles_, 25, gives a characteristic estimate of Prescott’s archæological labors. Prescott’s catalogue of his own library, with his annotations, is in the Boston Public Library, no. 6334.27.—ED.]

[1275] Prescott quotes these four authorities 249 times, and all other early writers known to him (Herrera, Zarate, Betanzos, Balboa, Montesinos, Pedro Pizarro, Fernandez, Gomara, Levinus Apollonius, Velasco, and the MS. “Declaracion de la Audiencia”) 82 times.

[1276] Calancha and a MS. letter of Valverde. He also refers several times to the _Antigüedades Peruanas_ of Tschudi and Rivero.

[1277] _Spanish Conquest in America_, vol. iii. book xiii. chap. 3, pp. 468 to 513. [Cf. Vol. II. p. 578.]—ED.

[1278] It was translated into English as _Peruvian Antiquities_, by Dr. Francis L. Hawkes, of New York, in 1853. [The English translation retained the woodcuts, but omitted the atlas. Cf. Field, _Ind. Bibliog._, no. 1306; Sabin, xvii. p. 319. There is a French edition, _Antiquités Péruviennes_ (Paris, 1859). Dr. Tschudi later published _Reisen durch Süd Amerika_, in five vols. (Leipzig, 1866-69), which was translated into English as _Travels in Peru_, 1838-1842, and published in New York and London.—ED.]

[1279] _Los Anales del Cuzco, por Dr. Mesa_ (Cuzco, 2 vols.).

[1280] _Historia Antigua del Peru, por Sebastian Lorente_ (Lima, 1860).

[1281] _Historia de la civilizacion Peruana, Revista de Lima_ (Lima, 1880).

[1282] _Recuerdos de la Monarquia Peruana, ó Bosquejo de la historia de los Incas, por Dr. Justo Sahuaraura Inca, Canonigo en la Catedral de Cuzco_ (Paris, 1850).

[1283] _Le Pérou avant la conquête espagnole, d’après les principaux historiens originaux et quelques documents inédits sur les antiquités de ce pays_ (Paris, 1858).

[1284] _Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen, von J. G. Müller_ (Basel, 1867).

[1285] _Anthropologie der Naturvölker, von Dr. Theodor Waitz_ (4 vols.) Leipzig, 1864.

[1286] _Myths of the New World, a treatise on the symbolism and mythology of the Red Race of America, by Daniel G. Brinton, M.D._ (New York, 1868). _Aboriginal American authors and their productions, especially those in the native languages, by Daniel G. Brinton, M.D._ (Philadelphia, 1883). [Brinton’s writings, however, in the main illustrate the antiquities north of Panama.]

[1287] _Antiquarian, ethnological and other researches in New Granada, Equador, Peru, and Chile; with observations on the Pre-Incarial, Incarial, and other monuments of Peruvian nations, by William Bollaert, F.R.G.S._ (London, 1860). [Bollaert’s minor and periodical contributions, mainly embodied in his final work, are numerous: _Contributions to an introduction to the Anthropology of the New World_. _Ancient Peruvian graphic Records_ (tr. in _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., i.). _Observations on the history of the Incas_ (in the _Transactions Ethnological Soc._, 1854).—ED.]

[1288] _Vues des Cordillères, ou Monumens des Peuples indigènes de l’Amérique_ (Paris, 1810; in 8vo, 1816), called in the English translation, _Researches concerning the institutions and monuments of the ancient inhabitants of America, with descriptions and views of some of the most striking scenes in the Cordilleras_. _Transl. into English by Helen Maria Williams_ (London, 1814). _Voyage aux Régions équinoxiales du Nouveau Continent fait en 1799-1804, avec deux Atlas_, 3 vols. 4to (Paris, 1814-25; and 8vo, 13 vols., 1816-31), called in the English translation, _Personal narrative of travels to the equinoctial regions of America, 1799-1804, by A. von Humboldt_ [_and A. Bonpland_]: _translated and edited by Thomasina Ross_ (Lond., 1852); and in earlier versions by H. M. Williams (London, 1818-1829). [Humboldt’s later summarized expressions are found in his _Ansichten der Natur_ (Stuttgart, 1849; English tr., _Aspects of Nature_, by Mrs. Sabine, London and Philad., 1849; and _Views of Nature_, by E. C. Otté, London, 1850). Current views of Humboldt’s American studies can be tracked through _Poole’s Index_, p. 613.—ED.]

[1289] Antonio Ulloa’s _Mémoires philosophiques, historiques, physiques, concernant le découverte de l’Amérique_ (Paris, 1787). _Voyage historique de l’Amérique Méridionale, fait par ordre du Roy d’Espagne; ouvrage qui contient une histoire des Yncas du Pérou, et des observations astronomiques et physiques, faites pour déterminer la figure et la grandeur de la terre_ (Amsterdam, 1732). Or in the English translation, _Voyage to South America by Don Jorge Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa_, 2 vols. 8vo (London, 1758, 1772; fifth ed. 1807). [Another of the savans in this scientific expedition was Charles M. La Condamine, and we have his observations in his _Journal du Voyage fait à l’Equateur_ (1751), and in a paper on the Peruvian monuments in the Mémoires of the Berlin Academy (1746). Other early observers deserving brief mention are Pedro de Madriga, whose account is appended to Admiral Jacques d’Heremite’s _Journael van de Nassausche Vloot_ (Amsterdam, 1652), and Amedée François Frezier’s _Voyage to the South Sea_ (London, 1717).—ED.]

[1290] _L’Homme Américain considéré sous ses Rapports Physiologiques et Moraux_ (Paris, 1839). [He gives a large ethnological map of South America. His book is separately printed from _Voyages dans l’Amérique Meridionale_ (9 vols.)—ED.]

[1291] _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique de Sud, exécutée par ordre du Gouvernement Français pendant les annees 1843 à 1847. Troisième partie, Antiquités des Incas_ (4to, Paris, 1854).

[1292] _Pérou et Bolivie, Récit de voyage suivi d’études archéologiques et ethnographiques et de notes sur l’écriture et les langues des populations Indiennes. Ouvrage contenant plus de 1100 gravures, 27 cartes et 18 plans, par Charles Wiener_ (Paris, 1880). [Wiener earlier published two monographs: _Notice sur le communisme des Incas_ (Paris, 1874); _Essai sur les institutions politiques, religieuses, économiques et sociales de l’Empire des Incas_ (Paris, 1874).—ED.]

[1293] _Uira-cocha, por Leonardo Villar_ (Lima, 1887).

[1294] _Cuzco and Lima_ (London, 1856).

[1295] _Travels in Peru and India while superintending the collection of chinchona plants and seeds in South America, and their introduction into India_ (London, 1862). [Cf. Field’s _Indian Bibliog._ for notes on Mr. Markham’s book. He epitomizes the accounts of Peruvian antiquities in his _Peru_ (London, 1880), of the “Foreign Countries Series.” Cf. Vol. II. p. 578.]—ED.

[1296] _Peru, Incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the Incas_ (N. Y. 1877; London, 1877). [Squier was sent to Peru on a diplomatic mission by the United States government in 1863, and this service rendered, he gave two years to exploring the antiquities of the country. His _Peru_ embodies various separate studies, which he had previously contributed to the _Journal of the American Geographical Society_ (vol. iii. 1870-71); the _American Naturalist_ (vol. iv. 1870); _Harper’s Monthly_ (vols. vii., xxxvi., xxxvii.). He contributed “Quelques remarques sur la géographie et les monuments du Pérou” to the _Bulletin de la Société de géographie de Paris_, Jan., 1868. A list of Squier’s publications is appended to the Sale _Catalogue_ of his Library (N. Y., 1876), which contains a list of his MSS., most of which, it is believed, passed into the collection of H. H. Bancroft. Mr. Squier’s closing years were obscured by infirmity; he died in 1888.—ED.]

[1297] [Among the recent travellers, mention may be made of a few of various interests: Edmund Temple’s _Travels in Peru_ (Lond., 1830); Thomas Sutcliffe’s _Sixteen Years in Chili and Peru_ (Lond., 1841); S. S. Hill’s _Travels in Peru and Mexico_ (Lond., 1860); Thos. J. Hutchinson’s _Two Years in Peru_ (with papers on prehistoric anthropology in the _Anthropological Journal_, iv. 438, and “Some Fallacies about the Incas,” in the _Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liverpool_, 1873-74, p. 121); Marcoy’s _Voyage_, first in the _Tour du Monde_, 1863-64, and then separately in French, and again in English; E. Pertuiset’s _Le Trésor des Incas_ (Paris, 1877); and Comte d’Ursel’s _Sud-Amérique_, 2d ed. (Paris, 1879). F. Hassaurek, in his _Four Years among Spanish Americans_ (N. Y., 1867), epitomizes in his ch. xvi. the history of Quito.—ED.]

[1298] _Intellectual Observer_, May, 1863 (London).

[1299] _Riquezas Peruanas_ (Lima, 1884).

[1300] _The temple of the Andes, by Richards Inwards_ (London, 1884). [Mr. Markham has also had occasion to speak of these ruins in annotating his edition of Cieza de Leon, p. 374. There is a privately printed book by L. Angrand, _Antiquités Américaines: lettres sur les antiquités de Tiaguanaco, et l’origine présumable de la plus ancienne civilisation du Haut-Pérou_ (Paris, 1866).—ED.]

[1301] This superb work was issued at Berlin and London with German and English texts. The English title reads, _Peruvian Antiquities: the Necropolis of Ancon in Peru. A contribution to our knowledge of the culture and industries of the empire of the Incas. Being the results of excavations made on the spot._ Translated by A. H. Keane. With the aid of the general administration of the royal museums of Berlin (Berlin, 1880-87); in three folio volumes, with 119 colored and plain plates. The divisions are: 1. The Necropolis and its graves. 2. Garments and textiles. 3. Ornaments, utensils, earthenware; evolution of ornamentation, with treatises by L. Wittmack on the plants found in the graves; R. Virchow on the human remains, and A. Nehring on the animals. [A few of the plates are reproduced in black and white in Ruge’s _Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_. The authors represent that the graveyard of Ancon, an obscure place lying near the coast, north of Lima, was probably the burial-place of a poor people; but its obscurity has saved it to us while important places have been ransacked and destroyed. The reader will be struck with the richness of the woven materials, which are so strikingly figured in the plates. On this point Stübel published in Dresden in 1888, as a part of the _Festschrift_ of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the “Verein für Erdkunde,” a paper _Ueber altperuanische Gewebemuster und ihnen analoge Ornamente der altklassischen Kunst_ (Dresden, 1888). Some of the plates in the larger work impress one with the great variety of ornamenting skill. The collection formed by John H. Blake from an ancient cemetery on the bay of Chacota, now in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, Mass., is described in the _Reports_ of that institution, xi. 195, 277. Reference may also be made to B. M. Wright’s _Description of the collection of gold ornaments from the “huacas,” or graves of some aboriginal races of the northwestern provinces of South America, belonging to Lady Brassey_ (London, 1885).—ED.]

[1302] Antonio Raimondi. _El Peru. Tomo I. Parte Preliminar, 4to, pp. 444_ (Lima, 1874). _Tomo II. Historia de la Geografia del Peru, 4to, pp. 475_ (Lima, 1876). _Tomo III. Historia de la Geografia del Peru, 4to, pp. 614_ (Lima, 1880).

[1303] _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires Originaux pour servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_, 20 vols. in 10, 8vo (Paris, 1837-41). See Vol. II., introd. p. vi.

[1304] [Among less important or more general later writers on this ancient civilization may be mentioned: Charles Labarthe’s _La Civilisation péruvienne avant l’arrivée des Espagnols (Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., i.), and his paper from the _Annuaire Ethnographique_, on the “Documents inédits sur l’empire des Incas” (Paris, 1861); Rudolf Falb’s _Das Land der Inca in seiner Bedeutung für die Urgeschichte der Sprache und Schrift_ (Leipzig, 1883); Lieut. G. M. Gilliss, in Schoolcraft’s _Ind. Tribes_, v. 657; Dr. Macedo’s comparison of the Inca and Aztec civilizations in the _Proc. of the Numism. and Antiq. Soc._ (Philad. 1883); Vicomte Th. de Bussière’s _Le Pérou_ (Paris, 1863); beside chapters in such comprehensive works as those of Nadaillac, Ruge, Baldwin, Wilson (_Prehistoric Man_), and the papers of Castaing and others in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, and an occasional paper in the _Journals_ of the American and other geographical and ethnological societies. Current English comment is reached through _Poole’s Index_, pp. 627, 992.—ED.]

[1305] [Humboldt (_Views of Nature_, 235) points out that the name Chimborazo is probably a relic of this earlier tongue.—ED.]

[1306] [Wiener, _Pérou et Bolivie_, p. 98, gives a plan of the neighborhood of Truxillo, showing the position “du Gran Chimu,” and an enlarged plan of the ruins.—ED.]

[1307] Squier, 210.

[1308] [There are two or three Peruvian periodicals of some importance for their archæological papers. The _Mercurio Peruano de Historia, Literatura y Noticias publicas que da a luz la Sociedad Academica de Amantes de Lima_ (Lima, 1791-1795), appeared in twelve volumes. It is often defective, and the Spanish government finally interdicted it, as it was considered revolutionary in principle. It was edited at one time by the Père Cisneros. There is a set in Harvard College library.

The _Revista Peruana_ (Lima) has been the channel of some important archæological contributions. Others appeared in the _Museo Erudito, o los Tiempos y las Costumbres_ (Cuzco, 1837, etc.)—ED.]

[1309] Squier.

[1310] I do not now believe that the idolatrous practices and legends, preserved by Arriaga and Avila, had any connection with the _Chimu_ race.

[1311] _Grammatica o Arte de la lengua general de los Indios de los Reynos del Peru, nuevamente compuesta por el Maestro Fray Domingo de S. Thomas de la orden de S. Domingo, Morador en los dichos reynos. Impresso en Valladolid por Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, 1560. Lexicon ó Vocabulario de la lengua general del Peru, llamada Quichua_ (Valladolid, 1560). The grammar and vocabulary are usually bound up together. [The two were priced respectively by Leclerc, in 1878, at 2,500 and 600 francs.—ED.]

The grammar and vocabulary of San Tomas were reprinted at Lima in 1586 by Antonio Ricardo. In the list given by Rivero and Von Tschudi (_Antigüedades Peruanas_, p. 99), the printer Ricardo is entered as the author of this Lima edition of San Tomas.

[1312] _Grammatica y Vocabulario en la lengua general del Peru llamada Quichua por Diego de Torres Rubio S. S._ (Seville, 1603). This original edition is of great rarity. Quaritch, in 1885, asked £20 for a defective copy.—ED.

A second edition was printed at Lima in 1619; and a third in 1700. To this third edition a vocabulary was added of the Chinchaysuyu dialect, by Juan de Figueredo. A fourth edition was published at Lima in 1754, also containing the Chinchaysuyu vocabulary, which is spoken in the north of Peru. [For this 1754 edition see Leclerc, no. 2409. It is worth about $50.—ED.]

[1313] _Vocabulario de la Lengua general de todo el Peru llamada lengua Quichua ó del Inca._ En la ciudad de los Reyes, 1586. Second edition printed by Francisco del Canto, 1607 (2 vols. 4to). [Leclerc (no. 2401), in 1879, priced this ed. at 2,000 francs; Quaritch, a defective copy, £21.—ED.]

[1314] _Gramatica y Arte nueva de la lengua general de todo el Peru llamada lengua Quichua o Lengua del Inca por Diego Gonzales Holguin de la Compañia de Jesus, natural de Caceres Impresso en la Ciudad de los Reyes del Peru, por Francisco del Canto, 1607._ [Leclerc, 1879, no. 2402, 500 francs.—ED.] A second edition was published at Lima in 1842.

[1315] _Arte y gramatica muy copiosa de la lengua Aymará con muchos y variados modos de hablar_ (Roma, 1603).

[1316] _Arte de la lengua Aymará con una selva de frases en la misma lengua y su declaracion en romance. Impresso en la casa de in Compañia de Jesus de Juli en la provincia de Chucuyto. Por Francisco del Canto, 1612._ pp. 348.

[1317] _Vocabulario de la lengua Aymara, Juli 1612_, Spanish and Aymara, pp. 420, Aymara and Spanish, pp. 378. [Priced by Quaritch in 1885 at £60; by Leclerc in 1879 at 2,000 francs.—ED.]

[1318] _Arte de la lengua general del’ ynga llamada Quechhua_ (Lima, 1691). Leclerc, 1879. 250 francs.

[1319] _Arte de la lengua Yunga de los valles del Obispado de Truxillo, con un confesionario, y todos las ovaciones cristianas y otras casas. Autor el beneficiado Don Fernando de la Carrera Cura y Vicario de San Martin de Reque en el corregimiento de Chiclayo_ (Lima, 1644).

This work is extremely rare. Only three copies are known to exist, one in the library at Madrid, one in the British Museum, which belonged to M. Ternaux Compans, and one in possession of Dr. Villar, in Peru. A copy was made for William von Humboldt from the British Museum copy, which is now in the library at Berlin.

The _Arte de la lengua Yunga_ was reprinted in numbers of the _Revista de Lima_ in 1880, under the editorial supervision of Dr. Gonzalez de la Rosa.

[1320] _Sermones de los misterios de nuestra Santa Fé catolica, en lengua Castellana, y la general del Inca. Impugnanse los errores

## particulares que los Indios han tenido, por el Doctor Don Fernando de

Avendaño, 1648._ Rivero and Von Tschudi give some extracts from these sermons in the _Antigüedades Peruanas_, p. 108.

[1321] _Rituale seu Manuale Peruanum juxta ordinem Sanctæ Romanæ Ecclesiæ, per R. P. F. Ludovicum Hieronymum Orerum_ (Neapoli, 1607).

[1322] Carter-Brown, ii. 7.

[1323] _Primera parte de la miscelanea austral de Don Diego D’Avalos y Figueroa ex varias coloquias, interlocutores Delia y Cilena, con la defensa de Danias. Impreso en Lima por Antonio Ricardo, año 1602._

[1324] _Die Kechua Sprache, I._; _Sprachlehre, II._; _Wörterbuch, von J. J. Von Tschudi_ (Wien, 1853).

[1325] _Gramatica y Diccionario de la lengua general de Peru, llamada comunmuente Quichua, por el R. P. Fr. Honorio Mossi, Misionero Apostolico del colejio de propaganda fide de la ciudad de Potosi_ (Sucre, 1859). [An earlier _Gramática y Ensayo_ was published at Sucre in 1857. Leclerc says it has become very rare.—ED.]

[1326] _Gramatica Quichua o del idioma del Imperio de los Incas, por José Dionisio Anchorena_ (Lima, 1874).

[1327] _Elementos de Gramatica Quichua ó idioma de los Yncas por el Dr. José Fernandez Nodal._ The book was printed in England in 1874.

[1328] _El Evangelio de Jesu Christo segun San Lucas en Aymara y Español, traducido de la vulgata Latin al Aymará por Don Vicente Pazos-kanki, Doctor de la Universidad del Cuzco e Individuo de la Sociedad Historica de Nueva York_ (Londres, 1829).

[1329] _Apunchis Santa Yoancama Ehuangeliun, Quichua cayri Ynca siminpi quillkcasca. El Santo Evangelio de Nuestro Señor Jesu-Christo segun San Juan, traducido del original a la lengua Quichua o del Ynca; por el Rev. J. H. Gybbon Spilsbury, Buenos Aires, 1880._

[1330] _Les Races Aryennes du Pérou, leur langue, leur religion, leur histoire, par Vicente Fidel Lopez_ (Paris et Montevideo, 1871). [Lopez’s book was subjected to an examination by Lucien Adam, in a paper, “Le Quichua, est il une langue aryenne?” in the Luxembourg _Compte-Rendu du Congrés des Américanistes_, ii. 75. Cf. _Macmillan’s Mag._, xxvii. 424, by A. Lang.—ED.]

[1331] _Peruvia Scythica. The Quichua language of Peru: its derivation from Central Asia, with the American languages in general, and with the Turanian and Iberian languages of the Old World, including the Basque, the Llycian, and the Pre-Aryan language of Etruria; by Robert Ellis, B. D._ (Trübner & Co., London, 1875).

[1332] _Ollanta: ein Altperuanisches Drama aus der Kechuasprache, übersetzt und commentirt von J. J. von Tschudi_ (Wien, 1875).

[1333] _Ollanta, an ancient Inca Drama_, by Clements R. Markham (London, 1871).

[1334] _Ollanta o sea la severidad de un padre y la clemencia de un rey drama traducido del Quichua al Castellano por José S. Barranca_ (Lima, 1868).

[1335] _Ollanta por Constantino Carrasco_ (Lima, 1876).

[1336] _Los vinculos de Ollanta y Cusi Kcoyllor, Drama en Quichua. José Fernandez Nodal._ Dr. Nodal commenced, but never completed, an English translation.

[1337] _Collection Linguistique Americaine. Tome iv. Ollanaï, drama en vers Quechuas du temps des Incas traduit et commenté, par Gavino Pacheco Zegarra_ (Paris, 1878), pp. clxxiv and 265.

[1338] _Ollantay. Estudio sobre el drama Quichua, por Bartolomé Mitre, publicada en la Nueva Revista de Buenos Ayres_ (1881).

[1339] _Poesia Dramatica de los Incas. Ollantay, por Clemente R. Markham traducido del Ingles por Adolfo F. Olivares, y seguido de una carta critica del Dr. Don Vicente Fidel Lopez_ (Buenos Ayres, 1883).

[1340] See Vol. IV. p. 141.

[1341] A most graphic and picturesque account of the ceremonies attending the process of adoption is given in the _Narrative of the Captivity of Col. James Smith_. He was taken prisoner, in May, 1755, by two Delaware Indians, and carried to Fort Duquesne. He describes the methods of the men and the women in an Indian town by which he was adopted as one of the Caughnewagos. He shared the life and rovings of the tribe till 1760, when he got back to his home; accompanied Bouquet as a guide; was colonel of a regiment in our Revolutionary War, and afterwards a member of the Kentucky legislature. Here certainly was a varied career.

[1342] Governor Colden says that when he first went among the Mohawks he was adopted by them. The name given to him was “Cayenderogue,” which was borne by an old sachem, a notable warrior. He writes: “I thought no more of it at that time than as an artifice to draw a belly-full of strong liquor from me for himself and his companions. But when, about ten or twelve years after, my business led me among them,” he was recognized by the name, and it served him in good stead. (_Hist. of Five Nats._, 3d ed., i. p. 11.) The savages always took the liberty of assigning names of their own, either general or individual, to the Europeans with whom they had intercourse. The governor of Canada, for the time being, was called “Onontio”; of New York, “Corlear”; of Virginia, “Assarigoa”; of Pennsylvania, “Onas,” etc. At a council of the Six Nations with the governors of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland, held at Lancaster in June, 1744, it came under notice that the governor of Maryland had as yet no appellation assigned him by the natives. Much formality was used in providing one for him. It was tried by lot as to which of the tribes should have the honor of naming him. The lot fell to the Cayugas, one of whose chiefs, after solemn deliberation, assigned the name “To-carryhogan.” (Colden, ii. p. 89.)

[1343] From Archives of Massachusetts, vol. lxviii. p. 193:—

“For the Indian Sagamores, and people that are in warre against us.

“Inteligence is Come to us that you haue some English (especially weomen and children) in Captivity among you. Wee haue therefore sent this messenger, offering to redeeme them either for payment in goods or wompom; or by exchange of prisoners. Wee desire your answer by this our messinger, what price you demand for euery man woman and child, or if you will exchainge for Indians: if you haue any among you that can write your Answer to this our messuage, we desire it in writting, and to that end haue sent paper, pen and Incke by the messenger. If you lett our messenger haue free accesse to you and freedome of a safe returne: Wee are willing to doe the like by any messenger of yours. Prouided he come vnarmed and Carry a white flagg Vpon a Staffe vissible to be seene: which we calle a flagg of truce: and is used by Civil nations in time of warre when any messingers are sent in a way of treaty: which wee haue done by our messenger.

“Boston 31th of March 1676 past by the Council E. R. S. & was signed

“In testimony whereof I haue set to my hand & Seal.

F. L. Gov.”

(From _N. E. Hist. and Gen. Register_, Jan’y, 1885, pp. 79, 80.)

[1344] _Dinwiddie Papers_, ii. p. 426.

[1345] Quoted in Parkman’s _Montcalm and Wolfe_, i. p. 297.

[1346] Margry, v. 135-250.

[1347] By the treaty at Lancaster, the Indians covenanted to cede to the English, for goods of the money value of £400, the lands between the Alleghanies and the Ohio. See our Vol. V. 566.—ED.

[1348] These treaties are fully presented, with all the harangues, by Colden, vol. ii.

[1349] The most capable and intelligent interpreter employed by the English for a long period, and who served at the councils for negotiating the most important treaties of this time, was Conrad Weiser. He came with his family from Germany in 1710, and settled at Schoharie, N. Y. His ability and integrity won him the confidence alike of the Indians and the English. In the _Collections of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania_, vol. i. pp. 1-34, are autobiographical, personal, and narrative papers and journals by this remarkable man, equally characterized by the boldest spirit of adventure and by an ardent piety. He gives in full his journal of his mission from the governments of Pennsylvania and Virginia to negotiate with the Six Nations in 1737. [See Vol. V. 566.—ED.]

[1350] Mahon’s _England_, ch. 35, and Smollett’s _England_, Book iii. ch. 9.

[1351] Governor Dinwiddie, in urging the assembly of Virginia, in 1756, to active war measures, warned them of the alternative of “giving up your Liberty for Slavery, the purest Religion for the grossest Idolatry and Superstition, the legal and mild Government of a Protestant King for the Arbitrary Exactions and heavy Oppressions of a Popish Tyrant.” (_Dinwiddie Papers_, ii. p. 515.)

[1352] In Mr. Parkman’s _Montcalm and Wolfe_, i. p. 65 and on, is a lively account of the busy zeal of Father Piquet in making and putting to service savage converts of the sort described in the text. [See Vol. V. 571.—ED.]

[1353] The excellent James Logan, who came over as secretary to William Penn, and who always claimed to be a consistent member of the Society of Friends, took an exception to a position on one point,—that of maintaining the right, and even obligation, of defensive warfare. A letter of very cogent argument to this effect was addressed by him to the Society of Friends in 1741, remonstrating with them for their opposition in the legislature to means for defending the colony. _Collections of Historl. Soc. of Penns._, i. p. 36. [See Vol V. p. 243.—ED.]

[1354] It was but a repetition of the passions and jealousies of the colonists of Massachusetts, as maddened by the devastation inflicted upon them in King Philip’s war, when they themselves broke up the settlements, then under hopeful promise, of “Praying Indians,” at Natick and other villages, the fruits of the devoted labors of the Apostle Eliot. The occasion of this dispersion and severe watch over the Indian converts was a jealousy that they had been warmed in the bosom of a weak pity merely for a deadly use of their fangs.

[1355] [See Vol. V. 240.—ED.]

[1356] _Spotswood Papers_, published by the Virginia Historical Society. [The events of this period are followed in our Vol. V.—ED.]

[1357] The official papers are given in full by Colden, who adds a very able memorial of his own, in favor of the act, addressed to Governor Burnet, in 1724. It was estimated that the Indian trade of New York increased fivefold in twelve years.

[1358] [See Vol. V. 530, 575.—ED.]

[1359] Appendix V to the _Ohio Valley Historical Series_, edition of _Bouquet’s Expedition_ (Cincinnati, 1868).

[1360] It is estimated that not less than two hundred of these scattered traders, who had confidently ventured into the wilderness on the assurance of the treaty, were massacred, after being plundered of goods of more than a hundred thousand pounds in value.

[1361] [The events of the Pontiac war can be followed in Vol. V.—ED.]

[1362] The bibliography of the subject is nowhere exhaustively done. The _Proof-sheets_ of Pilling as a tentative effort, and his later divisionary sections, devoted to the Eskimo, Siouan, and other stocks, though primarily framed for their linguistic bearing, are the chief help; and these guides can be supplemented by Field’s Indian _Bibliography_, the references for anonymous books in Sabin’s _Dictionary_ (ix. p. 86), and sections in many catalogues of public and private libraries, like the Brinley (iii. 5, 352 etc.), devoted wholly or in part to Americana, and the foot-notes and authorities given in Parkman, H. H. Bancroft, and many others.

[1363] Parkman’s merits as a historian are elsewhere recognized in the present history. See Vols. II., IV., and V. He first gave his summary of Indian character in the introductory chapter of his first historical book, his _Pontiac_. He later completed it in papers in the _North Amer. Rev._, July, 1865, and July, 1866, and finally in the introduction to his _Jesuits_.

[1364] This class of material, including the _Lettres Edifiantes_, has been examined in our Vol. IV. 292, 296, 316, etc. Cf. Shea’s _Charlevoix_, i. 88; _Glorias del segundo siglo de la compañia de Jesus, 1646-1730_ (Madrid, 1734).

Parkman calls Brébœuf the best observer among the Jesuits. On their missions see _Revue Canadienne_, Jan., 1888; _Dublin Review_, xii. (1869) 70; _Mag. Amer. Hist._, iii. 250. Margry (vol. i.) has a “Mémoire” on the Recollects, 1614-1884. Cf. _Revue Canadienne_, by S. Lesage, Feb., 1867, p. 303. On the earlier Canadian missions see N. E. Dionne in _Nouvelles Soirées Canadiennes_, i. 399; _U. S. Catholic Monthly_, vii. 235, 518, 561; and the Abbé Verreau on the beginnings of the Church in Canada, in _Roy. Soc. Canada, Proc._, ii. 63.

[1365] See Vol. IV. 130, 290, 296, 298.

[1366] _Jesuits_, p. liv.

[1367] Shea’s ed. Charlevoix, p. 91. See _post_, Vol. IV. 298.

[1368] Cf. Vol. IV. p. 242.

[1369] _U.S. Statutes at Large_, xvii. 513.

[1370] Parkman in his _La Salle_ lets us into the feelings of that explorer. La Salle’s account of the Indians is translated in the _Mag. Amer. Hist._, Ap., 1878.

[1371] Cf. _Travels of several learned missionaries of the Society of Jesus, translated from the French_ (London, 1714).

[1372] See Vol. V. 245, 582.

[1373] See Vol. V. p. 169.

[1374] Other missionary records are noticed in Vol. V. Brinton enlarges upon the traces of Indian degradation following upon all missionary efforts among them. _Amer. Hero Myths_, 206, 231.

[1375] The careers of Johnson and Croghan are traced in Vol. V.

[1376] Vol. V. _passim_.

[1377] Such were the _Travels_ of Alexander Henry, the _Sufferings_ of Peter Williamson, and the long list of so-called “Captivities” (see Vol. V. 186, 490). Probably Mr. Samuel G. Drake was for many years the most assiduous promoter of this class of books. This compiler’s sympathetic sentiment clearly affected his rhetoric and sometimes the accuracy of his statements. Cf. titles of his books in Pilling, Sabin, and Field. Cf. Drake’s _Aboriginal Races of North America, revised by H. L. Williams_ (N. Y., 1880).

[1378] _Voyages: an account of his travels and experiences among the North American Indians, from 1652 to 1684. Transcribed from original manuscripts in the Bodleian Library and the British Museum. With historical illustrations and an introduction by G. D. Scull_ (Boston, 1885), a publication of the Prince Society.

[1379] _Voyages_, 2d ed., London, 1724.

[1380] See Vol. IV. p. 299.

[1381] In 1766-68.

[1382] _Reise in das Innere Nord Amerikas_ (Coblenz, 1841); also in an English translation (London).

[1383] _Border Reminiscences_ (N. Y., 1872).

[1384] _Army Sacrifices._

[1385] _Notes of the settlement and Indian wars of the western parts of Virginia and Pennsylvania_, 1763-1783. See Vol. V. p. 581.

[1386] The question has often been discussed as to the origin of the title of “Indian summer,” as applied to a beautiful portion of our autumnal season. Dr. Doddridge gives us an explanation of its original significance, or, at least, of an association with it, which would make a feeling of dread rather than of romance its most striking suggestion. He says that to a backwoodsman the term in its original import would cause a chill of horror. The explanation is as follows: The white settlers on the frontiers found no peace from Indian alarms and onsets save in the winter. From spring to the early part of the autumn, the settlers, cooped up in the forts, or ever at watch in their fields, had no security or comfort. The approach of winter was hailed as a jubilee in cabin and farm, with bustle and hilarity. But after the first set-in of winter aspects came a longer or shorter interval of warm, smoky, hazy weather, which would tempt the Indians—as if a brief return of summer—to renew their incursions on the frontiers. The season, then, was an “Indian summer” only for blood and mischief. So the spell of warm open weather, of melting snows, in the latter part of February—a premature spring—was a period of dread for the frontiersmen. It was called the “pawwawing days,” as the Indians were then holding their incantations and councils for rehearsing for their spring war-parties.

[1387] Cf. further on Hildreth and his books our Vol. VII. p. 536.

[1388] There are notices of other books of this kind in Vols. V. and VII. of the present History. Particularly, may be mentioned Joseph Pritt’s _Mirror of Olden Time_ (Chambersburg, Va., 1848; 2d ed., Abingdon, Va., 1849), in which the most interesting portions are the personal narratives of such captives to the Indians as Col. James Smith, John M’Cullough, and others, the full credibility of which is vouched for by those who knew them as neighbors and associates. This class of narratives by men who for years, willingly or unwillingly, affiliated with their wild captors make very intelligible to us the fact that the whites are much more readily Indianized than are Indians led to conform to the ways of civilization. Cf. Archibald Loudon’s _Selection of some of the most interesting narratives, of outrages, committed by the Indians, in their wars with the white people. Also, an account of their manners, customs, traditions, etc._ (Carlisle, 1808-11; Harrisburg, 1888).

[1389] Vol. VII. p. 448. As types of successive ranges of anthropological studies see Happel’s _Thesaurus Exoticorum_ (Hamburg, 1688); Stuart and Kuyper’s _De Mensch zoo als hij voorkomt_ (Amsterdam, 1802), vol. vi., and the better known _Researches_ of Prichard (vol. v.).

[1390] See Vol. V. 68.

[1391] See Vol. VII. 264.

[1392] The original paintings for the plates are now in the Peabody Museum (_Report_, xvi. 189). M’Kenney also published his _Memoirs, official and personal, with sketches of travel among the northern and southern Indians_ (N. Y., 1846), in two volumes. He had been in 1816 the agent of the United States in dealing with the Indians, and in 1824 had been put at the head of the Indian bureau.

[1393] The English editions are generally called _Illustrations of the Manners_, etc.

[1394] The best bibliographical record of Catlin’s publications is in Pilling’s _Bibliog. Siouan languages_ (1887), p. 15. Cf. Field, p. 63; Sabin, iii. p. 436.

[1395] The volume contains three interesting portraits of Catlin and reimpressions of his drawings as originally published.

[1396] For diversity of opinions respecting it see Allibone’s _Dictionary_. The modern scientific historian and ethnologist think in conjunction in giving it a low rank compared with what such a book should be. The fullest account of the bibliography of this and of Schoolcraft’s other books is in Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_. Whatever credit may accrue to Schoolcraft is kept out of sight in the title-page of a condensation of the book, which has some interspersed additions from other sources, all of which are obscurely included, so that the authorship of them is uncertain. The book is called _The Indian Tribes of the United States, edited by F. S. Drake_ (Philad., 1884), in 2 vols. There is another conglomerate and useful book, edited by W. W. Beach, _The Indian Miscellany; papers on the history, antiquities [etc.] of the American aborigines_ (Albany, 1877), which is a collection of magazine, review, and newspaper articles by various writers, usually of good character.

[1397] Particularly in Vol. IV.

[1398] Cf. Vol. VI. 610, 611, 650.

[1399] A part of it is reproduced by J. Watts de Peyster in his _Miscellanies by an Officer_, part ii. (N. Y., 1888).

[1400] Vol. VII. p. 448.

[1401] There is a map of the distribution of Indians in the eastern part of the United States in Cassino’s _Standard Nat. Hist._, vi. 147.

[1402] See _ante_, p. 106.

[1403] Paul Kane’s _Wanderings of an artist among the Indians_ is translated by Ed. Delessert in _Les Indiens de la baie d’Hudson_ (Paris, 1861).

[1404] The truth seems to be that some were last seen in that year. It is uncertain whether they died out, or the final remnant crossed into Labrador.

[1405] See Vol. IV. p. 292.

[1406] Cf. _Account of the customs and manners of the Micmakis and Maricheets savage nations. From an original French manuscript letter, never published. Annexed, pieces relative to the savages, Nova Scotia_ [etc.] (London, 1758); J. G. Shea in _Hist. Mag._, v. 290; _No. Am. Rev._, vol. cxii., Jan., 1871. For missions among them see Vol. IV. p. 268.

[1407] See Vol. IV. p. 299. The Hurons as the leading stock in Canada are, of course, to be studied in the _Jesuit Relations_ and in all the other accounts of the Catholic missions in Canada, as well as in the early historical narratives, alluded to in the text, and in such special books as the Sieur Gendron’s _Pays des Hurons_ (see Vol. IV. 305), and in the accounts of leading missionaries like Jean de Brébœuf. Cf. Félix Martin’s _Hurons et Iroquois_ (Paris, 1877); J. M. Lemoine in _Maple Leaves_, 2d ser. (1873); Cayaron’s _Chaumont_, 1639-1693, and his_ Autobiographie et pièces inédites_ (Poitiers, 1869); B. Sulte on the Iroquois and Algonquins in the _Revue Canadienne_ (x. 606); D. Wilson on the Huron-Iroquois of Canada in _Roy. Soc. Canada, Proc._ (1884, vol. ii.), and references, _post_, Vol. IV. p. 307. W. H. Withrow has a paper on the last of the Hurons in the _Canadian Monthly_ (ii. 409).

[1408] All of these books are further characterized in Vols. IV. and V. Cf. also J. Campbell in the _Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Trans._, 1881, and Wm. Clint in _Ibid._ 1877; and Daniel Wilson in _Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc._ (1882), vol. xxxi., and in his _Prehist. Man_, ii. Also Vetromile’s _Abnakis_ (N. Y., 1866).

[1409] Vol. III.

[1410] “Hist. Coll. of the Indians of N. E.” in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll._, i.

[1411] Noyes’ _New England’s Duty_, Boston, 1698.

[1412] Cf. Neal’s _New England_, i. ch. 6; _Conn. Evang. Mag._, ii., iii., iv.; _Amer. Q. Reg._, iv.; _Sabbath at Home_, Apr.-July, 1868.

[1413] Cf. his letters in _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, Nov., 1879; _N. E. Hist. Gen. Reg._, July, 1882; Birch’s _Life of Robert Boyle_; and the lives of Eliot. For the Eliot tracts see our Vol. III. p. 355. Marvin’s reprint of Eliot’s _Brief Narration_ (1670) has a list of writers on the subject. Cf. Martin Moore on Eliot and his Converts in the _Amer. Quart. Reg._, Feb., 1843, reprinted in Beach’s _Indian Miscellany_, p. 405; Ellis’s _Red Man and White Man in No. America_; Jacob’s _Praying Indians_; and Bigelow’s _Natick_.

[1414] Sabin, x. p. 191.

[1415] _Archæologia Amer._, ii.

[1416] Cf. John Gillies’ _Hist. Coll. relating to remarkable periods of the success of the Gospel_ (Glasgow, 1754).

[1417] _Success of the gospel among the Indians of Martha’s Vineyard_ (1694). _Conquests and Triumphs of Grace_ (1696), which is reprinted in part in Mather’s _Magnalia_. _Indian Converts of Martha’s Vineyard_ (1727), and Experience, its author, appended to one of his discourses a “State of the Indians, 1694-1720.”

[1418] _Origin and early progress of Indian missions in New England, with a list of books in the Indian language printed at Cambridge and Boston, 1653-1721_ (Worcester, 1874, or _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct., 1873); a paper on the Indian tongue and its literature in the _Mem. Hist. Boston_, i. 465.

[1419] Wheelock has given us _A brief narrative of the Indian Charity School_ (London, 1766; 2d ed., 1767), and a series of tracts portray its later progress. Cf. McClure and Parish’s _Memoir of Wheelock_. Samson Occum and Brant were his pupils. Also see Miss Fletcher’s _Report_, p. 94, and S. C. Bartlett in _The Granite Monthly_ (1888), p. 277.

[1420] See Vol. III. p. 364. There is a bibliography of the Indians in Maine in the _Hist. Mag._, March, 1870, p. 164. Cf. Hanson’s _Gardiner_, etc.; the histories of Norridgewock by Hanson and Allen; Sabine in the _Christian Examiner_, 1857; and _Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll._, vols. iii., ix. On the Maine missions, see _post_, Vol. IV. 300; and R. H. Sherwood in the _Catholic World_, xxii. 656.

[1421] See Vol. III. p. 367.

[1422] Cf. _Report on the Mass. Archives_ (1885).

[1423] Vol. III. p. 362.

[1424] Dr. Ellis has a paper on the Indians of eastern Massachusetts in the _Mem. Hist. Boston_, i. 241. For the middle regions there are Epaphras Hoyt’s _Antiquarian Researches_ (Greenfield, 1824), and Temple’s _North Brookfield_, not to name other books. For the Stockbridge tribe and the Housatonics, see Samuel Hopkins’ _Hist. Memoirs relating to the Housatunnuk Indians_ (1753); Jones’ _Stockbridge_; Charles Allen’s _Report on the Stockbridge Indians_ (Boston, 1870; _Ho. Doc. Mass. Leg._, no. 13, of 1870); S. Orcutt’s _Indians of the Housatonic and Naugatuck Valleys_ (Hartford, 1882); _Mag. Amer. Hist._, Dec., 1878; and Miss Fletcher’s _Report_, pp. 38, 90. For the Wampanoags on the borders of Rhode Island, see _Smithsonian Report_, 1883; and William J. Miller’s _Notes concerning the Wampanoag tribe of Indians, with some account of a rock picture on the shore of Mount Hope Bay, in Bristol, R. I._ (Providence, 1880).

[1425] Potter’s _Early Hist. of Narragansett_; _R. I. Hist. Coll._, viii.; Henry Bull’s Memoir in _R. I. Hist. Mag._, April, 1886; Usher Parsons on the Nyantics in _Hist. Mag._, Feb., 1863.

[1426] Theo. Dwight’s _Connecticut_, ch. 5-7; Trumbull’s Connecticut, ch. 5, 6; Ellis’ _Life of Capt. Mason_; W. L. Stone’s _Uncas and Miantonomoh_; S. Orcutt’s _Stratford and Bridgeport_ (1886); Luzerne Ray in _New Englander_, July, 1843 (reprinted in Beach’s _Ind. Miscellany_).

On the Pequods, see Wm. Apes’ _Son of the Forest_, and other small books by this member of the tribe, published from 1829 to 1837; Lossing in _Scribner’s Monthly_, ii., Oct., 1871 (included in Beach). Cf. our Vol. III. p. 368.

[1427] Further modern portraitures can be found in Dwight’s _Travels_; Barry’s _Massachusetts_; Felt’s _Eccles. Hist. N. E._ (p. 279); Samuel Eliot on the “Early relations with the Indians” in the volume of the _Mass. Hist. Soc. Lectures_; Zachariah Allen on _The conditions of life, habits, and customs of the native Indians of America, and their treatment by the first settlers. An address before the Rhode Island Historical Society, Dec. 4, 1879_ (Providence, 1880). Cf. on the Indians and the Puritans, _Amer. Chh. Review_, iii. 208, 359.

[1428] Cf. Brodhead’s _New York_; the _Doc. Hist. N. Y._; and Wm. Eliot Griffis’ _Arent van Curler and his policy of peace with the Iroquois_ (1884).

[1429] Cf. Vol. IV. 306. The best source for the story of Jogues is Felix Martin’s _Life of Father Isaac Jogues, missionary priest of the Society of Jesus, slain by the Mohawk Iroquois, in the present state of New York, Oct. 18, 1646. With [his] account of the captivity and death of René Goupil, slain Sept. 29, 1642. Translated from the French by J. G. Shea_ (New York, 1885). It is accompanied by a map of the county by Gen. John S. Clark, indicating the sites of the Indian villages and missions, which is an improvement upon Clark’s earlier map, given _post_, Vol. IV. 293. Cf. _Hist. Mag._, xii. 15; Hale’s _Book of Rites_, introd. W. H. Withrow has a paper on Jogues in the _Proc. Roy. Soc. Canada_, iii. (2) 45.

[1430] Vol. IV. 279, 309.

[1431] Cf. D. Humphrey’s _Hist. Acc. of the Soc. for propagating the Gospel_ (1730); _Doc. Hist. N. Y._, iv.; A. G. Hopkins in the _Oneida Hist. Soc. Trans._, 1885-86, p. 5; W. M. Beauchamp in _Am. Chh. Rev._, xlvi. 87; S. K. Lothrop’s _Kirkland_; and Miss Fletcher’s _Report_ (1888), p. 85.

[1432] Sylvester’s _Northern New York_; Clark’s _Onondaga_; Jones’s _Oneida County_; Simms’ _Schoharie County_; Benton’s _Herkimer County_; C. E. Stickney’s _Minisink Region_; G. H. Harris’ _Aboriginal occupation of the lower Genesee County_ (Rochester, 1884,—taken from W. F. Peck’s _Semi-Centennial Hist. of Rochester_); Ketchum’s _Buffalo_; John Wentworth Sanborn’s _Legends, Customs, and Social Life of the Seneca Indians_ (Gowanda, N. Y., 1878). On the origin of the name Seneca, see O. H. Marshall’s _Hist. Writings_, p. 231.

[1433] See Vol. IV. 299. Shea says the only copies known of the 1727 edition are those noted in the catalogues of H. C. Murphy, Menzies, Brinley, and T. H. Morrell. Stevens noted a copy in 1885, at £42. The _Murphy Catalogue_ gives the various editions. Cf. Sabin and Pilling. There is an account of Colden in the _Hist. Mag._, Jan., 1865. Palfrey (_New England_, iv. 40) warns the student that Colden must be used with caution, and that he needs to be corrected by Charlevoix.

[1434] See Vol. V. 618.

[1435] Cf. Vol. IV. 297. Schoolcraft later included in his _Indian Tribes_ a reprint of David Cusick’s _Ancient Hist. of the Six Nations_ (1825), the work of a Tuscarora chief. Brinton (_Myths_, 108) calls it of little value. Elias Johnson, another Tuscarora, printed a little _Hist. of the Six Nations_ at Lockport in 1881.

[1436] See Vol. V., VI., VII.

[1437] This was the earliest of Morgan’s important writings on the Iroquois, but the full outcome of all his views on the Indian character and life can only be studied by following him through his later _Ancient Society_, his _Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity_, and his _Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines_. Cf. Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_ for a conspectus of his works. Morgan’s early studies on the Iroquois sensibly affected his judgment in his later treatment of all other North American tribes.

[1438] Hale has also contributed to the _Mag. Amer. Hist._, 1885, xiii. 131, a paper on “Chief George H. M. Johnson, his life and work among the Six Nations;” and to the _Amer. Antiquarian_, 1885, vii. 7, one on “The Iroquois sacrifice of the white dog.”

A few other references on the Iroquois follow: Drake’s _Book of the Indians_, book v.; D. Sherman in _Mag. West. Hist._, i. 467; W. W. Beauchamp in _Amer. Antiquarian_ (Nov., 1886), viii. 358; D. Gray on the last Indian council in the Genesee Country, in _Scribner’s Mag._, xxv. 338; _Penna. Mag._, i. 163, 319; ii. 407. For the Schaghticoke tribe, see _Hist. Mag._, June, 1870; and for those of the Susquehanna Valley, Miner’s _Wyoming_ and Stone’s _Wyoming_. E. M. Ruttenber’s _Indian Tribes of the Hudson River_ (Albany, 1872) is an important book. Miss Fletcher’s _Report_ includes a paper on the N. Y. Indians, by F. B. Hough.

[1439] _N. Jersey Hist. Soc. Proc._, vol. iv.

[1440] There is a sketch of this singular character in Brinton’s _Lenape_, ch. 7.

[1441] Also _Amer. Whig Review_, Feb., 1849; and in Beach’s _Indian Miscellany_.

[1442] We may also note: D. B. Brunner’s _Indians of Berks county, Pa.; being a summary of all the tangible records of the aborigines of Berks County_ (Reading, Pa., 1881), and W. J. Buck’s “Lappawinzo and Tishcohan chiefs of the Lenni Lenape” in the _Penna. Mag. of Hist._, July, 1883, p. 215. The early writers to elucidate the condition of the Delawares soon after the white contact are Vanderdonck, Campanius, Gabriel Thomas, and later there is something of value in Peter Kalm’s _Travels_. The early authorities on Pennsylvania need also to be consulted, as well as the _Penna. Archives_, and the _Collections_ of the Penna. Hist. Soc., and its _Bulletin_, whose first number has Ettwein’s _Traditions and language of the Indians_. Of considerable historical value is Charles Thomson’s _Enquiry_ (see Vol. V. 575), and the relations of the Quakers to the tribes are surveyed in an _Account of the Conduct of the Society of Friends towards the Indian Tribes_ (Lond., 1844); but other references will be found _post_, Vol. V. 582, including others on the Moravian missions, the literature of which is of much importance in this study. Cf. Chas. Beatty’s _Journal of a two months’ tour_ (London, 1768), the works of Heckewelder and Loskiel, and Schweinitz’s _Zeisberger_. Cf. Miss Fletcher’s _Report_, p. 78.

[1443] Vol. III., under Virginia and Maryland. Cf. _Hist. Mag._, March, 1857.

[1444] For instance, the _Relatio itineris in Marylandiam_.

[1445] See Vol. III.

[1446] The latest summary is in Miss Fletcher’s _Report_, ch. 2 and 3.

[1447] F. Kidder in _Hist. Mag._ (1857), i. 161. Doyle’s _English in America, Virginia, etc._ (London, 1882) gives a brief chapter to the natives. Cf. travels of Bartram and Smyth, and Miss Fletcher’s _Report_, ch. 19.

[1448] Vol. II.

[1449] Vol. V. p. 65.

[1450] Vol. V. p. 69, 344, 393.

[1451] Vol. V. p. 401.

[1452] This also makes part of the Urlsperger tract, _Ausführliche Nachricht von den Saltzburgischen Emigranten_ (Halle, 1835). See Vol. V. p. 395.

[1453] Vol. V. p. 399. Cf. _Mag. Amer. Hist._, v. 346.

[1454] The long contested case of the Cherokees _v._ Georgia brought out much material. Cf. Vol. VII. p. 322, and _Poole’s Index_, p. 225. There is a somewhat curious presentation of the Cherokee mind in the address of Dewi Brown in the _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, xii. 30.

[1455] The histories of the Creek war give some material. See Vol. VII. and Harrison’s _Life of John Howard Payne_, ch. 4. Cf. _Poole’s Index_, p. 314.

[1456] Cf. _Poole’s Index_.

[1457] See Vol. VII.

[1458] Cf. Claiborne’s _Mississippi_, i.; Brinton in _Hist. Mag._, 2d ser., vol. i. p. 16; and E. L. Berthoud’s _Natchez Indians_ (Golden, 1886), a pamphlet.

[1459] Vol. V. p. 68. Cf. also an abridged memoir of the missions in Louisiana by Father Francis Watrin, Jesuit, 1764-65, in _Mag. West. Hist._, Feb., 1885, p. 265; the _Travels into Arkansa territory_, 1819, by Thomas Nuttall (Philad., 1821), for other accounts of the aboriginal inhabitants of the banks of the Mississippi; the _History of Kansas_ (Chicago, 1883), p. 58; and the _Proceedings_ of the Kansas Hist. Society.

[1460] Cf. Vol. IV. p. 298; and C. W. Butterfield in the _Mag. West. Hist._, Feb., 1887; and on the Indian occupation of Ohio, _Ibid._, Nov., 1884. David Jones’ _Two Visits, 1772-73_, concerns the Ohio Indians. Our Vol. V. covers this region during the French wars. J. R. Dodge’s _Red Man of the Ohio Valley, 1650-1795_ (Springfield, O., 1860), is a popular book.

[1461] _Hist. Mag._, x. (Jan., 1866).

[1462] _Mag. West. Hist._, ii. 38.

[1463] _Hist. Writings_, 1887.

[1464] _Fergus Hist. Series, No. 27_ (1884). Cf. Hough’s map of the tribal districts of Indiana in his _Rept. on the Geology and Nat. Hist. of Indiana_ (1882).

[1465] See Vol. IV. 298.

[1466] Cf. _Hist. Mag._, Sept., 1861; and Peter D. Clarke’s _Origin and Traditional Hist. of the Wyandotts_ (Toronto, 1870). Clarke is a native Indian writer.

[1467] Cf. I. A. Lapham on the _Indians of Wisconsin_ (Milwaukee, 1879); and E. Jacker on the missions in _Am. Cath. Quart._, i. 404; also Miss Fletcher’s _Report_, ch. 21.

[1468] Vol. VII.

[1469] Cf. her _Report_ (1888), ch. 10, and her _Indian ceremonies_ (Salem, Mass., 1884), taken from the xvi. _Report of the Peabody Museum of Amer. Archæology and Ethnology_, 1883, pp. 260-333, and containing: The white buffalo festival of the Uncpapas.—The elk mystery or festival. Ogallala Sioux.—The religious ceremony of the four winds or quarters, as observed by the Santee Sioux.—The shadow or ghost lodge: a ceremony of the Ogallala Sioux.—The “Wawan,” or pipe dance of the Omahas.

The _Minnesota Hist. Soc. Collections_ have much on the Dacotahs.

[1470] _Ab-sa-ra-ka, home of the Crows, being the experience of an officer’s wife on the plains, with outlines of the natural features of the land, tables of distances, maps_ [etc.] (Philad., 1868).

[1471] These may be supplemented by Letheman’s account of the Navajos in the _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 280; and books of adventures, like Ruxton’s _Life in the Far West_; Pumpelly’s _Across America and Asia_; H. C. Dorr in _Overland Monthly_, Apr., 1871 (also in Beach’s _Indian Miscellany_); James Hobbs’ _Wild life in the far West_ (Hartford, 1875),—not to name others, and a large mass of periodical literature to be reached for the English portion through _Poole’s Index_. Cf. Miss Fletcher’s _Report_ (1888).

[1472] _A Journal, kept at Nootka Sound, by John R. Jewitt, one of the surviving crew of the ship Boston, of Boston, John Salter, commander, who was massacred on 22d of March, 1803. Interspersed with some account of the natives, their manners and customs_ (Boston, 1807). Another account has been published with the title, “A narrative of the adventures and sufferings of J. R. Jewitt,” compiled from Jewitt’s “Oral relations,” by Richard Alsop; and another alteration and abridgment by S. G. Goodrich has been published with the title, “The captive of Nootka.” Cf. Sabin, Pilling, Field, etc. Cf. also _Hist. Mag._, Mar., 1863. The French half-breeds of the Northwest are described by V. Havard in the _Smithsonian Rept._, 1879.

[1473] Dall’s _Alaska and its Resources_ (Boston, 1870), with its list of books, is of use in this particular field. Cf. also Miss Fletcher’s _Report_ (1888), ch. 19 and 20.

[1474] His map is reproduced in Petermann’s _Geog. Mittheilungen_, xxv. pl. 13.

[1475] The periodical literature can be reached through _Poole’s Index_; particularly to be mentioned, however, are the _Atlantic Monthly_, Apr., 1875; by J. R. Browne in _Harper’s Mag._, Aug., 1861, repeated in Beach’s _Ind. Miscellany_. For the missionary aspects see such books as Geronimo Boscana’s _Chinigchinich; a historical account of the origin, customs, and traditions of the Indians at the missionary establishment of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California; called the Acagchemem nation. Translated from the original Spanish manuscript, by one who was many years a resident of Alta California_ [Alfred Robinson] (N. Y., 1846), which is included in Robinson’s _Life in California_ (N. Y., 1846); and C. C. Painter’s _Visit to the mission Indians of southern California, and other western tribes_ (Philadelphia, 1886).

[1476] See, for instance: Maj. Powell on tribal society in the _Third Rept. Bur. of Ethnology_. On Totemism, see the _Fourth Rept._, p. 165, and J. G. Frazier in his _Totemism_ (Edinburgh, 1887). Lucien Carr on the social and political condition of women among the Huron-Iroquois tribes, in _Peabody Mus. Rept._, xvi. 207. J. M. Browne on Indian medicine in the _Atlantic_, July, 1866, reprinted in Beach’s _Indian Miscellany_. J. M. Lemoine on their mortuary rites in _Proc. Roy. Soc. Canada_, ii. 85, and H. C. Yarrow on their mortuary customs in the _First Rept. Bur. Ethnol._, p. 87, and on their mummifications in _Ibid._ p. 130. Andrew MacFarland Davis on Indian games in the _Bulletin, Essex Institute_, vols. xvii., xviii., and separately. On their intellectual and literary capacity, John Reade in the _Proc. Roy. Soc. of Canada_ (ii. sect. 2d, p. 17); Edward Jacker in _Amer. Catholic Quarterly_ (ii. 304; iii. 255); Brinton’s _Lenape and their legends_; W. G. Simms’ _Views and Reviews_.

[1477] _The North Americans of Antiquity_, by John T. Short, p. 130.

[1478] _Ibid._ p. 127.

[1479] _The Antiquity of Man in America_, by Alfred R. Wallace in _Nineteenth Century_ (November, 1887), vol. xxii. p. 673.

[1480] _Palæolithic Man in America_, in _Popular Science Monthly_ (November, 1888), p. 23.

[1481] Sometimes the gravels in which such implements were originally deposited have disappeared through denudation or other natural causes, leaving the implements on the surface. But the outside of such specimens always shows traces of decomposition, indicating their high antiquity. Other examples of implements of like shape, found on the surface in places where there has been no glacial drift, may be palæolithic, but their form is no sufficient proof of this, since they may equally well have been the work of the Indians, who are known to have fashioned similar objects.

[1482] _The Great Ice Age and its relation to the antiquity of Man_, by James Geikie, p. 416.

[1483] _An Inventory of our Glacial Drift_, by T. C. Chamberlin in the _Proceedings of American Association for Advancement of Science_, vol. xxxv. p. 196. A general map of this great moraine and others representing portions of it on a large scale will be found in his “Preliminary Paper on the terminal moraine of the second glacial period,” in the _Third Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey_, by J. W. Powell (Washington, 1883).

[1484] Chamberlin, _Proc. Amer. Assoc._, _ubi sup._, p. 199.

[1485] _The place of Niagara Falls in geological history_, by G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Govt. Surv., in the _Proc. Amer. Assoc._, _Ibid._ p. 223; _Geology of Minnesota_ [final report], by N. H. Winchell and Warren Upham, vol. i. p. 337 (St. Paul, 1888).

[1486] _The American Naturalist_, vol. vii. p. 204.

[1487] _Ibid._ vol. x. p. 329.

[1488] _Tenth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_, vol. ii. p. 30.

[1489] Second report on the palæolithic implements from the glacial drift, in the valley of the Delaware River, near Trenton, New Jersey, _Ibid._ p. 225.

[1490] A complete account of Dr. Abbott’s investigations will be found in his _Primitive Industry_, chap. 32 (Palæolithic Implements); _Tenth ann. rep. of Peabody Museum_, vol. ii. p. 30; _Eleventh Do._, _Ibid._ p. 225; _Proceedings of Boston Society of Natural History_, vol. xxi. p. 124; vol. xxiii. p. 424; _Proc. of Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Science_, vol. xxxvii.

[1491] _Proceedings of Boston Society of Natural History_, vol. xxi. p. 148.

[1492] _Twelfth annual report of Peabody Museum_, vol. ii. p. 489.

[1493] _Proceedings of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, _Ibid._ p. 132.

[1494] _Popular Science Monthly_, January, 1889, p. 411.

[1495] _On the discovery of stone implements in the glacial drift of North America_, in the _Quart. Journ. of Science_ (London, January, 1878), vol. xv. p. 68.

[1496] _The Trenton gravel and its relation to the antiquity of man, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_, 1880, p. 296.

[1497] _Primitive Industry_, p. 533 _et seq._

[1498] The bibliography of Professor Wright’s publications upon this subject will be found in _Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiii. p. 427.

[1499] _Science_, vol. i. p. 271.

[1500] _Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiii. p. 435.

[1501] _Proc. Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Science_, vol. xxxvii.

[1502] Early Man in the Delaware Valley, in the _Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiv.

[1503] The Age of the Philadelphia Red Gravel, _Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiv.

[1504] _Antiquities of the Southern Indians_, p. 293. The preface of this volume is dated “New York, April 10, 1873.” In an article in the _North American Review_ for January, 1874 (vol. cxviii. p. 70), on “The Antiquity of the North American Indians,” he traces that race back to palæolithic times.

[1505] _Flint implements from the stratified drift of the vicinity of Richmond, Va._, in the _American Journal of Science_ (3d series), vol. xi. p. 195; quoted in Dana’s _Manual of Geology_, p. 578.

[1506] _Sixth annual report of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota_, 1877, p. 54.

[1507] Her paper on “Ancient quartz-workers and their quarries in Minnesota,” read before the Minnesota Historical Society, February, 1880, was reprinted in _The American Antiquarian_, vol. iii. p. 18.

[1508] _Vestiges of Glacial Man in Central Minnesota_, in the _Proc. Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Science_, vol. xxxii. p. 385. A more extended account of her researches will be found under the same title in the _American Naturalist_ for June and July, 1884 (vol. xviii. pp. 594 and 697). On p. 705 the writer has given at some length his opinion in regard to the artificial character of these quartz objects.

[1509] _Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiii. p. 436.

[1510] In 1877, by Professor S. S. Haldeman on an island in the Susquehanna River, in Lancaster Co., Penn. (_Eleventh Rep. Peabody Mus._, vol. ii. p. 255). In 1878, by A. F. Berlin in the Schuylkill Valley, at Reading, Penn. (_American Antiquarian_, vol. i. p. 10). In 1879, by Dr. W. J. Hoffman in the valley of the Potomac, near Washington (_American Naturalist_, vol. xiii. p. 108). Subsequently by others in the same vicinity, reported by S. V. Proudfit in _The American Anthropologist_, vol. i. p. 337. By David Dodge at Wakefield, Mass., and by Mr. Frazer at Marshfield, Mass. (_Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxi. pp. 123 and 450). By the writer, in several localities in New England (_Ibid._ p. 382).

[1511] _Sixth annual report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories_, by F. V. Hayden (1873), p. 652.

[1512] _Ibid._ (1874), p. 247.

[1513] _Ibid._ p. 254.

[1514] _Eleventh Report of Peabody Museum_, p. 257.

[1515] _Geological History of Lake Lahontan, a quaternary lake of northwestern Nevada_, by I. C. Russell, being _Monog._ No. xi. _U. S. Geol. Surv._ under J. W. Powell, p. 247 (Washington, 1885).

[1516] _Ibid._ p. 269.

[1517] _Pop. Science Monthly_, November, 1888, p. 27.

[1518] Article in the _Iconographic Encyclopædia_, on Prehistoric Archæology, by Daniel G. Brinton, vol. ii. p. 63 (Philadelphia, 1886).

[1519] _Smithsonian Report_, 1862, p. 297, where it is figured; and repeated in his _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i. p. 45.

[1520] See p. 385 of this volume.

[1521] _Memoirs of Mus. of Comp. Zoölogy at Harv. College_, vol. vi. pp. 258-288 (Cambridge, 1880).

[1522] _The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_, by H. H. Bancroft, vol. iv. pp. 699-707.

[1523] _Transactions_ of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, vol. i. p. 232, pl. xxii, fig. 3.

[1524] _The aboriginal relics called “sinkers” or “plummets”_ in _Amer. Journal of Archæology_, vol. i. p. 105.

[1525] _The Epoch of the Mammoth and the Apparition of Man upon the Earth_, by James C. Southall, p. 399 (Philadelphia, 1878).

[1526] Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes of the United States_, vol. i. p. 101 (Philadelphia, 1851).

[1527] S. B. J. Skertchly in the _Journal Anthrop. Inst._, vol. xvii. p. 335 (Jan. 10, 1888).

[1528] _The American Naturalist_, vol. xxi. p. 459 (1887).

[1529] _Early Man in America_, in the _North American Review_, Oct., 1883, p. 340.

[1530] _The Auriferous Gravels_, etc., p. 273.

[1531] _Ibid._ p. 242.

[1532] _Sixth annual report of the U. S. Geol. Surv. of the Territories_, p. 29.

[1533] _Ibid._ p. 44.

[1534] _The Auriferous Gravels_, etc., p. 281.

[1535] _The Antiquity of Man in North America_, p. 679.

[1536] _Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiii, p. 269.

[1537] _Reports of Peabody Museum_, vol. iii. pp. 177, 408; iv. p. 35.

[1538] _Early Man in Britain_, by W. Boyd Dawkins, p. 167.

[1539] Dr. H. Ten Kate in _Science_, vol. xii. p. 228 (November 9, 1888).

[1540] _Notes on the Crania of the N. E. Indians_, by Lucien Carr, p. 9 (_Anniversary Memoirs of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._), 1880.

[1541] _The Standard Natural History_, ed. by J. S. Kingsley, vol. vi. p. 143.

[1542] _The Mammoth and the Flood_, by Henry H. Howorth, p. 316 (London, 1887).

[1543] _Fossil Men and their modern Representatives_, by J. W. Dawson, p. 106 _et seq._ (London, 1880).

[1544] _Le Maconnais Préhistorique, ... ouvrage posthume par H. De Ferry ... avec notes et cet. par A. Arcelin_, Mâcon, 1870.

[1545] _The Auriferous Gravels_, etc., p. 287.

[1546] _Primitive Industry; or Illustrations of the Handiwork in Stone, Bone, and Clay of the Native Races of the Northern Atlantic Seaboard of America_, by Charles C. Abbott (Salem and Boston, 1881), p. 3.

[1547] _Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiii. p. 422.

[1548] _Proc. of Am. Assoc. for Adv. of Science_, vol. xxxvii.

[1549] _Primitive Industry_, p. 253.

[1550] _Ibid._ p. 262.

[1551] _Primitive Industry_, p. 276 _et seq._

[1552] _Ibid._ p. 515, _note_.

[1553] _Proc. of Am. Assoc. for Adv. of Science_, vol. xxxvii.

[1554] Peter Kalm, _Travels into North America, translated by J. R. Forster_ (London, 1770-71), v. ii. p. 17.

[1555] _Primitive Industry_, p. 462.

[1556] _Proc. of Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Science_, vol. xxxvii.

[1557] _Rep. of Peabody Museum_, vol. iv. p. 43.

[1558] Vol. ix. p. 363.

[1559] See Vol. II. pp. 144 and 187.

[1560] _Companions of Columbus_, p. 28.

[1561] _Flint Chips, a Guide to Prehistoric Archæology_, by Edw. T. Stevens, p. 123.

[1562] _Antiquities of the Southern Indians_, by C. C. Jones, p. 320.

[1563] _Rep. of Peabody Museum_, vol. iv. p. 45.

[1564] “Early Man in the Delaware Valley,” in the _Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiv.

[1565] _Early Man in Britain_, p. 173.

[1566] Waitz, _Introd. to Anthropology_, Eng. trans., p. 255, points out the dangers of over-confidence in this research. Cf. also J. H. McCulloh’s _Researches_ (1829).

The best indications of the sources as respects the origin of the Americans can be found in Haven’s _Archæology of the United States_ (_Smithsonian Contributions_, vii., 1856); Bancroft’s foot-notes to his _Nat. Races_, v. ch. 1; Short, ch. 3, on the diversity of opinions; Poole’s _Index_, p. 637, and _Supplement_, p. 274. Cf. Drake’s _Book of the Indians_, ch. 2.

Without anticipating the characterization and mention of the essential books later to be indicated, some miscellaneous references may be added without much attempt at classifying them.

Among English writers: Hyde Clarke’s _Researches on prehistoric and protohistoric comparative philology, mythology, and archæology in connection with the origin of culture in America_ (London, 1875). Robert Knox’s _Races of Men_ (London, 1862); J. Kennedy in his _Probable origin of the American Indians_ (London, 1854), and in his _Essays, ethnological and linguistic_ (London, 1861); J. C. Beltrami’s _Pilgrimage in Europe and America_ (London, 1828); C. H. Smith in _Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_, xxxviii. 1.

Some French authorities: Nadaillac, _Les premiers hommes_, ii. 93, and his _L’Amérique préhistorique_, ch. 10, and to the English translation W. H. Dall adds a chapter on this subject; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s introduction to his _Popul Vuh_ (section 4); Dabry de Thiersant’s _De l’origine des indiens du nouveau monde et de leur civilisation_ (Paris, 1883); M. A. Baguet’s “Les races primitives des deux Amériques” in _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. d’Anvers_, viii. 440; Domenech in _Revue Contemporaine_, 1st ser., xxxiii. 283; xxxiv. 5, 284; 2d ser., iv.; Baron de Bretton’s _Origines des peuples de l’Amérique_, in the Nancy _Compte-rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_, i. 439.

Among German writers perhaps the most weighty are Theodor Waitz in his _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_ (1862-66), and Carl Vogt’s _Vorlesungen über den Menschen_, translated as _Lectures on Man_ (1864).

American writers: Drake’s _Book of the Indians_, ch. 1, 2; Doddridge’s _Notes on the Settlement and Indian Wars of Virginia and Penna._, ch. 3; Geo. Catlin’s _Life amongst the Indians_ (1861), and his _Last Rambles_ (1867), with extracts in _Smithsonian Ann. Rept._, 1885, iii. 749; Isaac McCoy’s _Hist. of Baptist Indian Missions_ (Washington, 1840); Short’s _No. Amer. of Antiq._, ch. 4, 11; B. H. Coate’s _Annual Discourse before the Penna. Hist. Soc._ (Philad., 1834), reviewing the various theories; also in their _Memoirs_, iii. part 2; John Y. Smith in _Wisconsin Hist. Soc. Ann. Rep._, iv. 117; Dennie’s _Portfolio_, xiii. 231, 519; xiv. 7; A. R. Grote in _Amer. Naturalist_, xi. 221 (April, 1877); C. C. Abbott in _Ibid._ x. 65.

Some Canadian writers: J. Campbell in _Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Transactions_ (1880-81); Napoléon Legendre’s “Races indigénes de l’Amérique devant l’histoire” in _Proc. Royal Soc. of Canada_, ii. 25.

[1567] The book is a rare one. Field, No. 586. Sabin, vii. p. 157. Quaritch in 1885 had not known of a copy being for sale in twenty years. He then had two (Nos. 28,355-56). There is one in Harvard College Library. Garcia drew somewhat from a manuscript of Juan de Vetanzos, a companion of Pizarro, and he gives the native accounts of their origin. There was a second edition, with Barcia’s Annotations, Madrid, 1729 (Carter-Brown, iii. 432).

[1568] _New English Canaan_ (Amsterdam, 1637—C. F. Adams’ ed., 1883, pp. 125, 129).

[1569] There is an English translation in the _Bibliotheca Curiosa_. [Edited by Edmund Goldsmidt.] (Edinburgh, 1883-85.) No. 12. _On the origin of the native races of America. To which is added, A treatise on foreign languages and unknown islands, by Peter Albinus. Translated from the Latin._ The translation is unfortunate in its blunders. Cf. H. W. Haynes in _The Nation_, Mar. 15, 1888. Grotius was b. 1583; d. 1645.

[1570] Carter-Brown, ii. 522, 523, 543.

[1571] This book is scarcer than the first (Brinley, iii. 5414-15). There is a letter addressed to De Laet, touching Grotius, in Claudius Morisotus’s _Epistolarum Centuriæ duæ_, 1656.

[1572] Brinley, iii. 5407-8. In Samuel Sewall’s _Letter Book_, i. 289, is an amusing reference to the “vanities of Hornius.”

[1573] Jo. Bapt. Poisson, _Animadversiones ad ea quæ Hugo Grotius et Joh. Lahetius de origine gentium Peruvianarum et Mexicanarum scripserunt_ (Paris, 1644); Rob. Comtæus Nortmanus, _De origine gentium Americanarum_ (Amsterdam, 1664), an academic dissertation adopting the Phœnician view; A. Mil, _De origine animalium et migratione populorum_ (Geneva, 1667); Erasmus Franciscus, _Lust- und Staatsgarten_ (Nürnberg, 1668), with a third part on the aboriginal inhabitants (Müller, 1877, no. 1150); Gottfried [Godofredus] Wagner, _De Originibus Americanis_ (Leipzig, 1669); J. D. Victor, _Disputatio historia de America_ (Jena, 1670); E. P. Ljung, _Dissertatio de origine gentium novi orbis prima_ (Stregnäs [Sweden] 1676). An essay of 1695 reprinted in the _Memoirs, Anthrop. Soc. of London_, i. 365; Nic Witsen, _Noord-en-Oost Tartarye_ (2d ed., Amsterdam, 1705), holding to the migration from northeastern Asia.

[1574] Cf. Alex. Catcott’s _Treatise on the Deluge_ (2d ed., enlarged, London, 1768), and A. de Ulloa’s _Noticias Americanas_ (Madrid, 1772, 1792), for speculations.

[1575] Cf. Sabin, xiv. 59,239, etc., for editions. The original three vols. appeared in Berlin in 1768, 1769, and 1770, respectively. The best edition, with De Pauw’s subsequent defence and Pernetty’s attack, was issued at London in three vols. in 1770:—

_Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains, ou Mémoires interessants pour servir à l’histoire de l’espèce humaine_.

_Contents_: Du climat de l’Amérique.—De la complexion altérée de ses habitants.—De la découverte du Nouveau-Monde.—De la variété de l’espèce humaine en Amérique.—De la couleur des Américains.—Des anthropophages.—Des Eskimaux; des Patagons.—Des Blafards et des Négres blancs.—De l’Orang-Outang.—Des hermaphrodites de la Floride.—De la circoncision et de l’infibulation.—Du génie abruti des Américains.—De quelques usages bizarres, communs aux deux continents.—De l’usage des flèches empoisonnées chez les peuples des deux continents.—De la religion des Américains.—Sur le grand Lama.—Sur les vicissitudes de notre globe.—Sur le Paraguai.—Défenses des recherches sur les Américains.—D. Pernetty. Dissertation sur l’Amérique et les Américains contre les recherches philosophiques de M. de Pauw.

There was an edition in French at Berlin in 1770, in 2 vols., and, with Pernetty annexed, in 1774, in 3 vols. The _Defenses_ was printed also at Berlin in 1770. These were all included in De Pauw’s _Œuvres Philosophiques_, published at Paris “_an iii_.” An English translation by J. Thomson was printed at London, 1795. Daniel Webb published some selections in English at Bath, 1789, 1795, and at Rochdale, 1806. Pernetty’s _Examen_ was printed at Berlin in 1769. There is another little tractate of this time attributed to Pernetty, _De l’Amérique et des Américains_ (Berlin, 1771), in whose humor De Pauw fares no better; but Rich has a note on the questionable attributing of it to Pernetty, and its real author was probably C. de Bonneville (cf. Hœfer).

[1576] _Delle Lettere Americane_ (_opere_, xi.-xiv., Milano, 1784-94); better known in J. B. L. Villebrune’s French translation, _Lettres Américaines_ (2 vols.; Paris and Boston, 1787); Sabin, no. 10,912. There is also a German version.

[1577] _The United States elevated to Glory and Honor._ New Haven, 1783. It is included in J. W. Thornton’s _Pulpit of the Amer. Revolution_ (Boston, 1860).

[1578] This Canaanite view, though hardly held with the scope given by Dr. Stiles, had been asserted earlier by Gomara, De Lery, and Lescarbot. Cf. _For. Quart. Rev._, Oct., 1856.

[1579] G. H. Loskiel, _Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians, trans. from the German by La Trobe_ (London, 1794). Johann Gottlieb Fritsch, _Disputatio historico-geographica in qua quæritur utrum veteres Americam noverint nec ne_ (Curæ Regnilianæ, 1796).

[1580] _Observations on some Parts of Nat. Hist._, Lond., 1787.

[1581] Pilling, _Bibliog. Siouan languages_ (1887, p. 4).

[1582] _Hist. North Carolina_, 1811-12.

[1583] Haven, _Archæol. U. States_, 35. Cf. Mitchell’s papers in the _Archæeologia Americana_, i.

[1584] There is a fair sample of the conjectural habit of the time in the paper of Moses Fiske, in the first volume of the Society’s _Transactions_, 300.

[1585] _Mexico_, Kirk’s ed., iii. 375.

[1586] _Archæol._ _U. S._, 48.

[1587] _Hist. of Tennessee_, Nashville, 1823.

[1588] Introd. to Marshall’s _Kentucky_, 1824; _The Anc. Mts. of N. & S. America_, 2d ed., 1838, etc.

[1589] _Amer. Antiq. and Discoveries in the West_, 1833, which Rafinesque thought largely taken from him. Cf. Haven on these writers, pp. 38-41; Sabin, xv. 65, 484.

[1590] Pilling, _Bibliog. Siouan languages_, pp. 47, 48.

[1591] Peschel, _Races of Men_ (London, 1876), p. 32.

[1592] Eng. transl. in _Memoirs, Anthropological Society of London_, i. 372.

[1593] There is a summary of the progressive conflict on the question of the unity and plurality of races in the introduction to Topinard’s _Anthropology_. Cf. Peschel’s _Races of Man_ (Eng. transl., N. Y., 1876), p. 6.

[1594] The idea in general was not wholly new. Capt. Bernard Romans, in his _Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida_ (N. Y., 1776), had expressed the opinion “that God created an original man and woman in this part of the globe of different species from any in the other parts” (p. 38). Clavigero, in 1780, believed that the distinct linguistic traits of the Americans pointed to something like an independent origin. Cf. W. D. Whitney on the “Bearing of Languages on the Unity of Man,” in _North Amer. Review_, cv. 214.

[1595] Cf. Jeffries Wyman in _No. Am. Rev._, li.

[1596] Cardinal Wiseman’s _Lectures_, 5th ed., London, p. 158.

[1597] Described in _Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Soc._, ii. The collection went to the Acad. of Natural Sciences in Philad., and is examined by Dr. J. Austin Meigs in its _Proc._, 1860. Cf. Meigs’s _Catalogue of human crania in the Acad. Nat. Sci._ (Philad., 1857).

[1598] Morton’s latest results are given in a paper, “The physical type of the American Indian,” left unfinished, but completed by John S. Phillips, and printed in Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes_, ii. He also printed _An Inquiry into the distinctive characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America_ (Boston, 1842; Philad., 1844); and _Some Observations in the Ethnography and Archæology of the American Aborigines_ (N. Haven, 1846,—from the _Amer. Jour. of Science_, 2d ser., ii.). Cf. _Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Soc._ ii. 219. Cf. Allibone’s _Dictionary_, ii. 1376. It is certainly evident that skull capacity is no sure measure of intelligence, and the Indian custom of misshaping the head offers some serious obstacles in the study. Cf. Nadaillac, _L’Amér. préhist._, 512; L. A. Gosse, _Les déformations artificielles du crane_ (Paris, 1855); Daniel Wilson’s “Indications of Ancient Customs suggested by certain cranial forms,” in _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._ (1863); Dabry de Thiersant’s _Origine des indiens du Nouveau Monde_, p. 12; W. F. Whitney, on “Anomalies, injuries and diseases of the bones of the native races of No. America,” in _Peabody Mus. Rept._, xviii. 434. On the difficulties of the study see Lucien Carr in _Ibid._ xi. 361; Flower in the _Journal Anthropological Institute_, May, 1885; Dawson, _Fossil Men_, chap. 7. Further see: Anders Retzius, on “The Present State of Ethnology in relation to the form of the human skull,” in _Smithson. Rept._, 1859; Waitz’s _Introd. to Anthropology_, Eng. transl., pp. 233, 261; Carl Vogt’s _Lectures on Man_ (lect. 2); A. Quatrefages and E. T. Hamy, _Crania Ethica_ (Paris, 1873-77); Nott and Gliddon, _Types of Mankind_; Nadaillac’s _L’Amérique préhist._, ch. 9, and _Les premiers hommes_, i. ch. 3.

[1599] An anonymous book, _The Genesis of Earth and Man_ (Edinburgh, 1856), places the negro as the primal stock, and traces out the higher races by variation.

[1600] Dr. Nott had given some indication of his views in “An Examination of the physical history of the Jews in its bearing on the question of the Unity of the Races” (_Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc._, iii. 1850).

[1601] Cf. References in Allibone, i. 678; _Poole’s Index_, p. 796.

[1602] The editor’s collaborateurs were Alfred Maury, Francis Palszky, J. Aitken Meigs, J. Leidy, and Louis Agassiz. Nott had in the interval since his previous book furnished an appendix on the unity or plurality of Races to the English transl. of Gobineau’s _Moral Diversity of Races_ (Philad., 1856).

[1603] Haven gives a summary of the arguments of each (p. 90, etc.). For various views on this side see Southall’s _Recent Origin of Man_, ch. ii. 36, 37, and his _Epoch of the Mammoth_, ch. 2, where he allows that the proofs from traditions and customs are not conclusive; George Palmer’s _Migration from Shinar; or, the Earliest Links between the Old and New Continents_ (London, 1879); Edward Fontaine’s _How the World was Peopled_ (N. Y., 1876); Dr. Samuel Forrey in _Amer. Biblical Repository_, July, 1843; McClintock and Strong’s _Cyclopædia_, under “Adam”; Henry Cowles’ _Pentateuch_ (N. Y., 1874),—not to name many others. See _Poole’s Index_, 1073.

[1604] Wilson’s first criticism was in the _Canadian Journal_ (1857); then in the _Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_ (Jan., 1858); in the _Smithsonian Rept._ (1862), p. 240, on the “American Cranial Type;” and in his _Prehist. Man_ (ii. ch. 20). Latham’s _Nat. Hist. of the Varieties of Man_. Charles Pickering’s _Races of Men_ (1848). The orthodox monogenism of A. de Quatrefages is expressed in his _De l’unité de l’espèce humaine_ (Paris, 1864, 1869); in his _Hist. générale des Races humaines_ (Paris, 1887); in his _Human Species_ (N. Y., 1879), and in papers in _Revue des Cours Scientifiques_, 1864-5, 1867-8; in his _Nat. Hist. of Man_ (Eng. transl., N. Y., 1875); in _Catholic World_, vii. 67; and in _Popular Science Monthly_, i. 61.

Cf. further, Retzius in _Archives des Sciences Naturelles_ (Genève, 1845-52); Col. Chas. Hamilton Smith’s _Nat. Hist. Human Species_ (1848); Dawson in _Leisure Hour_, xxiii. 813, and in his _Fossil Men_, p. 334, who holds the biblical account to be “the most complete and scientific;” Figuier’s _World before the Deluge_ (N. Y., 1872), p. 469. Geo. Bancroft sees no signs to reverse the old judgment respecting a single human race.

[1605] He found all three varieties of skulls in America: the long-headed (dolichocephalic), the short-headed (brachycephalic), and the medium (mesocephalic). He found the long heads to predominate, except in Peru. Meigs had earlier studied the subject in his _Observations on the Form of the Occiput_ (Philad., 1860). Cf. Busk in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, April, 1873; Wyman, in _Peab. Mus. Rept._, 1871.

[1606] H. H. Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, v. 129, 131, gives references on the autochthonous theory. It is held by Nadaillac, _Les premiers hommes_, ii. 117; Fred. von Hellwald in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866; Bollaert’s “Contribution to an Introduction to the Anthropology of the New World” in _Memoirs, Anthrop. Society of London_, ii. 92; F. Müller, _Allgemeine Ethnographie_; and Simonin, _L’homme Américain_ (Paris, 1870). F. W. Putnam (_Report_ in _Wheeler’s Survey_, vii. p. 18) says: “The primitive race of America was as likely autochthonous and of Pliocene age as of Asiatic origin.” The autochthonous view is probably losing ground. Dall, in ch. 10, appended to the English translation of Nadaillac’s _Prehistoric America_, sums up the prevailing arguments against it. Cf. also Dabry de Thiersant’s _Origine des Indiens du Nouveau Monde_, ch. 1.

[1607] Cf. also Prescott’s _Essays_, 224.

[1608] This view has necessarily been abandoned in his later editions. Cf. orig. ed., iii. 307; and final revision, ii. 130.

[1609] Haven at the end of his second chapter tries to place Schoolcraft, and he does better than one would expect, at that day. For Schoolcraft’s special notes on Antiquities see his vol. i. p. 44; ii. 83; iii. 73; iv. 113; v. 85, 657. For bibliography see Pilling, Sabin, Field, etc.

[1610] Again he says: “Man may be assumed to be prehistoric wherever his chroniclings of himself are undesigned, and his history is wholly recoverable by induction. The term has, strictly speaking, no chronological significance; but in its relative application corresponds to other archæological, in contradistinction to geological periods.” Of America he says: “A continent where man may be studied under circumstances which seem to furnish the best guarantee of his independent development.” Dawkins (_Cave hunting_, 136) says: “For that series of events which extends from the borders of history back to the remote age, where the geologist, descending the stream of time, meets the archæologist, I have adopted the term _prehistoric_.”

The divisions of prehistoric time now most commonly employed are: For the oldest, the Palæolithic age, as Lubbock first termed it, which, with a shadowy termination, has an unknown beginning, covering an interval geologically of vast extent. It is the primitive stone age, the epoch of flint-chippers; and but a single positive vestige of any community of living is known to archæologists: the village of Solutré, in Eastern France, being held by some to be associated with man in this earlier stage of his development. This stone period is sometimes divided in Europe into an earlier and later period, representing respectively the men of the river drift and of the caves. In the first period, called sometimes that of the race of Canstadt, and by Mortillet the Chellean period, we have, as is claimed, a savage hunter race, represented by the Neanderthal skull; and because in two jaw-bones discovered the genial tubercle is undeveloped, a school of archæologists contend that the race was speechless (Horatio Hale’s “Origin of Language,” in _Am. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc._, xxxv., Cambridge, 1886; and separate, p. 31). This theory, however, seems to rest on a misconception. Cf. Topinard on the jaw-bone from the Naulette cave in the _Revue d’Anthropologie_, 3d ser. i., p. 422 (1886). It is held that the ethnical relations of this race are unknown, and it is not palpably connected with the race of the later period, the race of the caves, which archæologists, like Carl Vogt, Lartet, and Christy, call the cave-bear epoch, as its evidences are found in the cave deposits of Europe.

[Illustration: FROM DAWSON’S FOSSIL MEN.

A front view of a Hochelagan skull, surrounded by the outline, on a larger scale, of the Cro-magnon skull.]

This cave race is represented by the Cro-magnon skull, and, as Dawkins holds, is perpetuated to-day by the Eskimo, and was very likely also represented in the Guanches of the Canary Islands. Quatrefages calls it the race of Cro-magnon; and the vanishing of it into the Neolithic people is obscure. It is claimed by some, but the evidence is questionable, that the development of the muscles of speech make this race the first to speak, and that thus man, as a speaking being, is probably not ten thousand years old.

The interval before the shaped and polished stone implements were used may have been long in some places, and the gradation may have been confused in others; and it is indeed sometimes said that the one and the other condition exist in savage regions at the present day, as many archæologists hold that they have always existed, side by side, though this proposition is also denied. Indeed, it is a question if the terms of the archæologist, signifying ages or epochs, have any time value, being rather characteristics of stages of development than of passing time. Those who find the ruder implements to stand for a people living with the cave-bear find, as they contend, a shorter-headed race producing these finer stone implements, and call it the Reindeer epoch. One of Lubbock’s terms, the Neolithic age, has gained larger acceptance as a designation for this period since 1865, when he introduced it. With these polished stones we first find signs of domestic animals and of the practice of agriculture. Any considerable collection of these stone implements and ornaments will present to the observer great varieties, but with steady types, of such implements as axes, celts, hammers, knives, drills, scrapers, mortars and pestles, pitted stones, plummets, sinkers, spear-points, arrow-heads, daggers, pipes, gorgets,—not to name others.

On the American stone age, see Nadaillac, _Les premiers hommes_, p. 37; L. P. Gratacap in _Amer. Antiquarian_, iv.; and W. J. McGee, in _Pop. Sci. Monthly_, Nov., 1888, for condensed views; but the student will prefer the more enlarged views of Rau, Abbott and others.

[1611] Cambridge, Eng., 1862; revised, 1865; and largely rewritten, London, 1876. Cf. his “Pre-Aryan American Man,” in the _Roy. Soc. Canada Trans._, i., 2d sect., 35, and his “Unwritten History” in _Smithsonian Rept._ (1862).

[1612] London, 1865, 1870; N. Y., 1878.

[1613] Tylor speaks of Klemm’s _Allgemeine Culturgeschichte der Menschheit_ and his _Allgemeine Culturwissenschaft_ as containing “invaluable collections of facts bearing on the history of civilization.”

[1614] _Royal Inst. of Gt. Brit. Proc._, reprinted in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867.

[1615] _Internat. Cong. Prehist. Archæol. Trans._, 1868.

[1616] London, 1871; 2d ed., 1874, somewhat amplified; Boston, 1874; N. Y., 1877.

[1617] See preface to _Primitive Culture_, 1st ed.

[1618] Vols. iii. and iv. of this treatise (Leipzig, 1862-64) are given to “Die Amerikaner,” and are provided with a list of books on the subject, and ethnological maps of North and South America. Brinton (_Myths_, p. 40) thinks it the best work yet written on the American Indians, though he thinks that Waitz errs on the religious aspects. Waitz has fully discussed the question of climate as affecting the development of people, and this is included with full references in that part of his great work which in the English translation is called an _Introduction to Anthropology_. Wallace and other observers contend that the direct efficacy of physical conditions is overrated, and that climate is but one of the many factors. F. H. Cushing discusses the question of habitation as affected by surroundings in the _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bur. of Ethnol._, p. 473.

[1619] Cf. Quatrefages’ _Les Progrès de l’Anthropologie_ (Paris, 1868), and Paul Topinard’s _Anthropology_ (English translation, London, 1878). Quatrefages (_Human Race_, New York, 1879) explains the anthropological method (p. 27).

[1620] Given in _Popular Science Monthly_, Dec., 1884, p. 152; and in the same periodical p. 264, is an account and portrait of Tylor.

[1621] London, N. Y., 1865; 2d ed. somewhat enlarged, Lond., 1869; and later. Part of this work had appeared earlier in the _National Hist. Review_, 1861-64, including a paper (ch. 8) on No. Amer. Archæology in Jan., 1863, which was reprinted in the _Smithsonian Report_ for 1862, and was translated in the _Revue Archéologique_, 1865.

This book of Lubbock’s and Tylor’s correlative work probably represent the best dealing with the subject in English; and some such book as Jas. A. Farrer’s _Primitive Manners and Customs_ (N. Y., 1879) will lead up to them with readers less studious. The English reader may find some comparative treatments in the English version of Waitz’s _Introd. to Anthropology_ (p. 284), etc.; much that is suggestive and in some way supplemental to Tylor and Lubbock in Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_; some vigorous and perhaps sweeping characterizations in Lesley’s _Origin and Destiny of Man_ (ch. 6); and other aspects in Winchell’s _Preadamites_ (ch. 26), Foster’s _Prehistoric Races of the U. S._ (ch. 9), F. A. Allen in _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_, 1877, vol. i. 79. Humboldt points out the non-pastoral character of the American tribes (_Views of Nature_, ii. 42). Helps’ _Realmah_ deals with the prehistoric condition of man.

[1622] London, N. Y., 1870; 2d ed.; 3d ed., 1875; 4th ed., 1882,—each with additions and revisions.

[1623] Cf. his _Studies in Anc. Hist._ He elucidates the early practice of capturing a wife, and controverts Morgan’s _Ancient Society_. Cf. W. F. Allen in _Penn. Monthly_, June, 1880.

[1624] Cf. also his “Early Condition of Man,” in _British Ass. Proc._, 1867; and Lyell’s _Principles of Geology_, 11th ed., ii. 485; Dawkins in _No. Amer. Rev._, Oct., 1883, p. 348.

[1625] Darwin took Lubbock’s side, _Descent of Man_, i. 174. Bradford, in his _American Antiquities_, held the barbarous American to be a degraded remnant of a society originally more cultivated; and a similar view was held by S. F. Jarvis in his _Discourse_ before the New York Hist. Soc. (Proc., iii., N. Y., 1821). Cf. Büchner’s _Man_, Eng. transl., 67, 276. Rawlinson (_Antiquity of man historically considered_) considers savagery a “corruption and degradation,—the result of adverse circumstances during a long period.”

[1626] N. Y., 1869; originally in _Good Words_, Mar.-June, 1868.

[1627] Dawson’s _Fossil Men and their modern representatives_ (London, 1880, 1883) is “an attempt to illustrate the characters and conditions of prehistoric men in Europe by those of the American races.” A conservative reliance on the biblical record, as long understood, characterizes Dawson’s usual speculations. Cf. his _Nature and the Bible_, his _Story of the Earth_, his _Origin of the World_, and his _Address_ as president of the geological section of the Amer. Association in 1876. He confronts his opponents’ views of the long periods necessary to effect geographical changes by telling them that in historic times “the Hyrcanian ocean has dried up and Atlantis has gone down.”

[1628] Dawson (_Fossil Men_, 218) says: “I think that American archæologists and geologists must refuse to accept the distinction of a palæolithic from a neolithic period until further evidence can be obtained.”

[1629] These are very nearly the views of Winchell in his _Preadamites_, p. 420.

[1630] Cf. his papers in _Methodist Quarterly_, xxxvi. 581; xxxvii. 29.

[1631] This is also considered important evidence by Dawson, as well as Winchell’s estimate, in his _5th Report, Minnesota Geol. Survey_ (1876), of the 8,000 or 9,000 years necessary for the falls of St. Anthony to have worked back from Fort Snelling. Edw. Fontaine’s _How the World was peopled_ (N. Y., 1872) is another expression of this recent-origin belief.

[1632] This cataclysmic element of force, as opposed to the gradual uniformity theory of Lyell, finds expounders in Huxley and Prestwich, and is the burden of H. H. Howorth’s _Mammoth and the Flood_ (London, 1887) in its palæontological and archæological aspects, its geological aspects having been touched by him so far only in some papers in the _Geological Mag._ This great overthrow of the gigantic animals, during which the man intermediate between the palæolithic and neolithic age lived, was not universal, so that the less unwieldy species largely saved themselves; and it was in effect the scriptural flood, of which traditions were widely preserved among the North American tribes (_Mammoth and the Flood_, 307, 444).

[1633] Southall answered his detractors in the _Methodist Quarterly_, xxxvii. 225. Geo. Rawlinson (_Antiq. of Man historically considered, Present Day Tract, No. 9_, or _Journal of Christian Philosophy_, April, 1883) speaks of the antiquity of prehistoric man as involving considerations “to a large extent speculative” as to limits, “that are to be measured not so much by centuries as by millenia.” He condenses the arguments for a recent origin of man.

[1634] There is a cursory survey in John Scoffern’s _Stray leaves of science and folk lore_ (London, 1870).

[1635] Cf. his papers in _Leisure Hour_, xxiii. 740, 766; xxvi. 54.

[1636] Current periodical views can be traced in Poole’s _Index_ (vols. i. and ii.) under “Man,” “Races,” “Prehistoric,” etc.

The views of the cosmogonists, running back to the beginning of the sixteenth century, are followed down to the birth of modern geology in Pattison’s _The Earth and the Word_ (Lond., 1858), and condensed in M’Clintock & Strong’s _Cyclopædia_ (iii. 795).

[1637] _Verse 1._ In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.

_Verse 2._ And the earth was without form and void, etc.

[1638] Cf. also J. D. Whitney’s _Climatic Changes_. The present proportion of land to water is reckoned as four is to eleven. The ocean’s average depth is variously estimated at from eleven to thirteen times that of the average elevation of land above water, or as 11,000 or 13,000 feet is to 1,000 feet. The bulk of water on the globe is computed at thirty-six times the cubic measurement of the land above water (_Ibid._ 194, 209).

[1639] For an extended discussion of the Atlantis question, see _ante_, ch. 1.

[1640] It is enough to indicate the necessary correlation of this subject with the transformation theory of J. B. A. Lamarck as enunciated in his _Philosophie Zoologique_ (Paris, 1809; again, 1873), which Cuvier opposed; and with the new phase of it in what is called Darwinism, a theory of the survival of the fittest, leading ultimately to man. Lyell (_Principles of Geology_, 11th ed., ii, 495) presents the diverse sides of the question, which is one hardly germane to our present purpose.

[1641] London, 1863, 3 eds., each enlarged; Philad., 1863. In his final edition Lyell acknowledges his obligations to Lubbock’s _Prehistoric Man_ and John Evans’s _Anc. Stone Implements_. His final edition is called: _The geological evidences of the antiquity of man, with an outline of glacial and post-tertiary geology and remarks on the origin of species with special reference to man’s first appearance on the earth_. 4th ed., revised (London, 1873).

[1642] _Recent Origin of Man_, p. 10.

[1643] Another way of looking at it gives reasons for this omission: “The first chapter of Genesis is not a geological treatise. It is absolutely valueless in geological discussion, and has no value whatever save as representing what the Jews borrowed from the Babylonians, and as preserving for us an early cosmology” (Howorth’s _Mammoth and the Flood_, Lond., 1887, p. ix). Between Lyell and Gabriel de Mortillet (_La préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme_, Paris, 1881) on the one hand and Southall on the other, there are the more cautious geologists, like Prestwich, who claim that we must wait before we can think of measuring by years the interval from the earliest men. (Cf. “Theoretical considerations on the drift containing implements,” in _Roy. Soc. Philos. Trans._, 1862)

[1644] Cf. _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Apr., 1873, p. 33.

[1645] Winchell’s book is an enlargement of an article contributed by him to M’Clintock and Strong’s _Cyclopædia of Biblical literature_, etc. (vol viii., 1879),—the editors of which, by their foot-notes, showed themselves uneasy under some of his inferences and conclusions, which do not agree with their conservative views.

[1646] Lois Agassiz advanced (1863) this view of the first emergence of land in America, in the _Atlantic Monthly_, xi. 373; also in _Geol. Sketches_, p. 1,—marking the Laurentian hills along the Canadian borders of the United States as the primal continent. Cf. Nott and Gliddon’s _Types of Mankind_, ch. 9. Mortillet holds that so late as the early quaternary period Europe was connected with America by a region now represented by the Faröes, Iceland, and Greenland. Some general references on the antiquity of man in America follow:—Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_. Short’s _No. Amer. of Antiq._, ch. 2. Nadaillac, _Les Premiers Hommes_, ii. ch. 8. Foster, _Prehistoric Races of the U. S._, and _Chicago Acad. of Sciences, Proc._, i. (1869). Joly, _Man before Metals_, ch. 7. Emil Schmidt, _Die ältesten Spuren des Menschen in Nord Amerika_ (Hamburg, 1887). A. R. Wallace in _Nineteenth Century_ (Nov., 1887, or _Living Age_, clxxv. 472). _Pop. Science Monthly_, Mar., 1877. An epitome in _Science_, Apr. 3, 1885, of a paper by Dr. Kollmann in the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_. F. Larkin, _Ancient Man in America_ (N. Y., 1880). The biblical record restrains Southall in all his estimates of the antiquity of man in America, as shown in his _Recent Origin of Man_, ch. 36, and _Epoch of the Mammoth_, ch. 25.

[1647] Hugh Falconer (_Palæontological Memoirs_, ii. 579) says: “The earliest date to which man has as yet been traced back in Europe is probably but as yesterday in comparison with the epoch at which he made his appearance in more favored regions.”

[1648] Cf. also Putnam’s _Report_ in Wheeler’s Survey, 1879, p. 11.

[1649] Cf. H. H. Bancroft, iv. 703: Short, 125, etc.

[1650] Dr. Brinton concludes that since the region is one of a rapid deposition of strata, the tracks may not be older than quaternary. The track here figured was 9½ inches long; some were 10 inches. The maximum stride was 18 inches. Cf. Dr. Earl Flint in _Amer. Antiquarian_ (vi. 112), Mar., 1884, and (vii. 156) May,1885; _Peabody Mus. Repts._, 1884, p. 356; 1885, p. 414; _Amer. Ant. Soc. Proc._, 1884, p. 92.

[1651] _Story of the Earth and Man._

[1652] _The Great Ice-Age, and its Relations to the Antiquity of Man_ (1874).

[1653] _Mammoth and the Flood._

[1654] “We cannot fix a date, in the historical sense, for events which happened outside history, and cannot measure the antiquity of man in terms of years.” Dawkins in _No. Am. Rev._, Oct., 1883, p. 338. Tylor (_Early Hist. of Mankind_, 197) says “Geological evidence, though capable of showing the lapse of vast periods of time, has scarcely admitted of these periods being brought into definite chronological terms.” Prestwich (_On the geol. position and age of flint-implement-bearing beds_, London, 1864,—from the _Roy. Soc. Phil. Trans._) says: “However we extend our present chronology with respect to the first appearance of men, it is at present unsafe and premature to count by hundreds of thousands of years.” Southall (_Recent Origin of Man_, ch. 33) epitomizes the extreme views of the advocates of glaciation in the present temperate zone.

[1655] Cf. Louis Agassiz, _Geological Sketches_ (1865), p. 210; 2d series (1886), p. 77.

[1656] J. Adhémer, _Revolutions de la Mer_, who advocates this theory, connects with it the movement of the apsides, and thinks that it is the consequent great accumulation of ice at the north pole which by its weight displaces the centre of gravity; and as the action is transferred from one pole to the other, the periodic oscillation of that centre of gravity is thus caused. The theory no doubt borrows something of its force with some minds from the great law of mutability in nature. That it is a grand field for such theorizers as Lorenzo Burge, his _Preglacial Man and the Aryan Race_ shows; but authorities like Lyell and Sir John Herschel find no sufficient reason in it for the great ice-sheet which they contend for. Cf. H. Le Hon’s _Influence des lois cosmiques sur la climatologie et la géologie_ (Bruxelles, 1868). W. B. Galloway’s _Science and Geology in relation to the Universal Deluge_ (Lond., 1888) points out what he thinks the necessary effects of such changes of axis. J. D. Whitney (_Climatic changes of later geological times, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoöl._, vii. 392, 394) disbelieves all these views, and contends that the most eminent astronomers and climatologists are opposed to them.

[1657] Of the manifold reasons which have been assigned for these great climatic changes (Lubbock, _Prehistoric Times_, 391, and Croll, _Discussions_, enumerates the principal reasons) there is at least some considerable credence given to the one of which James Croll has been the most prominent advocate, and which points to that reduction of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit which in 22,000 years will be diminished from the present scale to one sixth of it, or to about half a million miles. This change in the eccentricity induces physical changes, which allow a greater or less volume of tropical water to flow north. In this way the once mild climate of Greenland is accounted for (Wallace’s _Island Life_). Croll first advanced his views in the Philosophical Mag., Aug., 1864; but he did not completely formulate his theory till in his _Climate and time in their geological relations, a theory of secular changes of the earth’s climate_ (N. Y., 1875). It gained the acquiescence of Lyell and others; but a principal objector appeared in the astronomer Simon Newcomb (_Amer. Jl. of Sci. and Arts_, April, 1876; Jan., 1884; _Philosoph. Mag._, Feb., 1884). Croll answered in _Remarks_ (London, 1884), but more fully in a further development of his views in his _Discussions on Climate and Cosmology_ (N. Y., 1886). Whitney’s _Climatic Changes_ argues on entirely different grounds.

[1658] _Principles of Geology_, ch. 10-13, where he gives a secondary place to the arguments of Croll.

[1659] Emile Cartailhac’s _L’Age de pierre dans les souvenirs et superstitions populaires_ (Paris, 1877).

[1660] Joly, _L’Homme avant les métaux_, or in the English transl., _Man before Metals_, ch. 2. Nadaillac (_Les Premiers Hommes_, i. 127) reproduces Mahudel’s cuts.

[1661] Foster, _Prehistoric Races_, 50, notes some obscure facts which might indicate that man lived back of the glacial times, in the Miocene tertiary period. These are the discoveries associated with the names of Desnoyers and the Abbé Bourgeois, and familiar enough to geologists. They have found little credence. Cf. Lubbock’s _Prehistoric Times_, 410, and his _Scientific Lectures_, 140; Büchner’s _Man_, p. 31; Nadaillac’s _Les Premiers Hommes_, ii, 425; and _L’Homme tertiaire_ (Paris, 1885); Peschel’s _Races of Men_, p. 34; Edward Clodd in _Modern Review_, July, 1880; Dawkins’ _Address_, Salford, 1877, p. 9; Joly, _Man before Metals_, 177. Quatrefages (_Human Species_, N. Y., 1879, p. 150) assents to their authenticity. Many of these look to the later tertiary (Pliocene) as the beginning of the human epoch; but Dawkins (_No. Am. Rev._, cxxxvii, 338; cf. his _Early Man in Britain_, p. 90), as well as Huxley, say that all real knowledge of man goes not back of the quaternary. Cf. further, Quatrefages, _Introd. à l’étude des races humaines_ (Paris, 1887), p. 91; and his _Nat. Hist. Man_ (N. Y., 1874), p. 44.

Winchell (McClintock and Strong’s _Cyclopædia_, viii. 491-2, and in his _Preadamites_) concisely classes the evidences of tertiary man as “Preglacial remains erroneously supposed human,” and “Human remains erroneously supposed pre-glacial;” but he confines these conclusions to Europe only, allowing that the American non-Caucasian man might, perhaps, be carried back (p. 492) into the tertiary age.

Cf. on the tertiary (Pliocene) man, E. S. Morse in _Amer. Naturalist_, xviii. 1001,—an address at the Philad. meeting, Am. Asso. Adv. Science and his earlier paper in the _No. Amer. Rev._; C. C. Abbott in _Kansas City Rev._, iii. 413 (also see iv. 84, 326); _Cornhill Mag._, li. 254 (also in _Pop. Sci. Monthly_, xxvii. 103, and _Eclectic Mag._, civ. 601). Dr. Morton believed that the Eocene man, of the oldest tertiary group, would yet be discovered. Agassiz, in 1865 (_Geol. Sketches_, 200), thought the younger naturalists would live to see sufficient proofs of the tertiary man adduced. S. R. Pattison (_Age of Man geologically considered in Present Day Tract, no. 13_, or _Journal of Christ. Philos._ July, 1883) does not believe in the tertiary man, instancing, among other conclusions, that no trace of cereals is found in the tertiary strata, and that these strata show other conditions unfavorable to human life. His conclusions are that man has existed only about 8,000 years, and that it is impossible for geological science at present to confute or disprove it. In his view man appeared in the first stage of the quaternary period, was displaced by floods in the second, and for the third lived and worked on the present surface.

[1662] Lyell’s _Antiquity of Man_, 4th ed., ch. 18. Daniel Wilson, on “The supposed evidence of the existence of interglacial man,” in the _Canadian Journal_, Oct., 1877. Nadaillac’s _L’Amérique préhistorique_, ch. 1; _Les Premiers Hommes_, ii. ch. 10; and his _De la période glaciaire et de l’existence de l’homme durant cette période en Amérique_ (Paris, 1884), extracted from _Matériaux_, etc. G. F. Wright on “Man and the glacial period in America,” in _Mag. West. Hist._ (Feb., 1885), i. 293 (with maps), and his “Preglacial man in Ohio,” in the _Ohio Archæol. and Hist. Quart._ (Dec., 1887), i. 251. Miss Babbitt’s “Vestiges of glacial man in Minnesota,” in the _Amer. Naturalist_, June, July, 1884, and _Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc._ xxxii. 385.

[1663] Howorth, _Mammoth and the Flood_, 323, considers them flood-gravels instead, in supporting his thesis.

[1664] _Pop. Science Monthly_, xxii. 315. _Smithsonian Rept._, 1874-75. Reports of progress, etc., in the _Peabody Museum Reports_, nos. x. and xi. (1878, 1879). Prof. N. S. Shaler accompanies the first of these with some comments, in which he says: “If these remains are really those of man, they prove the existence of interglacial man on this part of our shore.” He is understood latterly to have become convinced of their natural character. J. D. Whitney and Lucien Carr agree as to their artificial character (_Ibid._ xii. 489). Cf. Abbott on Flint Chips (refuse work) in the _Peab. Mus. Rept._, xii. 506; H. W. Haynes in _Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc._, Jan., 1881; F. W. Putnam in _Peab. Mus. Rept._, no. xiv. p. 23; Henry Carvell Lewis on _The Trenton gravel and its relation to the antiquity of man_ (Philad., 1880); also in the _Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_ (1877-1879, pp. 60-73; and 1880, p. 306). Abbott has also registered the discovery of a molar tooth (_Peabody Mus. Rept._, xvi. 177), and the under jaw of a man (_Ibid._ xviii. 408, and _Matériaux_, etc., xviii. 334.) On recent discoveries of human skulls in the Trenton gravels, see _Peab. Mus. Rept._ xxii. 35. The subject of the Trenton-gravels man, and of his existence in the like gravels in Ohio and Minnesota, was discussed at a meeting of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., of which there is a report in their _Proceedings_, vol. xxiii. These papers have been published separately: _Palæolithic man in eastern and central North America_ (Cambridge, 1888). CONTENTS:—Putnam, F. W. Comparison of palæolithic implements.—Abbott, C. C. The antiquity of man in the valley of the Delaware.—Wright, G. F. The age of the Ohio gravel-beds.—Upham, Warren. The recession of the ice-sheet in Minnesota in its relation to the gravel deposits overlying the quartz implements found by Miss Babbitt at Little Falls, Minn.—Discussion and concluding remarks, by H. W. Haynes, E. S. Morse, F. W. Putnam. Cf. also _Amer. Antiquarian_, Jan., 1888, p. 46; Th. Belt’s _Discovery of stone implements in the glacial drift of No. America_ (Lond., 1878, and _Q. Jour. Sci._ xv. 63; Dawkins in _No. Am. Rev._, Oct., 1883, p. 347.)

[1665] Cf. also _Peabody Mus. Repts._, xix. 492; _Science_, vii. 41; _Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc._, xxi. 124; _Matériaux_, etc. xviii. 334; _Philad. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Proc._ (1880, p. 306). Abbott refers to the contributions of Henry C. Lewis of the second Geol. Survey of Penna. (_Proc. Philad. Acad. Nat. Sciences_, and “The antiquity and origin of the Trenton gravels,” in Abbott’s book), and of George H. Cook in the _Annual Reports_ of the New Jersey state geologist. Abbott has recently summarized his views on the “Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Eastern North America,” in the _Am. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc._, xxxvii., and separately (Salem, 1888).

[1666] Figuier, _Homme Primitif_, introd.

[1667] The references are very numerous; but it is enough to refer to the general geological treatises: Vogt’s _Lectures on Man_, nos. 9, 10; Nadaillac’s _Les Prem. Hommes_, ii. 7; Dawkins in _Intellectual Observer_, xii. 403; and Ed. Lartet, _Nouvelles recherches sur la coexistence de l’homme et des grands mammifères fossiles, réputés caractéristiques de la dernière période geologique_, in the _Annales des Sciences Naturelles_, 4^e série, xv. 256. Buffon first formulated the belief in extinct animals from some mastodon bones and teeth sent to him from the Big Bone Lick in Kentucky, about 1740, and Cuvier first applied the name mastodon, though from the animal’s resemblance to the Siberian mammoth it has sometimes been called by the latter name. There are in reality the fossil remains of both mastodon and mammoth found in America. On the bones from the Big Bone Lick see Thomson’s _Bibliog. Ohio_, no. 44.

[1668] Wilson’s _Prehist. Man_, i. ch. 2; _Proc. Amer. Acad. Nat. Sciences_, July, 1859; _Amer. Journal of Sci. and Arts_, xxxvi. 199; cix. 335; _Pop. Sci. Rev._, xiv. 278; A. H. Worthen’s _Geol. Survey, Illinois_ (1866), i. 38; Haven in _Smithsonian Contrib._, viii. 142; H. H. Howorth’s _Mammoth and the Flood_ (Lond., 1887), p. 319; J. P. MacLean’s _Mastodon, Mammoth and Man_ (Cincinnati, 1886). Cf. references under “Mammoth” and “Mastodon,” in _Poole’s Index_. Koch represented that he found the remains of a mastodon in Missouri, with the proofs about the relics that the animal had been slain by stone javelins and arrows (_St. Louis Acad. of Sci. Trans._, i. 62, 1857). The details have hardly been accepted on Koch’s word, since some doubtful traits of his character have been made known (Short, _No. Amer. of Antiq._, 116; Nadaillac, _L’Amérique préhistorique_, 37). There have been claims also advanced for a stone resembling a hatchet, found with such animals in the modified drift of Jersey Co., Illinois. E. L. Berthoud (_Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad. Proc._ 1872) has reported on human relics found with extinct animals in Wyoming and Colorado. Dr. Holmes (_Ibid._ July, 1859) had described pottery found with the bones of the megatherium. Lyell seems to have hesitated to associate man with the extinct animals in America, when the remains found at Natchez were shown to him in an early visit to America (_Antiquity of Man_, 237). Howorth, _Mammoth and the Flood_, 317, enumerates the later discoveries, some being found under recent conditions (_Ibid._ 278), and so recent that the trunk itself has been observed (p. 299). In the earliest instance of the bones being reported, Dr. Mather, communicating the fact to the _Philosophical Trans. Roy. Soc._ (1714), xxix. 63, says they were found in the Hudson River, and he supposed them the remains of a giant man, while the colored earth about the bones represented his rotted body. Cf. _Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll._, xii. 263.

[1669] See on this a later page.

[1670] Lyell’s _Antiq. of Man_, 4th ed., 236; Nadaillac’s _Les premiers hommes_, ii. 13; Southall’s _Recent origin of man_, ch. 30. Vogt (_Lectures on Man_) accepts the evidence.

[1671] Cf. Lyell’s _Antiq. of Man_, ch. 5; Huxley’s _Man’s place in nature_; Le Hon’s _L’Homme fossile en Europe_; Leslie’s _Origin and destiny of man_, p. 54, who passes in review these early tentative explorations.

[1672] Cf. Lyell’s description in his _Antiquity of Man_, ch. 8; Quatrefages, _Nat. Hist. Man_ (N. Y., 1875), p. 41; Langel, _L’homme antédiluvien_; Büchner’s _Man_, Eng. transl., ch. 1; Carl Vogt, _Vorlesungen über den Menschen_.

[1673] Rigollot, of Amiens, who had doubted, finally came to believe in De Perthes’s views.

[1674] Büchner’s _Man_, p. 26; Hugh Falconer’s _Palæontological Memoirs_, London, 1868 (ii. 601). Falconer’s essay on “Primæval Man and his Contemporaries,” included in this work, was written in 1863, in vindication of the views which Falconer shared with Boucher de Perthes and Prestwich, and it is an interesting study of the development of the interest in the caves.

[1675] Lyell, _Antiq. of Man_, ch. 8; Lubbock, _Prehistoric Times_, ch. 11; Nadaillac, _Les Premiers Hommes_, ii. 122; Leslie, _Origin, etc. of Man_, 56. Southall gives the antagonistic views in his _Recent Origin of Man_, ch. 16, and _Epoch of the Mammoth_, 126.

[1676] This is in dispute, however. That the older cave implements and those of the drift may be of equivalent age seems to be agreed upon by some.

[1677] Cf. also Geikie’s _Great Ice Age_; Lubbock’s _Prehistoric Times_, ch. 10; Evans’s _Anc. Stone Implements of Gt. Britain_; Wilson’s _Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_; Nilsson’s _Stone Age in Scandinavia_; Figuier’s _World before the Deluge_ (N. Y., 1872), p. 473; Joly, _Man before Metals_, ch. 3; Cazalis de Fondouce’s _Les temps préhistoriques dans le sud-est de la France_; Roujow’s _Etude sur les races humaines de la France_; Peschel’s _Races of Men_, introd.

The scarcity of human remains in the drift and in the caves is accounted for by Lyell (_Student’s Elements_, N. Y., p. 153) by man’s wariness against floods as compared with that of beasts; and by Lubbock (_Prehist. Times_, 349) through the vastly greater numbers of the animals in a hunters’ age.

[1678] The present day is not without a cave people. See _London Anthropolog. Rev._, April, 1869, and Büchner’s _Man_, Eng. transl., p. 270.

[1679] Haven, p. 86.

[1680] Cf. Florentino Amegluno’s _La Antigüedad del Hombre en la Plata_ (Paris, 1880), and Howorth’s _Mammoth and the Flood_, 355, who cites Klee’s _Le Déluge_, p. 326, and enumerates other evidences of pleistocene man in South America, in connection with extinct animals.

[1681] The instances are not rare of mummies being found in caves of the Mississippi Valley; but there is no evidence adduced of any great age attaching to them. Cf. N. S. Shaler on the antiquity of the caverns and cavern life of the Ohio Valley, in _Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem._, ii. 355 (1875); and on desiccated remains, see the _Archæologia Amer._, i. 359; Brinton’s _Floridian Peninsula_, App. ii. On the American caves see Nadaillac’s _L’Amérique préhistorique_, ch. 2.

[1682] Abbott’s _Primitive Industry_, ch. 30.

[1683] Lyell, _Antiq. of Man_, 4th ed. ch. 2; Lubbock, _Prehist. Times_, ch. 7; Nadaillac, _Les premiers hommes_, i. ch. 5; Joly, _Man before Metals_, ch. 4; Figuier, _World before Deluge_ (N. Y., 1872), p. 477. Worsaae, the leading Danish authority, calls them palæolithic relics; Lubbock places them as early neolithic. Southall, of course, thinks they indicate the rudeness of the people, not their antiquity. (_Recent Origin_, etc., ch. 12; _Epoch of the Mammoth_, ch. 5.)

[1684] _Am. Naturalist_, ii. 397.

[1685] Cf. Lyell’s _Second Visit_.

[1686] All the general treatises on American archæology now cover the subject: Wilson, _Prehist. Man_, i. 132; Nadaillac, _L’Amérique préhistorique_, ch. 2; Short, _No. Amer. Antiq._, 106; _Smithsonian Reports_, 1864 (Rau), 1866, 1870 (J. Fowler); _Bull. Essex Inst._, iv. (Putnam); _Peabody Mus. Reports_, i., v., vii.; _Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc._ 1867, 1875; _Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc._ 1866; _Pop. Science Monthly_, x. (Lewis); Lyell’s _Second Visit_, i. 252; Stevens, _Flint Chips_, 194. For local observations: J. M. Jones in _Smithsonian Ann. Report_, 1863, on those of Nova Scotia. S. F. Baird in _Nat. Museum Proc._ (1881, 1882), on those of New Brunswick and New England. For those in Maine see _Peabody Mus. Reports_, xvi., xviii.; _Central Ohio Sci. Assoc. Proc._, i. 70; that at Damariscotta, in particular, is described in the _Peabody Mus. Reports_, xx. 531, 546; and in the _Maine Hist. Soc. Col._, v. (by P. A. Chadbourne) and vi. 349. Wyman’s studies are in the _Amer. Naturalist_, Jan., 1868, and _Peabody Mus. Rept._, ii. Putnam (_Essex Inst. Bull_., xv. 86) says that those at Pine Grove, near Salem, Mass., were examined in 1840. The map which is annexed of those on Cape Cod, taken from the _Smithsonian Report_ (1883, p. 905), shows the frequency of them in a confined area, as observed; but the same region doubtless includes many not observed.

For those on the New Jersey coast see Cook’s _Geology of New Jersey_ (Newark, 1868), and Rau in the _Smithsonian Reports_, 1863, 1864, 1865. The Lockwood collection from the heap at Keyport is in the Peabody Museum (cf. _Rept._, xxii. 43). Francis Jordan describes the _Remains of an Aboriginal Encampment at Rehoboth, Delaware_ (Philad., 1880). Elmer R. Reynolds reported on “Precolumbian shell heaps at Newburg, Maryland, and the aboriginal shell heaps of the Potomac and Wicomico rivers” at the _Congrès des Américanistes_ (Copenhagen, 1883, p. 292). Joseph Leidy describes those at Cape Henlopen in the _Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci._, 1866. Those on the Georgia coast, St. Simon’s Island, etc., are pointed out in C. C. Jones’s _Antiquities of the Southern Indians; Smithsonian Repts._, 1871 (by D. Brown); in Lyell’s _Antiq. of Man_, and in his _Second Visit to the U. S._ (N. Y., 1849), i. 252.

The shell heaps of Florida have had unusual attention. Wyman has indicated the absence of objects in them, showing Spanish contact. Dr. Brinton’s first studies of them were in his _Notes on the Floridian Peninsula_ (Philad., 1859), ch. 6, and again in the _Smithsonian Report_ (1866), p. 356. Prof. Wyman’s first reports (St. John River) were in _The American Naturalist_, Jan., Oct., Nov., 1868. He also described them in the _Peabody Mus. Report_, i., v., vii., and in his _Fresh Water Shell Heaps of the St. John River, Florida_ (Salem, 1875), being no. 4 of the _Memoirs of the Peabody Acad. of Science_. There are other investigations recorded in the _Smithsonian Reports_, 1877, by S. P. Mayberry, on St. John River; 1879, by S. T. Walker, on Tampa Bay; also by A. W. Vogeler in _Amer. Naturalist_, Jan., 1879; by W. H. Dall in the _American Journal of Archæology_, i. 184; and by A. E. Douglass in the _Amer. Antiquarian_, vii. 74, 140. On those of Alabama, see _Peabody Mus. Rept._, xvi. 186, and _Smithsonian Rept._, 1877.

On those of the great interior valleys, see the _Second Geological Report of Indiana_, and Humphrey and Abbott’s _Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi Valley_.

For the California coast, there is testimony in Bancroft’s _Native Races_, iv. 709-712; _Smithsonian Rept._, 1874 (by P. Schumacher); _American Antiquarian_, vii. 159; and _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, v. 489. Schumacher covers the northwest coast in the _Smithsonian Rept._, 1873. Those in Oregon are reported to be destitute of the bones of extinct animals, in the _Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey_, iii. Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, iv. 739, refers to those on Vancouver’s Island. W. H. Dall describes those on the Aleutian Islands in the _Contributions to No. Amer. Ethnology_, i. 41.

[1687] This branch of archæological science began, I believe, with the discovery by Sir Wm. R. Wilde of some lacustrine habitations in a small lake in county Meath. R. Monro’s _Ancient Scotch lake Dwellings_ (Edinburgh, 1882) has gathered what is known of the remains in Great Britain. There are similar remains in various parts of the continent of Europe; but those revealed by the dry season of 1853-54 in the Swiss lakes have attracted the most notice. Dr. Keller described them in _Reports_ made to the Archæological Society of Zurich. A. Morlot printed an abstract of Keller’s Report in the _Smithsonian Report_, 1863. In 1866, J. E. Lee arranged Keller’s material systematically, and translated it in _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other parts of Europe, by Ferdinand Keller_ (London, 1866), which was reissued, enlarged and brought down to date, in a second edition in 1878. The earliest elaborated account was Prof. Troyon’s _Habitations lacustres_ (1860), of which there was a translation in the _Smithsonian Reports_, 1860, 1861. Troyon and Keller have reached different conclusions: the one believing that the traces of development in the remains indicate new peoples coming in, while Keller holds these to be signs of the progress of the same people. A paper by Edouard Desor, _Palafittes or Lacustrian Constructions_, appeared in English in the _Smithsonian Report_, 1865. There is a large collection of typical relics from these lake dwellings in the Peabody Museum (_Report_, v.).

These evidences now make part of all archæological treatises: Lyell’s _Antiq. of Man_; Lubbock, _Prehist. Times_, ch. 6; Nadaillac, _Les premiers hommes_, i. 241; Stevens, _Flint Chips_, 119; Joly, _Man before Metals_, ch. 5; Figuier, _World before the Deluge_ (N. Y., 1872), p. 478; Southall, _Recent Origin_, etc., ch. 11, and _Epoch of the Mammoth_, ch. 4; _Archæologia_, xxxviii.; Haven in _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc_., Oct., 1867; Rau in _Harper’s Monthly_, Aug., 1875; _Poole’s Index_, p. 718, and _Supplement_, p. 246. The man of the Danish peat-beds and of the Swiss lake dwellings is generally held to belong to the present geological conditions, but earlier than written records.

[1688] _Senate Doc._; also separately, Philad., 1852. Cf. Bancroft, _Native Races_, iv. 652; Domenech’s _Deserts_, etc., i. 201; _Annual Scient. Discovery_, 1850; Short, _No. Am. of Antiq._, 293. A photograph of the Casa Blanca is given in _Putnam’s Report, Wheeler’s Survey_, p. 370. Cf. Haven in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, 1855, p. 26.

[1689] _Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the territories_, 2d series, no. 1 (Washington, 1875), and its _Annual Rept._ (Washington, 1876), condensed in Bancroft, iv. 650, 718, and by E. A. Barber in _Congrès des Américanistes_, 1877, i. 22. Cf. Short, 295, etc.

[1690] _Bulletin_, etc., ii. (1876). Hayden’s _Survey_ (1876). Cf. Short, p. 305; _Kansas City Rev._, Dec., 1879 (on their age); James Stevenson in _Fourth Rept. Bureau of Ethnology_, pp. xxxiv, 284; Nadaillac’s _Les Premiers Hommes_ (ii. 61), and _L’Amérique préhistorique_, ch. 5; _Scribner’s Mag._, Dec., 1878 (xvii. 266); _Good Words_, xx. 486; _Science_, xi. 257. Those of the Cañon de Chelly are described by James Stevenson in the _Journal Amer. Geo. Soc._ (1886), p. 329. It is generally recognized that the cliff dwellers and the Pueblo people were the same race, and that the modern Zuñi and Moquis represent them. Bandelier in _Archæol. Inst. of Am., 5th Rept._ J. Stevenson (_Second Rept. Bur. of Ethnol._, 431) describes some cavate dwellings of this region cut out of the rock by hand. There is no evidence that these remains call for any association with them of the great antiquity of man.

[1691] Cf., for instance, Short, 331.

[1692] Morgan (_Systems of Consanguinity_, 257) finds correspondence to the roving Indian in physical and cranial character, in linguistic traits, and in the similarity of arts and social habits. Their connection with the moundbuilder and cliff-dwelling race is traced in H. F. C. Ten Kate’s _Reizen en Onderzolkingen in Nord America_ (Leyden, 1885). Cushing thinks (_Fourth Rept. Bur. Ethnol._, 481) they got their habit of building in stories from having, as cliff-dwellers, earlier built on the narrow shelves of the rocks. Morgan (_Peab. Mus. Rept._, xii. 550) thinks their architectural art deteriorated, since the ruined pueblos are finer constructions than those inhabited now. Cf. on the origin of Pueblo architecture V. Mindeleff in _Science_, ix. 593, and S. D. Peet in _Amer. Antiquarian_, iv. 208, and _Wisconsin Acad. of Science_, v. 290.

[1693] See chapter vii. of Vol. II.

[1694] Cf. lesser accounts of these earlier notices in E. G. Squier’s paper in the _Amer. Rev._, Nov., 1848; and G. M. Wheeler in the _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._ (1874), vol. vi.

[1695] The book is rare. There is a copy in Harvard College library. Cf. Sabin, ii. 4636-38; Ternaux, 518; Carter-Brown, ii.; Leclerc, no. 813 (200 francs). There is a French version, Brussels, 1631; and a Latin, Saltzburg, 1634.

[1696] Not to be confounded with the Casas Grandes, farther south in the Mexican province of Chihuahua, which is of a similar character. Cf. Bancroft, iv. 604 (with references); Short, ch. 7; Bartlett’s _Personal Narrative_, ii. 348. It was first described in Escudero’s _Noticias de Chihuahua_ (1819); and again in 1842, in _Album Mexicano_, i. 372.

[1697] From that day to the present there have been very many descriptions: _Documentos para la historia de Mexico_, 4th ser., i. 282; iv. 804; Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, iv. 621; Short, 279; Schoolcraft, _Ind. Tribes_, iii. 300; Bartlett, _Personal Nar._, ii. 278, 281; Emory, _Reconnaissance_, 81, 567; Humboldt, _Essai politique_; Baldwin, _Anc. America_, 82; Mayer, _Mexico_, ii. 396, and _Observations_, 15; Domenech, _Deserts_, i. 381; Ross Browne, _Apache Country_, 114; Jametel in _Rev. de Géog._, Mar., 1881; Nadaillac, _Prehist. Amér._, 222. Bancroft groups many of the descriptions, and best collates them.

[1698] Gregg, in his _Commerce des Prairies_ (N. Y., 1844), examined the Pueblo Bonito in 1840.

[1699] Washington, 1848,—30th Cong., Ex. Doc. 41. This includes Lieut. J. W. Abert’s _Report and Map of the Examination of New Mexico_. He visited two pueblos. This and other material afforded the base for the studies of Squier and Gallatin, the former printing “The ancient monuments of the aboriginal semi-civilized nations of New Mexico and California” (_Amer. Rev._, 1848), and the latter a paper in the _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, ii., repeated in French in the _Nouv. Ann. des Voyages_, 1851, iii. 237.

[1700] This is perhaps the most important of all the ruins. Bancroft, iv. 671. Bandelier’s studies are the most recent. _Congrès des Amér., Compte Rendu_, 1877, ii. 230, and his _Introd. to studies among the sedentary Indians of New Mexico and Report of the ruins of Pecos_ (Boston, 1881,—Archæol. Inst. of America).

[1701] Also in _Rept. of Sec. of War, 1st Sess. 31st Cong._ Cf. Bancroft, iv. 652, 655, 661; Baldwin’s _Anc. America_, 86; Domenech’s _Deserts_, i. 149, 379; Short, 292. The Chaco cañon was visited by W. H. Jackson in 1877, and his report is in the _Report of Hayden’s Survey_, 1878, p. 411. Morgan gives a summary, with maps (see Nadaillac, 229), in his _Houses and House Life_, etc., ch. 7, 8,—holding (p. 167) them to be the seven cities of Cibola seen by Coronado. Cf. on this mooted question our Vol. II. 501-503; and Simpson’s paper in the _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._ vol. v.

[1702] _32d Cong., 2d sess., Sen. Ex. Doc., No. 59._

[1703] On the Zuñi region see Bancroft, iv. 645, 667, 673 (with ref.); Short, 288; Möllhausen, _Reisen in die Felsengebirge Nord Amerikas_ (ii. 196, 402), and his _Tagebuch_, 283; Cozzen’s _Marvellous Country_; _Tour du Monde_, i.; _Harper’s Monthly_, Aug., 1875; J. E. Stevenson’s _Zuñi and the Zunians_ (Washington, 1881). Of F. H. Cushing’s recent labors among the Zuñi, see Powell’s _Second_, _Third_, and _Fifth Reports, Bur. of Ethnology_.

[1704] The _Report_ of Lieut. W. H. Emory, directly in charge of the survey (_Ho. Ex. Doc. 135, 34th Cong., 1st sess._), was printed separately in 3 vols. in 1859.

[1705] _Report upon U. S. Geol. Surveys, west of the one hundredth meridian in charge of First Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, vol. vii., Archæology_ (Washington, 1879). Ernest Ingersoll, a member of the survey, published some papers on the “Village Indians of New Mexico” in the _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._, vi. and vii.

[1706] Cf. L. H. Morgan on this ruin in the _Peab. Mus. Rept._, xii. 536, and in a paper in the _Trans. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci._ (St. Louis, 1877).

[1707] His notes form a good bibliography. He intends as a supplement an account of the different explorations prior to the seventeenth century.

[1708] Bancroft (_Native Races_, i. 529, 599; iv. 662, etc.) gives the best clues to authorities prior to 1875. Short (ch. 7) condenses more, and Baldwin (p. 78) still more. Nadaillac, _L’Amérique préhistorique_ (ch. 5) also summarizes. Morgan studies the social condition of this ancient people (_Systems of Consanguinity_, Part ii. ch. 6; _Houses and House Life_, ch. 6; _Peabody Mus. Repts._, xii.). Cf. James Stevenson’s “Ancient Habitations of the Southwest” in _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._, xviii. (1886), and his illustrated _Catalogue of Collections_ in Powell’s _Second Rept. Bureau of Ethnol._; E. A. Barber on “Les anciens pueblos” in _Cong. des Américanistes,_ 1877, i. 23, in which he traces a gradation from the moundbuilders through the old pueblo peoples to the Toltecs; C. Schoebel’s account of an expedition in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, nouv. ser. i., and the references in _Poole’s Index_, i. 1063; ii. 359.

Dividing the remaining references into localities, we note for New Mexico the following: J. H. Carleton in the _Smithsonian Rept._ (1854); W. B. Lyon (_Ibid._ 1871); J. A. McParlin (_Ibid._ 1877); Turner in _Am. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, ii.; and A. W. Bell in _Journal of the Ethnol. Soc._ (London), Oct., 1869. Carleton describes the ruins also in the _Western Journal_, xiv. 185. Clarence Pullen describes the people in _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._, xix. 22. For Colorado: E. L. Berthoud in _Smithsonian Repts._, 1867, 1871. G. L. Cannon in _Ibid._ 1877; H. Gannett in _Pop. Sci. Monthly_, xvi. 666 (Mar., 1880); _Amer. Naturalist_, x. 31; _Lippincott’s Mag._, xxvi. 54. For Arizona: F. E. Grossmann, J. C. Y. Lee, and R. T. Burr in _Smithsonian Repts._, respectively for 1871, 1872, 1879, with other references in Poole under “Moqui.”

[1709] This scope of treatment is manifest in the large number of papers contained in the _Smithsonian Reports_. See W. J. Rhees’ _Catal. of Publ. of Sm. Inst._ (Washington, 1882), pp. 252-3.

[1710] _Beschreibung der Reise_ (Göttingen, 1764; Eng. transl., Lond., 1772).

[1711] _Journal of two visits_, etc., Burlington, 1774 (Thomson’s _Bibl. of Ohio_, no. 657).

[1712] His account is copied in the _Mass. Mag._, Oct., 1791.

[1713] Cf. _Amer. Mag._, Dec., 1787; Jan., Feb, 1788.

[1714] Repeated in Gilbert Imlay’s _Topog. Descrip. West. Territory_.

[1715] _Journal of a Tour._

[1716] _Voyage dans Louisiane_ (Paris, 1807).

[1717] _Sketches of Louisiana_ (1812).

[1718] _Views of Louisiana_ (Pittsburg, 1814).

[1719] _Account of the History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring States_, in the _Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc._ (1819), and later repeated in other editions and versions (P. G. Thomson’s _Bibliog. of Ohio_, no. 533, etc., and Pilling’s _Eskimo Bibliog._, 43). Louis Cass’s criticism on Heckewelder is in _No. Am. Rev._ Jan., 1826. Cf. Haven, _Archæol. U. S._, 43.

[1720] _Description of the Antiquities discovered in the State of Ohio and other Western States, with engravings from actual surveys_ (Worcester, Mass., 1820). This was reprinted in the _Writings of Caleb Atwater_ (Columbus, 1833). This volume also included his _Observations made on a tour to Prairie du Chien in 1829_ (Columbus, 1831), where Atwater was sent by the Federal government to purchase mineral lands of the Indians (P. G. Thomson’s _Bibl. of Ohio_, no. 52; Pilling, _Bibl. of Siouan Lang._, p. 2). The part originally published in the _Archæol. Amer._ was translated by Malte Brun in _Nouv. Annales de Voyages_, xxviii., who added a paper on “L’origine et l’époque des monumens de l’Ohio.” Cf. Haven’s _Archæol. U. S._, 33, and the memoir of Atwater in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct., 1867.

[1721] Including those of Newark, Perry County, Marietta, Circleville, Paint Creek, Little Miami, Piketon, etc.

[1722] Haven, 117. This publication was anticipated by a condensed statement in Squier’s _Observation on the Aboriginal Monuments of the Mississippi Valley_, in the second volume of the _Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Soc._ (N. Y., 1847), and in his _Observations on the Uses of the Mounds of the West, with an attempt at their Classification_ (New Haven, 1847). Cf. also _Harper’s Mag._, xx. 737; xxi. 20, 165; _Amer. Jour. Science_, lxi. 305.

[1723] These went in 1863 to the Blackmore collection in Salisbury, Eng., and are described in Stevens’ _Flint Chips_.

[1724] Cf. _Trans. Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci._, 1873, and a paper “On the weapons and military character of the race of the mounds” in the _Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem._, i. 473 (1869).

[1725] _Proceedings_, Oct. 23, 1852, where are plans of those at Crawfordsville, and of others in the dividing ridge between the Mississippi and the Kickapoo rivers. Cf. _Ibid._ Oct., 1876.

[1726] P. G. Thomson’s _Bibliog. of Ohio_, no. 925.

[1727] As, for instance, Conant’s _Footprints of Vanished Races_ (1879). Cf. T. H. Lewis in the _Amer. Journal of Archæology_, Jan., 1886 (ii. 65).

[1728] _Archæology of the U. S._ (1856).

[1729] M’Culloh in 1829 had come to a similar conclusion, and Gallatin and Schoolcraft have somewhat followed him.

[1730] _Hist. Mag._, Feb., 1866. Cf. Charlevoix.

[1731] This was Dr. J. C. Warren’s view in 1837, in a paper before the _Brit. Asso. Adv. Science_. Cf. also Blumenbach, Morton, Nott, and Gliddon.

[1732] Bancroft (_Nat. Races_, v. 539) thinks they were connected in some obscure way with these southern nations, and in 1875 could write (p. 787) that “most and the best authorities deem it impossible that the moundbuilders were ever the remote ancestors of the Indian tribes.” Dawson (_Fossil Men_, 55) deems the modern Pueblo Indians to be their representatives. Brasseur supposes the Toltecs came from them. (Cf. also Short, 492; and S. B. Evans, in _Kansas City Rev._, March, 1882.) John Wells Foster, who had for some years written on the subject, gathered his results in a composite volume, _Prehistoric Races of the United States_ (Chicago, 1873, 1878, 1881, etc.), in which he held to the theory of their migrating south and developing into the civilization of Central America. Cf. his paper in the _Trans. Chicago Acad. Nat. Sci._, vol. i., and his abstract of it in his _Mississippi Valley_ (1869, p. 415). J. P. MacLean’s _Moundbuilders_ (Cincinnati, 1879) takes similar ground. Morgan (_Peab. Mus. Rept._, xii. 552) holds that they cannot be classed with any known Indian “stock,” and that the “nearest region from which they could have been derived is New Mexico.” Wills de Haas takes exception to this view in the _Trans. Anthropological Soc. of Washington_ (1881). Cf. R. S. Robertson in _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_ (1877), xi. 39.

[1733] Major Powell says, that years ago he reached the conclusion that the modern Indians must have raised at least some of the mounds in the Mississippi Valley (_Bur. of Ethnol. Rept._, iv. p. xxx). Cf. also Powell’s paper in _Science_, x. 267. In the second of these reports (p. 117) Henry W. Henshaw sets forth the views, which the Bureau maintained; and he defended these views in the _Amer. Antiquarian_, viii. 102. The leading member, however, of the Bureau staff, who is working in this field, is Cyrus Thomas. In the _Nat. Mus. Report_ (1887) he defined the aim and character of the _Work in Mound Exploration of the Bureau of Ethnology_, also issued separately. In this it was stated that over 2,000 mounds had been opened, and 38,000 relics gathered from them; but nothing to afford any clue to the language which the moundbuilders spoke. The conclusions reached were:—

_First_, the mounds are as diversified as the Indian tribes are.

_Second_, they yield no signs of a superior race.

_Third_, their builders and the Indians are the same.

_Fourth_, the accounts of the early European visitors of the Indians found here correspond to the disclosures of the mounds.

_Fifth_, certain kinds of mounds in certain localities are the work of tribes now known; and there are no signs about the mounds to connect them with the Pueblo Indians or those farther south.

Thomas, in the _Fifth Report_ (1888) described the “Burial Mounds of the northern sections of the U. S.” He says that the character of the mounds and their contents indicate the possibility of dividing the territory they occupy roughly into eight districts, each with some prominent characteristic, and he roughly distinguishes these sections as of Wisconsin; the Upper Mississippi; Ohio; New York; Appalachian; the Middle Mississippi; the Lower Mississippi and the Gulf. He holds that the moundbuilding people existed from about the fifth or sixth century down to historic times.

Taking for his texts the mounds of the Appalachian districts, he has presented anew his grounds for believing this region at least to have had the red Indian race for the constructors of its mounds, and that the Cherokees were that race. Carr had already (1876), from investigating a truncated oval mound in Virginia, and comparing it with Bartram’s (_Travels_, 365) description of a Cherokee council-house (_Peabody Mus. Rept._, x. 75), reached the conclusion that that

## particular mound was built by the Cherokees. Thomas further undertakes

to prove that the Cherokees once occupied the Appalachian region, and that implements of the white men are found in some of the mounds, bringing them down to a period since the contact with Europeans. The habits of the builders of these mounds are, as he affirms, known to correspond to what we know from historic evidence were the habits of the Cherokees.

Thomas has also communicated the views of the Bureau in other ways, as in the _Amer. Antiquarian_, vi. 90; vii. 65; _Mag. Amer. Hist._, May, 1884, p. 396; 1887, p. 193; July and Sept., 1888. In these papers, among other points, he maintains that the defensive enclosures of northern Ohio are due to the Iroquois-Huron tribes, and he accepts the view of Peet and Latham, that the animal mounds are more ancient than the simpler forms. Other investigators have adopted, in some degree, this view. Horatio Hale thinks the Cherokees of Iroquois origin, and that they may have mingled with the moundbuilders. C. C. Baldwin holds the Allegheni, Cherokees, and the moundbuilders to be the same.

Prominent among those who have adopted this red-Indian theory are Judge M. F. Force and Lucien Carr. In 1874 Force published at Cincinnati a paper, which he read before the literary club of that city; and in 1877 he prepared a paper on the race of the moundbuilders, which appears in French in the _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_ (1877, i. p. 121), and in English, _To what Race did the Moundbuilders belong_ (Cincinnati, 1875). He maintains that the race, which shows no differences from the modern Indians, flourished till about 1,000 years ago, and that some of them still survived in the Gulf States in the sixteenth century, and that their development was about on the plane of the Pueblos, higher than the Algonquins and lower than the Aztecs.

Carr’s _Mounds of the Mississippi Valley historically considered_ makes part of the second volume of Shaler’s _Kentucky Survey_, and was also issued separately (1883). It is the most elaborate collation of the accounts of the early travellers, and of others coming in contact with the Indians at an early day, which has yet been made, and his foot-notes are an ample bibliography of this aspect of the subject. He holds that these early records prove that nothing has been found in the mounds which was not described in the early narratives as pertaining to the Indians of the early contact. He aims also particularly to show that these early Indians were agriculturists and sun-worshippers. Brinton, reviewing the paper in the _American Antiquarian_ (1883, p. 68), holds that Carr goes too far, and practises the arts of a special pleader. Brinton’s own opinions seem somewhat to have changed. In the _Hist. Mag._, Feb., 1866, p. 35, he considers the moundbuilders as not advanced beyond the red Indians; and in the _American Antiquarian_ (1881), iv. 9, in inquiring into their probable nationality, he thinks they were an ancient people who were driven south and became the moundbuilding Chahta.

Other supporters of the red Indian view are Edmund Andrews, in the _Wisconsin Acad. of Science_, iv. 126; P. R. Hoy, in _Ibid._ vi.; O. T. Mason, in _Science_, iii. 658; Nadaillac, in _L’Amérique préhistorique_; E. Schmidt, in _Kosmos_ (Leipzig), viii. 81, 163; G. P. Thurston, in _Mag. Amer. Hist._, 1888, xix. 374.

[1734] This is denied in Fred. Larkin’s _Anc. Man in America_ (N. Y.).

[1735] J. D. Baldwin’s _Anc. America_ (N. Y., 1871). D. Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, i. ch. 10, etc., who holds that “the moundbuilders were greatly more in advance of the Indian hunter than behind the civilized Mexican;” and he claims that the proof deduced from the Indian type of a head discovered in a moundbuilder’s pipe (i. 366) is due to a perverted drawing in Squier and Davis. Short, _No. Amer. of Antiq._, believed they were of the race later in Anahuac. Gay, _Pop. Hist. U. S._, i. ch. 2, believes in the theory of a vanished race. In 1775 Adair thought the works indicated a higher military energy than the modern Indian showed.

[1736] _Antiq. of Man_, 4th ed. 42.

[1737] Putnam’s papers and the records of his investigations can be found in his _Peabody Mus. Reports_, xvii., xviii., xix., xx., etc. _Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist._, xv.; _Amer. Naturalist_, June, 1875; _Kansas City Rev._, 1879, etc.

[1738] _No. Am. Rev._, cxxiii., for “houses of the moundbuilders,” and also in his _Houses and Home Life_, ch. 9. Cf. on the other hand C. Thomas in _Mag. Amer. Hist._, Feb., 1884, p. 110.

[1739] Rhee’s _Catalogue_, p. 252-3.

[1740] S. D. Peet, who edits this journal, has advanced in one of his papers (vii. 82) that some of these earthworks are Indian game drives and screens. (He also contributed a classification of them to the _Congrès des Américanistes_, 1877, i. 103.) The paper by J. E. Stevenson (ii. 89), and that by Horatio Hale on “Indian Migrations” (Jan.-April, 1883), are worth noting. The _Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes_, 1875 (i. 387), has Joly’s “Les Moundbuilders, leurs Œuvres et leurs Caractères Ethniques,” and that for 1877 has a paper by John H. Becker and Stronck. That by R. S. Robertson in _Ibid._ (i. p. 39) is also reprinted in the _Mag. Amer. Hist._ (iv. 174), March, 1880; while in March, 1883, will be found some of T. H. Lewis’s personal experiences in exploring mounds. Some other periodical papers are: W. de Haas, in _Trans. Am. Asso. Adv. Science_, 1868; D. A. Robertson, in _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._, v. 256; A. W. Vogeles and S. L. Fay, in _Amer. Naturalist_, xiii. 9, 637; E. B. Finley in _Mag. Western Hist._, Feb., 1887, p. 439; _Science_, Sept. 14, 1883; Squier, in _American Journal Science_, liii. 237, and in _Harper’s Monthly_, xx. 737, xxi. 20, 165; C. Morris, in _Nat. Quart. Rev._, Dec. 1871, 1872, April, 1873; Ad. F. Fontpertius on “Le peuple des mounds et ses monuments” in the _Rev. de Géog._ (April and August, 1881); E. Price, in the _Annals of Iowa_, vi. 121; Isaac Smucker, in _Scientific Monthly_ (Toledo, Ohio), i. 100.

Some other references, hardly of essential character, are: H. H. Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, iv. ch. 13; v. 538; Gales’s _Upper Mississippi, or Historical Sketches of the Moundbuilders_ (Chicago, 1867); Southall’s _Recent Origin of Man_, ch. 36; Wm. McAdams’s _Records of ancient races in the Mississippi valley; being an account of some of the pictographs, sculptured hieroglyphs, symbolic devices, emblems and traditions of the prehistoric races of America, with some suggestions as to their origin_ (St. Louis, 1887); Brühl’s _Culturvölker des alten Amerika_; J. D. Sherwood, in Stevens’s _Flint Chips_, 341; E. Pickett’s _Testimony of the Rocks_ (N. Y.).

[1741] _Hist. Mag._, Feb., 1866.

[1742] Cf. _Congrès des Amér._, 1877, i. 316; C. Thomas in _Amer. Antiq._, vii. 66; Warden’s _Recherches_, ch. 4; Baldwin’s _Anc. America_, ch. 2.

[1743] Cf. Short, p. 158.

[1744] Force, _To what Race_, etc., p. 63.

[1745] Cf. Henry Gillman’s “Ancient Men of the Great Lakes” in _Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci._ (Detroit, 1875), pp. 297, 317; _Boston Nat. Hist. Soc. Proc._, iv. 331; _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 412; C. C. Jones’s _Antiq. Southern Indians_; _Peabody Mus. Repts._, iv., vi., xi.; Jos. Jones’s _Aborig. Remains of Tennessee_; Jeffries Wyman in _Am. Journal of Arts_, etc., cvii. p. i.; W. J. McGee in _Ibid._ cxvi. 458; and Dr. S. F. Landrey on “A moundbuilder’s brain” in _Pop. Science News_ (Boston, Oct., 1886, p. 138).

[1746] Cf. Holmes’s “Objects from the Mounds” in Powell’s _Bur. of Ethnol. Repts._, iii.; C. C. Baldwin’s “Relics of the Moundbuilders” in _West. Reserve Hist. Soc. Tract_, no. 23 (1874); Foster on their stone and copper implements in _Chicago Acad. Science_, i. (1869); objects from the Ohio mounds in Stevens’s _Flint Chips_, 418; images from them in _Science_, April 11, 1884, p. 437. In the mounds of the Little Miami Valley, native gold and meteoric iron have been found for the first time (_Peab. Mus. Rept._, xvi. 170).

[1747] See, on such impositions in general, MacLean’s _Moundbuilders_, ch. 9; C. C. Abbott in _Pop. Sci. Monthly_, July, 1885, p. 308; Wilson’s _Prehist. Man_, ii. ch. 19; Putnam in _Peab. Mus. Repts._, xvi. 184; _Fourth Rept. Bur. Ethnol._ 247.

The best known of the disputed relics are the following: The largest mound in the Ohio Valley is that of the Grave Creek, twelve miles below Wheeling, which was earliest described by its owner, A. B. Tomlinson, in 1838. It is seventy feet high and one thousand feet in circumference. (Cf. Squier and Davis, Foster, MacLean, _Olden Time_, i. 232; and account by P. P. Cherry—Wadsworth, 1877.) About 1838 a shaft was sunk by Tomlinson into it, and a rotunda constructed in its centre out of an original cavity, as a showroom for relics; and here, as taken from the mound, appeared two years later what is known as the Grave Creek stone, bearing an inscription of inscrutable characters. The supposed relic soon attracted attention. H. R. Schoolcraft pronounced its twenty-two characters such “as were used by the Pelasgi,” in his _Observations respecting the Grave creek mound, in Western Virginia; the antique inscription discovered in its excavation; and the connected evidence of the occupancy of the Mississippi valley during the mound period, and prior to the discovery of America by Columbus_, which appeared in the _Amer. Ethnological Soc. Trans._, i. 367 (N. Y., 1845). Cf. his _Indian Tribes_, iv. 118, where he thinks it may be an “intrusive antiquity.” The French savant Jomard published a _Note sur une pierre gravée_ (Paris, 1845, 1859), in which he thought it Libyan. Lévy-Bing calls it Hebrew in _Congrès des Amér._ (Nancy, i. 215). Other notices are by Moïse Schwab in _Revue Archéologique_, Feb., 1857; José Perez in _Arch. de la Soc. Amér. de France_ (1865), ii. 173; and in America in the _Amer. Pioneer_, ii. 197; Haven’s _Archæol. U. S._, 133, and _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April 29, 1863, pp. 13, 32; _Amer. Antiquarian_, i. 139; Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, v. 75.

Squier promptly questioned its authenticity (_Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, ii.; _Aborig. Mts._, 168). Wilson laughed at it (_Prehistoric Man_, ii. 100). Col. Whittlesey has done more than any one to show its fraudulent character, and to show how the cuts of it which have been made vary (_Western Reserve, Hist. Soc. Tracts_), nos. 9 (1872), 33 (1876), 42 (1878), and 44 (1879.) Cf. on this side Short, p. 419; and _Fourth Rept. Bur. Ethnol._, 250. Its authenticity is, however, maintained by MacLean (_Moundbuilders_, Cinn., 1879), who summarizes the arguments _pro_ and _con_.

What is known as the Cincinnati tablet was found on the site of that city in 1841 (_Amer. Pioneer_, ii. 195). Squier accepted it as genuine, and thought it might be a printing-stone for decorating hides (_Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, ii.; _Aborig. Mts._ (1847), p. 70). Whittlesey at first doubted it (_West. Res. Hist. Tracts_, no. 9), but was later convinced of its genuineness by Robert Clarke’s _Prehistoric Remains found on the site of Cincinnati_ (privately printed, Cinn., 1876).

The so-called Berlin tablet was found in Ohio in 1876. S. D. Peet believes it genuine (_Amer. Antiq._, i. 73; vii. 222).

On the Rockford tablet, see Short, 44.

The Davenport tablets, found by the Rev. J. Gass in a mound near Davenport, in Jan., 1877, are described in the _Davenport Acad. Proc._, ii. 96, 132, 221, 349; iii. 155. Cf. further in _Amer. Asso. Adv. Science Proc._ (April, 1877), by R. J. Farquharson; _Congrès des Amér._ (1877, ii. 158, with cut). The _American Antiquarian_ records the controversy over its genuineness. In vol. iv. 145, John Campbell proposed a reading of the inscription. The suspicions are set forth in vii. 373. Peet, in viii. 46, inclines to consider it a fraud; and, p. 92, there is a defence. Short (pp. 38-39) doubts. In the _Second Amer. Rept. Bur. of Ethnol._, H. W. Henshaw, on “Animal Carvings,” attacked its character. (Cf. _Fourth Rept._, p. 251.) A reply by C. E. Putnam in vol. iv. of the _Davenport Acad. Proc._, and issued separately, is called _Vindication of the Authenticity of the Elephant pipes and inscribed tablets in the Mus. of the Davenport Acad._ (Davenport, Iowa, 1885). Cf. Cyrus Thomas in _Science_, vi. 564; also Feb. 5, 1886, p. 119. The question of the elephant pipes is included in the discussion, some denying their genuineness. Cf. also _Amer. Antiq._, ii. 67; Short, 531; Dr. Max Uhle in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1887.

[1748] It has been found convenient to follow an advancing line of geographical succession, but the affiliations of the peoples of the mounds seem to indicate that those dwelling on both slopes and in the valleys of the Appalachian ranges should be grouped together, as Thomas combines them in his section on the mounds of the Appalachian District. (_Fifth Rept. Bur. Ethnol._)

[1749] _Proc._, Oct. 23, 1849, p. 13; Belknap’s _New Hampshire_, iii. 89; Haven’s _Archæol. U. S._, 42.

[1750] D. A. Robertson, _Journal Amer. Geog. Soc._, vol. v., contends that the North American mounds were built by a colony of Finns long before the Christian era.

[1751] It was also issued, with some additional matter, at Buffalo (1851) as _Antiquities of New York State, with supplement on Antiquities of the West_ (1851). Squier has also at this time a paper on these mounds in _N. Y. Hist. Soc. Proc._, Jan., 1849, p. 41. Cf. _Am. Journal of Science_, lxi. 305, and _Harper’s Monthly_, xx. and xxi. His conclusions, distinct from those pertaining to the Ohio mounds, were that the N. Y. earthworks were raised by the red Indians.

[1752] Cf. W. M. Taylor on a Pennsylvania mound in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1877.

[1753] A few minor references may be given. The _Smithsonian Reports_ have papers by D. Trowbridge (1863); and by F. H. Cushing on those of Orleans County (1874). W. L. Stone held them to have been built by Egyptians, who afterward went south (_Mag. Amer. Hist._, Sept., 1878, ii. 533). Cf. _Ibid._ v. 35, and S. L. Frey in the _Amer. Naturalist_, Oct., 1879. A small book, _Ancient Man in America_ (N. Y., 1880), by Frederic Larkin, takes issue with Squier, and believes the builders were not the modern Indians. He says he found in one of the N. Y. mounds, in 1854, a copper relic, with a mastodon, evidently in harness, scratched upon it! H. G. Mercer’s _Lenape Stone_ describes a “gorget stone” dug up in Buck’s County, Penn., in 1872, which shows a carving representing a fight between Indians and the hairy mammoth, which we are also asked to accept as genuine. What is recognized as an ancient burial mound of the Senecas is described at some length in G. S. Conover’s _Reasons why the State should acquire the famous burial mound of the Seneca Indians_ (1888).

[1754] Contributions to a bibliography and lists of the Ohio mounds are found as follows: Mrs. Cyrus Thomas’s “Bibliog. of Earthworks in Ohio” in the _Ohio Archæol. and Hist. Quarterly_, June, 1887, et seq.; a lesser list is in Thomson’s _Bibliog. of Ohio_, p. 385. Lists of the works are given in the _Ohio Centennial Rept._ and in MacLean’s _Moundbuilders_, pp. 230-233. J. Smucker, in the _Amer. Antiquarian_, vi. 43, describes the interest in archæology in the State, and instances the results in the numerous county histories, in the Western Reserve Hist. Soc. publications, in those of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Cincinnati, of the Archæological Soc. at Madisonville, of the Central Ohio Scientific Association (begun 1878), and of the District Hist. Society (beginning its reports in 1877. Cf. P. G. Thomson, _Bibl. of Ohio_, no. 328). The course of the West. Reserve Hist. Soc. is sketched in the _Mag. West. Hist._, Feb., 1888 (vol. vii.).

[1755] _Life of Cutler_, ii. 14, 252.

[1756] _Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc._, iv.

[1757] Their survey is used in Stevens’s _Flint Chips_ by Sherwood.

[1758] Cf. no. 11, 23, 41.

[1759] Some minor references: Whittlesey in _Fireland’s Pioneer_ (June, 1865), and in his _Fugitive Essays_ (Hudson, O., 1852). C. H. Mitchener’s _Ohio Annals_ (Dayton, 1876). _Hist. Mag._, xii. 240. C. W. Butterfield in _Mag. West. Hist._, Oct., 1886 (iv. 777). I. Dille in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 359; and Hill and others in _Ibid._ 1877. C. Thomas in _Science_, xi. 314. Thomas J. Brown on artificial terraces in _Amer. Antiquarian_, May, 1888. Howe’s _Hist. Collections of Ohio_, as well as the numerous county histories, afford some material.

[1760] The annexed map of the vicinity of Chillicothe will show their abundance in a confined area. E. B. Andrews on those in the S. E. in _Peabody Mus. Rept._, x. MacLean’s _Moundbuilders_ (Cincinnati, 1879) is of no original value except for Butler County. Squier and Davis give a plan of the fortified hill in this county. Walker’s _Athens County_. Isaac J. Finley and Rufus Putnam’s _Pioneer Record of Ross County_ (Cincinnati, 1871). A plan of the High Bank works in this county is given in the _Amer. Antiquarian_, v. 56. The Highland County works, called Fort Hill, are described in the _Ohio Arch. & Hist. Q._, 1887, p. 260. G. S. B. Hampstead’s _Antiq. of Portsmouth_ (1875) embodies results of a long series of surveys. Cf. _Journal Anthropological Institute_, vii. 132.

[1761] D. Drake’s _Picture of Cincinnati_ (1815); Harrison in _Ohio Hist. & Philos. Soc._, i.; Squier and Davis; Ford’s _Cincinnati_, i. ch. 2.

[1762] The best known of the ancient fortifications of this region is that called Fort Ancient, about 42 miles from Cincinnati. It was surveyed by Prof. Locke in 1843. Cf. L. M. Hosea in _Quart. Journal of Science_ (Cinn., Oct., 1874); Putnam in the _Amer. Architect_, xiii. 19; _Amer. Antiquarian_, April, 1878; Force’s _Moundbuilders_; Warden’s _Recherches_; Squier and Davis, with plan reduced in MacLean, p. 21; Short, 51; and on its present condition, _Peab. Mus. Rept._, xvi. 168. There is an excellent map of the mounds in the Little Miami Valley, in Dr. C. L. Metz’s _Prehistoric Monuments of the Little Miami Valley_, in the _Journal of the Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. Hist._, vol. i., Oct., 1878. The explorations of Putnam and Metz are recorded in the _Peab. Mus. Repts._, xvii., xviii. (Marriott mound), and xx. Cf. Putnam’s lecture in _Mag. West. History_, Jan., 1888. There are explorations at Madisonville noticed in the _Journal of the Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist._, Apr., 1880. Others in this region are recorded in L. B. Welch and J. M. Richardson’s _Prehistoric relics found near Wilmington_ (Sparks mound), and by F. W. Langdon in the appendix of Short.

[1763] M. C. Read’s _Archæol. of Ohio_ (Cleveland, 1888), with cut. Col. Whittlesey made the survey in Squier and Davis, and it is copied by Foster. O. C. Marsh in _Hist. Mag._, xii. 240; and in _Amer. Journal of Science_, xcii. (July, 1866). Isaac Smucker, a local antiquary, in _Newark American_, Dec. 19, 1872; in _Amer. Hist. Record_, ii. 481; and in _Amer. Antiq._, iii. 261 (July, 1881). Cf. Nadaillac, 99, and view in Lossing’s _War of 1812_, p. 565.

Other antiquities of the central region are described in no. 11 _Western Res. Hist. Soc. Tracts_ (Hardin Co.); in _Ohio Arch. Hist. Quart._, March, 1888 (Franklin Co.); _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1863 (Fairfield Co., etc.).

[1764] R. W. McFarland in _Ohio Arch. Hist. Quart._, i. 265 (Oxford).

[1765] Cox in _Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci._, 1874 (fort in Clarke Co.).

[1766] _West. Res. Hist. Soc. Tracts_, no. 41 (1877); and for the Cuyahoga Valley in no. 5 (1871), both by Whittlesey. The works on the Huron River, east of Sandusky, were described, with a plan, by Abraham G. Steiner in _Columbian Mag._, Sept., 1789, reprinted in _Fireland’s Pioneer_, xi. 71. G. W. Hill in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1874; E. O. Dunning on the Lick Creek mound in _Peab. Mus. Rept._, v. p. 11; S. D. Peet on a double-walled enclosure in Ashtabula Co. in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1876. Cf. Cornelius Baldwin on ancient burial cists in northeastern Ohio in _West. Res. Hist. Tracts_, no. 56, and Yarrow on mound-burials in _First Rept. Bur. Ethnol._

[1767] Cf. Putnam in _Bull. Essex Inst._, iii. (Nov., 1871), and _Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc._ (Feb., 1872); Foster, p. 134, with plan. The _Smithsonian Repts._ cover notices by W. Pidgeon (1867), by A. Patton in Knox and Lawrence counties (1873), and by R. S. Robertson (1874).

[1768] _Peabody Mus. Reports_, xii. 473 (1879). For Illinois mounds see Thomas in _Fifth Rept. Bur. Ethnol._; Davidson and Struve’s _Illinois_; E. Baldwin’s _La Salle Co._ (Chicago, 1877); W. McAdams’s _Antiq. of Cahokia_ (Edwardsville, 1883); H. R. Howland in the _Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist. Bull._, iii.; and in _Smithsonian Repts._, by Chas. Rau (1868); largely on agricultural traces; by Dr. A. Patton (1873); by T. M. Perrine on Union Co. (1873); by T. McWhorter and others (1874); by W. H. Pratt on Whiteside Co. (1874); by J. Shaw on Rock River (1877); and by J. Cochrane on Mason Co. (1877).

[1769] His papers are in the _Smithsonian Repts._, 1873, 1875; _Peabody Mus. Reports_, vi. (1873), on the St. Clair River mounds; _Am. Journal of Arts, etc._, Jan., 1874; _Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc._, 1875; on bone relics in _Congrès des Amér._, 1877, i. 65; and on the Lake Huron mounds, in _American Naturalist_, Jan., 1883. Cf. other accounts in _Michigan Pioneer Collections_, ii. 40; iii. 41, 202; S. D. Peet in _Amer. Antiq._, Jan., 1888; and on the old fort near Detroit, _Ibid._ p. 37; and Bela Hubbard’s _Memorials of a half century_.

[1770] The copy in Harvard College library has some annotations by George Gale. Lapham’s survey of Aztlan is reproduced in Foster, p. 102. Lapham’s book is summarized by Wm. Barry in the _Wisconsin Hist. Soc. Coll._, iii. 187. These _Collections_ contain other papers on mounds in Crawford Co. by Alfred Brunson (iii. 178); on man-shape mounds (iv. 365); J. D. Butler on “Prehistoric Wisconsin” (vii.); on Aztalan (ix. 103).

The _Transactions_ of the Wisconsin Acad. of Science are also of assistance: vol. iii., a report of a committee on the mounds near Madison, with cuts; vol. iv., a paper by J. M. DeHart on the “Antiquities and platycnemism [flat tibia bones] of the Moundbuilders.”

[1771] S. D. Peet has discussed this aspect in the _Amer. Antiquarian_ (1880), iii. p. 1; vi. 176; vii. 164, 215, 321; viii. 1; ix. 67. He also examines the evidence of the village life of their builders (ix. 10). Cf. his _Emblematic Mounds_; and his paper in the _Wisconsin Hist. Coll._, ix. 40.

[1772] None of the bones of extinct animals have been found in the mounds; nor has the buffalo, long a ranger of the Mississippi Valley, been identified in the shapes of the mounds. (Cf. Peet on the identification of animal mounds in _Amer. Antiq._, vi. 176.) Peet holds they followed the mastodon period (_Ibid._ ix. 67). The elephant mound, so called, has been often shown in cuts. (Cf. _Smithsonian Rept._, 1877, accompanying a paper by J. Warner, and Powell’s _Second Rept. Bur. of Eth._, 153.) Henshaw here discredits the idea of its being intended for an elephant. The evidence of elephant pipes is thought uncertain. Cf. article on mound pipes by Barber in _Amer. Naturalist_, April, 1882.

[1773] _Second Rept. Bur. of Ethnol._, p. 159, where Henshaw thinks it may just as well be anything else. Cf. Isaac Smucker in _Amer. Antiquarian_, vii. 350.

[1774] Cf. _Amer. Antiq._, vi. 254.

[1775] _Peab. Mus. Rept._, xvii., and _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Oct., 1883. He points out that the Ohio effigy mounds have a foundation of stones with clay superposed; the Georgia mounds are mainly of stone; while the Wisconsin mounds seem to be constructed only of earth.

Further references on the Wisconsin mounds: _Smithsonian Repts._, by E. E. Breed (1872); by C. K. Dean (1872); by Moses Strong (1876, 1877); by J. M. DeHart (1877); and again (1879).

Also: Haven’s _Archæol. U. S._, p. 106; W. H. Canfield’s _Sauk County_; DeHart in _Amer. Antiquarian_, April, 1879; their military character in _Ibid._, Jan., 1881; also as emblems in _Ibid._ 1883 (vi. 7); Nadaillac and other general works. There is a map of those near Beloit—some are in the college campus—in the _American Antiquarian_, iii. 95.

[1776] They have been described in the _Smithsonian Reports_ by T. R. Peale (1861); and in _Amer. Antiquarian_, July, 1888, by S. D. Peet. Other mounds and relics are described in the _Smithsonian Repts._ (1863) by J. W. Foster; (1870) by A. Barrandt; (1877) by W. H. R. Lykins; and (1879) by G. C. Broadhead; in _Peab. Mus. Repts._, viii., by Professor Swallow; in _Missouri Hist. Soc. Publ._, no. 6, by F. F. Hilder; in _Cinn. Quart. Jour. of Sci._, Jan., 1875, by Dr. S. H. Headlee; in the _Kansas City Rev._, i. 25, 531; in the _St. Louis Acad. of Science_ (1880) by W. P. Potter; Mr. A. J. Conant has been the most prolific writer in _Ibid._, April 5, 1876; in W. F. Switzler’s _History of Missouri_ (St. Louis, 1879), and in C. R. Burns’s _Commonwealth of Missouri_ (1877). Cf. also Poole’s _Index_, p. 858.

[1777] T. H. Lewis in _Science_, v. 131; vi. 453. On other Iowa mounds, see _Smithsonian Rept._, by J. B. Cutts (1872); by M. W. Moulton (1877), and again (1879); _Annals of Iowa_, vi. 121; and W. J. McGee in _Amer. Journal Science_, cxvi. 272.

[1778] _Smithsonian Rept._, 1863; and for mounds, 1879. Cf. L. C. Estes on the antiquities on the banks of Missouri and Lake Pepin in _Ibid._, 1866.

[1779] _Kansas Rev._, ii. 617; Joseph Savage and B. F. Mudge in _Kansas Acad. Science_, vii.

[1780] _Smithsonian Rept._, by A. J. Comfort (1871) and by A. Barrandt (1872); W. McAdams in _Amer. Antiquarian_, viii. 153.

[1781] _Amer. Naturalist_, x. 410, by E. Palmer; Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, iv. 715.

[1782] App. to Gleeson’s _Hist. of the Catholic Church in California_ (1872), ii., and Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, iv. 695.

[1783] P. W. Norris in _Smithsonian Report_, 1879.

[1784] Cf. George Gibbs in _Journal Amer. Geogr. Soc._, iv.; A. W. Chase in _Amer. Jour. Sci._, cvi. 26; _Amer. Architect_, xxi. 295; and Bancroft, _Nat. Races_, iv. 735.

[1785] Cf. S. H. Locket in _Smithsonian Rept._ (1872), and T. P. Hotchkiss in the same, and a paper in 1876; _Amer. Journal Science_, xlix. 38, by C. G. Forshey, and lxv. 186, by A. Bigelow.

[1786] T. H. Lewis, with plan, in _Amer. Journal Archæol._, iii. 375; previously noted by Atwater and by Squier and Davis.

[1787] Cf. Filson’s _Kentucke_.

[1788] _Amer. Philos. Soc. Trans._, iv., no. 26.

[1789] Thomas E. Pickett contributed this part (1871) to Collins’s _Hist. Kentucky_ (1878), i. 380; ii. 68, 69, 227, 302, 303, 457, 633, 765. Pickett’s contribution was published separately as _The testimony of the Mounds_ (Marysville, Ky., 1875). Prof. Shaler, as head of the Geological Survey of Kentucky, included in its Reports Lucien Carr’s treatise on the mounds, already mentioned; and touches the subject briefly in his _Kentucky_, p. 45. Cf. also Maj. Jona. Heart in Imlay’s _Western Territory_; S. S. Lyon in _Smithsonian Repts._, 1858, 1870, and R. Peter, in 1871, 1872; F. W. Putnam in _Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc._, xvii. 313 (1875); and _Nature_, xiii. 109.

[1790] The aboriginal remains of Tennessee have successively been treated in John Haywood’s _History of Tennessee_ (Nashville, 1823); by Gerard Troost in _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._ (1845), i. 335; by Joseph Jones in _Smithsonian Contributions_, xx. (1876), who connected those who erected the works, through the Natchez Indians, with the Nahuas. Edward O. Dunning had described some of the Tennessee relics in the _Peabody Mus. Repts._, iii., iv., and v.; but Putnam in no. xi. (1878) gave the results of his opening of the stone graves, with his explorations of the sites of the villages of the people, and described their implements, nothing of which, as he said, showed contact with Europeans. Cyrus Thomas deems these remains the works of the Indian race (_Amer. Antiq._, vii. 129; viii. 162). The _Smithsonian Repts._ have had various papers on the Tennessee antiquities: I. Dille (1862); A. F. Danilsen (1863); M. C. Read (1867); E. A. Dayton, E. O. Dunning, E. M. Grant, and J. P. Stelle (1870); Rev. Joshua Hall, A. E. Law, and D. F. Wright (1874); and others (in 1877).

L. J. Du Pré, in _Harper’s Monthly_ (Feb., 1875), p. 347, reports upon a ten-acre adobe threshing-floor, preserved two feet and a half beneath black loam, near Memphis.

[1791] Col. Jones’s papers are: _Indian Remains in South Georgia, an address_ (Savannah, 1859); _Ancient tumuli on the Savannah River; Monumental Remains of Georgia_, part i. (Savannah, 1861); _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1869; _Antiquities of Southern Indians_ (1873); on effigy mounds in _Smithsonian Rept._ (1877); and on bird-shaped mounds in _Journal Anthropological Soc._, viii. 92. Cf. also the early chapters of his _Hist. of Georgia_.

Other writers: H. C. Williams and Geo. Stephenson in _Smithson. Rept._ (1870); and Wm. McKinley and M. F. Stephenson (1872). Cf. _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, iii., on Creeks and Cherokees; and on the great mound in the Etowah Valley, _Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci._ (1871). Thomas (_Fifth Rept. Bur. Ethnol._) supposes the Etowah mound to be the one with a roadway described by Garcilasso de la Vega as being on De Soto’s route. Thomas describes other mounds of this group, giving cuts of the incised copper plates found in them, which he holds to be of European make. This forces him to the conclusion that the larger mound was built before De Soto’s incursion and the others later; and as they differ from those in Carolina, he determines they were not built by the Cherokees.

[1792] Cf. S. A. Agnew in _Smithsonian Reports_ (1867), and J. W. C. Smith (1874, cf. 1879); Jas. R. Page in _St. Louis Acad. Science Trans._, iii., and _Cinn. Q. Journal of Sci._, Oct., 1875; Haven, p. 51; and Edw. Fontaine’s _How the World was peopled_, 153.

[1793] E. Cornelius in _Amer. Journ. Sci._, i. 223; Pickett’s _Alabama_, ch. 3.

[1794] Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iii., and in _N. Y. Hist. Soc. Proc._, 1846, p. 124. Brinton’s _Floridian Peninsula_, ch. 6. _Amer. Antiquarian_, iv. 100; ix. 219. _Smithsonian Reports_ (1874), by A. Mitchell, and 1879.

[1795] J. M. Spainhour on antiquities in North Carolina, in _Smithson. Rept._, 1871; T. R. Peale on some near Washington, D. C. (_Ibid._, 1872); Schoolcraft, on some in Va., in _Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans._, i.; with Squier and Davis, and _Peabody Mus. Rept._, x., by Lucien Carr. There is a plan of a fort in Virginia in the _Amer. Pioneer_, Sept., 1842, and a paper on the graves in S. W. Virginia in _Mag. Amer. Hist._, Feb., 1885, p. 184.

[1796] W. E. Guest on those near Prescott, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1856. T. C. Wallbridge describes some at the bay of Quinté in _Canadian Journal_ (1860), v. 409, and Daniel Wilson for Canada West in _Ibid._, Nov., 1856. T. H. Lewis on the remains in the valley of the Red River of the North, in _Amer. Antiquarian_, viii. 369; and for those in Manitoba papers by A. McCharles in the _Amer. Journal of Archæology_, iii. 72 (June, 1887), and by George Bryce in _Manitoba Hist. and Sci. Soc. Trans., No. 18_ (1884-85). Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, iv. 738, etc., for British Columbia.

[1797] Cf. for garden beds _Amer. Antiquarian_, i. and vii.; Foster, 155; Bela Hubbard’s _Memorials of a half century_ (Detroit). Shaler (_Kentucky_, 46) surmises that it was the buffalo coming into the Ohio Valley, and affording food without labor, that debased the moundbuilders to hunters.

[1798] Cf. Col. Whittlesey on rock inscriptions in the United States in _West. Res. Hist. Soc. Tract No. 42_. Col. Garrick Mallory’s special studies of pictographs are contained in the _Bull. U. S. Geological Survey of the territories_ (1877), and in the _Fourth Rept. Bur. Ethnol._ Wm. McAdams includes those of the Mississippi Valley in his _Records of ancient races in the Mississippi Valley_ (St. Louis, 1887). Cf. _Hist. Mag._, x. 307. Those in Ohio are enumerated in the _Final Rept. of the State Board of Centennial Managers_ (1877), by M. C. Read and Col. Whittlesey. Cf. also the _West. Res. Hist. Soc. Tracts Nos. 12, 42, 53_; the _Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc._ (1875); and _The Antiquary_, ii. 15. Those in the Upper Minnesota Valley are reported on by T. H. Lewis in the _Amer. Naturalist_, May, 1886, and July, 1887. J. R. Bartlett in his _Personal Narrative_ noted some of those along the Mexican boundary, and Froebel (_Seven Years’ Travel_, Lond., 1859, p. 519) controverts some of Bartlett’s views. Cf. Nadaillac, _Les premiers hommes_, ii.; J. G. Bruff on those in the Sierra Nevada in _Smithson. Rept._, 1872. A. H. Keane reports upon some in North Carolina in the _Journal Anthropological Inst._ (London), xii. 281. C. C. Jones in his _Southern Indians_ (1873) covers the subject. Some in Brazil are noted in _Ibid._, Apr., 1873.

[1799] The first session of the International Congress of Prehistoric [Anthropology and] Archæology was held at Neuchâtel, and its proceedings were printed in the _Materiaux pour l’histoire de l’homme_. The second session was at Paris; the third at Norwich, England; the fourth at Copenhagen; and there have been others of later years. Cf. A. de Quatrefages’ _Rapport sur le progrès de l’anthropologie_ (Paris, 1868). Quatrefages himself is one of the most distinguished of the French school, and deserves as much as any to rank as the founder of the present French school of anthropologists. Cf. his _Hommes fossiles et hommes sauvages_ (1884). The English reader can most easily get possessed of his view, conservative in some respects, in Eliza A. Youman’s English version of his most popular book, _Nat. Hist. of Man_ (N. Y., 1875).

[1800] Founded in Paris in 1864 by Gabriel de Mortillet, and edited after vol. v. by Eugène Trutat and Emile Cartailhac.

[1801] Cf. C. Rau’s _Articles on anthropol. subjects contributed to the Annual Repts. of the Smithson. Inst., 1863-1877_ (Smiths. Inst., no. 440; Washington, 1882). The _Smithson. Rept._, 1880 (Washington, 1881), also contains a bibliography of anthropology by O. T. Mason. A considerable list of books is prefixed to Dr. Gustav Brühl’s _Culturvölker des alten Amerika_, which is a collection of tracts published at different times (1875-1887) at N. Y., Cincinnati, and St. Louis.

[1802] He had surveyed the condition of the science in 1867 in his introduction to Nilsson’s _Stone Age,—Primitive inhabitants of Scandinavia_. Cf. also _Smithsonian Report_, 1862.

[1803] Figuier’s books are nearly all accessible in English. His _Human Race_ and his _World before the Deluge_ cover some parts of the subject.

[1804] A few minor references: Dawson’s _Story of Earth and Man_, ch. 14, 15. Foster’s _Prehistoric Races of the U. S._, ch. 1, 2. Clodd’s _Childhood of the World_. Gay’s _Pop. Hist. U. S._, ch. 1. Principal Forbes in the _Edinburgh Review_, July, 1863; Oct., 1870. _London Quarterly Rev._, Apr., 1870. _Contemp. Rev._, xi. _Bibliotheca Sacra_, Apr., 1873. _Brit. Q. Rev._, Ap., Oct., 1863. _Lond. Rev._, Jan., 1860. _Lippincott’s Mag._, vol. i. _Nat. Q. Rev._, Mar., 1876. _Lakeside Monthly_, vol. x., etc.

[1805] Translated by N. D’Anvers and edited by W. H. Dall, with some radical changes of text (N. Y., 1884). Cf. Lucien Carr in _Science_, 1885, Feb. 27, p. 176. Dall discusses the evidences of the remains of the later prehistoric man in the United States in the _Smithsonian Contributions_, vol. xxii.

[1806] A few other references of lesser essays: D. G. Brinton’s _Review of the data for the study of the prehistoric chronology of America_ (Salem, 1887,—from the _Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci._, xxxvi.); his _Recent European Contributions to the study of Amer. Archæology_ (Philad. 1883); and his _Prehistoric Archæology_ (Philad., 1886). Seth Sweetzer on prehistoric man in the _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Apr., 1869, and Haven’s _Prehistoric Amer. Civilization_ in _Ibid._, April, 1871. J. L. Onderdonck in _Nat. Quart. Rev._ (April, 1878), xxxvi. 227. Ernest Marceau’s “Les anciens peuples de l’Amérique” in the _Revue Canadienne_, n. s., iv. 709. E. S. Morse in _No. Amer. Rev._, cxxxii. 602, or _Kansas Rev._, v. 90. H. Gillman’s _Ancient men of the Great Lakes_ (Detroit, 1877).

The principal work on the South American man is Alcède d’Orbigny’s _L’Homme Américaine_ (Paris, 1837). There are some local treatises, like Lucien de Rosny’s _Les Antilles: étude d’ethnographie et d’archéologie Americaines_ (Paris, 1886,—_Am. Soc. d’Ethnographie_, n. s., ii.), and papers by Nadaillac and others in the _Materiaux_, etc.

[1807] By Theo. Lyman and Hr. de Schlagintweit.

[1808] The long article on the Races of America in Cassino’s _Standard Nat. Hist._ (Boston, 1885), vol. vi., is based on Friedrich von Hellwald’s _Naturgeschichte des Menschen_, but it is widely varied in places under the supervision of Putnam and Carr. Cf. also J. C. Prichard’s _Researches into the physical history of mankind_ (Lond., 1841), 4th ed., vol. v., “Oceanic and American nations.”

[1809] Bandelier, in his several essays in the 2d volume of the _Peabody Museum Reports_, speaks of his neglecting such compilations as Bancroft’s in order to deal solely with the original sources, and the student will find the references in his foot-notes of those essays very full indications of what he must follow in the study of such sources.

[1810] Harrisse, _Bib. Am. Vet._; Rich, _Bibl. Nova_; Leclerc, nos. 350, 351; Pilling, p. xxviii.

[1811] Pilling, p. xii.

[1812] See Vol. II. p. 429.

[1813] _Bib. Mex. Guat_., p. 24; Pinart, no. 161. Cf. Icazbalceta on “Las bibliotecas de Eguiara y de Beristain” in _Memorias de la Académia Méxicana_, i. 353.

[1814] Vol. II. p. 430.

[1815] Also in Eng. transl., ii. 256.

[1816] Cf. Brinton’s _Aborig. Amer. Authors_, Philad., 1883.

[1817] See Vol. II p. 430.

[1818] Pilling, p. xxxi.

[1819] A school book, Marcius Willson’s _Amer. History_ (N. Y., 1847), went much farther than any book of its class, or even of the usual popular histories, in the matter of American antiquities, giving a good many plans and cuts of ruins.

[1820] For bibliog. detail regarding the _Nat. Races_, see Pilling’s _Proof Sheets_, p. 9. Reviews of the work are noted in _Poole’s Index_, p. 956.

[1821] Cf., for instance, Dall’s strictures on the tribes of the N. W. in _Contrib. to Amer. Ethnol._, i. p. 8.

[1822] Sabin, ii. 7233; Field, no. 169.

[1823] Bare mention may be made of a few other books of a general scope: Jean Benoit Scherer’s _Recherches historiques et géographiques sur le nouveau monde_ (Paris, 1777); D. B. Warden’s _Recherches sur les Antiquités de l’Am. Sept._ (Paris, 1827) in _Recueil de Voyages, publié par la Soc. Géog._ (Paris, 1825, ii. 372; cf. Dupaix, ii.); Ira Hill’s _Antiquities of Amer. Explained_ (Hagerstown, 1831); Louis Faliès’ _Etudes historiques et philosophiques sur les civilisations européenne, romaine, grecque, des populations primitives de l’Amérique septentrionale, les Chiapas, Palenqué des Nuhuas ancêtres des Toltèques, civilisation Yucatèque, Zapotèques, Mixtèques, royaume du Michoacan, populations du Nord-Ouest, du Nord et de l’Est, bassin du Mississipi, civilisation Toltèque, Aztèque, Amérique du centre, Péruvienne, domination des Incas, royaume de Quito, Océanie_ (Paris, 1872-74); Frederick Larkin’s _Ancient man in America. Including works in western New York, and portions of other states, together with structures in Central America_ (New York, 1880),—a book, however, hardly to be commended by archæologists; and Charles Francis Keary’s _Dawn of History, an introduction to prehistoric study_ (N. Y., 1887).

[1824] It is not necessary to enumerate many titles, but reference may be made to the summary of prehistoric conditions in Zerffi’s _Historical development of art_. It may be worth while to glance at A. Daux’s _Etudes préhistoriques. L’industrie humaine: ses origines, ses premiers essais et ses légendes depuis les premiers temps jusqu’au déluge_ (Paris, 1877); Dawson’s _Fossil men_, ch. 5; Joly’s _Man before Metals_; Nadaillac’s _Les Premiers Hommes_, ii. ch. 11; Dabry de Thiersant’s _Origine des indiens du Nouveau Monde_ (Paris, 1883); and Brühl’s _Culturvölker alt-Amerika’s_, ch. 14, 16.

[1825] Cf., particularly for California, Putnam’s _Report_ in Wheeler’s Survey.

[1826] There is some question if the early Americans ever carried on the heavier parts of the quarrying arts, as for building-stones. Cf. Morgan’s _Houses and House Life_, 274. They did quarry soap-stone (Elmer R. Reynolds, Schumacher and Putnam, in _Peabody Mus. Repts._, xii.) and mica (_Smithsonian Report_, 1879, by W. Gesner; C. D. Smith in _Ibid._ 1876; Dr. Brinton in _Proc. Numism. and Antiq. Soc. of Philad._, 1878, p. 18). That they quarried pipe-stone is also well known, and the famous red pipe-stone quarry, lying between the Missouri and Minnesota rivers, was under the protection of the Great Spirit, so that tribes at war with one another are said to have buried their hatchets as they approached it. Wilson, in the last chapter of the first volume of his _Prehistoric man_, examines this pipe-carving and tells the story of this famous quarry. He refers to the tobacco mortars of the Peruvians in which they ground the dry leaf; and to the pipes of the mounds in which it was smoked. Cf. J. F. Nadaillac’s _Les pipes et le tabac_ (Paris, 1885), taken from the _Materiaux pour l’histoire primitive de l’homme_ (ii. for 1885); and Lucien de Rosny on “Le tabac et ses accessoires parmi les indigènes de l’Amérique,” in _Mémoires sur l’Archéologie Américaine_, 1865, of the Soc. d’Ethnographie.

[1827] It should be remembered that the recognition of the Flint-folk as occupying a distinct stage of development is a modern notion. For a century and a half after European museums began to gather stone implements they were reputed relics of Celtic art. Treatment of American art necessarily makes part of the works of Squier and Davis; Schoolcraft; Foster’s _Prehistoric Races_, ch. 6; Lubbock’s _Prehistoric Times;_ Joly’s _Man before Metals_. Cf. references in _Poole’s Index_ under “Stone Age” and “Stone Implements.”

[1828] Cf. S. D. Peet in _Amer. Antiquarian_, vii. 15.

[1829] Rau is an authority on stone implements. See further his paper on stone implements in the _Smithsonian Rept._, 1872; one on drilling stone without metal in _Ibid._ 1868; and one on cup-shaped and other lapidarian sculpture in the _Contributions to No. Amer. Ethnology_, vol. v. (Powell’s _Rocky Mountain Survey_, 1882). These carved, cup-like cavities in rocks are also discussed in Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i. ch. 3, where it is held that they were formed by the grinding process in shaping the rounded end of tools. H. W. Henshaw in the _Amer. Jour. of Archæology_ (i. 105) discusses another enigma in the stone relics, called sinkers or plummets. Foster (_Prehist. Races_, 230) believes they were used as weights to keep the thread taut in weaving.

[1830] Cf. also Stevens’s _Flint Chips_, 292, and Charnay, Eng. transl., p. 70.

[1831] Cf. G. Crook “on the Indian method of making arrow-heads” in the _Smithsonian Rept._, 1871, and C. C. Jones, Jr., on “the primitive manufacture of spear and arrowpoints along the Savannah River” in _Ibid._ 1879. A paper by Sellers in a later report is of importance. Cf. Stevens’ _Flint Chips_, pp. 75-85, and Schumacher in _Smithsonian Report_, 1873. True flint was not often, if ever, used in America, but rather chert or hornstone, and quartz, though implements are found of jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartzite, and argillite. Cf. Rau on the stock in trade of an aboriginal lapidary in _Smithsonian Rept._ (1877); and Rosny’s “Recherches sur les masques, le jade et l’industrie lapidaire chez les indigènes de l’Amérique” in _Arch. de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., vol. i. Jade or jadite implements and ornaments have been found in Central America and Mexico, and others resembling them in northwestern America; but it is not yet clear that the unworked material, such as is used in the middle America specimens, is found in America _in situ_. Upon the solution of this last problem will depend the value of these implements when found in America as bearing upon questions of Asiatic intercourse. Cf. Dr. A. B. Meyer in the _Amer. Anthropologist_ (vol. i., July, 1888, p. 231), and F. W. Putnam in the _Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc._, Jan., 1886, and in the _Proc. Amer. Antiq. Society_.

[1832] Wilson (_Prehistoric Man_, i. 200) points out that philology confirms it, the word for copper meaning “yellow stone.” On the question of their melting metal see letter of Prof. F. W. Putnam in _Kansas City Rev. of Science_, Dec. 1881; Wilson (i. 361); Foster’s _Prehistoric Races_, 293.

[1833] Wilson (i. 209, 227) thinks the arboreal and other evidences carry the time when these mines were worked back, at latest, to a period corresponding to Europe’s mediæval era. The earliest modern references to copper in this region are in Sagard in 1632 (Haven, p. 127) and in the _Jesuit Relation_ of Allouez in 1666-67. Alexander Henry (_Travels and Adventures in Canada_) in 1765 is the earliest English explorer to mention it. Wilson holds to the belief that the present race of red Indians had no knowledge of these mining practices, but that they knew simply chance masses or exposed lodes. Wilson (i. 362) also gives reasons for supposing that the Lake Superior mines may have been a common meeting ground for all races of the continent.

[1834] Wilson, i. 205. MacLean’s _Moundbuilders_, ch. 6, gives a section of the shaft as when discovered.

[1835] Of the Lake Superior mines, the earliest intelligent account we have is in C. T. Jackson’s _Geological Report to the U. S. Gov’t_, 1849; but a more extended and connected account appeared the next year in the _Report on the Geology of Lake Superior_ (Washington, 1850), by J. W. Foster and J. D. Whitney, which is substantially reproduced in Foster’s _Prehistoric Races_ (1873), ch. 7. Meanwhile, Col. Charles Whittlesey had published in vol. xiii. of the _Smithsonian Contributions_ his _Ancient Mining on the shores of Lake Superior_ (Washington, 1863, with a map), which is on the whole the best account, to be supplemented by his paper in the _Memoirs_ of the Boston Society of Natural History. Jacob Houghton supplied a description of the “ancient copper mines of Lake Superior” to Swineford’s _History and Review of the mineral resources of Lake Superior_ (Marquette, 1876). Cf. also _Annals of Science_ (Cleveland), i. for 1852; Dawson’s _Fossil Men_, 61; Baldwin’s _Ancient America_, 42; Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, i. 204; Dr. Harvey Read in the _Dist. Hist. Soc. Report_, ii. (1878); Joseph Henry in the _Smithsonian Reports_ (1861; also in 1862); and Short, p. 89, with references.

On the mines at Isle Royale, see Henry Gillman’s “Ancient works at Isle Royale” in _Appleton’s Journal_, Aug. 9, 1873; _Smithsonian Repts._, 1873, 1874, by A. C. Davis; the _Proceedings_ of the Amer. Asso. for the Advancement of Science, 1875; and Professor Winchell in _Popular Science Monthly_, Sept., 1881.

See further, on the copper implements of these ancient workers: Abbott’s _Primitive Industry_, ch. 28; Foster’s _Prehistoric Races_, 251; P. R. Hoy’s _How and by whom were the copper implements made?_ (Racine, 1886, in _Wisconsin Acad. of Science_, iv. 132); J. D. Butler’s address on “Prehistoric Wisconsin” in the _Wisconsin Hist. Coll._, vol. vii. (see also vol. viii.), with his “Copper Age in Wisconsin” in the _Proc. of the Amer. Antiquarian Society_, April, 1877, and his paper on copper tools in the _Wisconsin Acad. of Science_, iii. 99; H. W. Haynes on “Copper implements of America” in _Proc. Amer. Antiq. Soc._, Oct., 1884, p. 335; Putnam on the copper objects of North and South America preserved in the Peabody Museum (_Reports_, xv. 83); Read and Whittlesey in the _Final Report, Ohio Board Cent. Managers_, 1877, ch. 3; and _Poole’s Index_, p. 300. Reynolds has recently in the _Journal of the Anthropol. Soc._ (Washington) claimed copper mining for the modern Indians.

[1836] Clavigero (Philad., Eng. transl., i. 20); Prescott, i. 138; Folsom’s ed. of Cortes’ letters, 412; Lockhart’s transl. of Bernal Diaz (Lond., 1844, i. 36).

[1837] Cf. on copper implements from Mexico: P. J. J. Valentini’s _Mexican copper tools: the use of copper by the Mexicans before the Conquest; and The Katunes of Maya history, a chapter in the early history of Central America. From the German, by S. Salisbury, jr._ (Worcester, 1880), from the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, Apr. 30, 1879; F. W. Putnam in _Ibid._, n. s., ii. 235 (Oct. 21, 1882); Charnay, Eng. transl., p. 70; H. L. Reynolds, Jr., on the “Metal art of ancient Mexico” in _Popular Science Monthly_, Aug., 1887 (vol. xxxi., p. 519).

[1838] Cf. St. John Vincent Day’s _Prehistoric use of iron and steel: with observations_ (London, 1877). This book grew out of papers printed in the _Proc. Philosoph. Soc. of Glasgow_ (1871-75).

[1839] Cf. Dr. Washington Matthews on the “Navajo silversmiths” in the _2d Rept. Bureau of Ethnol._ (Washington, 1883), p. 167.

[1840] The chief European collections are in the British Museum, the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, the Louvre, and at Copenhagen, Vienna, Brussels, not to name others; and among private ones, the Christy and Evans collections in England and the Uhde in Heidelberg.

[1841] _Transactions_, n. s., iii. 510.

[1842] Cf. Lucien de Rosny’s “Introduction à une histoire de la céramique chez les indiens du nouveau monde” in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., vol. i., and Stevens’ _Flint Chips_, 241. Further references: Wilson’s _Prehist. Man_, ii. ch. 17; Catlin’s _N. A. Indians_, ch. 16; F. V. Hayden’s _Contrib. to the Ethnog. of the Missouri Valley_, 355; A. Demmin’s _Hist. de la Céramique_ (Paris, 1868-1875); Nadaillac’s _Les Premiers Hommes_, and his _L’Amérique préhistorique_, ch. 4.

[1843] For the Atlantic coast, papers by Abbott (_American Naturalist_, Ap. 72, etc.), later more comprehensively treated in his _Primitive Industry_, ch. 11; and for the middle Atlantic region, a paper by Francis Jordan, Jr., in the _Amer. Philosoph. Soc. Proc._ (1888, vol. xxv.). For Florida, _Schoolcraft in the New York Hist. Soc. Proc._, 1846, p. 124. For the moundbuilders, Foster’s _Prehistoric Races_, p. 237, and in _Amer. Naturalist_, vii. 94 (Feb., 1873); Nadaillac, ch. 4; and Putnam in _Amer. Nat_., ix. 321, 393, and _Peabody Mus. Repts._, viii. For the Mississippi Valley in general, Edw. Evers in _The Contributions to the archæology of Missouri_; W. H. Holmes in the _Fourth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, an improvement of a paper in the _Proc. of the Davenport Acad. of Sciences_, vol. iv. Joseph Jones in the _Smithsonian Contrib._, xxii., and Putnam in the _Peabody Mus. Repts_., have described the pottery of Tennessee. The _Pacific R. R. Repts/_ yield us something; and Putnam (_Reports_) was the first to describe the Missouri pottery. J. H. Devereux treats the pottery of Arkansas in the _Smithsonian Rept._, 1872. On the Pueblo pottery, see papers of W. H. Holmes and F. H. Cushing in the _Fourth Rept. Bur. of Ethn_. (pp. 257, 743); and James Stevenson’s illustrated catalogue in the _Third Rept._, p. 511. F. W. Putnam (_Amer. Art Review_, Feb., 1881), supplementing his work in vol. vii. of Wheeler’s Survey, thinks that the present Pueblo Indians make an inferior ware to their ancestors’ productions. The pottery of the cliff-dwellers is described in Hayden’s _Annual Rept._ (1876). Paul Schumacher explains the method of manufacturing pottery and basket-work among the Indians of Southern California in the _Peabody Museum Rept._, xii. 521. O. T. Mason’s papers in recent _Smithsonian Reports_ and in the _Amer. Naturalist_ are among the best investigations in this direction.

[1844] For some special phases, see S. Blondel’s _Recherches sur les bijoux des peuples primitifs ... Méxicains et Péruviens_ (Paris, 1876); F. W. Putnam’s _Conventionalism in Ancient American Art_ (Salem, 1887, from the _Bull. Essex Inst._, xviii., for 1886); Mexican masks in Stevens’ _Flint chips_, 328; S. D. Peet on “Human faces in aboriginal art,” in the _American Antiquarian_ (May, 1886, or viii. 133); the description of terra-cotta figures in Herman Strebel’s _Alt-Mexico_. A terra-cotta vase in the Museo Nacional is figured in Brasseur’s _Popol Vuh_ (1861).

It is not known that stringed instruments were ever used, notwithstanding the suggestion of the twanging of the bow-string; but museums often contain specimens of musical pipes used by the aborigines. The opening chapter of J. F. Rowbotham’s _Hist. of Music_ (London, 1885) gives what evidence we have, with references, as to kinds of music common to the American aborigines, and their fictile wind instruments. Cf. A. J. Hipkins’ _Musical instruments, historic, rare, and unique. The selection, introduction, and descriptive notes by A. J. Hipkins; illustrated by William Gibb_ (Edinburgh, 1888); H. T. Cresson on Aztec music in the _Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences_ (Philad., 1883); and Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_ (ii. 37), with the references in Bancroft’s index (v. p. 717).

In Nott and Gliddon’s _Indigenous Races of the Earth_ (Philad., 1857) there is a section by Francis Pulszky on “Iconographic researches on human races and their art.”

[1845] Mrs. Zelia Nuttall’s essay on some Mexican feather-work preserved in the Imperial Museum at Vienna appeared in the _Archæol. and Ethnolog. Papers of the Peabody Museum_, vol. i. no. 1 (Cambridge, 1888), and here she discusses the question if this is a standard or head-dress, and holds it to have been a head-dress. The contrary view is taken by F. von Hochstetter in his _Ueber Mexicanische Reliquien aus der Zeit Montezuma’s_ (Vienna, 1884), who supposes it to have been among the presents sent by Cortes in 1519 to Charles V., in the possession of whose nephew it is known to have been in 1596.

[1846] Cf. Horatio Hale on _The Origin of Primitive Money_ (N. Y., 1886,—from the _Popular Science Monthly_, xxviii. 296); W. B. Weedon’s _Indian Money as a factor in New England Civilization_ (Baltimore, 1884),—Johns Hopkins (University Studies); Ashbel Woodward’s _Wampum_ (Albany, 1878); Ernst Ingersoll in the _Amer. Naturalist_ (May, 1883); and the cuts of wampum belts in the _Second Rept. Bur. Ethnology_ (pp. 242, 244, 246, 248, 252, 254).

[1847] Cf. D. G. Brinton’s _The lineal measures of the Semi-civilized nations of Mexico and Central America. Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 2, 1885_ (Philadelphia, 1885).

[1848] _Wilson’s Prehistoric Man_, i. ch. 6.

[1849] Wilson, i. 168. See _post_, Vol. II. 508, for an old cut of a raft under sail.

[1850] _Peabody Mus. Rept._, ii. 602-8.

[1851] _Chips_, ii. 248. Cf. Dabry de Thiersant’s _Origine des indiens_ (Paris, 1883), p. 187.

[1852] It has been a question whether the palæolithic man talked, and it has been asserted and denied, from the character of certain inferior maxillary bones found in caves, that he had the power of articulate speech. Dr. Brinton has recently, from an examination of the lowest stocks of linguistic utterances now known, endeavored to set forth “a somewhat correct conception of what was the character of the rudimentary utterances of the race.” Cf. Brinton, _Language of the Palæolithic Man_, Philadelphia, 1888; Mortillet, _La préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme_ (Paris, 1883); H. Steinthal, _Der Ursprung der Sprache_ (Berlin, 1888). Horatio Hale, on “The origin of languages and the antiquity of speaking man,” in the _Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc_., xxxv. 279, cites the views of some physiologists to show that the pre-glacial man could not talk, because there are only rudimentary signs of the presence of important vocal muscles to be discovered in the most ancient jaw-bones which have been found. Rau inferred that the totally diverse character, as he thought, of the American tongues indicated strongly that the earliest man could not articulate (_Contrib. to N. A. Ethnology_, v. 92). For other somewhat wild speculations, see Col. E. Carette’s _Etude sur les temps antéhistoriques, La Langage_ (Paris, 1878).

[1853] Morgan thought he had found a test in his _Systems of consanguinity and affinity of the Human Family_ (Washington, 1871).

[1854] _Journal Anthropological Inst._, v. 216.

[1855] _Science of Language_, i. 326.

[1856] For recognition of it in American philology, see Bancroft, iii. 670, and Short, 471.

[1857] Cf. Waitz, _Introd. to Anthropology_ (Eng. transl.), p. 238; Wedgwood, _Origin of Language_; Lubbock, _Origin of Civilization_, ch. 8; Tylor’s _Anthropology_, ch. 6; Topinard’s _Anthropologie_; J. P. Lesley’s _Man’s Origin and Destiny_ (who considers the test so far a failure); William D. Whitney’s “Testimony of language respecting the unity of the human race,” in the _North American Review_, July, 1867.

[1858] The “Lenguas y naciones Americanas” forms part of the first volume of Lorenzo Hervas’s _Catálogo de las Lenguas de las Naciones Conocidas, y numeracion, division, y clases de estas segun la diversidad de sas idiomas y dialectos_ (Madrid, 1800-1805, in 6 vols.), which served in some measure Johann Severin Vater, and J. C. Adelung in their _Mithridates, oder Allgemeine Sprachenkunde_ (Berlin, 1806-17, in 4 vols.) and his _Analekten der Sprachenkunde_ (Leipzig, 1821).

There has more been done so far to map out the ethnological fields of middle America than to determine those of the more northern parts. Cf. the map in Orozco y Berra’s _Geografía de las lenguas de Mexico_ (1864), and that in V. A. Malte-Brun’s paper in the _Compte Rendu, Cong. des Américanistes_, 1877, ii. 10. The maps in Bancroft’s _Native Races_, ii. and v., will serve ordinary readers. For the broader northern field, see the papers by L. H. Morgan and George Gibbs in the _Smithsonian Reports_, 1861, 1862. The Bureau of Ethnology have in preparation such a map, and they mark on it, it is understood, about seventy distinct stocks.

Cf. Horatio Hale on “Indian migrations as evidenced by language,” in the _Amer. Antiquarian_, v. 18, 108 (Jan., April, 1883), and issued separately, Chicago, 1883. Lucien Adam criticised the views of Hall in the Copenhagen _Compte Rendu, Cong. des Amér._, 1883, p. 123.

[1859] _Nat. Races_, iii. 558.

[1860] Cf. _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1879.

[1861] _Fossil Men_, 310.

[1862] A prominent feature is the process of uniting words lengthwise, so to speak, which gives a single utterance the import of a sentence. This characteristic of the American languages has been called polysynthetic, incorporative, holophrastic, aggregative, and agglutinative. H. H. Bancroft instances the word for letter-postage in Aztec as being “Amatlacuilolitquitcatlaxtlahuilli,” which really signifies by its component parts, “payment received for carrying a paper on which something is written.” Cf. Brinton’s _On polysynthesism and incorporation as characteristic of American languages_ (Philad., 1885).

[1863] Hayden says: “The dialects of the western continent, radically united among themselves and radically distinguished from all others, stand in hoary brotherhood by the side of the most ancient vocal systems of the human race.”

[1864] Morgan, in his _Systems of Consanguinity_, contends for this linguistic unity, though (in 1866) he admits that “the dialects and stock languages have not been explored with sufficient thoroughness.”

[1865] Gallatin says of them: “They bear the impress of primitive languages, ... and attest the antiquity of the population,—an antiquity the earliest we are permitted to assume.” This was of course written before the geological evidences of the antiquity of man were understood, and the remoteness referred to was a period near the great dispersion of Babel.

[1866] The appendix of this work has a good general summary of the Ethnography and Philology of America, by A. H. Keane.

[1867] The interlinking method of communication between tribes of different languages is what is called sign or gesture language, and the study of it shows that in much the same forms it is spread over the continent. It has been specially studied by Col. Garrick Mallery. Cf. his papers in the _Amer. Antiquarian_, ii. 218; _Proc. Amer. Asso. Adv. Science_, Saratoga meeting, 1880; and at length in the _First Annual Rept. Bur. of Ethnology_ (1881). He notes his sources of information on pp. 395, 401. He had earlier printed under the Bureau’s sanction his _Introduction to the Study of Sign Language_ (Washington, 1880). The subject is again considered in the _Third Rept._ of the Bureau, p. xxvi. Cf. also W. P. Clark’s _Indian Sign-language, with Explanatory Notes_ (Philad., 1885). Morgan (_Systems of Consanguinity_, 227) expresses the opinion that it has the germinal principle “from which came, first, the pictographs of the northern Indians and of the Aztecs; and, secondly, as its ultimate development, the ideographic and possibly the hieroglyphic language of the Palenqué and Copan monuments.”

In addition to languages and dialects, we have a whole body of jargons, a conventional mixture of tongues, adduced by continued intercourse of peoples speaking different languages. They grew up very early, where the French came in contact with the aborigines, and Father Le Jeune mentions one in 1633 (_Hist. Mag._, v. 345). The Chinook jargon, for instance, was, if not invented, at least developed by the Hudson Bay Company’s servants, out of French, English, and several Indian tongues (whose share predominates), to facilitate their trade with the natives, and does not contain, at an outside limit, more than 400 or 500 words. There is some reason to believe that the Indian portion of this jargon is older, however, than the English contact (Bancroft, iii. 632-3; Gibbs’s _Chinook Dictionary_; Horatio Hale in Wilkes’ _U. S. Explor. Exped._).

[1868] See the section on “Americana,” with a foot-note on linguistic collections. Haven summed up what had been done in this field in 1855 in his _Archæology of the U. S._ p. 53.

[1869] There is a less extensive survey, but wider in territory, in Short’s _North Americans of Antiquity_, ch. 10.

[1870] Vol. III. p. 355.

[1871] See Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_.

[1872] Duponceau’s report in Heckewelder, _Hist. Acc. of the Indian Nations_, 1819, is in the _Mass. Hist. Coll._, 1822. Pickering says that Duponceau was the earliest to discover and make known the common characteristics of the American tongues.

[1873] These are enumerated in the appendix of _The Calendar of the Sparks MSS._, issued by the library of Harvard University. They are also cited with some in other depositories by Pilling in his _Proof-sheets_.

[1874] Also in J. B. Scherer’s _Recherches historiques et géographiques sur le Nouveau Monde_ (Paris, 1777).

[1875] We know little of what Jefferson might have accomplished, for his manuscripts were burned in 1801 (Schoolcraft’s _Ind. Tribes_, ii. 356). As early as 1804 the U. S. War Department issued a list of words, for which its agents should get in different tribes the equivalent words. Gallatin used these results. Different lists of test words have been often used since. George Gibbs had a list. The Bureau of Ethnology has a list.

[1876] Cf. synopsis in Haven’s _Archæol. U. S._, p. 65.

[1877] For Hale’s later views see his _Origin of language and antiquity of speaking man_ (Cambridge, 1886), from the _Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Science_, xxxv.; and his _Development of language_ (Toronto, 1888), from the _Proc. Canadian Inst._, 3d ser., vi.

[1878] Among other workers in the northern philology may be named Schoolcraft in his _Indian Tribes_ (ii. and iii. 340), who makes no advance upon Gallatin; W. W. Turner in the _Smithsonian Report_, vi.; R. S. Riggs adds a Dacota bibliography to his _Grammar and Dictionary of the Dacota language_ (Washington, Smiths. Inst., 1852); George Gibbs in the _Smithsonian Repts._ for 1865 and 1870, and as collaborator in other studies, of which record is made in J. A. Stevens’ memoir of Gibbs, first printed in the _N. Y. Hist. Soc. Coll._, and then in the _Smithsonian Report_ for 1873; F. W. Hayden’s _Contributions to the ethnography and philology of the Indian tribes of the Missouri Valley_ (Philad., 1862), being vol. xiii. of the _Trans. Amer. Philosophical Soc._

A contemporary of Gallatin, but a man sorely harassed, as others see him, with eccentricities and unstableness of head, was C. F. Rafinesque, who had nevertheless a certain tendency to acute observation, which prevents his books from becoming wholly worthless. His first publication was an introduction to Marshall’s _History of Kentucky_, which he printed separately as _Ancient History, or Annals of Kentucky, with a survey of the ancient monuments of North America, and a tabular view of the principal languages and primitive nations of the whole earth_ (Frankfort, Ky., 1824). In this he makes a comparison of four principal words from fourteen Indian tongues with thirty-four primitive languages of the old world. In 1836 he printed at Philadelphia _The American Nations, or outlines of their general history, ancient and modern, including the whole history of the earth and mankind in the western hemisphere; the philosophy of American history; the annals, traditions, civilization, languages, etc., of all American nations, tribes, empires and states_ (in two volumes).

[1879] It embraces:

FIRST SERIES: No. 1. J. G. Shea, _French Onondaga Dictionary_.

2. G. Mengarini, _Selish or Flat-head Grammar_.

3. B. Smith, _Grammatical Sketch of the Heve language_.

4. F. Arroyo de la Cuesta, _Grammar of the Mutsun language_.

5. B. Smith, _Grammar of the Pima or Névome language_.

6. M. C. Pandosy, _Grammar and Dictionary of the Yakama language_.

7. B. Sitjar, _Vocabulary of the language of the San Antonio Mission_.

8. F. Arroyo de la Cuesta, _Vocabulary or phrase-book of the Mutsun language_.

9. Abbé Maillard, _Grammar of the Micmaque language_.

10. J. Bruyas, _Radices Verborum Iroqæorum_.

11. G. Gibbs, _Alphabetical Vocabularies of the Clallam and Lummi_.

12. G. Gibbs, _Dictionary of the Chinook jargon_.

13. G. Gibbs, _Alphabetical Vocabulary of the Chinook language_.

SECOND SERIES: 1. W. Matthews, _Grammar and Dictionary of the language of the Hidatsa_.

2. W. Matthews, _Hidatsa-English Dictionary_.

The first series was printed in New York, 1860-63; the second, 1873-74. There is full bibliographical detail in Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_.

[1880] The following are already published:

1. _The Chronicles of the Mayas_, ed. by Brinton.

2. _The Iroquois Book of Rites_, ed. by Horatio Hale.

3. _The Comedy-ballet of Gueguence_, ed. by Brinton.

4. _The National Legend of the Creeks_, ed. by Albert S. Gatschet.

5. _The Lenâpé and their Legends._

6. _The Annals of the Cakchiquels_, ed. by Brinton.

[1881] This series contains:

1. Juan de Albornoz, _Arte de la lengua Chiapaneca y Doctrina Cristiana por Luis Barrientos_ (Paris, 1875).

2. P. E. Pettitot, _Dictionnaire de la langue Dènè-Dindjie_ (Paris, 1876).

3. P. E. Pettitot, _Vocabulaire Français-Esquimau_ (Paris, 1876).

4. P. Franco, _Noticias de los Indios del Departamento de Veragua_, etc. (San Francisco, 1882).

Pilling (_Proof-sheets_, 589, 1042-1044) gives an account of Pinart’s published and MS. linguistic collections, as well as (p. 587) of Francisco Pimentel’s _Las Lenguas indígenas de México_ (Mexico, 1862-65).

[1882] It embraces:

1. E. Uricoechea, _Lengua Chibcha_ (Paris, 1871).

2. Eujenio Castillo i Orozco, _Vocabulario Paéz-Castellano_, etc. (Paris, 1877).

3. Raymond Breton, _Grammaire Caraïbe, ed. par L. Adam et Ch. Leclerc_ (Paris, 1878).

4. _Ollantai, drame, trad. par Pacheco Zegarra_ (Paris, 1878).

5. R. Celedon, _La Lengua goajra, con una introd. por E. Uricoechea_ (Paris, 1878).

6. L. Adam et V. Henry, _La Lengua Chiquita_ (Paris, 1880).

7. Antonio Magio, _La Lengua de los Indios Baures_ (Paris, 1880).

8. J. Crevaux, P. Sagot, et L. Adam, _Langues de la région des Guyanes_ (Paris, 1882).

9. J. D. Haumonté, Parisot, et L. Adam, _La Langue Taensa_ (Paris, 1882). This has been pronounced a deception.

10. Francisco Pareja, _La Lengua Timuquana_, 1614 (Paris, 1886).

[1883] Cf. Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_, pp. 217-218.

[1884] Brinton (_Amer. Hero Myths_, 60), referring to Father Cuoq’s _Lexique de la langue Iroquoise_, speaks of that author as “probably the best living authority on the Iroquois.” Pilling, _Proof-sheets_, 185, etc., gives the best account of his writings. Cf. Mrs. E. A. Smith on the Iroquois in _Journal Anthropolog. Inst._, xiv. 244.

[1885] The languages covered are: Dakota, Chibcha, Nahuatl, Kechua, Quiché, Maya, Montagnais, Chippeway, Algonquin, Cri, Iroquois, Hidatsa, Chacta, Caraïbe, Kiriri, Guarani. Adam has been one of the leading spirits in the Congrès des Américanistes. There was published in 1882, as a part of the _Bibliothèque linguistique Américaine, a Grammaire et Vocabulaire de la langue taensa, avec textes traduits et commentés par F. D. Haumonté, Parisot, L. Adam_. It was printed from a manuscript said to have been discovered in 1872, in the library of Mons. Haumonté. Dr. Brinton, finding, as he claimed, that Adam had been imposed upon, printed in the _American Antiquarian_, March, 1885, “The Tænsa Grammar and Dictionary, a Deception Exposed,” the points of which were epitomized by Professor H. W. Haynes in the _American Antiquarian Society Proceedings_ (April, 1885), and Adam answered in _Le Tænsa, a-t-il été forgé de toutes pièces_ (Paris, 1885).

The languages of the southern and southwestern United States have been

## particularly studied by Albert S. Gatschet, among whose publications

may be named _Zwölf Sprachen aus dem Südwesten Nord Amerikas_ (Weimar, 1877); _The Timucua language_ of Florida (Philad., 1878, 1880); _The Chumeto language_ of California (Philad., 1882); _Der Yuma Sprachstamm_ of Arizona and the neighboring regions (Berlin, 1877, 1883); _Wortverzeichniss eines Viti-Dialectes_ (Berlin, 1882); _The Shetimasha Indians of St. Mary’s Parish, Louisiana_ (Washington, 1883); but his most important contribution is the linguistic, historic, and ethnographic introduction to his _Migration Legend of the Creek Indians_ (Philad., 1884), in which he has surveyed the whole compass of the southern Indians. The extent of Mr. Gatschet’s studies will appear from Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_, pp. 285-292, 955.

[1886] _Contents_.—1. Sur quelques familles de langues du Méxique. 2. Sur différents idiomes de la Nouvelle-Espagne. 3. Sur la famille de langues Tapijulapane-Mixe. 4. Sur la famille de langue Pirinda-Othomi. 5. Sur les lois phonétiques dans les idiomes de la famille Mame-Huastèque. 6. Sur le pronom personnel dans les idiomes de la famille Maya-Quiché. 7. Sur l’étude de la prophétie en langue Maya d’Ahkuil-Chel. 8. Sur le système de numération chez les peuples de la famille Maya-Quiché. 9. Sur le déchiffrement des écritures calculiformes du Mayas. 10. Sur les signes de numération en Maya.

Pilling (_Proof-sheets_, pp. 145-148, 904-906) enumerates many of the separate publications.

[1887] Brinton has printed _The philosophical grammar of the American languages as set forth by Wilhelm von Humboldt, with a translation of an unpublished memoir by him on the American verb_ (Philad., 1885). The great work of A. von Humboldt and Bonpland, _Voyage aux régions équinoxiales du nouveau continent_ (Paris, 1816-31), gives some linguistic matter in the third volume.

[1888] These are enumerated in the list in Bancroft, i.; in Field, nos. 208-218; and in Leclerc, _Index_; with more detail in Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_, pp. 102-110, 894-896. Cf. also Sabin, iii. nos. 9,521 etc.

[1889] Brinton, who possesses his papers, published a Memoir of him in the _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, 1884. His publications and MS. collections are given in Pilling’s _Proof-sheets_, PP. 72, 73, 879-881.

[1890] He cites (iii. 725-26) many opinions; and quotes Sahagún as saying that the Apalaches were Nahuas and spoke the Mexican tongue (_Ibid_. iii. 727). Is this any evidence of the Floridian immigration?

[1891] A considerable body of literature in this language has come down to us. Bancroft (iii. 728) enumerates a number of the principal religious manuals, etc. Icazbalceta in the first volume of his _Bibliografia Mexicana_ (Mexico, 1886), in cataloguing the books issued in Mexico before 1600, includes all that were printed in the native tongue. Brinton gives some account of such native authors in his _Aboriginal American authors and their productions, especially those in the native languages. A chapter in the history of literature_ (Philad., 1883). Cf. his paper in the _Congrès des Amér._, Copenhagen, 1883, p. 54. Bancroft (iii. 730) gives some citations as to its literary value. Brinton has illustrated this quality in some of his lesser monographs, as in his _Ancient Nahuatl Poetry_ (Philad., 1887); and in his _Study of the Nahuatl language_ (1886), in which he gives specimens and enumerates the dictionaries and texts. He says there are more than a hundred authors in it (_Amer. Antiquarian_, viii. 22). Icazbalceta has collected many Nahua MSS., and his brother-in-law, Francisco Pimentel, has used them in his _Cuadro descriptivo y comparativo de las Lenguas indigenas de México_ (1862), of which there is a German translation by Isidor Epstein (N. Y., 1877). This is based on a second augmented edition (Mexico, 1874-75), in which the tongues of northern Mexico are better represented, and a general classification of the languages is added. Pimentel (i. 154) asserts that it is a mistake to suppose that the Chichimecs spoke Nahua. Cf., however, Bancroft (iii. 724) and Short, 255, 480. Pimentel’s opinions are weighty, and follow in this respect those of Orozco y Berra, Sahagún, Ixtlilxochitl; but later, Veytia had maintained the reverse.

Lucien Adam includes the Nahua in his _Etudes sur six langues Américaines_ (Paris, 1878). Aubin wrote “Sur la langue Méxicaine et la philologie Américaine” in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., vol. i. Brasseur contributed various articles on Mexican philology to the _Revue Orientale et Américaine_. Dr. C. Hermann Berendt formed an _Analytical Alphabet for the Mexican and Central America languages_ (N. Y., 1869). Buschmann has a study in the _Mémoirs de l’Académie de Berlin_, and separately, _Ueber die Astekischen Ortsnamen_ (Berlin, 1853). Henri de Charencey in his _Mélanges de Philologie_ (Paris, 1883) has a paper “Sur quelques familles de langues du Méxique.” V. A. Malte-Brun gave in the _Compte Rendu, Cong. des Américanistes_, 1877 (vol. ii. p. 10), a paper “La distribution ethnographique des nations et des langues au Méxique.” Reference has been made elsewhere to the important publication of Manuel Orozco y Berra, _Geografia de las lenguas y carta etnográfica de México, precedidos de un ensayo de classificacion de las mismas lenguas y de apuntes para las inmigraciones de las tribus_ (Mexico, 1864). The work is said to be the fruit of twelve years’ constant study, and to have been based in some part on MSS. belonging to Icazbalceta, dating back to the latter part of the sixteenth century (enumerated in _Peab. Mus. Repts._, ii. 559). There is some adverse criticism. Peschel (_Races of Men_, 438) thinks the linguistic map of Mexico in Orozco y Berra’s work the only good feature in the book, since the author spreads old errors anew in consequence of his unacquaintance with Buschmann’s researches. A series of linguistic monographic essays on the Aztec names of places is embraced in Dr. Antonio Peñafiel’s _Nombres Geografico de Mexico. Catalogo alfabetico de los nombres de lugar pertenecientes al idioma “Nahuatl” estudio jeroglifico de la matricula de los tributos del codice Mendocino_ (Mexico, 1885). In the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France_, n. s., 179, iii. there is an essay by Siméon, “La langue Méxicaine et son histoire.”

The affiliation of the Aztec with the Pueblo stocks is traced by Bancroft, iii. 665, who follows out the diversities of those stocks (pp. 671, 681). Cf. for various views Morgan’s _Systems of Consanguinity_, 260; Buschmann’s _Die Völker und Sprachen Neu Mexico’s_, and _First Rept. Bur. of Ethnology_, p. xxxi.

[1892] Some authorities give fourteen dialects of the Maya. Cf. the table in Bancroft, iii. 562, etc., and the statements in Garcia y Cubas, translated by Geo. F. Henderson as _The Republic of Mexico_. It is still spoken in the greatest purity about the Balize, as is commonly said; but Le Plongeon goes somewhat inland and says he found it “in all its pristine purity” in the neighborhood of Lake Peten. Le Plongeon, with that extravagance which has in the end deprived him of the sympathy and encouragement due to his noteworthy labors, says, “One third of this Maya tongue is pure Greek,” following Brasseur in one of his vagaries, who thought he found in 15,000 Maya vocables at least 7,000 that bore a striking resemblance to the language of Homer.

[1893] The bibliographies will add to this enumeration. The _Pinart Catalogue_ (pp. 98-100) gives a partial list. Only some of the more important monographs upon features of the Maya language can be mentioned: Father Pedro Beltran de Santa Rosa’s _Arte del idioma Maya_ (Mexico, 1746) was so rare that Brasseur did not secure it, but Leclerc catalogues it (no. 2,280), as well as the reprint (Merida, 1859) edited by José D. Espinosa. There is a study of the Maya tongues included in a paper printed first by Carl Hermann Berendt in the _Journal of the Amer. Geog. Soc._ (viii. 132, for 1876), which was later issued separately as _Remarks on the centres of ancient civilization in Central America and their geographical distribution_ (N. Y., 1876). It is accompanied by a map. (Cf. also his “Explorations in Central America” in the _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867.) Brasseur included in his _Manuscrit Troano_ (Paris, 1869-70), and later published separately, a _Dictionnaire, Grammaire et Chrestomathie de la langue Maya_ (Paris, 1872); the dictionary containing 10,000 words, the grammar being a translation from Father Gabriel de Saint Bonaventure, while the chrestomathy was a gathering of specimens ancient and modern, of the language. Brasseur, in his mutable way, found in the first season of his studies the Greek, Latin, English, German, Scandinavian, not to name others, to have correspondences with the Maya, and ended in deriving them from that tongue as the primitive language. (Cf. Short, 476.) Dr. Brinton has a paper on _The Ancient Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan_ (N. Y., 1870), and he read at the Buffalo meeting (1886) of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science a paper on the phonetic element of the graphic system of the Mayas, etc., which is printed in the _American Antiquarian_, viii. 347. In the introduction of his _Maya Chronicles_ (Philad., 1882) he examines the language and literature of the Mayas. He refers to a “Disertacion sobre la historia de la lengua Maya o Yucateca” by Crescencio Carrello y Ancona in the _Revista de Merida_, 1870. Charencey has printed various special papers, like a _Fragment de Chrestomathie de la langue Maya antique_ (Paris, 1875) from the _Revue de Philologie et d’Ethnographie_, and a paper read before the Copenhagen meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes (_Compte Rendu_, p. 379), “De la formation des mots en lengua Maya.” Landa’s _Relation_ as published by Brasseur (Paris, 1864) is of course a leading source.

Of the Quiché branch of the Maya we know most from Brasseur’s _Popul Vuh_ and from his _Gramatica de la lengua Quiché_ (Paris, 1862), in the appendix of which he printed the _Rabinal Achi_, a drama in the Quiché tongue. Father Ildefonso José Flores, a native of the country, was professor of the Cakchiquel language in the university of Guatemala in the last century, and published a _Arte de la lengua metropolitana del Reyno Cakchiquel_ (Guatemala, 1753), which was unknown to later scholars, till Brasseur discovered a copy in 1856 (Leclerc, no. 2,270). The literature of the Cakchiquel dialect is examined in the introduction to Brinton’s _Grammar of the Cakchiquel language_ (Philad., 1884), edited for the American Philosophical Society. Cf. Brinton’s little _treatise On the language and ethnologic position of the Xinca Indians of Guatemala_ (Philadelphia, 1884); his _So-called Alaguilac language of Guatemala_ in the _Proc. Am. Philosoph. Soc._, 1887, p. 366; and Otto Stoll’s _Zur Ethnographie der Republik Guatemala_ (Zurich, 1884).

We owe to Brinton, also, a few discussions of the Nicaragua tongues, both in their Maya and Aztec relations. He has discussed the local dialect of this region in the introduction of _The Güegüence; a comedy ballet in the Nahuatl-Spanish dialect of Nicaragua_ (Philadelphia, 1883), and in his _Notes on the Mangue, an extinct dialect formerly spoken in Nicaragua_ (Philadelphia, 1886).

[1894] Notwithstanding this commonness of origin, if such be the case, there is a striking truth in what Max Müller says: “The thoughts of primitive humanity were not only different from our thoughts, but different also from what we think their thoughts ought to have been.”

[1895] See Vol. IV. p. 295.

[1896] Such are Sagard’s _Histoire du Canada_ (1636); Nicolas Perrot’s _Mémoire sur les Mœurs, Coutumes et Religion des Sauvages_, involving his experience from 1665 to 1699; Lafitau’s _Mœurs des Sauvages_ (1724), and the like.

[1897] Bancroft (iii. 136) says: “It does not appear, notwithstanding Mr. Squier’s assertion to the contrary, that the serpent was actually worshipped either in Yucatan or Mexico.” Cf. Brinton’s _Myths_, ch. 4; Chas. S. Wake’s _Serpent Worship_ (London, 1888); and J. G. Bourke’s _Snake-dance of the Moquis of Arizona; being a narrative of a journey from Santa Fé, New Mexico, to the villages of the Moqui Indians of Arizona, with a description of the manners and customs of this peculiar people, to which is added a brief dissertation upon serpent-worship in general, with an account of the tablet dance of the Pueblo of Santo Domingo, New Mexico, etc._ (London, 1884).

[1898] Brinton (_Myths_, etc., 141) declares sun-worship, which some investigators have made the base of all primitive religions, to be but a “short and easy method with mythology,” and that “no one key can open all the arcana of symbolism.” He refers to D’Orbigny (_L’Homme Américain_), Müller (_Amer. Urreligionen_), and Squier (_Serpent Symbol_) as supporting the opposing view. We may find like supporters of the sun as a central idea in Schoolcraft, Tylor, Brasseur. Cf. Bancroft’s _Native Races_ (iii. 114) in opposition to Brinton.

[1899] This monotheism is denied by Brinton (_Myths of the New World_, 52). “Of monotheism, either as displayed in the one personal definite God of the Semitic races, or in the dim pantheistic sense of the Brahmins, there was not a single instance on the American continent,”—the Iroquois “Neu” and “Hawaneu,” which, as Brinton says, have deceived Morgan and others, being but the French “Dieu” and “Le bon Dieu” rendered in Indian pronunciation (_Myths of the New World_, p. 53). The aborigines instituted, however, in two instances, the worship of an immaterial god, one among the Quichuas of Peru and another at Tezcuco (_Ibid._ p. 55).

Bandelier (_Archæol. Tour_, 185), examining the _Hist. de los Méxicanos por sus Pinturas_ (_Anales del Museo_, ii. 86), Motolinía, Gómara, Sahagún, Tobar, and Durán, finds no trace of monotheism till we come to Acosta. Torquemada speaks of supreme _gods_; and Bandelier thinks that Ixtlilxochitl, in conveying the idea of a single god, evidently distorts and disfigures Torquemada.

Bancroft (iii. 198) accords honesty to Ixtlilxochitl’s account of the religion of the Tezcucan ruler Nezahualcoyotl, as reaching the heights of Mexican monotheistic conception, because he thinks his descendants, if he had fabled, would never have ended his description with so pagan a statement as that which makes the Tezcucan recognize the sun as his father and the earth as his mother.

Max Müller tells us that we should distinguish between monotheism and henotheism, which is the temporary preeminence of one god over the host of gods, and which was as near monotheism as the American aborigines came.

[1900] He also masses the evidence which shows, as he thinks, that “on Catholic missions has followed the debasement, and on Protestant missions the destruction, of the Indian race.” _Amer. Hero-Myths_, pp. 206, 238.

[1901] Unfortunately, Brinton enforces this view and others with a degree of confidence that does not help him to convince the cautious reader, as when he speaks of the opinions of those who disagree with him as “having served long enough as the last refuge of ignorance” (_Amer. Hero-Myths_, 145).

[1902] The whole question of comparative mythology involves in its broad aspects the subject of American myths. The literature of this general kind is large, but reference may be made to Girard de Rialle’s _La Mythologie Comparée_ (Paris, 1878); for the idea of God, Dawson’s _Fossil Men_, ch. 9 and 10; Lubbock’s _Origin of Civilization_, ch. 4, 5, 6; J. P. Lesley’s _Man’s origin and destiny_, ch. 10; and for the geographical distribution of myths, Tylor’s _Early Hist. of Mankind_, ch. 12; Max Müller’s _Chips_, vol. ii.; and in a general way, Brinton’s _Religious sentiment, its source and aim_ (N. Y., 1876). Reference may also be made to Joly’s _Man before Metals_, ch. 7; Dabry de Thiersant’s _Origine des indiens_ (Paris, 1883); and G. Brühl’s _Culturvölker Alt-Amerikas_ (Cincinnati, 1876-78), ch. 10 and 19. Brinton (_Myths_, 210) tracks the Deluge myth among the Indians, and Bancroft gives many instances of it (_Native Races_, v., index). Brinton thinks a paper by Charencey, “Le Déluge d’après les traditions indiennes de l’Amérique du Nord,” in the _Revue Américaine_, a help for its extracts, but complains of its uncritical spirit.

We find sufficient data of the aboriginal belief in the future life both in Bancroft’s final chapter (vol. iii. part i.) and in Brinton’s _Myths_, ch. 9. Brinton delivered an address on the “Journey of the soul,” which is printed in the _Proceedings_ (Jan., 1883) of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia.

[1903] In studying the mythology of these tribes we must depend mainly on confined monographs. Mrs. E. A. Smith treats the myths of the Iroquois in the _Second Annual Rept. Bureau of Ethnology_. Charles Godfrey Leland has covered _The Algonquin legends of New England; or, myths and folk-lore of the Micmac, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscot tribes_ (Boston, 1884). Brinton has a book on _The Lenâpé and their legends_ (Philad., 1885); and one may refer to the _Life and Journals of David Brainard_. S. D. Peet has a paper on “The religious beliefs and traditions of the aborigines of North America” in the _Journal of the Victoria Institute_ (London, 1888, vol. xxi. 229); one on “Animal worship and Sun worship in the east and west compared” in the _American Antiquarian_, Mar., 1888; and a paper on the religion of the moundbuilders in _Ibid._ vi. 393. The _Dahcotah, or life and legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_ (N. Y., 1849) of Mrs. Mary Eastman has been a serviceable book. S. R. Riggs covers the mythology of the Dakotas in the _Amer. Antiquarian_ (v. 147), and in this periodical will be found various studies concerning other tribes.

[1904] Bandelier, _Archæol. Tour_, 185, calls it the earliest statement of the Nahua mythology.

[1905] There is more or less of original importance on the Aztec myths in Alfredo Chavero’s “La Piedra del Sol,” likewise in the _Anales_ (vol. i.). Cf. also the “Ritos Antiguos, sacrificios e idolatrias de los indios de la Nueva España,” as printed in the _Coleccion de doc. ined. para la hist. de España_ (liii. 300).

Bancroft (vol. iii. ch. 6-10), who is the best source for reference, gives also the best compassed survey of the entire field; but among writers in English he may be supplemented by Prescott (i. ch. 3, introd.); Helps in his _Spanish Conquest_ (vol. ii.); Tylor’s _Primitive Culture_; Albert Réville’s _Lectures on the origin and growth of religion as illustrated by the native religions of Mexico and Peru_, translated by P. H. Wicksteed (London, 1884, being the Hibbert lectures for 1884); on the analogies of the Mexican belief, a condensed statement in Short’s _No. America of Antiq._, 459; a popular paper in _The Galaxy_, May, 1876. Bandelier intended a fourth paper to be added to the three printed in the _Peabody Mus. Repts._ (vol. ii.), namely, one on “The Creeds and Beliefs of the Ancient Mexicans,” which has never, I think, been printed.

Among the French, we may refer to Ternaux-Compans’ _Essai sur la théogonie Méxicaine_ (Paris, 1840) and the works of Brasseur. Klemm’s _Cultur-Geschichte_ and Müller’s _Urreligionen_ will mainly cover the German views. Of the Mexican writers, it may be worth while to name J. M. Melgar’s _Examen comparativa entre los signos simbolicos de las Teogonias y Cosmogonias antiguas y los que existen en los manuscritos Méxicanos_ (Vera Cruz, 1872).

The readiest description of their priesthood and festivals will be found in Bancroft (ii. 201, 303, with references). Tenochtitlan is said to have had 2,000 sacred buildings, and Torquemada says there were 80,000 throughout Mexico; while Clavigero says that a million priests attended upon them. Bancroft (iii. ch. 10) describes this service. There is a chance in all this of much exaggeration.

The history of human sacrifice as a part of this service is the subject of disagreement among the earlier as well as with the later writers. Bancroft (iii. 413, 442) gives some leading references. Cf. Prescott (i. 77) and Nadaillac (p. 296). Las Casas in his general defence of the natives places the number of sacrifices very low. Zumárraga says there were 20,000 a year. The Aztecs, if not originating the practice, as is disputed by some, certainly made much use of it.

[1906] _Anales del Museo Nacional_, ii. 247; Bancroft, iii. 240, 248.

[1907] Bandelier thinks Durán the earliest to connect St. Thomas with Quetzalcoatl. Cf. Bancroft, iii. 456.

[1908] Müller agrees with Ixtlilxochitl that Quetzalcoatl and Huemac were one and the same, and that Ternaux erred in supposing them respectively Olmec and Toltec deities. Cf. Brasseur’s _Palenqué_, 40, 66. Cf. D. Daly on “Quetzalcoatl, the Mexican Messiah” in _Gentleman’s Mag._, n. a., xli. 236.

[1909] For the later views in general see Clavigero, Tylor, Brasseur (_Nations Civil._, i. 253), Prescott (i. 62), Bancroft (iii. 248, 263; v. 24, 200, 255, 257), and Short (267, 274).

[1910] The god Paynal was a sort of deputy war-god. See H. H. Bancroft’s _Native Races_.

[1911] Cf. references in _Peabody Mus. Rept._, ii. 571; Short, p. 206.

[1912] Cf. _Relacion de las ceremonias y Ritos de Michoacan_, a manuscript in the library of Congress, of which there is a copy in Madrid, which is printed in the _Coleccion de doc. ined. para la hist. de España_, liii.

[1913] For further modern treatment see Schultz-Sellack’s “Die Amerikanischen Götter der vier Weltgegenden und ihre Tempel in Palenque” in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xi.(1879); Brasseur’s Landa, p. lx; Ancona’s _Yucatan_ (i. ch. 10); Powell’s _First Report Bureau of Ethnology_; for sacrifices, Nadaillac (p. 266); and for festivals and priestly service, Bancroft (ii. 689). For Yucatan folk-lore, see Brinton in _Folk-lore Journal_ (vol. i. for 1883).

[1914] _First series_: vol. iv., W. Sargent on articles from an old grave at Cincinnati, exhumed in 1794; vol. v., G. Turner on the same; vol. vi., W. Dunbar on the Indian sign language; J. Madison on remains of fortifications in the west; B. S. Barton on affinities of Indian words. _New series_: vol. i., H. H. Brackenridge on Indian populations and tumuli; C. W. Short on an Indian fort near Lexington, Ky.; vol. iii., D. Zeisberger on a Delaware grammar; vol. iv., J. Heckewelder on Delaware names, etc.

[1915] It celebrated its centennial in 1880, when an impromptu address was delivered by R. C. Winthrop, which is printed by this society, and is also contained, with a statement of the occasion of it, in his _Speeches and Addresses_, 1878-1886. For a record of the interest in archæological studies about 1790, see _Reports_ of the American Philosophical Society, xxii. no. 119.

[1916] _First series_: vol. i., S. H. Parsons on discoveries in the western country; vol. iii., E. A. Kendall and J. Davis on an examination of the much controverted inscription of the so-called Dighton Rock; E. Stiles on an Indian idol. _New series_: vol. i., Rasle’s Abenaki dictionary; vol. v., W. Sargent’s plan of the Marietta mounds, etc.

[1917] This society published the original edition of S. G. Morton’s _Inquiry into the distinctive characteristics of the aboriginal race of America_ (2d ed., Philadelphia, 1844), which glances at their moral and intellectual character, their habits of interment, their maritime enterprise, and their physical condition.

[1918] Field’s _Ind. Bibliog._, no. 1564.

[1919] Vol. ii., S. S. Haldeman on linguistic ethnology; vol. iii., J. C. Nott and L. Agassiz on the unity of the human race; vol. v., Col. Whittlesey on ancient human remains in Ohio; vol. vi., J. L. Leconte on the California Indians; vol. xi., Whittlesey on ancient mining at Lake Superior; Morgan on Iroquois laws of descent; D. Wilson on a uniform type of the American crania; vol. xiii., Morgan on the bestowing of Indian names; vol. xvii., Whittlesey on the antiquity of man in America; W. De Haas on the archæology of the Mississippi Valley; W. H. Dall on the Alaska tribes; vol. xix., Dall on the Eskimo tongue, etc.

[1920] _Abstracts of the Transactions prepared by J. W. Powell_ (Washington, 1879, etc.).

[1921] The student will find some general help, at least, from the publications of such as these: the Peabody Academy of Science (Salem, Mass.), _Memoirs_, 1869, etc.; Essex Institute (Salem, Mass.), _Bulletin_, 1869, and _Proceedings_, 1848, etc.; Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, _Memoirs_, 1810-16; _Transactions_, 1866, etc.; the Lyceum of Natural History, became in 1876 the New York Academy of Sciences, _Annals_, 1823, etc.; _Proceedings_, 1870, etc.; Transactions; the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, _Proceedings_; Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, _Proceedings and Collections_ (Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 1884, etc.); the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, _Journal_ and _Proceedings_, 1876; Indianapolis Academy of Sciences, _Transactions_, 1870, etc.; Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, _Bulletin_, 1870, and _Transactions_, 1870; Davenport (Iowa) Academy of Science, _Proceedings_, 1867; St. Louis Academy of Science, _Transactions_, 1856; Kansas Academy of Science, _Transactions_, 1872; California Academy of Sciences, _Proceedings_, 1854, etc., and _Memoirs_, 1868, etc.; Geographical Society of the Pacific, its official organ _Kosmos_,—not to name others.

In British America we may refer to the Natural History Society of Montreal, publishing _The Canadian Naturalist_, 1857, etc.; the Canadian Institute, _Proceedings_; the Royal Society of Canada, _Proceedings_; the Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science, _Proceedings and Transactions_, 1867,—not to mention others; and among periodicals the _Canadian Monthly_, the _Canadian Antiquarian_, and the _Canadian Journal_.

[1922] The tendency of general periodicals to questions of this kind is manifest by the references in _Poole’s Index_, under such heads as American Antiquities, Anthropology, Archæology, Caves and Cave-dwellers, Ethnology, Lake Dwellings, Man, Mounds and Moundbuilders, Prehistoric Races, etc.

[1923] The history of its incipiency and progress can be gathered from the _Reports_ of the Museum, with summaries in those numbered i., xi. and xix.

[1924] Cf. Waldo Higginson’s _Memorials of the Class of 1833, Harvard College_, p. 60, and the contemporary tributes from eminent associates noted in _Poole’s Index_, p. 1434.

[1925] The documentary history, by W. J. Rhees, of the Smithsonian Institution, forms vol. xvii. of its _Miscellaneous Collections_. Cf. J. Henry on its organization in the _Proceedings_ of the Amer. Asso. for the Adv. of Science, vol. i. A _Catalogue of the publications of the S. I. with an alphabetical index of articles_, by William J. Rhees (Washington, 1882), constitutes no. 478 of its series.

The early management of the Smithsonian decided that the “knowledge” of its founder meant science, and from the start gave not a little attention to archæology as a science. When the Bureau of Ethnology became a part of the Institution, and its _Reports_ included papers necessarily historical as well as archæological, the way was prepared for a broader meaning to the term “knowledge,” and as a significant recognition of the allied field of research the present government of the Smithsonian gave hearty concurrence to the act of Congress which in Dec., 1888, made also the American Historical Association, which had existed without incorporation since 1884, a section of the Smithsonian Institution.

[1926] Its mound explorations have been conducted by Cyrus Thomas; those among the Pueblos of the southwest by James Stevenson (d. 1888); while Major Powell himself has controlled personally the body of searchers in the linguistic fields (_American Antiquarian_, viii. 32). It would seem that its profession “to organize anthropological research” is not to its full extent true, since the physiological side of the subject seems to be left in Washington to the Army Medical Museum.

[1927] Cf. Charles Rau’s _Archæological Collections of the United States National Museum_ (1876) in _Smithsonian Contributions_, xx., with many illustrative woodcuts; and a paper by Ernest Ingersoll in _The Century_, January, 1885. Cf. also F. W. Putnam’s contribution on American Archæological Collections in the _American Naturalist_, vii. 29.

[1928] B. P. Poore’s _Descriptive Catal. Govt. Pub._, p. 593; Field’s _Ind. Bibliog._, no. 1379; Allibone’s _Dictionary_, iii. p. 1952, for references and opposing criticisms. Some of the condemnation of the book is too sweeping, for amid its ignorance, confusion, and indiscrimination there is much to be picked out which is of importance. Cf. Parkman’s _Jesuits_, p. lxxx; Wilson’s _Prehistoric Man_, ii. ch. 19; Brinton’s _Myths_, p. 40. Cf. on Schoolcraft’s death (with a portrait) _Historical Mag._, April, 1865; _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1865.

F. S. Drake’s _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philad., 1884) is, with some additional matter, a rearrangement of Schoolcraft, the omission to acknowledge which on the title-page being an unworthy bibliographical deceit. Schoolcraft’s rivalry of Geo. Catlin and his ignoring of Catlin’s work is commented on at some length by Donaldson in the _Smithsonian Inst. Report_, 1885, part ii. pp. 373-383.

[1929] For full details of this and other publications mentioned in this paper, see S. H. Scudder’s _Catalogue of Scientific Serials, 1633-1876_, published by the library of Harvard University in 1879.

[1930] Sabin, xvii., no. 70354. The Congrès Archéologique de France began its Séances générales in 1834, but the interest of its _Comptes rendus_ for Americanists is for comparative illustration. The two volumes of _Mémoires de la Société Ethnologique_ (Paris, 1841-45) contain nothing bearing directly on American archæology. Much the same may be said of the _Annales Archéologiques fondées par Didron aîné_, in 1844, and continued to 1870; of the _Bulletin Archéologique_ (1844-46) of the Athénæum Français, and of its continuation, the _Bulletin Archéologique Français_ (1846-56); and of the _Annales_ of the Institut Archéologique (1844, etc.).

[1931] _Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1876.

[1932] A _Revue Ethnographique_ was begun in 1869. A Societé Ethnologique, publishing _Bulletin_ (1846-47) and _Mémoires_ (1841-45), is a distinct organization.

[1933] S. H. Scudder, in his _Catalogue of Scientific Serials_, no. 1528, endeavors to put into something like orderly arrangement the exceedingly devious devices of duplication of this and allied publications.

[1934] A _Revue d’Anthropologie_ was begun at Paris, under the direction of Broca, in 1872. A Société d’Anthropologie began two series, _Bulletins_ and _Mémoires_, in 1860. Mortillet conducted _L’Homme_ from 1883 to 1887, when he and his associates in this work suspended its publication to devote themselves to a _Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques_ and to a _Bibliothèque Anthropologique_.

[1935] Rosny died April 23, 1871.

[1936] Its publications began in 1665. Cf. synopsis in Scudder’s _Catalogue_, pp. 26-27. Cf. C. A. Alexander on the origin and history of the Royal Society, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1863.

[1937] Some of the local societies deal to some extent in American subjects; _e. g._, the _Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society_, begun in 1885.

[1938] Not to be confounded with _The Ethnological Journal_, vol. i., 1848-49, and vol. ii., 1854, incomplete; and _The Ethnological Journal_, 1 vol., 1865-66.

[1939] Cf. J. R. Bartlett on an Antwerp meeting, in _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, 1868.

[1940] Such periodicals as _Nature_ and _Popular Science Review_ show how anthropological science is attracting attention.

[1941] See Scudder’s _Catalogue_.

[1942] The third volume of Bastian’s _Culturländer des Alten America_ (Berlin, 1886) comprises “Nachträge und Ergänzungen aus den Sammlungen des Ethnologischen Museums.”

[1943] _Congrès des Américanistes, Compte Rendus_, Nancy, ii. 271.

[1944] Cf. Oscar Montelius, _Bibliographie de l’archéologie préhistorique de la Suède pendant le 19e siècle, suivie d’un exposé succinct des sociétés archéologiques suédoises_ (Stockholm, 1875).

[1945] It is described by Tylor in his _Anahuac_, ch. 9; by Brocklehurst in his _Mexico to-day_, ch. 21; by Bandelier in the _American Antiquarian_ (1878), ii. 15; in Mayer’s _Mexico_; and in the summary of information (fifteen years old, however) in Bancroft’s _Mexico_, iv. 553, etc., with references, p. 565, which includes references to the Uhde collection at Heidelberg, the Christy collection in London (Tylor), that of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia (_Trans._, iii. 570), not to name the Mexican sections of the large museums of America and Europe. Henry Phillips, Jr. (_Proc. Amer. Philosophical Soc._, xxi. p. 111) gives a list of public collections of American Archæology. There are some private collections mentioned in the _Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France, Nouv. Ser._, vol. i. A. de Longperier’s _Notice des Monuments dans la Salle des Antiquités Américaines_ (Paris, 1880) covers a part of the great Paris exhibition of that year. Something is found in E. T. Stevens’s _Flint Chips, a guide to prehistoric archæology as illustrated in the Blackmore Museum_ [at Salisbury, England], London, 1870.

[1946] There is an account of Mendoza in the _Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc._, April, 1888, p. 172.

[1947] _Coleccion de las Antigüedades Mexicanas que ecsisten en el Museo Nacional, litografiadas por Frederico Waldeck_ (Mexico, 1827—fol.); Sabin, iv. 15796. See miscellaneous references on Mexican relics in Bancroft’s _Nat. Races_, iv. 565.

* * * * * *

Transcriber’s note:

—Obvious errors were corrected.