CHAPTER XII

. MOTHER-KIN AND MOTHER GODDESSES.

§ 1. Dying Gods and Mourning Goddesses.

(M171) We have now concluded our inquiry into the nature and worship of the three Oriental deities Adonis, Attis, and Osiris. The substantial similarity of their mythical character justifies us in treating of them together. All three apparently embodied the powers of fertility in general and of vegetation in particular. All three were believed to have died and risen again from the dead; and the divine death and resurrection of all three were dramatically represented at annual festivals, which their worshippers celebrated with alternate transports of sorrow and joy, of weeping and exultation. The natural phenomena thus mythically conceived and mythically represented were the great changes of the seasons, especially the most striking and impressive of all, the decay and revival of vegetation; and the intention of the sacred dramas was to refresh and strengthen, by sympathetic magic, the failing energies of nature, in order that the trees should bear fruit, that the corn should ripen, that men and animals should reproduce their kinds.

(M172) But the three gods did not stand by themselves. The mythical personification of nature, of which all three were in at least one aspect the products, required that each of them should be coupled with a goddess, and in each case it appears that originally the goddess was a more powerful and important personage than the god. At all events it is always the god rather than the goddess who comes to a sad end, and whose death is annually mourned. Thus, whereas Osiris was slain by Typhon, his divine spouse Isis survived and brought him to life again. This feature of the myth seems to indicate that in the beginning Isis was, what Astarte and Cybele always continued to be, the stronger divinity of the pair. Now the superiority thus assigned to the goddess over the god is most naturally explained as the result of a social system in which maternity counted for more than paternity, descent being traced and property handed down through women rather than through men. At all events this explanation cannot be deemed intrinsically improbable if we can show that the supposed cause has produced the very same effect among existing peoples, about whose institutions we possess accurate information. This I will now endeavour to do.

§ 2. Influence of Mother-Kin on Religion.

(M173) The social system which traces descent and transmits property through the mother alone may be called mother-kin, while the converse system which traces descent and transmits property through the father alone may be called father-kin.(505) A good example of the influence which mother-kin may exert on religion is furnished by the Khasis of Assam, whose customs and beliefs have lately been carefully recorded by a British officer specially charged with the study of the native races of the province.(506) Like the ancient Egyptians and the Semites of Syria and Mesopotamia, the Khasis live in settled villages and maintain themselves chiefly by the cultivation of the ground; yet “their social organization presents one of the most perfect examples still surviving of matriarchal institutions, carried out with a logic and thoroughness which, to those accustomed to regard the status and authority of the father as the foundation of society, are exceedingly remarkable. Not only is the mother the head and source, and only bond of union, of the family: in the most primitive part of the hills, the Synteng country, she is the only owner of real property, and through her alone is inheritance transmitted.(507) The father has no kinship with his children, who belong to their mother’s clan; what he earns goes to his own matriarchal stock, and at his death his bones are deposited in the cromlech of his mother’s kin. In Jowai he neither lives nor eats in his wife’s house, but visits it only after dark. In the veneration of ancestors, which is the foundation of the tribal piety, the primal ancestress (_Ka Iāwbei_) and her brother are the only persons regarded. The flat memorial stones set up to perpetuate the memory of the dead are called after the woman who represents the clan (_māw kynthei_), and the standing stones ranged behind them are dedicated to the male kinsmen on the mother’s side. In harmony with this scheme of ancestor worship, the other spirits to whom propitiation is offered are mainly female, though here male personages also figure. The powers of sickness and death are all female, and these are those most frequently worshipped. The two protectors of the household are goddesses, though with them is also revered the first father of the clan, _U Thāwlang_. Priestesses assist at all sacrifices, and the male officiants are only their deputies; in one important state, Khyrim, the High Priestess and actual head of the State is a woman, who combines in her person sacerdotal and regal functions.”(508) Thus amongst the Khasis of the present day the superiority of the goddess to the god, and especially of the revered ancestress to the revered ancestor, is based directly on the social system which traces descent and transmits property through women only. It is not unreasonable therefore to suppose that in Western Asia the superiority of the Mother Goddess to the Father God originated in the same archaic system of mother-kin.

(M174) Another instance of the same cause producing the same effect may be drawn from the institutions of the Pelew Islanders, which have been described by an accurate observer long resident in the islands. These people, who form a branch of the Micronesian stock, are divided into a series of exogamous families or clans with descent in the female line,(509) so that, as usually happens under such a system, a man’s heirs are not his own children but the children of his sister or of his maternal aunt.(510) Every family or clan traces its descent from a woman, the common mother of the whole kin,(511) and accordingly the members of the clan worship a goddess, not a god.(512) These families or clans, with female descent and a worship of goddesses rather than of gods, are grouped together in villages, each village comprising about a score of clans and forming with its lands a petty independent state.(513) Every such village-state has its special deity or deities, generally a god and a goddess. But these political deities of the villages are said to be directly derived from the domestic deities of the families or clans,(514) from which it seems to follow that among these people gods are historically later than goddesses and have been developed out of them.(515) The late origin of the gods as compared with the goddesses is further indicated by the nature of their names.(516)

(M175) This preference for goddesses over gods in the clans of the Pelew Islanders has been explained, no doubt rightly, by the high importance of women in the social system of the people.(517) For the existence of the clan depends entirely on the life of the women, not at all upon the life of the men. If the women survive, it is no matter though every man of the clan should perish; for the women will, as usual, marry men of another clan, and their offspring will inherit their mother’s clan, thereby prolonging its existence. Whereas if the women of the clan all die out, the clan necessarily becomes extinct, even though every man of it should survive; for the men must, as usual, marry women of another clan, and their offspring will inherit their mothers’ clan, not the clan of their fathers, which accordingly, with the death of the fathers, is wiped out from the community. Hence in these islands women bear the titles of _Adhalál a pelú_, “Mothers of the Land,” and _Adhalál a blay_, “Mothers of the Clan,” and they are said to enjoy complete equality with the men in every respect.(518) Indeed, in one passage our principal authority speaks of “the predominance of feminine influence in the social condition of the people,” and asserts without qualification that the women are politically and socially superior to the men.(519) The eldest women of the clan exercise, he tells us, the most decisive influence on the conduct of its affairs, and the headman does nothing without full consultation with them, a consultation which in the great houses extends to affairs of state and foreign politics.(520) Nay, these elder women are even esteemed and treated as equal to the deities in their lifetime.(521)

(M176) But the high position which women thus take in Pelew society is not a result of mother-kin only. It has an industrial as well as a kinship basis. For the Pelew Islanders subsist mainly on the produce of their taro fields, and the cultivation of this, their staple food, is the business of the women alone. “This cardinal branch of Pelew agriculture, which is of paramount importance for the subsistence of the people, is left entirely in the hands of the women. This fact may have contributed materially to the predominance of female influence in the social condition of the people. The women do not merely bestow life on the people, they also do that which is most essential for the preservation of life, and therefore they are called _Adhalál a pelú_, the ‘Mothers of the Land,’ and are politically and socially superior to men. Only their offspring enjoy the privilege of membership of the state (the children of the men are, strictly speaking, strangers destitute of rights), and the oldest women of the families are esteemed and treated as equal to deities even in their lifetime, and they exercise a decisive influence on the conduct of affairs of state. No chief would venture to come to a decision without first consulting with the _Adhalál a blay_, the ‘Mothers of the Family.’ From this point of view it is impossible to regard the assignment of the taro cultivation to women as a consequence of their subordinate position in society: the women themselves do not so regard it. The richest woman of the village looks with pride on her taro patch, and although she has female followers enough to allow her merely to superintend the work without taking part in it, she nevertheless prefers to lay aside her fine apron and to betake herself to the deep mire, clad in a small apron that hardly hides her nakedness, with a little mat on her back to protect her from the burning heat of the sun, and with a shade of banana leaves for her eyes. There, dripping with sweat in the burning sun and coated with mud to the hips and over the elbows, she toils to set the younger women a good example. Moreover, as in every other occupation, the _kaliths_, the gods, must also be invoked, and who could be better fitted for the discharge of so important a duty than the Mother of the House?”(522) It seems clear that in any agricultural people who, like the Pelew Islanders, retain mother-kin and depute the labours of husbandry to women, the conception of a great Mother Goddess, the divine source of all fertility, might easily originate. Perhaps the same social and industrial conditions may have combined to develop the great Mother Goddesses of Western Asia and Egypt.

(M177) But in the Pelew Islands women have yet another road to power. For some of them are reputed to be the wives of gods, and act as their oracular mouthpieces. Such prophetesses are called _Amlaheys_, and no surprise is felt when one of them is brought to bed. Her child passes for the offspring of the god, her divine husband, and goes about with his hair hanging loose in token of his superhuman parentage. It is thought that no mortal man would dare to intrigue with one of these human wives of a god, since the jealous deity would surely visit the rash culprit with deadly sickness and a lingering decline.(523) But in these islands men as well as women are often possessed by a deity and speak in his name. Under his inspiration they mimic, often with great histrionic skill, the particular appearance and manner which are believed to be characteristic of the indwelling divinity. These inspired men (_Korongs_) usually enjoy great consideration and exert a powerful influence over the whole community. They always acquire wealth in the exercise of their profession. When they are not themselves chiefs, they are treated as chiefs or even preferred to them. In not a few places the deity whom they personate is also the political head of the land; and in that case his inspired priest, however humble his origin, ranks as a spiritual king and rules over all the chiefs. Indeed we are told that, with the physical and intellectual decay of the race, the power of the priests is more and more in the ascendant and threatens, if unchecked, to develop before long into an absolute theocracy which will swallow up every other form of government.(524)

(M178) Thus the present, or at least the recent, state of society and religion in the Pelew Islands presents some interesting parallels to the social and religious condition of Western Asia and Egypt in early days, if the conclusions reached in this work are correct. In both regions we see a society based on mother-kin developing a religion in which goddesses of the clan originally occupied the foremost place, though in later times, as the clans coalesced into states, the old goddesses have been rivalled and to some extent supplanted by the new male gods of the enlarged pantheon. But in the religion of the Pelew Islanders, as in that of the Khasis and the ancient Egyptians, the balance of power has never wholly shifted from the female to the male line, because society has never passed from mother-kin to father-kin. And in the Pelew Islands as in the ancient East we see the tide of political power running strongly in the direction of theocracy, the people resigning the conduct of affairs into the hands of men who claimed to rule them in the name of the gods. In the Pelew Islands such men might have developed into divine kings like those of Babylon and Egypt, if the natural course of evolution had not been cut short by the intervention of Europe.(525)

(M179) The evidence of the Khasis and the Pelew Islanders, two peoples very remote and very different from each other, suffices to prove that the influence which mother-kin may exert on religion is real and deep. But in order to dissipate misapprehensions, which appear to be rife on this subject, it may be well to remind or inform the reader that the ancient and widespread custom of tracing descent and inheriting property through the mother alone does not by any means imply that the government of the tribes which observe the custom is in the hands of women; in short, it should always be borne in mind that mother-kin does not mean mother-rule. On the contrary, the practice of mother-kin prevails most extensively amongst the lowest savages, with whom woman, instead of being the ruler of man, is always his drudge and often little better than his slave. Indeed, so far is the system from implying any social superiority of women that it probably took its rise from what we should regard as their deepest degradation, to wit, from a state of society in which the relations of the sexes were so loose and vague that children could not be fathered on any

## particular man.(526)

(M180) When we pass from the purely savage state to that higher plane of culture in which the accumulation of property, and especially of landed property, has become a powerful instrument of social and political influence, we naturally find that wherever the ancient preference for the female line of descent has been retained, it tends to increase the importance and enhance the dignity of woman; and her aggrandizement is most marked in princely families, where she either herself holds royal authority as well as private property, or at least transmits them both to her consort or her children. But this social advance of women has never been carried so far as to place men as a whole in a position of political subordination to them. Even where the system of mother-kin in regard to descent and property has prevailed most fully, the actual government has generally, if not invariably, remained in the hands of men. Exceptions have no doubt occurred; women have occasionally arisen who by sheer force of character have swayed for a time the destinies of their people. But such exceptions are rare and their effects transitory; they do not affect the truth of the general rule that human society has been governed in the past and, human nature remaining the same, is likely to be governed in the future, mainly by masculine force and masculine intelligence.

(M181) To this rule the Khasis, with their elaborate system of mother-kin, form no exception. For among them, while landed property is both transmitted through women and held by women alone, political power is transmitted indeed through women, but is held by men; in other words, the Khasi tribes are, with a single exception, governed by kings, not by queens. And even in the one tribe, which is nominally ruled by women, the real power is delegated by the reigning queen or High Priestess to her son, her nephew, or a more distant male relation. In all the other tribes the kingship may be held by a woman only on the failure of all male heirs in the female line.(527) So far is mother-kin from implying mother-rule. A Khasi king inherits power in right of his mother, but he exercises it in his own. Similarly the Pelew Islanders, in spite of their system of mother-kin, are governed by chiefs, not by chieftainesses. It is true that there are chieftainesses, and that they indirectly exercise much influence; but their direct authority is limited to the affairs of women, especially to the administration of the women’s clubs or associations, which answer to the clubs or associations of the men.(528) And to take another example, the Melanesians, like the Khasis and the Pelew Islanders, have the system of mother-kin, being similarly divided into exogamous clans with descent in the female line; “but it must be understood that the mother is in no way the head of the family. The house of the family is the father’s, the garden is his, the rule and government are his.”(529)

(M182) We may safely assume that the practice has been the same among all the many peoples who have retained the ancient system of mother-kin under a monarchical constitution. In Africa, for example, the chieftainship or kingship often descends in the female line, but it is men, not women, who inherit it.(530) The theory of a gynaecocracy is in truth a dream of visionaries and pedants. And equally chimerical is the idea that the predominance of goddesses under a system of mother-kin like that of the Khasis is a creation of the female mind. If women ever created gods, they would be more likely to give them masculine than feminine features. In point of fact the great religious ideals which have permanently impressed themselves on the world seem always to have been a product of the male imagination. Men make gods and women worship them. The combination of ancestor-worship with mother-kin furnishes a simple and sufficient explanation of the superiority of goddesses over gods in a state of society where these conditions prevail. Men naturally assign the first place in their devotions to the ancestress from whom they trace their descent. We need not resort to a fantastic hypothesis of the preponderance of the feminine fancy in order to account for the facts.

(M183) The theory that under a system of mother-kin the women rule the men and set up goddesses for them to worship is indeed so improbable in itself, and so contrary to experience, that it scarcely deserves the serious attention which it appears to have received.(531) But when we have brushed aside these cobwebs, as we must do, we are still left face to face with the solid fact of the wide prevalence of mother-kin, that is, of a social system which traces descent and transmits property through women and not through men. That a social system so widely spread and so deeply rooted should have affected the religion of the peoples who practise it, may reasonably be inferred, especially when we remember that in primitive communities the social relations of the gods commonly reflect the social relations of their worshippers. How the system of mother-kin may mould religious ideas and customs, creating goddesses and assigning at least a nominal superiority to priestesses over priests, is shown with perfect lucidity by the example of the Khasis, and hardly less clearly by the example of the Pelew Islanders. It cannot therefore be rash to hold that what the system has certainly done for these peoples, it may well have done for many more. But unfortunately through lack of documentary evidence we are seldom able to trace its influence so clearly.

§ 3. Mother-Kin and Mother Goddesses in the Ancient East.

(M184) While the combination of mother-kin in society with a preference for goddesses in religion is to be found as a matter of fact among the Khasis and Pelew Islanders of to-day, the former prevalence of mother-kin in the lands where the great goddesses Astarte and Cybele were worshipped is a matter of inference only. In later times father-kin had certainly displaced mother-kin among the Semitic worshippers of Astarte, and probably the same change had taken place among the Phrygian worshippers of Cybele. Yet the older custom lingered in Lycia down to the historical period;(532) and we may conjecture that in former times it was widely spread through Asia Minor. The secluded situation and rugged mountains of Lycia favoured the survival of a native language and of native institutions long after these had disappeared from the wide plains and fertile valleys which lay on the highroads of war and commerce. Lycia was to Asia Minor what the highlands of Wales and of Scotland have been to Britain, the last entrenchments where the old race stood at bay. And even among the Semites of antiquity, though father-kin finally prevailed in matters of descent and property, traces of an older system of mother-kin, with its looser sexual relations, appear to have long survived in the sphere of religion. At all events one of the most learned and acute of Semitic scholars adduced what he regarded as evidence sufficient to prove “that in old Arabian religion gods and goddesses often occurred in pairs, the goddess being the greater, so that the god cannot be her Baal, that the goddess is often a mother without being a wife, and the god her son, and that the progress of things was towards changing goddesses into gods or lowering them beneath the male deity.”(533)

(M185) In Egypt the archaic system of mother-kin, with its preference for women over men in matters of property and inheritance, lasted down to Roman times, and it was traditionally based on the example of Isis, who had avenged her husband’s murder and had continued to reign after his decease, conferring benefits on mankind. “For these reasons,” says Diodorus Siculus, “it was appointed that the queen should enjoy greater power and honour than the king, and that among private people the wife should rule over her husband, in the marriage contract the husband agreeing to obey his wife in all things.”(534) A corollary of the superior position thus conceded to women in Egypt was that the obligation of maintaining parents in their old age rested on the daughters, not on the sons, of the family.(535)

(M186) The same legal superiority of women over men accounts for the most remarkable feature in the social system of the ancient Egyptians, to wit, the marriage of full brothers with full sisters. That marriage, which to us seems strange and unnatural, was by no means a whim of the reigning Ptolemies; on the contrary, these Macedonian conquerors appear, with characteristic prudence, to have borrowed the custom from their Egyptian predecessors for the express purpose of conciliating native prejudice. In the eyes of the Egyptians “marriage between brother and sister was the best of marriages, and it acquired an ineffable degree of sanctity when the brother and sister who contracted it were themselves born of a brother and sister, who had in their turn also sprung from a union of the same sort.”(536) Nor did the principle apply only to gods and kings. The common people acted on it in their daily life. They regarded marriages between brothers and sisters as the most natural and reasonable of all.(537) The evidence of legal documents, including marriage contracts, tends to prove that such unions were the rule, not the exception, in ancient Egypt, and that they continued to form the majority of marriages long after the Romans had obtained a firm footing in the country. As we cannot suppose that Roman influence was used to promote a custom which must have been abhorrent to Roman instincts, we may safely assume that the proportion of brother and sister marriages in Egypt had been still greater in the days when the country was free.(538)

(M187) It would doubtless be a mistake to treat these marriages as a relic of savagery, as a survival of a tribal communism which knew no bar to the intercourse of the sexes. For such a theory would not explain why union with a sister was not only allowed, but preferred to all others. The true motive of that preference was most probably the wish of brothers to obtain for their own use the family property, which belonged of right to their sisters, and which otherwise they would have seen in the enjoyment of strangers, the husbands of their sisters. This is the system which in Ceylon is known as _beena_ marriage. Under it the daughter, not the son, is the heir. She stays at home, and her husband comes and lives with her in the house; but her brother goes away and dwells in his wife’s home, inheriting nothing from his parents.(539) Such a system could not fail in time to prove irksome. Men would be loth to quit the old home, resign the ancestral property to a stranger, and go out to seek their fortune empty-handed in the world. The remedy was obvious. A man had nothing to do but to marry his sister himself instead of handing her over to another. Having done so he stayed at home and enjoyed the family estate in virtue of his marriage with the heiress. This simple and perfectly effective expedient for keeping the property in the family most probably explains the custom of brother and sister marriage in Egypt.(540)

(M188) Thus the union of Osiris with his sister Isis was not a freak of the story-teller’s fancy: it reflected a social custom which was itself based on practical considerations of the most solid kind. When we reflect that this practice of mother-kin as opposed to father-kin survived down to the latest times of antiquity, not in an obscure and barbarous tribe, but in a nation whose immemorial civilization was its glory and the wonder of the world, we may without being extravagant suppose that a similar practice formerly prevailed in Syria and Phrygia, and that it accounts for the superiority of the goddess over the god in the divine partnerships of Adonis and Astarte, of Attis and Cybele. But the ancient system both of society and of religion had undergone far more change in these countries than in Egypt, where to the last the main outlines of the old structure could be traced in the national institutions to which the Egyptians clung with a passionate, a fanatical devotion. Mother-kin, the divinity of kings and queens, a sense of the original connexion of the gods with nature—these things outlived the Persian, the Macedonian, the Roman conquest, and only perished under the more powerful solvent of Christianity. But the old order did not vanish at once with the official establishment of the new religion. In the age of Constantine the Greeks of Egypt still attributed the rise of the Nile to Serapis, the later form of Osiris, alleging that the inundation could not take place if the standard cubit, which was used to measure it, were not deposited according to custom in the temple of the god. The emperor ordered the cubit to be transferred to a church; and next year, to the general surprise, the river rose just as usual.(541) Even at a later time Athanasius himself had to confess with sorrow and indignation that under his own eyes the Egyptians still annually mourned the death of Osiris.(542) The end came with the destruction of the great Serapeum at Alexandria, the last stronghold of the heathen in Egypt. It perished in a furious and bloody sedition, in which Christians and pagans seem to have vied with each other in mutual atrocities. After its fall the temples were levelled with the ground or converted into churches, and the images of the old gods went to the melting-pot to be converted into base uses for the rabble of Alexandria.(543)

(M189) The singular tenacity with which the Egyptian people maintained their traditional beliefs and customs for thousands of years sprang no doubt from the stubborn conservatism of the national character. Yet that conservatism was itself in great measure an effect of geographical and climatic conditions and of the ways of life which they favoured. Surrounded on every side by deserts or almost harbourless seas, the Egyptians occupied a position of great natural strength which for long ages together protected them from invasion and allowed their native habits to set and harden, undisturbed by the subversive influence of foreign conquest. The wonderful regularity of nature in Egypt also conduced to a corresponding stability in the minds of the people. Year in, year out, the immutable succession of the seasons brought with it the same unvarying round of agricultural toil. What the fathers had done, the sons did in the same manner at the same season, and so it went on from generation to generation. This monotonous routine is common indeed to all purely agricultural communities, and everywhere tends to beget in the husbandman a settled phlegmatic habit of mind very different from the mobility, the alertness, the pliability of character which the hazards and uncertainties of commerce and the sea foster in the merchant and the sailor. The saturnine temperament of the farmer is as naturally averse to change as the more mercurial spirit of the trader and the seaman is predisposed to it. But the stereotyping of ideas and of customs was carried further in Egypt than in most lands devoted to husbandry by reason of the greater uniformity of the Egyptian seasons and the more complete isolation of the country.

(M190) The general effect of these causes was to create a type of national character which presented many points of resemblance to that of the Chinese. In both we see the same inflexible strength of will, the same astonishing industry, the same strange blend of humanity and savagery, the same obstinate adherence to tradition, the same pride of race and of ancient civilization, the same contempt for foreigners as for upstarts and barbarians, the same patient outward submission to an alien rule combined with an unshakeable inward devotion to native ideals. It was this conservative temper of the people, bred in great measure of the physical nature of their land, which, so to say, embalmed the memory of Osiris long after the corresponding figures of Adonis and Attis had suffered decay. For while Egypt enjoyed profound repose, the tides of war and conquest, of traffic and commerce, had for centuries rolled over Western Asia, the native home of Adonis and Attis; and if the shock of nationalities in this great meeting-ground of East and West was favourable to the rise of new faiths and new moralities, it was in the same measure unfavourable to the preservation of the old.

NOTES.

I. Moloch The King.

(M191) I cannot leave the evidence for the sacred character of Jewish kings(544) without mentioning a suggestion which was made to me by my friend and teacher the Rev. Professor R. H. Kennett. He thinks that Moloch, to whom first-born children were burnt by their parents in the valley of Hinnom, outside the walls of Jerusalem,(545) may have been originally the human king regarded as an incarnate deity. Certainly the name of Moloch, or rather Molech (for so it is always written in the Massoretic text(546)), is merely a slightly disguised form of _melech_, the ordinary Hebrew word for “king,” the scribes having apparently given the dreadful word the vowels of bosheth, “shameful thing.”(547) But it seems clear that in historical times the Jews who offered these sacrifices identified Molech, not with the human king, but with Jehovah, though the prophets protested against the custom as an outrage on the divine majesty.(548)

(M192) If, however, these sacrifices were originally offered to or in behalf of the human king, it is possible that they were intended to prolong his life and strengthen his hands for the performance of those magical functions which he was expected to discharge for the good of his people. The old kings of Sweden answered with their heads for the fertility of the ground,(549) and we read that one of them, Aun or On by name, sacrificed nine of his sons to Odin at Upsala in order that his own life might be spared. After the sacrifice of his second son he received from the god an oracle that he should live as long as he gave him one of his sons every tenth year. When he had thus sacrificed seven sons, the ruthless father still lived, but was so feeble that he could no longer walk and had to be carried in a chair. Then he offered up his eighth son and lived ten years more, bedridden. After that he sacrificed his ninth son, and lived ten years more, drinking out of a horn like a weaned child. He now wished to sacrifice his last remaining son to Odin, but the Swedes would not let him, so he died and was buried in a mound at Upsala.(550) In this Swedish tradition the king’s children seem to have been looked upon as substitutes offered to the god in place of their father, and apparently this was also the current explanation of the slaughter of the first-born in the later times of Israel.(551) On that view the sacrifices were vicarious, and therefore purely religious, being intended to propitiate a stern and exacting deity. Similarly we read that when Amestris, wife of Xerxes, was grown old, she sacrificed on her behalf twice seven noble children to the earth god by burying them alive.(552) If the story is true—and it rests on the authority of Herodotus, a nearly contemporary witness—we may surmise that the aged queen acted thus with an eye to the future rather than to the past; she hoped that the grim god of the nether-world would accept the young victims in her stead, and let her live for many years. The same idea of vicarious suffering comes out in a tradition told of a certain Hova king of Madagascar, who bore the sonorous name of Andriamasinavalona. When he had grown sickly and feeble, the oracle was consulted as to the best way of restoring him to health. “The following result was the consequence of the directions of the oracle. A speech was first delivered to the people, offering great honours and rewards to the family of any individual who would freely offer himself to be sacrificed, in order to the king’s recovery. The people shuddered at the idea, and ran away in different directions. One man, however, presented himself for the purpose, and his offer was accepted. The sacrificer girded up his loins, sharpened his knife, and bound the victim. After which, he was laid down with his head towards the east, upon a mat spread for the purpose, according to the custom with animals on such occasions, when the priest appeared, to proceed with all solemnity in slaughtering the victim by cutting his throat. A quantity of red liquid, however, which had been prepared from a native dye, was spilled in the ceremony; and, to the amazement of those who looked on, blood seemed to be flowing all around. The man, as might be supposed, was unhurt; but the king rewarded him and his descendants with the perpetual privilege of exemption from capital punishment for any violation of the laws. The descendants of the man to this day form a particular class, called _Tay maty manota_, which may be translated, ‘Not dead, though transgressing.’ Instances frequently occur, of individuals of this class appropriating bullocks, rice, and other things belonging to the sovereign, as if they were their own, and escaping merely with a reprimand, while a common person would have to suffer death, or be reduced to slavery.”(553)

(M193) Sometimes, however, the practices intended to prolong the king’s life seem to rest on a theory of nutrition rather than of substitution; in other words, the life of the victims, instead of being offered vicariously to a god, is apparently supposed to pass directly into the body of the sacrificer, thus refreshing his failing strength and prolonging his existence. So regarded, the custom is magical rather than religious in character, since the desired effect is thought to follow directly without the intervention of a deity. At all events, it can be shown that sacrifices of this sort have been offered to prolong the life of kings in other parts of the world. Thus in regard to some of the negroes who inhabit the delta of the Niger we read that: “A custom which formerly was practised by the Ibani, and is still prevalent among all the interior tribes, consists in prolonging the life of a king or ancestral representative by the daily, or possibly weekly, sacrifice of a chicken and egg. Every morning, as soon as the patriarch has risen from his bed, the sacrificial articles are procured either by his mother, head wife, or eldest daughter, and given to the priest, who receives them on the open space in front of the house. When this has been reported to the patriarch, he comes outside and, sitting down, joins in the ceremony. Taking the chicken in his hand, the priest first of all touches the patriarch’s face with it, and afterwards passes it over the whole of his body. He then cuts its throat and allows the blood to drop on the ground. Mixing the blood and the earth into a paste, he rubs it on the old man’s forehead and breast, and this is not to be washed off under any circumstances until the evening. The chicken and the egg, also a piece of white cloth, are now tied on to a stick, which, if a stream is in the near vicinity, is planted in the ground at the water-side. During the carriage of these articles to the place in question, all the wives and many members of the household accompany the priest, invoking the deity as they go to prolong their father’s life. This is done in the firm conviction that through the sacrifice of each chicken his life will be accordingly prolonged.”(554)

(M194) The ceremony thus described is, like so many other rites, a combination of magic and religion; for whereas the prayers to the god are religious, the passing of the victim over the king’s body and the smearing of him with its blood are magical, being plainly intended to convey to him directly, without the mediation of any deity, the life of the fowl. In the following instances the practices for prolonging the king’s life seem to be purely magical. Among the Zulus, at one of the annual feasts of first-fruits, a bull is killed by a particular regiment. In slaughtering the beast they may not use spears or sticks, but must break its neck or choke it with their bare hands. “It is then burned, and the strength of the bull is supposed to enter into the king, thereby prolonging his life.”(555) Again, in an early Portuguese historian we read of a Caffre king of East Africa that “it is related of this Monomotapa that he has a house where he commands bodies of men who have died at the hands of the law to be hung up, and where thus hanging all the humidity of their bodies falls into vases placed underneath, and when all has dropped from them and they shrink and dry up he commands them to be taken down and buried, and with the fat and moisture in the vases they say he makes ointments with which he anoints himself in order to enjoy long life—which is his belief—and also to be proof against receiving harm from sorcerers.”(556)

(M195) The Baganda of Central Africa used to kill men on various occasions for the purpose of prolonging the king’s life; in all cases it would seem to be thought that the life of the murdered man was in some mysterious fashion transferred to the king, so that the monarch received thereby a fresh accession of vital energy. For example, whenever a particular royal drum had a new skin put on it, not only was a cow killed to furnish the skin and its blood run into the drum, but a man was beheaded and the spouting blood from the severed neck was allowed to gush into the drum, “so that, when the drum was beaten, it was supposed to add fresh life and vigour to the king from the life of the slain man.”(557) Again, at the coronation of a new king, a royal chamberlain was chosen to take charge of the king’s inner court and to guard his wives. From the royal presence the chamberlain was conducted, along with eight captives, to one of the human shambles; there he was blindfolded while seven of the men were clubbed to death, only the dull thud and crashing sound telling him of what was taking place. But when the seven had been thus despatched, the bandages were removed from the chamberlain’s eyes and he witnessed the death of the eighth. As each man was killed, his belly was ripped open and his bowels pulled out and hung round the chamberlain’s neck. These deaths were said to add to the King’s vigour and to make the chamberlain strong and faithful.(558) Nor were these the only human sacrifices offered at a king’s coronation for the purpose of strengthening the new monarch. When the king had reigned two or three months, he was expected to hunt first a leopard and then a bushbuck. On the night after the hunt of the bushbuck, one of the ministers of State caught a man and brought him before the king in the dark; the king speared him slightly, then the man was strangled and the body thrown into a papyrus swamp, that it might never be found again. Another ceremony performed about this time to confirm the king in his kingdom was to catch a man, bind him, and bring him before the king, who wounded him slightly with a spear. Then the man was put to death. These men were killed to invigorate the king.(559)

(M196) When a king of Uganda had reigned some time, apparently several years, a ceremony was performed for the sake of prolonging his life. For this purpose the king paid a visit—a fatal visit—to a chief of the Lung-fish clan, who bore the title of Nankere and resided in the district of Busiro, where the tombs and temples of the kings were situated. When the time for the ceremony had been appointed, the chief chose one of his own sons, who was to die that the king might live. If the chief had no son, a near relation was compelled to serve as a substitute. The hapless youth was fed and clothed and treated in all respects like a prince, and taken to live in a particular house near the place where the king was to lodge for the ceremony. When the destined victim had been feasted and guarded for a month, the king set out on his progress from the capital. On the way he stopped at the temple of the great god Mukasa; there he changed his garments, leaving behind him in the temple those which he had been wearing. Also he left behind him all his anklets, and did not put on any fresh ones, for he was shortly to receive new anklets of a remarkable kind. When the king arrived at his destination, the chief met him, and the two exchanged a gourd of beer. At this interview the king’s mother was present to see her son for the last time; for from that moment the two were never allowed to look upon each other again. The chief addressed the king’s mother informing her of this final separation; then turning to the king he said, “You are now of age; go and live longer than your forefathers.” Then the chief’s son was introduced. The chief took him by the hand and presented him to the king, who passed him on to the body-guard; they led him outside and killed him by beating him with their clenched fists. The muscles from the back of the body of the murdered youth were removed and made into two anklets for the king, and a strip of skin cut from the corpse was made into a whip, which was kept in the royal enclosure for special feasts. The dead body was thrown on waste land and guarded against wild beasts, but not buried.(560)

(M197) When that ceremony was over, the king departed to go to another chief in Busiro; but on the way thither he stopped at a place called Baka and sat down under a great tree to play a game of spinning fruit-stones. It is a children’s game, but it was no child’s play to the man who ran to fetch the fruit-stones for the king to play with; for he was caught and speared to death on the spot for the purpose of prolonging the king’s life. After the game had been played the king with his train passed on and lodged with a certain princess till the anklets made from the muscles of the chief’s murdered son were ready for him to wear; it was the princess who had to superintend the making of these royal ornaments.(561)

(M198) When all these ceremonies were over, the king made a great feast. At this feast a priest went about carrying under his mantle the whip that had been made from the skin of the murdered young man. As he passed through the crowd of merrymakers, he would flick a man here and there with the whip, and it was believed that the man on whom the lash lighted would be childless and might die, unless he made an offering of either nine or ninety cowrie shells to the priest who had struck him. Naturally he hastened to procure the shells and take them to the striker, who, on receiving them, struck the man on the shoulder with his hand, thus restoring to him the generative powers of which the blow of the whip had deprived him. At the end of the feast the drummers removed all the drums but one, which they left as if they had forgotten it. Somebody in the crowd would notice the apparent oversight and run after the drummers with the drum, saying, “You have left one behind.” The thanks he received was that he was caught and killed and the bones of his upper arm made into drumsticks for that particular drum. The drum was never afterwards brought out during the whole of the king’s reign, but was kept covered up till the time came to bring it out on the corresponding feast of his successor. Yet from time to time the priest, who had flicked the revellers with the whip of human skin, would dress himself up in a mantle of cow-hide from neck to foot, and concealing the drumstick of human bones under his robe would go into the king’s presence, and suddenly whipping out the bones from his bosom would brandish them in the king’s face. Then he would as suddenly hide them again, but only to repeat the manoeuvre. After that he retired and restored the bones to their usual place. They were decorated with cowrie shells and little bells, which jingled as he shook them at the king.(562)

(M199) The precise meaning of these latter ceremonies is obscure; but we may suppose that just as the human blood poured into a drum was thought to pass into the king’s veins in the booming notes of the drum, so the clicking of the human bones and the jingling of their bells were supposed to infuse into the royal person the vigour of the murdered man. The purpose of flicking commoners with the whip made of human skin is even more obscure; but we may conjecture that the life or virility of every man struck with the whip was supposed to be transmitted in some way to the king, who thus recruited his vital, and especially his reproductive, energies at this solemn feast. If I am right in my interpretation, all these Baganda modes of strengthening the king and prolonging his life belonged to the nutritive rather than to the vicarious type of sacrifice, from which it will follow that they were magical rather than religious in character.

(M200) The same thing may perhaps be said of the wholesale massacres which used to be perpetrated when a king of Uganda was ill. At these times the priests informed the royal patient that persons marked by a certain physical peculiarity, such as a cast of the eye, a particular gait, or a distinctive colouring, must be put to death. Accordingly the king sent out his catchpoles, who waylaid such persons in the roads and dragged them to the royal enclosure, where they were kept until the tale of victims prescribed by the priest was complete. Before they were led away to one of the eight places of execution, which were regularly appointed for this purpose in different parts of the kingdom, the victims had to drink medicated beer with the king out of a special pot, in order that he might have power over their ghosts, lest they should afterwards come back to torment him. They were killed, sometimes by being speared to death, sometimes by being hacked to pieces, sometimes by being burned alive. Contrary to the usual custom of the Baganda, the bodies, or what remained of the bodies, of these unfortunates were always left unburied on the place of execution.(563) In what way precisely the sick king was supposed to benefit by these massacres of his subjects does not appear, but we may surmise that somehow the victims were believed to give their lives for him or to him.

(M201) Thus it is possible that in Israel also the sacrifices of children to Moloch were in like manner intended to prolong the life of the human king (_melech_) either by serving as substitutes for him or by recruiting his failing energies with their vigorous young life. But it is equally possible, and perhaps more probable, that the sacrifice of the first-born children was only a particular application of the ancient law which devoted to the deity the first-born of every womb, whether of cattle or of human beings.(564)

II. The Widowed Flamen.

§ 1. The Pollution of Death.

(M202) A different explanation of the rule which obliged the Flamen Dialis to resign the priesthood on the death of his wife(565) has been suggested by my friend Dr. L. R. Farnell. He supposes that such a bereavement would render the Flamen ceremonially impure, and therefore unfit to hold office.(566) It is true that the ceremonial pollution caused by death commonly disqualifies a man for the discharge of sacred functions, but as a rule the disqualification is only temporary and can be removed by seclusion and the observance of purificatory rites, the length of the seclusion and the nature of the purification varying with the degree of relationship in which the living stand to the dead. Thus, for example, if one of the sacred eunuchs at Hierapolis-Bambyce saw the dead body of a stranger, he was unclean for that day and might not enter the sanctuary of the goddess; but next day after purifying himself he was free to enter. But if the corpse happened to be that of a relation he was unclean for thirty days and had to shave his head before he might set foot within the holy precinct.(567) Again, in the Greek island of Ceos persons who had offered the annual sacrifices to their departed friends were unclean for two days afterwards and might not enter a sanctuary; they had to purify themselves with water.(568) Similarly no one might go into the shrine of Men Tyrannus for ten days after being in contact with the dead.(569) Once more, at Stratonicea in Caria a chorus of thirty noble boys, clad in white and holding branches in their hands, used to sing a hymn daily in honour of Zeus and Hecate; but if one of them were sick or had suffered a domestic bereavement, he was for the time being excused, not permanently excluded, from the performance of his sacred duties.(570) On the analogy of these and similar cases we should expect to find the widowed Flamen temporarily debarred from the exercise of his office, not permanently relieved of it.

(M203) However, in support of Dr. Farnell’s view I would cite an Indian parallel which was pointed out to me by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers. Among the Todas of the Neilgherry Hills in Southern India the priestly dairyman (_palol_) is a sacred personage, and his life, like that of the Flamen Dialis, is hedged in by many taboos. Now when a death occurs in his clan, the dairyman may not attend any of the funeral ceremonies unless he gives up office, but he may be re-elected after the second funeral ceremonies have been completed. In the interval his place must be taken by a man of another clan. Some eighteen or nineteen years ago a man named Karkievan resigned the office of dairyman when his wife died, but two years later he was re-elected and has held office ever since. There have meantime been many deaths in his clan, but he has not attended a funeral, and has not therefore had to resign his post again. Apparently in old times a more stringent rule prevailed, and the dairyman was obliged to vacate office whenever a death occurred in his clan. For, according to tradition, the clan of Keadrol was divided into its two existing divisions for the express purpose of ensuring that there might still be men to undertake the office of dairyman when a death occurred in the clan, the men of the one division taking office whenever there was a death in the other.(571)

At first sight this case may seem exactly parallel to the case of the Flamen Dialis and the Flaminica on Dr. Farnell’s theory; for here there can be no doubt whatever that it is the pollution of death which disqualifies the sacred dairyman from holding office, since, if he only avoids that pollution by not attending the funeral, he is allowed at the present day to retain his post. On this analogy we might suppose that it was not so much the death of his wife as the attendance at her funeral which compelled the Flamen Dialis to resign, especially as we know that he was expressly forbidden to touch a dead body or to enter the place where corpses were burned.(572)

(M204) But a closer inspection of the facts proves that the analogy breaks down at some important points. For though the Flamen Dialis was forbidden to touch a dead body or to enter a place where corpses were burned, he was permitted to attend a funeral;(573) so that there could hardly be any objection to his attending the funeral of his wife. This permission clearly tells against the view that it was the mere pollution of death which obliged him to resign office when his wife died. Further, and this is a point of fundamental difference between the two cases, whereas the Flamen Dialis was bound to be married, and married too by a rite of special solemnity,(574) there is no such obligation on the sacred dairyman of the Todas; indeed, if he is married, he is bound to live apart from his wife during his term of office.(575) Surely the obligation laid on the Flamen Dialis to be married of itself implies that with the death of his wife he necessarily ceased to hold office: there is no need to search for another reason in the pollution of death which, as I have just shown, does not seem to square with the permission granted to the Flamen to attend a funeral. That this is indeed the true explanation of the rule in question is strongly suggested by the further and apparently parallel rule which forbade the Flamen to divorce his wife; nothing but death might part them.(576) Now the rule which enjoined that a Flamen must be married, and the rule which forbade him to divorce his wife, have obviously nothing to do with the pollution of death, yet they can hardly be separated from the other rule that with the death of his wife he vacated office. All three rules are explained in the most natural way on the hypothesis which I have adopted, namely, that this married priest and priestess had to perform in common certain rites which the husband could not perform without his wife. The same obvious solution of the problem was suggested long ago by Plutarch, who, after asking why the Flamen Dialis had to lay down office on the death of his wife, says, amongst other things, that “perhaps it is because she performs sacred rites along with him (for many of the rites may not be performed without the presence of a married woman), and to marry another wife immediately on the death of the first would hardly be possible or decent.”(577) This simple explanation of the rule seems quite sufficient, and it would clearly hold good whether I am right or wrong in further supposing that the human husband and wife in this case represented a divine husband and wife, a god and goddess, to wit Jupiter and Juno, or rather Dianus (Janus) and Diana;(578) and that supposition in its turn might still hold good even if I were wrong in further conjecturing that of this divine pair the goddess (Juno or rather Diana) was originally the more important partner.

(M205) However it is to be explained, the Roman rule which forbade the Flamen Dialis to be a widower has its parallel among the Kotas, a tribe who, like the Todas, inhabit the Neilgherry Hills of Southern India. For the higher Kota priests are not allowed to be widowers; if a priest’s wife dies while he is in office, his appointment lapses. At the same time priests “should avoid pollution, and may not attend a Toda or Badaga funeral, or approach the seclusion hut set apart for Kota women.”(579) Jewish priests were specially permitted to contract the pollution of death for near relations, among whom father, mother, son, daughter, and unmarried sister are particularly enumerated; but they were forbidden to contract the pollution for strangers. However, among the relations for whom a priest might thus defile himself a wife is not mentioned.(580)

§ 2. The Marriage of the Roman Gods.

(M206) The theory that the Flamen Dialis and his wife personated a divine couple, whether Jupiter and Juno or Dianus (Janus) and Diana, supposes a married relation between the god and goddess, and so far it would certainly be untenable if Dr. Farnell were right in assuming, on the authority of Mr. W. Warde Fowler, that the Roman gods were celibate.(581) On that subject, however, Varro, the most learned of Roman antiquaries, was of a contrary opinion. He not only spoke particularly of Juno as the wife of Jupiter,(582) but he also affirmed generally, in the most unambiguous language, that the old Roman gods were married, and in saying so he referred not to the religion of his own day, which had been modified by Greek influence, but to the religion of the ancient Romans, his ancestors.(583) Seneca ridiculed the marriage of the Roman gods, citing as examples the marriages of Mars and Bellona, of Vulcan and Venus, of Neptune and Salacia, and adding sarcastically that some of the goddesses were spinsters or widows, such as Populonia, Fulgora, and Rumina, whose faded charms or unamiable character had failed to attract a suitor.(584)

(M207) Again, the learned Servius, whose commentary on Virgil is a gold mine of Roman religious lore, informs us that the pontiffs celebrated the marriage of the infernal deity Orcus with very great solemnity;(585) and for this statement he would seem to have had the authority of the pontifical books themselves, for he refers to them in the same connexion only a few lines before. As it is in the highest degree unlikely that the pontiffs would solemnize any foreign rites, we may safely assume that the marriage of Orcus was not borrowed from Greek mythology, but was a genuine old Roman ceremony, and this is all the more probable because Servius, our authority for the custom, has recorded some curious and obviously ancient taboos which were observed at the marriage and in the ritual of Ceres, the goddess who seems to have been joined in wedlock to Orcus. One of these taboos forbade the use of wine, the other forbade persons to name their father or daughter.(586)

(M208) Further, the learned Roman antiquary Aulus Gellius quotes from “the books of the priests of the Roman people” (the highest possible authority on the subject) and from “many ancient speeches” a list of old Roman deities, in which there seem to be at least five pairs of males and females.(587) More than that he proves conclusively by quotations from Plautus, the annalist Cn. Gellius, and Licinius Imbrex that these old writers certainly regarded one at least of the pairs (Mars and Nerio) as husband and wife;(588) and we have good ancient evidence for viewing in the same light three others of the pairs. Thus the old annalist and antiquarian L. Cincius Alimentus, who fought against Hannibal and was captured by him, affirmed in his work on the Roman calendar that Maia was the wife of Vulcan;(589) and as there was a Flamen of Vulcan, who sacrificed to Maia on May Day,(590) it is reasonable to suppose that he was assisted in the ceremony by a Flaminica, his wife, just as on my hypothesis the Flamen Dialis was assisted by his wife the Flaminica. Another old Roman historian, L. Calpurnius Piso, who wrote in the second century B.C., said that the name of Vulcan’s wife was not Maia but Majestas.(591) In saying so he may have intended to correct what he believed to be a mistake of his predecessor L. Cincius. Again, that Salacia was the wife of Neptune is perhaps implied by Varro,(592) and is positively affirmed by Seneca, Augustine, and Servius.(593) Again, Ennius appears to have regarded Hora as the wife of Quirinus, for in the first book of his Annals he declared his devotion to that divine pair.(594) In fact, of the five pairs of male and female deities cited by Aulus Gellius from the priestly books and ancient speeches the only one as to which we have not independent evidence that it consisted of a husband and wife is Saturn and Lua; and in regard to Lua we know that she was spoken of as a mother,(595) which renders it not improbable that she was also a wife. However, according to some very respectable authorities the wife of Saturn was not Lua, but Ops,(596) so that we have two independent lines of proof that Saturn was supposed to be married.

Lastly, the epithets “father” and “mother” which the Romans bestowed on many of their deities(597) are most naturally understood to imply paternity and maternity; and if the implication is admitted, the inference appears to be inevitable that these divine beings were supposed to exercise sexual functions, whether in lawful marriage or in unlawful concubinage. As to Jupiter in particular his paternity is positively attested by Latin inscriptions, one of them very old, which describe Fortuna Primigenia, the great goddess of Praeneste, as his daughter.(598) Again, the rustic deity Faunus, one of the oldest and most popular gods of Italy,(599) was represented by tradition in the character of a husband and a father; one of the epithets applied to him expressed in a coarse way his generative powers.(600) Fauna or the Good Goddess (_Bona Dea_), another of the oldest native Italian deities, was variously called his wife or his daughter, and he is said to have assumed the form of a snake in order to cohabit with her.(601) Again, the most famous of all Roman myths represented the founder of Rome himself, Romulus and his twin brother Remus, as begotten by the god Mars on a Vestal Virgin;(602) and every Roman who accepted the tradition thereby acknowledged the fatherhood of the god in the physical, not in a figurative, sense of the word. If the story of the birth of Romulus and Remus should be dismissed as a late product of the mythical fancy working under Greek influence, the same objection can hardly be urged against the story of the birth of another Roman king, Servius Tullius, who is said to have been a son of the fire-god and a slave woman; his mother conceived him beside the royal hearth, where she was impregnated by a flame that shot out from the fire in the shape of the male organ of generation.(603) It would scarcely be possible to express the physical fatherhood of the fire-god in more unambiguous terms. Now a precisely similar story was told of the birth of Romulus himself;(604) and we may suspect that this was an older form of the story than the legend which fathered the twins on Mars. Similarly, Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste, passed for a son of the fire-god Vulcan. It was said that his mother was impregnated by a spark which leaped from the fire and struck her as she sat by the hearth. In later life, when Caeculus boasted of his divine parentage to a crowd, and they refused to believe him, he prayed to his father to give the unbelievers a sign, and straightway a lambent flame surrounded the whole multitude. The proof was conclusive, and henceforth Caeculus passed for a true son of the fire-god.(605) Such tales of kings or heroes begotten by the fire-god on mortal women appear to be genuine old Italian myths, which may well go back far beyond the foundation of Rome to the common fountain of Aryan mythology; for the marriage customs observed by various branches of the Aryan family point clearly to a belief in the power of fire to impregnate women.(606)

(M209) On the whole, if we follow the authority of the ancients themselves, we seem bound to conclude that the Roman gods, like those of many other early peoples, were believed to be married and to beget children. It is true that, compared with the full-blooded gods of Greece, the deities of Rome appear to us shadowy creatures, pale abstractions garbed in little that can vie with the gorgeous pall of myth and story which Grecian fancy threw around its divine creations. Yet the few specimens of Roman mythology which have survived the wreck of antiquity(607) justify us in believing that they are but fragments of far more copious traditions which have perished. At all events the comparative aridity and barrenness of the Roman religious imagination is no reason for setting aside the positive testimony of learned Roman writers as to a point of fundamental importance in their own religion about which they could hardly be mistaken. It should never be forgotten that on this subject the ancients had access to many sources of information which are no longer open to us, and for a modern scholar to reject their evidence in favour of a personal impression derived from a necessarily imperfect knowledge of the facts seems scarcely consistent with sound principles of history and criticism.(608)

§ 3. Children of Living Parents in Ritual.

(M210) But Dr. Farnell adduces another argument in support of his view that it was the pollution of death which obliged the widowed Flamen Dialis to resign the priesthood. He points to what he considers the analogy of the rule of Greek ritual which required that certain sacred offices should be discharged only by a boy whose parents were both alive.(609) This rule he would explain in like manner by supposing that the death of one or both of his parents would render a boy ceremonially impure and therefore unfit to perform religious functions. Dr. Farnell might have apparently strengthened his case by observing that the Flamen Dialis and the Flaminica Dialis were themselves assisted in their office, the one by a boy, the other by a girl, both of whose parents must be alive.(610) At first sight this fits in perfectly with his theory: the Flamen, the Flaminica, and their youthful ministers were all rendered incapable of performing their sacred duties by the taint or corruption of death.

(M211) But a closer scrutiny of the argument reveals a flaw. It proves too much. For observe that in these Greek and Roman offices held by boys and girls the disqualification caused by the death of a parent is necessarily lifelong, since the bereavement is irreparable. Accordingly, if Dr. Farnell’s theory is right, the ceremonial pollution which is the cause of the disqualification must also be lifelong; in other words, every orphan is ceremoniously unclean for life and thereby excluded for ever from the discharge of sacred duties. So sweeping a rule would at a stroke exclude a large, if not the larger, part of the population of any country from the offices of religion, and lay them permanently under all those burdensome restrictions which the pollution of death entails among many nations; for obviously a large, if not the larger, part of the population of any country at any time has lost one or both of its parents by death. No people, so far as I know, has ever carried the theory of the ceremonial pollution of death to this extremity in practice. And even if it were supposed that the taint wore off or evaporated with time from common folk so as to let them go about their common duties in everyday life, would it not still cleave to priests? If it incapacitated the Flamen’s minister, would it not incapacitate the Flamen himself? In other words, would not the Flamen Dialis be obliged to vacate office on the death of his father or mother? There is no hint in ancient writers that he had to do so. And while it is generally unsafe to argue from the silence of our authorities, I think that we may do so in this case without being rash; for Plutarch not only mentions but discusses the rule which obliged the Flamen Dialis to resign office on the death of his wife,(611) and if he had known of a parallel rule which compelled him to retire on the death of a parent, he would surely have mentioned it. But if the ceremonial pollution which would certainly be caused by the death of a parent did not compel the Flamen Dialis to vacate office, we may safely conclude that neither did the similar pollution caused by the death of his wife. Thus the argument adduced by Dr. Farnell in favour of his view proves on analysis to tell strongly against it.

(M212) But if the rule which excluded orphans from certain sacred offices cannot with any probability be explained on the theory of their ceremonial pollution, it may be worth while to inquire whether another and better explanation of the rule cannot be found. For that purpose I shall collect all the cases of it known to me. The collection is doubtless far from complete: I only offer it as a starting-point for research.

(M213) At the time of the vintage, which in Greece falls in October, Athenian boys chosen from every tribe assembled at the sanctuary of Dionysus, the god of the vine. There, branches of vines laden with ripe grapes were given to them, and holding them in their hands they raced to the sanctuary of Athena Sciras. The winner received and drained a cup containing a mixture of olive-oil, wine, honey, cheese, and barley-groats. It was necessary that both the parents of each of these boy-runners should be alive.(612) At the same festival, and perhaps on the same day, an Athenian boy, whose parents must both be alive, carried in procession a branch of olive wreathed with white and purple wool and decked with fruits of many kinds, while a chorus sang that the branch bore figs, fat loaves, honey, oil, and wine. Thus they went in procession to a temple of Apollo, at the door of which the boy deposited the holy bough. The ceremony is said to have been instituted by the Athenians in obedience to an oracle for the purpose of supplicating the help of the god in a season of dearth.(613) Similar boughs similarly laden with fruits and loaves were hung up on the doors of every Athenian house and allowed to remain there a year, at the end of which they were replaced by fresh ones. While the branch was being fastened to the door, a boy whose parents were both alive recited the same verses about the branch bearing figs, fat loaves, honey, oil, and wine. This custom also is said to have been instituted for the sake of putting an end to a dearth.(614) The people of Magnesia on the Maeander vowed a bull every year to Zeus, the Saviour of the City, in the month of Cronion, at the beginning of sowing, and after maintaining the animal at the public expense throughout the winter they sacrificed it, apparently at harvest-time, in the following summer. Nine boys and nine girls, whose fathers and mothers were all living, took part in the religious services of the consecration and the sacrifice of the bull. At the consecration public prayers were offered for the safety of the city and the land, for the safety of the citizens and their wives and children, for the safety of all that dwelt in the city and the land, for peace and wealth and abundance of corn and all other fruits, and for the cattle. A herald led the prayers, and the priest and priestess, the boys and girls, the high officers and magistrates, all joined in these solemn petitions for the welfare of their country.(615) Among the Karo-Bataks of Central Sumatra the threshing of the rice is the occasion of various ceremonies, and in these a prominent part is played by a girl, whose father and mother must be both alive. Her special duty is to take care of the sheaf of rice in which the soul of the rice is believed to reside. This sheaf usually consists of the first rice cut and bound in the field; it is treated exactly like a person.(616)

(M214) The rites thus far described, in which boys and girls of living parents took part, were clearly ceremonies intended specially to ensure the fertility of the soil. This is indicated not merely by the nature of the rites and of the prayers or verses which accompanied them, but also by the seasons at which they were observed; for these were the vintage, the harvest-home, and the beginning of sowing. We may therefore compare a custom practised by the Roman Brethren of the Ploughed Fields (_Fratres Arvales_), a college of priests whose business it was to perform the rites deemed necessary for the growth of the corn. As a badge of office they wore wreaths of corn-ears, and paid their devotions to an antique goddess of fertility, the Dea Dia. Her home was in a grove of ancient evergreen oaks and laurels out in the Campagna, five miles from Rome. Hither every year in the month of May, when the fields were ripe or ripening to the sickle, reaped ears of the new corn were brought and hallowed by the Brethren with quaint rites, that a blessing might rest on the coming harvest. The first or preliminary consecration of the ears, however, took place, not in the grove, but in the house of the Master of the Brethren at Rome. Here the Brethren were waited upon by four free-born boys, the children of living fathers and mothers. While the Brethren reclined on couches, the boys were allowed to sit on chairs and partake of the feast, and when it was over they carried the rest of the now hallowed corn and laid it on the altar.(617)

(M215) In these and all other rites intended to ensure the fertility of the ground, of cattle, or of human beings, the employment of children of living parents seems to be intelligible on the principle of sympathetic magic; for such children might be deemed fuller of life than orphans, either because they “flourished on both sides,” as the Greeks put it, or because the very survival of their parents might be taken as a proof that the stock of which the children came was vigorous and therefore able to impart of its superabundant energy to others.

(M216) But the rites in which the children of living parents are required to officiate do not always aim at promoting the growth of the crops. At Olympia the olive-branches which formed the victors’ crowns had to be cut from a sacred tree with a golden sickle by a lad whose father and mother must be both alive.(618) The tree was a wild olive growing within the holy precinct, at the west end of the temple of Zeus. It bore the name of the Olive of the Fair Crown, and near it was an altar to the Nymphs of the Fair Crowns.(619) At Delphi every eighth year a sacred drama or miracle-play was acted which drew crowds of spectators from all parts of Greece. It set forth the slaying of the Dragon by Apollo. The principal part was sustained by a lad, the son of living parents, who seems to have personated the god himself. In an open space the likeness of a lordly palace, erected for the occasion, represented the Dragon’s den. It was attacked and burned by the lad, aided by women who carried blazing torches. When the Dragon had received his deadly wound, the lad, still

## acting the part of the god, fled far away to be purged of the guilt of

blood in the beautiful Vale of Tempe, where the Peneus flows in a deep wooded gorge between the snowy peaks of Olympus and Ossa, its smooth and silent tide shadowed by overhanging trees and tall white cliffs. In places these great crags rise abruptly from the stream and approach each other so near that only a narrow strip of sky is visible overhead; but where they recede a little, the meadows at their foot are verdant with evergreen shrubs, among which Apollo’s own laurel may still be seen. In antiquity the god himself, stained with the Dragon’s blood, is said to have come, a haggard footsore wayfarer, to this wild secluded glen and there plucked branches from one of the laurels that grew in its green thickets beside the rippling river. Some of them he used to twine a wreath for his brows, one of them he carried in his hand, doubtless in order that, guarded by the sacred plant, he might escape the hobgoblins which dogged his steps. So the boy, his human representative, did the same, and brought back to Delphi wreaths of laurel from the same tree to be awarded to the victors in the Pythian games. Hence the whole festival of the Slaying of the Dragon at Delphi went by the name of the Festival of Crowning.(620) From this it appears that at Delphi as well as at Olympia the boughs which were used to crown the victors had to be cut from a sacred tree by a boy whose parents must be both alive.

(M217) At Thebes a festival called the Laurel-bearing was held once in every eight years, when branches of laurel were carried in procession to the temple of Apollo. The principal part in the procession was taken by a boy who held a laurel bough and bore the title of the Laurel-bearer: he seems to have personated the god himself. His hair hung down on his shoulders, and he wore a golden crown, a bright-coloured robe, and shoes of a special shape: both his parents must be alive.(621) We may suppose that the golden crown which he wore was fashioned in the shape of laurel leaves and replaced a wreath of real laurel. Thus the boy with the laurel wreath on his head and the laurel bough in his hand would resemble the traditional equipment of Apollo when he purified himself for the slaughter of the dragon. We may conjecture that at Thebes the Laurel-bearer originally personated not Apollo but the local hero Cadmus, who slew the dragon and had like Apollo to purify himself for the slaughter. The conjecture is confirmed by vase-paintings which represent Cadmus crowned with laurel preparing to attack the dragon or actually in combat with the monster, while goddesses bend over him holding out wreaths of laurel as the meed of victory.(622) On this hypothesis the octennial Delphic Festival of Crowning and the octennial Theban Festival of Laurel-bearing were closely akin: in both the prominent part played by the laurel was purificatory or expiatory.(623) Thus at Olympia, Delphi, and Thebes a boy whose parents were both alive was entrusted with the duty of cutting or wearing a sacred wreath at a great festival which recurred at intervals of several years.(624)

(M218) Why a boy of living parents should be chosen for such an office is not at first sight clear; the reason might be more obvious if we understood the ideas in which the custom of wearing wreaths and crowns had its origin. Probably in many cases wreaths and crowns were amulets before they were ornaments; in other words, their first intention may have been not so much to adorn the head as to protect it from harm by surrounding it with a plant, a metal, or any other thing which was supposed to possess the magical virtue of banning baleful influences. Thus the Arabs of Moab will put a circlet of copper on the head of a man who is suffering from headache, for they believe that this will banish the pain; and if the pain is in an arm or a leg, they will treat the ailing limb in like manner. They think that red beads hung before the eyes of children who are afflicted with ophthalmia will rid them of the malady, and that a red ribbon tied to the foot will prevent it from stumbling on a stony path.(625) Again, the Melanesians of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain often deck their dusky bodies with flowers, leaves, and scented herbs not only at festivals but on other occasions which to the European might seem inappropriate for such gay ornaments. But in truth the bright blossoms and verdant foliage are not intended to decorate the wearer but to endow him with certain magical virtues, which are supposed to inhere in the flowers and leaves. Thus one man may be seen strutting about with a wreath of greenery which passes round his neck and droops over his shoulders, back, and breast. He is not a mere dandy, but a lover who hopes that the wreath will work as a charm on a woman’s heart. Again, another may be observed with a bunch of the red dracaena leaves knotted round his neck and the long stalk hanging down his back. He is a soldier, and these leaves are supposed to make him invulnerable. But if the lover should fail to win the affections of his swarthy mistress, if the warrior should be wounded in battle, it never occurs to either of them to question the magical virtue of the charm; they ascribe the failure either to the more potent charm of another magician or to some oversight on their own part.(626) On the theory that wreaths and garlands serve as amulets to protect the wearer against the powers of evil we can understand not only why in antiquity sacred persons such as priests and kings wore crowns, but also why dead bodies, sacrificial victims, and in certain circumstances even inanimate objects such as the implements of sacrifice, the doors of houses, and so forth, were decorated or rather guarded by wreaths.(627) Further, on this hypothesis we may perhaps perceive why children of living parents were specially chosen to cut or wear sacred wreaths. Since such children were apparently supposed to be endowed with a more than common share of vital energy, they might be deemed peculiarly fitted to make or wear amulets which were designed to protect the wearer from injury and death: the current of life which circulated in their own veins overflowed, as it were, and reinforced the magic virtue of the wreath. For the same reason such children would naturally be chosen to personate gods, as they seemingly were at Delphi and Thebes.

(M219) At Ephesus, if we may trust the evidence of the Greek romance-writer, Heliodorus, a boy and girl of living parents used to hold for a year the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis respectively. When their period of office was nearly expired, they led a sacred embassy to Delos, the birthplace of the divine brother and sister, where they superintended the musical and athletic contests and laid down the priesthood.(628) At Rome no girl might be chosen a Vestal Virgin unless both her father and mother were living;(629) yet there is no evidence or probability that a Vestal vacated office on the death of a parent; indeed she generally held office for life.(630) This alone may suffice to prove that the custom of entrusting certain sacred duties to children of living parents was not based on any notion that orphans as such were ceremonially unclean. Again, the dancing priests of Mars, the Salii, must be sons of living parents;(631) but as in the case of the Vestals this condition probably only applied at the date of their election, for they seem like the Vestals to have held office for life. At all events we read of a lively old gentleman who still skipped and capered about as a dancing priest with an agility which threw the efforts of his younger colleagues into the shade.(632) Again, at the public games in Rome boys of living parents had to escort the images of the gods in their sacred cars, and it was a dire omen if one of them relaxed his hold on the holy cart or let a strap slip from his fingers.(633) And when the stout Roman heart was shaken by the appalling news that somebody had been struck by lightning, that the sky had somewhere been suddenly overcast, or that a she-mule had been safely delivered of a colt, boys and girls whose fathers and mothers were still alive used to be sought out and employed to help in expiating the terrific prodigy.(634) Again, when the Capitol had been sacked and burned by the disorderly troops of Vitellius, solemn preparations were made to rebuild it. The whole area was enclosed by a cordon of fillets and wreaths. Then soldiers chosen for their auspicious names entered within the barriers holding branches of lucky trees in their hands; and afterwards the Vestal Virgins, aided by boys and girls of living parents, washed the foundations with water drawn from springs and rivers.(635) In this ceremony the choice of such children seems to be based on the same idea as the choice of such water; for as running water is deemed to be especially alive,(636) so the vital current might be thought to flow without interruption in the children of living parents but to stagnate in orphans. Hence the children of living parents rather than orphans would naturally be chosen to pour the living water over the foundations, and so to lend something of their own vitality or endurance to a building that was designed to last for ever.

(M220) On the same principle we can easily understand why the children of living parents should be especially chosen to perform certain offices at marriage. The motive of such a choice may be a wish to ensure by sympathetic magic the life of the newly wedded pair and of their offspring. Thus at Roman marriages the bride was escorted to her new home by three boys whose parents were all living. Two of the boys held her, and the third carried a torch of buckthorn or hawthorn in front of her,(637) probably for the purpose of averting the powers of evil; for buckthorn or hawthorn was credited with this magical virtue.(638) At marriages in ancient Athens a boy whose parents were both living used to wear a wreath of thorns and acorns and to carry about a winnowing-fan full of loaves, crying, “I have escaped the bad, I have found the better.”(639) In modern Greece on the Sunday before a marriage the bridegroom sends to the bride the wedding cake by the hands of a boy, both of whose parents must be living. The messenger takes great care not to stumble or to injure the cake, for to do either would be a very bad omen. He may not enter the bride’s house till she has taken the cake from him. For this purpose he lays it down on the threshold of the door, and then both of them, the boy and the bride, rush at it and try to seize the greater part of the cake. And when cattle are being slaughtered for the marriage festivities, the first beast killed for the bride’s house must be killed by a youth whose parents are both alive. Further, a son of living parents must solemnly fetch the water with which the bridegroom’s head is ceremonially washed by women before marriage. And on the day after the marriage bride and bridegroom go in procession to the well or spring from which they are henceforth to fetch their water. The bride greets the spring, drinks of the water from the hollow of her hand, and throws money and food into it. Then follows a dance, accompanied by a song, round about the spring. Lastly, a lad whose parents are both living draws water from the spring in a special vessel and carries it to the house of the bridal pair without speaking a word: this “unspoken water,” as it is called, is regarded as peculiarly holy and wholesome. When the young couple return from the spring, they fill their mouths with the “unspoken water” and try to spirt it on each other inside the door of the house.(640) In Albania, when women are baking cakes for a wedding, the first to put hand to the dough must be a maiden whose parents are both alive and who has brothers, the more the better; for only such a girl is deemed lucky. And when the bride has dismounted from her horse at the bridegroom’s door, a small boy whose parents are both alive (for only such a boy is thought to bring luck) is passed thrice backwards and forwards under the horse’s belly, as if he would girdle the beast.(641) Among the South Slavs of Bulgaria a little child whose father and mother are both alive helps to bake the two bridal cakes, pouring water and salt on the meal and stirring the mixture with a spurtle of a special shape; then a girl lifts the child in her arms, and the little one touches the roof-beam thrice with the spurtle, saying, “Boys and girls.” And when the bride’s hair is to be dressed for the wedding day, the work of combing and plaiting it must be begun by a child of living parents.(642) Among the Eesa and Gadabursi, two Somali tribes, on the morning after a marriage “the bride’s female relations bring presents of milk, and are accompanied by a young male child whose parents are living. The child drinks some of the milk before any one else tastes it; and after him the bridegroom, if his parents are living; but if one or both of his parents are dead, and those of the bride living, she drinks after the child. By doing this they believe that if the newly-married woman bears a child the father will be alive at the time.”(643) A slightly different application of the same principle appears in the old Hindoo rule that when a bride reached the house of her husband, she should be made to descend from the chariot by women of good character whose husbands and sons were living, and that afterwards these women should seat the bride on a bull’s hide, while her husband recited the verse, “Here ye cows, bring forth calves.”(644) Here the ceremony of seating the young wife on a bull’s hide seems plainly intended to make her fruitful through the generative virtue of the bull; while the attendance of women, whose husbands and sons are living, is no doubt a device for ensuring, by sympathetic magic, the life both of the bride’s husband and of her future offspring.

(M221) In the Somali custom just described the part played by the child of living parents is unambiguous and helps to throw light on the obscurer cases which precede. Such a child is clearly supposed to impart the virtue of longevity to the milk of which it partakes, and so to transmit it to the newly married pair who afterwards drink of the milk. Similarly, we may suppose that in all marriage rites at least, if not in religious rites generally, the employment of children of living parents is intended to diffuse by sympathy the blessings of life and longevity among all who

## participate in the ceremonies. This intention seems to underlie the use

which the Malagasy make of the children of living parents in ritual. Thus, when a child is a week old, it is dressed up in the finest clothes that can be got, and is then carried out of the house by some person whose parents are both still living; afterwards it is brought back to the mother. In the act of being carried out and in, the infant must be twice carefully lifted over the fire, which is placed near the door. If the child is a boy, the axe, knife, and spear of the family, together with any building tools that may be in the house, are taken out of it at the same time. “The implements are perhaps used chiefly as emblems of the occupations in which it is expected the infant will engage when it arrives at maturer years; and the whole may be regarded as expressing the hopes cherished of his activity, wealth, and enjoyments.”(645) On such an occasion the service of a person whose parents are both alive seems naturally calculated to promote the longevity of the infant. For a like reason, probably, the holy water used at the Malagasy ceremony of circumcision is drawn from a pool by a person whose parents are both still living.(646) The same idea may explain a funeral custom observed by the Sihanaka of Madagascar. After a burial the family of the deceased, with their near relatives and dependents, meet in the house from which the corpse was lately removed “to drink rum and to undergo a purifying and preserving baptism called _fàfy rànom-bóahàngy_. Leaves of the lemon or lime tree, and the stalks of two kinds of grass, are gathered and placed in a vessel with water. A person, both of whose parents are living, is chosen to perform the rite, and this ‘holy water’ is then sprinkled upon the walls of the house and upon all assembled within them, and finally around the house outside.”(647) Here a person whose parents are both living appears to be credited with a more than common share of life and longevity; from which it naturally follows that he is better fitted than any one else to perform a ceremony intended to avert the danger of death from the household.

(M222) The notion that a child of living parents is endowed with a higher degree of vitality than an orphan probably explains all the cases of the employment of such a child in ritual, whether the particular rite is designed to ensure the fertility of the ground or the fruitfulness of women, or to avert the danger of death and other calamities. Yet it might be a mistake to suppose that this notion is always clearly apprehended by the persons who practise the customs. In their minds the definite conception of superabundant and overflowing vitality may easily dissolve into a vague idea that the child of living parents is luckier than other folk. No more than this seems to be at the bottom of the Masai rule that when the warriors wish to select a chief, they must choose “a man whose parents are still living, who owns cattle and has never killed anybody, whose parents are not blind, and who himself has not a discoloured eye.”(648) And nothing more is needed to explain the ancient Greek custom which assigned the duty of drawing lots from an urn to a boy under puberty whose father and mother were both in life.(649) At Athens it would appear that registers of these boys were kept, perhaps in order that the lads might discharge, as occasion arose, those offices of religion which required the service of such auspicious youths.(650) The atrocious tyrant Heliogabalus, one of the worst monsters who ever disgraced the human form, caused search to be made throughout Italy for noble and handsome boys whose parents were both alive, and he sacrificed them to his barbarous gods, torturing them first and grabbling among their entrails afterwards for omens. He seems to have thought that such victims would be peculiarly acceptable to the Syrian deities whom he worshipped; so he encouraged the torturers and butchers at their work, and thanked the gods for enabling him to ferret out “their friends.”(651)

III. A Charm To Protect a Town.

(M223) The tradition that a Lydian king tried to make the citadel of Sardes impregnable by carrying round it a lion(652) may perhaps be illustrated by a South African custom. When the Bechuanas are about to found a new town, they observe an elaborate ritual. They choose a bull from the herd, sew up its eyelids with sinew, and then allow the blinded animal to wander at will for four days. On the fifth day they track it down and sacrifice it at sunset on the spot where it happens to be standing. The carcase is then roasted whole and divided among the people. Ritual requires that every particle of the flesh should be consumed on the spot. When the sacrificial meal is over, the medicine-men take the hide and mark it with appropriate medicines, the composition of which is a professional secret. Then with one long spiral cut they convert the whole hide into a single thong. Having done so they cut up the thong into lengths of about two feet and despatch messengers in all directions to peg down one of those strips in each of the paths leading to the new town. “After this,” it is said, “if a foreigner approaches the new town to destroy it with his charms, he will find that the town has prepared itself for his coming.”(653) Thus it would seem that the pastoral Bechuanas attempt to place a new town under the protection of one of their sacred cattle(654) by distributing pieces of its hide at all points where an enemy could approach it, just as the Lydian king thought to place the citadel of his capital under the protection of the lion-god by carrying the animal round the boundaries.

(M224) Further, the Bechuana custom may throw light on a widespread legend which relates how a wily settler in a new country bought from the natives as much land as could be covered with a hide, and how he then proceeded to cut the hide into thongs and to claim as much land as could be enclosed by the thongs. It was thus, according to the Hottentots, that the first European settlers obtained a footing in South Africa.(655) But the most familiar example of such stories is the tradition that Dido procured the site of Carthage in this fashion, and that the place hence received the name of Byrsa or “hide.”(656) Similar tales occur in the legendary history of Saxons and Danes,(657) and they meet us in India, Siberia, Burma, Cambodia, Java, and Bali.(658) The wide diffusion of such stories confirms the conjecture of Jacob Grimm that in them we have a reminiscence of a mode of land measurement which was once actually in use, and of which the designation is still retained in the English _hide_.(659) The Bechuana custom suggests that the mode of measuring by a hide may have originated in a practice of encompassing a piece of land with thongs cut from the hide of a sacrificial victim in order to place the ground under the guardianship of the sacred animal.

(M225) But why do the Bechuanas sew up the eyelids of the bull which is to be used for this purpose? The answer appears to be given by the ceremonies which the same people observe when they are going out to war. On that occasion a woman rushes up to the army with her eyes shut and shakes a winnowing-fan, while she cries out, “The army is not seen! The army is not seen!” And a medicine-man at the same time sprinkles medicine over the spears, crying out in like manner, “The army is not seen! The army is not seen!” After that they seize a bull, sew up its eyelids with a hair of its tail, and drive it for some distance along the road which the army is to take. When it has preceded the army a little way, the bull is sacrificed, roasted whole, and eaten by the warriors. All the flesh must be consumed on the spot. Such parts as cannot be eaten are burnt with fire. Only the contents of the stomach are carefully preserved as a charm which is to lead the warriors to victory. Chosen men carry the precious guts in front of the army, and it is deemed most important that no one should precede them. When they stop, the army stops, and it will not resume the march till it sees that the men with the bull’s guts have gone forward.(660) The meaning of these ceremonies is explained by the cries of the woman and the priest, “The army is not seen! The army is not seen!” Clearly it is desirable that the army should not be perceived by the enemies until it is upon them. Accordingly on the principles of homoeopathic magic the Bechuanas apparently imagine that they can make themselves invisible by eating of the flesh of a blind bull, blindness and invisibility being to their simple minds the same thing. For the same reason the bowels of the blind ox are carried in front of the army to hide its advance from hostile eyes. In like manner the custom of sacrificing and eating a blind ox on the place where a new town is to be built may be intended to render the town invisible to enemies. At all events the Bawenda, a South African people who belong to the same Bantu stock as the Bechuanas, take great pains to conceal their kraals from passers-by. The kraals are built in the forest or bush, and the long winding footpaths which lead to them are often kept open only by the support of a single pole here and there. Indeed the paths are so low and narrow that it is very difficult to bring a horse into such a village. In time of war the poles are removed and the thorny creepers fall down, forming a natural screen or bulwark which the enemy can neither penetrate nor destroy by fire. The kraals are also surrounded by walls of undressed stones with a filling of soil; and to hide them still better from the view of the enemy the tops of the walls are sown with Indian corn or planted with tobacco. Hence travellers passing through the country seldom come across a Bawenda kraal. To see where the Bawenda dwell you must climb to the tops of mountains and look down on the roofs of their round huts peeping out of the surrounding green like clusters of mushrooms in the woods.(661) The object which the Bawenda attain by these perfectly rational means, the Bechuanas seek to compass by the sacrifice and consumption of a blind bull.

(M226) This explanation of the use of a blinded ox in sacrifice is confirmed by the reasons alleged by a Caffre for the observance of a somewhat similar custom in purificatory ceremonies after a battle. On these occasions the Bechuanas and other Caffre tribes of South Africa kill a black ox and cut out the tip of its tongue, an eye, a piece of the ham-string, and a piece of the principal sinew of the shoulder. These parts are fried with certain herbs and rubbed into the joints of the warriors. By cutting out the tongue of the ox they think to prevent the enemy from wagging his tongue against them; by severing the sinews of the ox they hope to cause the enemy’s sinews to fail him in the battle; and by removing the eye of the ox they imagine that they prevent the enemy from casting a covetous eye on their cattle.(662)

IV. Some Customs Of The Pelew Islanders.

We have seen that the state of society and religion among the Pelew Islanders in modern times presents several points of similarity to the condition of the peoples about the Eastern Mediterranean in antiquity.(663) Here I propose briefly to call attention to certain other customs of the Pelew Islanders which may serve to illustrate some of the institutions discussed in this volume.

§ 1. Priests dressed as Women.

(M227) In the Pelew Islands it often happens that a goddess chooses a man, not a woman, for her minister and inspired mouthpiece. When that is so, the favoured man is thenceforth regarded and treated as a woman. He wears female attire, he carries a piece of gold on his neck, he labours like a woman in the taro fields, and he plays his new part so well that he earns the hearty contempt of his fellows.(664) The pretended change of sex under the inspiration of a female spirit perhaps explains a custom widely spread among savages, in accordance with which some men dress as women and act as women through life. These unsexed creatures often, perhaps generally, profess the arts of sorcery and healing, they communicate with spirits, and are regarded sometimes with awe and sometimes with contempt, as beings of a higher or lower order than common folk. Often they are dedicated and trained to their vocation from childhood. Effeminate sorcerers or priests of this sort are found among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo,(665) the Bugis of South Celebes,(666) the Patagonians of South America,(667) and the Aleutians and many Indian tribes of North America.(668) In the island of Rambree, off the coast of Aracan, a set of vagabond “conjurors,” who dressed and lived as women, used to dance round a tall pole, invoking the aid of their favourite idol on the occasion of any calamity.(669) Male members of the Vallabha sect in India often seek to win the favour of the god Krishna, whom they specially revere, by wearing their hair long and assimilating themselves to women; even their spiritual chiefs, the so-called Maharajas, sometimes simulate the appearance of women when they lead the worship of their followers.(670) In Madagascar we hear of effeminate men who wore female attire and acted as women, thinking thereby to do God service.(671) In the kingdom of Congo there was a sacrificial priest who commonly dressed as a woman and gloried in the title of the Grandmother. The post of Grandmother must have been much coveted, for the incumbent might not be put to death, whatever crimes or rascalities he committed; and to do him justice he appears commonly to have taken full advantage of this benefit of clergy. When he died, his fortunate successor dissected the body of the deceased Grandmother, extracting his heart and other vital organs, and amputating his fingers and toes, which he kept as priceless relics, and sold as sovereign remedies for all the ills that flesh is heir to.(672)

(M228) We may conjecture that in many of these cases the call to this strange form of the religious life came in the shape of a dream or vision, in which the dreamer or visionary imagined himself to be a woman or to be possessed by a female spirit; for with many savage races the disordered fancies of sleep or ecstasy are accepted as oracular admonitions which it would be perilous to disregard. At all events we are told that a dream or a revelation of some sort was the reason which in North America these men-women commonly alleged for the life they led; it had been thus brought home to them, they said, that their medicine or their salvation lay in living as women, and when once they had got this notion into their head nothing could drive it out again. Many an Indian father attempted by persuasion, by bribes, by violence, to deter his son from obeying the mysterious call, but all to no purpose.(673) Among the Sauks, an Indian tribe of North America, these effeminate beings were always despised, but sometimes they were pitied “as labouring under an unfortunate destiny which they cannot avoid, being supposed to be impelled to this course by a vision from the female spirit that resides in the moon.”(674) Similarly the Omahas, another Indian tribe of North America, “believe that the unfortunate beings, called _Min-qu-ga_, are mysterious or sacred because they have been affected by the Moon Being. When a young Omaha fasted for the first time on reaching puberty, it was thought that the Moon Being appeared to him, holding in one hand a bow and arrows and in the other a pack strap, such as the Indian women use. When the youth tried to grasp the bow and arrows the Moon Being crossed his hands very quickly, and if the youth was not very careful he seized the pack strap instead of the bow and arrows, thereby fixing his lot in after life. In such a case he could not help acting the woman, speaking, dressing, and working just as Indian women used to do.”(675) Among the Ibans or Sea Dyaks of Borneo the highest class of sorcerers or medicine-men (_manangs_) are those who are believed to have been transformed into women. Such a man is therefore called a “changed medicine-man” (_manang bali_) on account of his supposed change of sex. The call to transform himself into a woman is said to come as a supernatural command thrice repeated in dreams; to disregard the command would mean death. Accordingly he makes a feast, sacrifices a pig or two to avert evil consequences from the tribe, and then assumes the garb of a woman. Thenceforth he is treated as a woman and occupies himself in feminine pursuits. His chief aim is to copy female manners and habits as accurately as possible. He is employed for the same purposes as an ordinary medicine-man and his methods are similar, but he is paid much higher fees and is often called in when others have been unable to effect a cure.(676) Similarly among the Chukchees of North-Eastern Asia there are shamans or medicine-men who assimilate themselves as far as possible to women, and who are believed to be called to this vocation by spirits in a dream. The call usually comes at the critical age of early youth when the shamanistic inspiration, as it is called, first manifests itself. But the call is much dreaded by the youthful adepts, and some of them prefer death to obedience. There are, however, various stages or degrees of transformation. In the first stage the man apes a woman only in the manner of braiding and arranging the hair of his head. In the second he dons female attire; in the third stage he adopts as far as possible the life and characteristics of the female sex. A young man who is undergoing this final transformation abandons all masculine occupations and manners. He throws away the rifle and the lance, the lasso of the reindeer herdsman, and the harpoon of the seal-hunter, and betakes himself to the needle and the skin-scraper instead. He learns the use of them quickly, because the spirits are helping him all the time. Even his pronunciation changes from the male to the female mode. At the same time his body alters, if not in outward appearance, at least in its faculties and forces. He loses masculine strength, fleetness of foot, endurance in wrestling, and falls into the debility and helplessness of a woman. Even his mental character undergoes a change. His old brute courage and fighting spirit are gone; he grows shy and bashful before strangers, fond of small talk and of dandling little children. In short he becomes a woman with the appearance of a man, and as a woman he is often taken to wife by another man, with whom he leads a regular married life. Extraordinary powers are attributed to such transformed shamans. They are supposed to enjoy the special protection of spirits who play the part of supernatural husbands to them. Hence they are much dreaded even by their colleagues in the profession who remain mere men; hence, too, they excel in all branches of magic, including ventriloquism.(677) Among the Teso of Central Africa medicine-men often dress as women and wear feminine ornaments, such as heavy chains of beads and shells round their heads and necks.(678)

(M229) And just as a man inspired by a goddess may adopt female attire, so conversely a woman inspired by a god may adopt male costume. In Uganda the great god Mukasa, the deity of the Victoria Nyanza Lake and of abundance, imparted his oracles through a woman, who in ordinary life dressed like the rest of her sex in a bark cloth wrapped round the body and fastened with a girdle, so as to leave the arms and shoulders bare; but when she prophesied under the inspiration of the god, she wore two bark cloths knotted in masculine style over her shoulders and crossing each other on her breast and back.(679) When once the god had chosen her, she retained office for life; she might not marry or converse with any man except one

## particular priest, who was always present when she was possessed by the

deity.(680)

(M230) Perhaps this assumed change of sex under the inspiration of a goddess may give the key to the legends of the effeminate Sardanapalus and the effeminate Hercules,(681) as well as to the practice of the effeminate priests of Cybele and the Syrian goddess. In all such cases the pretended transformation of a man into a woman would be intelligible if we supposed that the womanish priest or king thought himself animated by a female spirit, whose sex, accordingly, he felt bound to imitate. Certainly the eunuch priests of Cybele seem to have bereft themselves of their manhood under the supposed inspiration of the Great Goddess.(682) The priest of Hercules at Antimachia, in Cos, who dressed as a woman when he offered sacrifice, is said to have done so in imitation of Hercules who disguised himself as a woman to escape the pursuit of his enemies.(683) So the Lydian Hercules wore female attire when he served for three years as the purchased slave of the imperious Omphale, Queen of Lydia.(684) If we suppose that Queen Omphale, like Queen Semiramis, was nothing but the great Asiatic goddess,(685) or one of her Avatars, it becomes probable that the story of the womanish Hercules of Lydia preserves a reminiscence of a line or college of effeminate priests who, like the eunuch priests of the Syrian goddess, dressed as women in imitation of their goddess and were supposed to be inspired by her. The probability is increased by the practice of the priests of Hercules at Antimachia, in Cos, who, as we have just seen, actually wore female attire when they were engaged in their sacred duties. Similarly at the vernal mysteries of Hercules in Rome the men were draped in the garments of women;(686) and in some of the rites and processions of Dionysus also men wore female attire.(687) In legend and art there are clear traces of an effeminate Dionysus, who perhaps figured in a strange ceremony for the artificial fertilization of the fig.(688) Among the Nahanarvals, an ancient German tribe, a priest garbed as a woman presided over a sacred grove.(689) These and similar practices(690) need not necessarily have any connexion with the social system of mother-kin. Wherever a goddess is revered and the theory of inspiration is held, a man may be thought to be possessed by a female spirit, whether society be organized on mother-kin or on father-kin. Still the chances of such a transformation of sex will be greater under mother-kin than under father-kin if, as we have found reason to believe, a system of mother-kin is more favourable to the development and multiplication of goddesses than of gods. It is therefore, perhaps, no mere accident that we meet with these effeminate priests in regions like the Pelew Islands and Western Asia, where the system of mother-kin either actually prevails or has at least left traces of it behind in tradition and custom. Such traces, for example, are to be found in Lydia and Cos,(691) in both of which the effeminate Hercules had his home.

(M231) But the religious or superstitious interchange of dress between men and women is an obscure and complex problem, and it is unlikely that any single solution would apply to all the cases. Probably the custom has been practised from many different motives. For example, the practice of dressing boys as girls has certainly been sometimes adopted to avert the Evil Eye;(692) and it is possible that the custom of changing garments at marriage, the bridegroom disguising himself as a woman, or the bride disguising herself as a man, may have been resorted to for the same purpose. Thus in Cos, where the priest of Hercules wore female attire, the bridegroom was in like manner dressed as a woman when he received his bride.(693) Spartan brides had their hair shaved, and were clad in men’s clothes and booted on their wedding night.(694) Argive brides wore false beards when they slept with their husbands for the first time.(695) In Southern Celebes a bridegroom at a certain point of the long and elaborate marriage ceremonies puts on the garments which his bride has just put off.(696) Among the Jews of Egypt in the Middle Ages the bride led the wedding dance with a helmet on her head and a sword in her hand, while the bridegroom adorned himself as a woman and put on female attire.(697) At a Brahman marriage in Southern India “the bride is dressed up as a boy, and another girl is dressed up to represent the bride. They are taken in procession through the street, and, on returning, the pseudo-bridegroom is made to speak to the real bridegroom in somewhat insolent tones, and some mock play is indulged in. The real bridegroom is addressed as if he was the syce (groom) or gumasta (clerk) of the pseudo-bridegroom, and is sometimes treated as a thief, and judgment passed on him by the latter.”(698) Among the Bharias of the Central Provinces of India “the bridegroom puts on women’s ornaments and carries with him an iron nut-cutter or dagger to keep off evil spirits.”(699) Similarly among the Khangars, a low Hindustani caste of the same region, “the bridegroom is dressed in a yellow gown and overcloth, with trousers of red chintz, red shoes, and a marriage crown of date-palm leaves. He has the silver ornaments usually worn by women on his neck, as the _khang-wāri_ or silver ring and the _hamel_ or necklace of rupees. In order to avert the evil eye he carries a dagger or nut-cracker, and a smudge of lampblack is made on his forehead to disfigure him and thus avert the evil eye, which, it is thought, would otherwise be too probably attracted by his exquisitely beautiful appearance in his wedding garments.”(700) These examples render it highly probable that, like the dagger or nut-cracker which he holds in his hand, the woman’s ornaments which he wears are intended to protect the bridegroom against demons or the evil eye at this critical moment of his life, the protection apparently consisting in a disguise which enables him to elude the unwelcome attentions of malignant beings.(701)

(M232) A similar explanation probably accounts for the similar exchange of costume between other persons than the bride and bridegroom at marriage. For example, after a Bharia wedding, “the girl’s mother gets the dress of the boy’s father and puts it on, together with a false beard and moustaches, and dances holding a wooden ladle in one hand and a packet of ashes in the other. Every time she approaches the bridegroom’s father on her rounds she spills some of the ashes over him and occasionally gives him a crack on the head with her ladle, these actions being accompanied by bursts of laughter from the party and frenzied playing by the musicians. When the party reach the bridegroom’s house on their return, his mother and the other women come out, and burn a little mustard and human hair in a lamp, the unpleasant smell emitted by these articles being considered potent to drive away evil spirits.”(702) Again, after a Khangar wedding the father of the bridegroom, dressed in women’s clothes, dances with the mother of the bride, while the two throw turmeric mixed with water on each other.(703) Similarly after a wedding of the Bharbhunjas, another Hindustani caste of the Central Provinces, the bridegroom’s father dances before the family in women’s clothes which have been supplied by the bride’s father.(704) Such disguises and dances may be intended either to protect the disguised dancer himself against the evil eye or perhaps rather to guard the principal personages of the ceremony, the bride and bridegroom, by diverting the attention of demons from them to the guiser.(705) However, when at marriage the bride alone assumes the costume and appearance of the other sex, the motive for the disguise may perhaps be a notion that on the principle of homoeopathic magic she thereby ensures the birth of a male heir. Similarly in Sweden there is a popular superstition that “on the night preceding her nuptials the bride should have a baby-boy to sleep with her, in which case her first-born will be a son”;(706) and among the Kabyles, when a bride dismounts from her mule at her husband’s house, a young lad leaps into the saddle before she touches the ground, in order that her first child may be a boy.(707)

(M233) Be that as it may, there is no doubt that the assumption of woman’s dress is sometimes intended to disguise a man for the purpose of deceiving a demon. Thus among the Boloki or Bangala on the Upper Congo a man was long afflicted with an internal malady. When all other remedies had failed, a witch-doctor informed the sufferer that the cause of his trouble was an evil spirit, and that the best thing he could do was to go far away where the devil could not get at him, and to remain there till he had recovered his health. The patient followed the prescription. At dead of night he left his house, taking only two of his wives with him and telling no one of his destination, lest the demon should hear it and follow him. So he went far away from his town, donned a woman’s dress, and speaking in a woman’s voice he pretended to be other than he was, in order that the devil should not be able to find him at his new address. Strange to say, these sage measures failed to effect a cure, and wearying of exile he at last returned home, where he continued to dress and speak as a woman.(708) Again, the Kuki-Lushai of Assam believe that if a man kills an enemy or a wild beast, the ghost of the dead man or animal will haunt him and drive him mad. The only way of averting this catastrophe is to dress up as a woman and pretend to be one. For example, a man who had shot a tiger and was in fear of being haunted by the animal’s ghost, dressed himself up in a woman’s petticoat and cloth, wore ivory earrings, and wound a mottled cloth round his head like a turban. Then smoking a woman’s pipe, carrying a little basket, and spinning a cotton spindle, he paraded the village followed by a crowd roaring and shrieking with laughter, while he preserved the gravity of a judge, for a single smile would have been fatal. To guard against the possibility of unseasonable mirth, he carried a porcupine in his arms, and if ever, tickled beyond the pitch of endurance, he burst into a guffaw, the crowd said, “It was the porcupine that laughed.” All this was done to mortify the pride of the tiger’s ghost by leading him to believe that he had been shot by a woman.(709)

(M234) The same dread of attracting the attention of dangerous spirits at critical times perhaps explains the custom observed by some East African tribes of wearing the costume of the opposite sex at circumcision. Thus, when Masai boys have been circumcised they dress as women, wearing earrings in their ears and long garments that reach to the ground. They also whiten their swarthy faces with chalk. This costume they retain till their wounds are healed, whereupon they are shaved and assume the skins and ornaments of warriors.(710) Among the Nandi, a tribe of British East Africa, before boys are circumcised they receive a visit from young girls, who give them some of their own garments and ornaments. These the boys put on and wear till the operation of circumcision is over, when they exchange the girls’ clothes for the garments of women, which, together with necklaces, are provided for them by their mothers; and these women’s garments the newly circumcised lads must continue to wear for months afterwards. Girls are also circumcised among the Nandi, and before they submit to the operation they attire themselves in men’s garments and carry clubs in their hands.(711)

(M235) If such interchange of costume between men and women is intended to disguise the wearers against demons, we may compare the practice of the Lycian men, who regularly wore women’s dress in mourning;(712) for this might be intended to conceal them from the ghost, just as perhaps for a similar reason some peoples of antiquity used to descend into pits and remain there for several days, shunning the light of the sun, whenever a death had taken place in the family.(713) A similar desire to deceive spirits may perhaps explain a device to which the Loeboes, a primitive tribe of Sumatra, resort when they wish to obtain male or female offspring. If parents have several sons and desire that the next child shall be a girl, they dress the boys as girls, cut their hair after the girlish fashion, and hang necklaces round their necks. On the contrary, when they have many daughters and wish to have a son, they dress the girls up as boys.(714)

(M236) On the whole we conclude that the custom of men dressing as women and of women dressing as men has been practised from a variety of superstitious motives, among which the principal would seem to be the wish to please certain powerful spirits or to deceive others.

§ 2. Prostitution of Unmarried Girls.

(M237) Like many peoples of Western Asia in antiquity, the Pelew Islanders systematically prostitute their unmarried girls for hire. Hence, just as in Lydia and Cyprus of old, the damsels are a source of income to their family, and women wait impatiently for the time when their young daughters will be able to help the household by their earnings. Indeed the mother regularly anticipates the time by depriving the girl of her virginity with her own hands.(715) Hence the theory that the prostitution of unmarried girls is a device to destroy their virginity without risk to their husbands is just as inapplicable to the Pelew Islanders as we have seen it to be to the peoples of Western Asia in antiquity. When a Pelew girl has thus been prepared for her vocation by her mother, she sells her favours to all the men of her village who can pay for them and who do not belong to her own exogamous clan; but she never grants her favours to the same man twice. Accordingly in every village of the Pelew Islands it may be taken as certain that the men and women know each other carnally, except that members of the same clan are debarred from each other by the rule of exogamy.(716) Thus a well-marked form of sexual communism, limited only by the exogamous prohibitions which attach to the clans, prevails among these people. Nor is this communism restricted to the inhabitants of the same village, for the girls of each village are regularly sent away to serve as prostitutes (_armengols_) in another village. There they live with the men of one of the many clubs or associations (_kaldebekels_) in the clubhouse (_blay_), attending to the house, consorting freely with the men, and receiving pay for their services. A girl leading this life in the clubhouse of another village is well treated by the men: a wrong done to her is a wrong done to the whole club; and in her own village her value is increased, not diminished, by the time she thus spends as a prostitute in a neighbouring community. After her period of service is over she may marry either in the village where she has served or in her own. Sometimes many or all of the young women of a village go together to act as prostitutes (_armengols_) in a neighbouring village, and for this they are well paid by the community which receives them. The money so earned is divided among the chiefs of the village to which the damsels belong. Such a joint expedition of the unmarried girls of a village is called a _blolobol_. But the young women never act as _armengols_ in any clubhouse of their own village.(717)

(M238) Thus, while the Pelew custom of prostituting the unmarried girls to all the men of their own village, but not of their own clan, is a form of sexual communism practised within a local group, the custom of prostituting them to men of other villages is a form of sexual communism practised between members of different local groups; it is a kind of group-marriage. These customs of the Pelew Islanders therefore support by analogy the hypothesis that among the ancient peoples of Western Asia also the systematic prostitution of unmarried women may have been derived from an earlier period of sexual communism.(718)

(M239) A somewhat similar custom prevails in Yap, one of the western group of the Caroline Islands, situated to the north of the Pelew group. In each of the men’s clubhouses “are kept three or four unmarried girls or _Mespil_, whose business it is to minister to the pleasures of the men of the particular clan or brotherhood to which the building belongs. As with the Kroomen on the Gold Coast, each man, married or single, takes his turn by rotation in the rites through which each girl must pass before she is deemed ripe for marriage. The natives say it is an ordeal or preliminary trial to fit them for the cares and burden of maternity. She is rarely a girl of the same village, and, of course, must be sprung from a different sept. Whenever she wishes to become a _Langin_ or respectable married woman, she may, and is thought none the less of for her frailties as a _Mespil_.... But I believe this self-immolation before marriage is confined to the daughters of the inferior chiefs and commons. The supply of _Mespil_ is generally kept up by the purchase of slave girls from the neighbouring districts.”(719) According to another account a _mespil_ “must always be stolen, by force or cunning, from a district at some distance from that wherein her captors reside. After she has been fairly, or unfairly, captured and installed in her new home, she loses no shade of respect among her own people; on the contrary, have not her beauty and her worth received the highest proof of her exalted perfection, in the devotion, not of one, but of a whole community of lovers?”(720) However, though the girl is nominally stolen from another district, the matter is almost always arranged privately with the local chief, who consents to wink hard at the theft in consideration of a good round sum of shell money and stone money, which serves “to salve the wounds of a disrupted family and dispel all thoughts of a bloody retaliation. Nevertheless, the whole proceeding is still carried out with the greatest possible secrecy and stealth.”(721)

§ 3. Custom of slaying Chiefs.

(M240) In the Pelew Islands when the chief of a clan has reigned too long or has made himself unpopular, the heir has a formal right to put him to death, though for reasons which will appear this right is only exercised in some of the principal clans. The practice of regicide, if that word may be extended to the assassination of chiefs, is in these islands a national institution regulated by exact rules, and every high chief must lay his account with it. Indeed so well recognized is the custom that when the heir-apparent, who under the system of mother-kin must be a brother, a nephew, or a cousin on the mother’s side, proves himself precocious and energetic, the people say, “The cousin is a grown man. The chief’s _tobolbel_ is nigh at hand.”(722)

(M241) In such cases the plot of death is commonly so well hushed up that it seldom miscarries. The first care of the conspirators is to discover where the doomed man keeps his money. For this purpose an old woman will sleep for some nights in the house and make inquiries quietly, till like a sleuth-hound she has nosed the hoard. Then the conspirators come, and the candidate for the chieftainship despatches his predecessor either with his own hand or by the hand of a young cousin. Having done the deed he takes possession of the official residence, and applies to the widow of the deceased the form of persuasion technically known as _meleket_. This consists of putting a noose round her neck, and drawing it tighter and tighter till she consents to give up her late husband’s money. After that the murderer and his friends have nothing further to do for the present, but to remain quietly in the house and allow events to take their usual course.

(M242) Meantime the chiefs assemble in the council-house, and the loud droning notes of the triton-shell, which answers the purpose of a tocsin, summon the whole population to arms. The warriors muster, and surrounding the house where the conspirators are ensconced they shower spears and stones at it, as if to inflict condign punishment on the assassins. But this is a mere blind, a sham, a legal fiction, intended perhaps to throw dust in the eyes of the ghost and make him think that his death is being avenged. In point of fact the warriors take good care to direct their missiles at the roof or walls of the house, for if they threw them at the windows they might perhaps hurt the murderer. After this formality has been satisfactorily performed, the regicide steps out of the house and engages in the genial task of paying the death duties to the various chiefs assembled. When he has observed this indispensable ceremony, the law is satisfied: all constitutional forms have been carried out: the assassin is now the legitimate successor of his victim and reigns in his stead without any further trouble.

(M243) But if he has omitted to massacre his predecessor and has allowed him to die a natural death, he suffers for his negligence by being compelled to observe a long series of complicated and irksome formalities before he can make good his succession in the eyes of the law. For in that case the title of chief has to be formally withdrawn from the dead man and conferred on his successor by a curious ceremony, which includes the presentation of a coco-nut and a taro plant to the new chief. Moreover, at first he may not enter the chief’s house, but has to be shut up in a tiny hut for thirty or forty days during all the time of mourning, and even when that is over he may not come out till he has received and paid for a human head brought him by the people of a friendly state. After that he still may not go to the sea-shore until more formalities have been fully observed. These comprise a very costly fishing expedition, which is conducted by the inhabitants of another district and lasts for weeks. At the end of it a net full of fish is brought to the chief’s house, and the people of the neighbouring communities are summoned by the blast of trumpets. As soon as the stranger fishermen have been publicly paid for their services, a relative of the new chief steps across the net and solemnly splits a coco-nut in two with an old-fashioned knife made of a Tridacna shell, while at the same time he bans all the evils that might befall his kinsman. Then, without looking at the nut, he throws the pieces on the ground, and if they fall so that the two halves lie with the opening upwards, it is an omen that the chief will live long. The pieces of the nut are then tied together and taken to the house of another chief, the friend of the new ruler, and there they are kept in token that the ceremony has been duly performed. Thereupon the fish are divided among the people, the strangers receiving half. This completes the legal ceremonies of accession, and the new chief may now go about freely. But these tedious formalities and others which I pass over are dispensed with when the new chief has proved his title by slaying his predecessor. In that case the procedure is much simplified, but on the other hand the death duties are so very heavy that only rich men can afford to indulge in the luxury of regicide. Hence in the Pelew Islands of to-day, or at least of yesterday, the old-fashioned mode of succession by slaughter is now restricted to a few families of the bluest blood and the longest purses.(723)

(M244) If this account of the existing or recent usage of the Pelew Islanders sheds little light on the motives for putting chiefs to death, it well illustrates the business-like precision with which such a custom may be carried out, and the public indifference, if not approval, with which it may be regarded as an ordinary incident of constitutional government. So far, therefore, the Pelew custom bears out the view that a systematic practice of regicide, however strange and revolting it may seem to us, is perfectly compatible with a state of society in which human conduct and human life are estimated by a standard very different from ours. If we would understand the early history of institutions, we must learn to detach ourselves from the prepossessions of our own time and country, and to place ourselves as far as possible at the standpoint of men in distant lands and distant ages.

INDEX.

Aban, a Persian month, ii. 68

Abd-Hadad, priestly king of Hierapolis, i. 163 _n._ 3

Aberdeenshire, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 79 _sq._

Abi-baal, i. 51 _n._ 4

Abi-el, i. 51 _n._ 4

Abi-jah, King, his family, i. 51 _n._ 2; “father of Jehovah,” 51 _n._ 4

Abi-melech, “father of a king,” i. 51 _n._ 4

Abi-milk (Abi-melech), king of Tyre, i. 16 _n._ 5

Abimelech massacres his seventy brothers, i. 51 _n._ 2

Abipones, of South America, their worship of the Pleiades, i. 258 _n._ 2

Abraham, his attempted sacrifice of Isaac, ii. 219 _n._ 1

Abruzzi, gossips of St. John in the, i. 245 _n._ 2; marvellous properties attributed to water on St. John’s Night in the, 246; Easter ceremonies in the, 256; the feast of All Souls in the, ii. 77 _sq._; rules as to sowing seed and cutting timber in the, 133 _n._ 3

Abu Rabah, resort of childless wives in Palestine, i. 78, 79

Abydos, head of Osiris at, ii. 11; the favourite burial-place of the Egyptians, 18 _sq._; specially associated with Osiris, 18, 197; tombs of the ancient Egyptian kings at, 19; the ritual of, 86; hall of the Osirian mysteries at, 108; representations of the Sed festival at, 151; inscriptions at, 153; temple of Osiris at, 198

Acacia, Osiris in the, ii. 111

Achaia, subject to earthquakes, i. 202

Acharaca, cave of Pluto at, i. 205 _sq._

Acilisena, temple of Anaitis at, i. 38

Adad, Syrian king, i. 15; Babylonian and Assyrian god of thunder and lightning, 163

Adana in Cilicia, i. 169 _n._ 3

Addison, Joseph, on the grotto _dei cani_ at Naples, i. 205 _n._ 1

Adhar, a Persian month, ii. 68

Adom-melech or Uri-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14, 17

_Adon_, a Semitic title, i. 6 _sq._, 16 _sq._, 20, 49 _n._ 7

Adonai, title of Jehovah, i. 6 _sq._

Adoni, “my lord,” Semitic title, i. 7; names compounded with, 17

Adoni-bezek, king of Jerusalem, i. 17

Adoni-jah, elder brother of King Solomon, i. 51 _n._ 2

Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, i. 17

Adonis, myth of, i. 3 _sqq._; Greek worship of, 6; in Greek mythology, 10 _sqq._; in Syria, 13 _sqq._; monuments of, 29; in Cyprus, 31 _sqq._, 49; identified with Osiris, 32; mourning for, at Byblus, 38; said to be the fruit of incest, 43; his mother Myrrha, 43; son of Theias, 43 _n._ 4, 55 _n._ 4; the son of Cinyras, 49; the title of the sons of Phoenician kings in Cyprus, 49; his violent death, 55; music in the worship of, 55; sacred prostitution in the worship of, 57; inspired prophets in worship of, 76; human representatives of, perhaps burnt, 110; doves burned in honour of, 147; personated by priestly kings, 223; the ritual of, 223 _sqq._; his death and resurrection represented in his rites, 224 _sq._; festivals of, 224 _sqq._; flutes played in the laments for, 225 _n._ 3; the ascension of, 225; images of, thrown into the sea or springs, 225, 227 _n._ 3, 236; born from a myrrh-tree, 227, ii. 110; bewailed by Argive women, i. 227 _n._; analogy of his rites to Indian and European ceremonies, 227; his death and resurrection interpreted as representations of the decay and revival of vegetation, 227 _sqq._; interpreted as the sun, 228; interpreted by the ancients as the god of the reaped and sprouting corn, 229; as a corn-spirit, 230 _sqq._; hunger the root of the worship of, 231; perhaps originally a personification of wild vegetation, especially grass and trees, 233; the gardens of, 236 _sqq._; rain-charm in the rites of, 237; resemblance of his rites to the festival of Easter, 254 _sqq._, 306; worshipped at Bethlehem, 257 _sqq._; and the planet Venus as the Morning Star, 258 _sq._; sometimes identified with Attis, 263; swine not eaten by worshippers of, 265; rites of, among the Greeks, 298; lamented by women at Byblus, ii. 23

Adonis and Aphrodite, i. 11 _sq._, 29, 280; their marriage celebrated at Alexandria, 224

—— and Attis identified with Dionysus, ii. 127 _n._

—— and Osiris, similarity between their rites, ii. 127

——, Attis, Osiris, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. 201

——, the river, its valley, i. 28 _sqq._; annual discoloration of the, 30, 225

Aedepsus, hot springs of Hercules at, i. 211 _sq._

Aedesius, Sextilius Agesilaus, dedicates altar to Attis, i. 275 _n._ 1

Aegipan and Hermes, i. 157

Aelian, on impregnation of Judean maid by serpent, i. 81

Aeneas and Dido, i. 114 _n._ 1

Aeschylus, on Typhon, i. 156

Aesculapius, in relation to serpents, i. 80 _sq._; reputed father of Aratus, 80 _sq._; his shrines at Sicyon and Titane, 81; his dispute with Hercules, 209 _sq._

Aeson and Medea, i. 181 _n._ 1

_Aetna_, Latin poem, i. 221 _n._ 4

Africa, serpents as reincarnations of the dead in, i. 82 _sqq._; infant burial in, 91 _sq._; reincarnation of the dead in, 91 _sq._; annual festivals of the dead in, ii. 66; worship of dead kings and chiefs in, 160 _sqq._; supreme gods in, 165, 173 _sq._, 174, 186, with _n._ 5, 187 _n._ 1, 188 _sq._, 190; worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of, 174 _sqq._; inheritance of the kingship under mother-kin in, 211

——, North, custom of bathing at Midsummer among the Mohammedan peoples of, i. 249

——, West, sacred men and women in, i. 65 _sqq._; human sacrifices in, ii. 99 _n._ 2

Afterbirth or placenta regarded as a person’s double or twin, ii. 169 _sq._ See _also_ Placenta

Afterbirths buried in banana groves, i. 93; regarded as twins of the children, 93; Shilluk kings interred where their afterbirths are buried, ii. 162

Agbasia, West African god, i. 79

Agdestis, a man-monster in the myth of Attis, i. 269

Agesipolis, King of Sparta, his conduct in an earthquake, i. 196

Agraulus, daughter of Cecrops, worshipped at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145, 146

Agricultural peoples worship the moon, ii. 138 _sq._

Agriculture, religious objections to, i. 88 _sqq._; in the hands of women in the Pelew Islands, ii. 206 _sq._; its tendency to produce a conservative character, 217 _sq._

Ahts of Vancouver Island regard the moon as the husband of the sun, ii. 139 _n._ 1

Airi, a deity of North-West India, i. 170

Aiyar, N. Subramhanya, on Indian dancing-girls, i. 63 _sqq._

Ajax and Teucer, names of priestly kings of Olba, i. 144 _sq._, 161

Akhetaton (Tell-el-Amarna), the capital of Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1

Akikuyu of British East Africa, their worship of snakes, i. 67 _sq._; their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, 82, 85

Alaska, the Esquimaux of, ii. 51; the Koniags of, 106

Albania, marriage custom in, ii. 246

Albanians of the Caucasus, their worship of the moon, i. 73

Albinoes the offspring of the moon, i. 91

Albiruni, Arab geographer, on the Persian festival of the dead, ii. 68

Alcman on dew, ii. 137

Aleutians, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. 254

Alexander Severus, at festival of Attis, i. 273

Alexander the Great expels a king of Paphos, i. 42; his fabulous birth, 81; assumes costumes of deities, 165; sacrifices to Megarsian Athena, 169 _n._ 3

Alexandria, festival of Adonis at, i. 224; the Serapeum at, ii. 119 _n._, 217

Alexandrian calendar, used by Plutarch, ii. 84

—— year, the fixed, ii. 28, 92; Plutarch’s use of the, 49

All Saints, feast of, perhaps substituted for an old pagan festival of the dead, ii. 82 _sq._

All Souls, feast of, ii. 51 _sqq._; originally a pagan festival of the dead, 81; instituted by Odilo, abbot of Clugny, 82

Allatu, Babylonian goddess, i. 9

Allifae in Samnium, baths of Hercules at, i. 213 _n._ 2

Almo, procession to the river, in the rites of Attis, i. 273.

Almond causes virgin to conceive, i. 263; the father of all things, 263 _sq._

Alyattes, king of Lydia, i. 133 _n._ 1

Alynomus, king of Paphos, i. 43

Amambwe, a Bantu tribe of Northern Rhodesia, its head chief reincarnated in a lion, ii. 193

Amasis, king of Egypt, his body burnt by Cambyses, i. 176 _n._ 2

Amathus, in Cyprus, Adonis and Melcarth at, i. 32, 117; statue of lion-slaying god found at, 117

Amatongo, ancestral spirits (Zulu term), i. 74 _n._ 4, ii. 184

Ambabai, an Indian goddess, i. 243

Ambala District, Punjaub, i. 94

Amélineau, E., discovers the tomb of King Khent, ii. 21 _n._ 1

Amenophis IV., king of Egypt, his attempt to abolish all gods but the sun-god, ii. 123 _sqq._

America, reincarnation of the dead in, i. 91; the moon worshipped by the agricultural Indians of tropical, ii. 138

Amestris, wife of Xerxes, her sacrifice of children, ii. 220 _sq._

Ammon, Milcom, the god of, i. 19

Ammon (the Egyptian) at Thebes, his human wives, i. 72; of Thebes identified with the sun, ii. 123; rage of King Amenophis IV. against the god, 124

Amoor, Gilyaks of the, i. 278 _n._ 2

Amorites, their law as to fornication, i. 37 _sq._

Amsanctus, the valley of, i. 204 _sq._

Amulets, crowns and wreaths as, ii. 242 _sq._

Amyclae, in the vale of Sparta, i. 313, 314, 315

Amyclas, father of Hyacinth, i. 313

Anacreon, on Cinyras, i. 55

Anacyndaraxes, father of Sardanapalus, i. 172

Anaitis, sacred prostitution in the worship of, i. 38

_Anassa_, “Queen,” title of goddess, i. 35 _n._ 2

Anazarba or Anazarbus, in Cilicia, i. 167 _n._ 1

Ancestor-worship among the Khasis of Assam, ii. 203; combined with mother-kin tends to a predominance of goddesses over gods in religion, 211 _sq._

Ancestors, propitiation of deceased, i. 46; the worship of, the main practical religion of the Bantu tribes, ii. 176 _sqq._

Ancestral spirits on shoulders of medicine-men, i. 74 _n._ 4; incarnate in serpents, 82 _sqq._; in the form of animals, 83; worshipped by the Bantu tribes of Africa, ii. 174 _sqq._; prayers to, 175 _sq._, 178 _sq._, 183 _sq._; sacrifices to, 175, 178 _s.q._, 180, 181 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 190; on the father’s and on the mother’s side, the two distinguished, 180, 181. _See also_ Dead

Anchiale in Cilicia, i. 144; monument of Sardanapalus at, 172

Andania in Messenia, sacred men and women at, i. 76 _n._ 3

Andriamasinavalona, a Hova king, vicarious sacrifice for, ii. 221

Anemone, the scarlet, sprung from the blood of Adonis, i. 226

Angel, the Destroying, over Jerusalem, i. 24

Angus, belief as to the weaning of children in, ii. 148

Anhalt, custom at sowing in, i. 239

Animals sacrificed by being hanged, i. 289 _sq._, 292; and plants, edible, savage lamentations for, ii. 43 _sq._; dead kings and chiefs incarnate in, 162, 163 _sq._, 173, 193; sacrificed to prolong the life of kings, 222

Anje-a, a mythical being who brings children to women, i. 103

Anklets made of human sinews worn by king of Uganda, ii. 224 _sq._

Ankole, in Central Africa, the Bahima of, ii. 190

Anna, sister of Dido, i. 114 _n._ 1

Annam, offerings to the dead in spring in, i. 235 _n._ 1; annual festivals of the dead in, ii. 62 _sqq._

Annual death and resurrection of gods, i. 6

Anointing as a ceremony of consecration, i. 21 _n._ 2 and 3, 68, 74

—— sacred stones, custom of, i. 36

Antelopes, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. 163

_Anthesteria_, festival of the dead at Athens, i. 234 _sq._

Antigonus, King, i. 212

Antimachia in Cos, priest of Hercules at, ii. 258

Antioch, destroyed by an earthquake, i. 222 _n._ 1; festival of Adonis at, 227, 257 _sq._

Antiochus, Greek calendar of, i. 303 _n._ 3

Antwerp, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70

Anubis, Egyptian jackal-headed god, ii. 15, 18 _n._ 3, 22 _n._ 2; finds the body of Osiris, 85

Apameia, worship of Poseidon at, i. 195

Aphaca in Syria, sanctuary of Astarte at, i. 28, 259; meteor as signal for festival at, 259

Aphrodite, her sacred doves, i. 33, 147; sanctuary of, at Paphos, 33 _sqq._; the month of, 145; her blood dyes white roses red, 226; name applied to summer, ii. 41

—— and Adonis, i. 11 _sq._, 29, 280; their marriage celebrated at Alexandria, 224

—— and Cinyras, i. 48 _sq._

—— and Pygmalion, i. 49 _sq._

—— of the Lebanon, the mourning, i. 29 _sq._

Apinagos Indians of Brazil, their dances and presentation of children to the moon, ii. 145 _sqq._

Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, ii. 11, 119 _n._; mourning for the death of, i. 225; held to be an image of the soul of Osiris, ii. 130

Apollo, the friend of Cinyras, i. 54; music in the worship of, 54 _sq._; reputed father of Augustus, 81; the Catalonian, 147 _n._ 3; his musical contest with Marsyas, 288; purified at Tempe, ii. 240

—— and Artemis, their priesthood at Ephesus, ii. 243 _sq._

—— and Marsyas, i. 55

—— at Delphi, sacrifices of Croesus to, i. 180 _n._ 1; and the Dragon at Delphi, ii. 240

—— of the Golden Sword, i. 176

—— the Four-handed, ii. 250 _n._ 2

Apotheosis by being burnt alive, i. 179 _sq._

Appian, on the costume of a priest of Isis, ii. 85 _n._ 3

Apples forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280 _n._ 7

Apuleius, on the worship of Isis, ii. 119 _n._

Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226

Arabic writer on the mourning for Tá-uz (Tammuz) in Harran, i. 230

Arabs resort to the springs of Callirrhoe in Moab, i. 215 _sq._

—— of Moab, their custom at harvest, ii. 48, 96; their remedies for ailments, 242

Aratus of Sicyon, deemed a son of Aesculapius, i. 81

Araucanian Indians of South America eat fruit of Araucanian pine, i. 278 _n._ 2

Araunah, the threshing-floor of, i. 24

Arcadians sacrifice to thunder and lightning, i. 157

Archigallus, high-priest of Attis, i. 268, 279; prophesies, 271 _n._

Arctic origin, alleged, of the Aryans, i. 229 _n._ 1

Arenna or Arinna, i. 136 _n._ 1; the sun-goddess of, 136

Arensdorf, custom at sowing in, i. 239

Argaeus, Mount, in Cappadocia, i. 190 _sq._

Argive brides wore false beards, ii. 260

—— women bewail Adonis, i. 227 _n._

Aristomenes, Messenian hero, his fabulous birth, i. 81

Aristophanes, on the Spartan envoy, i. 196 _n._ 4; on Hercules as patron of hot springs, 209

Aristotelian philosophy, revival of the, i. 301

Aristotle on the political institutions of Cyprus, i. 49 _n._ 7; on earthquakes, 211 _n._ 3

_Armengols_, in the Pelew Islands, ii. 265

Armenia, sacred prostitution of girls before marriage in, i. 38, 58

Armenians, their festivals of the dead, ii. 65 _sq._; their opinion of the baleful influence of the moon on children, 148

Arrian on Attis, i. 282

Artemis at Perga, i. 35; name given by Greeks to Asiatic Mother Goddesses, 169

—— and Apollo, their priesthood at Ephesus, ii. 243

—— of Ephesus served by eunuch priests, i. 269

—— the Hanged, i. 291

——, Laphrian, at Patrae, i. 126 _n._ 2

——, Perasian, at Castabala, i. 115, 167 _sqq._

——, Sarpedonian, in Cilicia, i. 167, 171

—— Tauropolis, i. 275 _n._ 1

——, the Tauric, human sacrifices to the, i. 115

Artemision, a Greek month, ii. 239 _n._ 1

Arunta of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 99, 100

Arval Brethren, their wreaths of corn, i. 44 _n._; a Roman college of priests, ii. 239

Aryan family, marriage customs of the, ii. 235

Aryans, their alleged Arctic origin, i. 229 _n._ 1; annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. 67 _sqq._

Aryenis, daughter of Alyattes, i. 133 _n._ 1

Ascalon, the goddess Derceto at, i. 34 _n._ 3

Ascension of Adonis, i. 225

Ashantee, human sacrifices at earthquakes in, i. 201; kings of, their human sacrifices, ii. 97 _n._ 7

_Asherim_, sacred poles, i. 18, 18 _n._ 2, 107, 108

Ashes of human victims scattered by winnowing-fans, ii. 97, 106

Ashtoreth (Astarte), i. 18 _n._ 2 _See_ Astarte

Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, i. 144; confused with the legendary Sardanapalus, 173 _sq._; carries off the bones of the kings of Elam, ii. 103

Ashvin, an Indian month, i. 243

Asia Minor, priestly dynasties of, i. 140 _sq._; subject to volcanic forces, 190; subject to earthquakes, 202

Asiatic goddesses of fertility served by eunuch priests, i. 269 _sq._

Asopus, the river, i. 81

“A-souling,” custom of, in England, ii. 79

Aspalis, a form of Artemis, i. 292

Assam, the Khasis of, i. 46, ii. 202 _sqq._; the Tangkul Nagas of, ii. 57 _sqq._

Assumption of the Virgin and the festival of Diana, i. 308, 309

Assyrian cavalry, i. 25 _n._ 3

Assyrians in Cilicia, i. 173

Astarte at Byblus, i. 13 _sq._; and the _asherim_, 18; kings as priests of, 26; at Paphos, 33 _sqq._; doves sacred to, 147; identified with the planet Venus, 258; of the Syrian Hierapolis served by eunuch priests, 269 _sq._; called by Lucian the Assyrian Hera, 280 _n._ 5; the Heavenly Goddess, 303; the planet Venus her star, ii. 35

—— Aphrodite, i. 304 _n._

Asteria, mother of the Tyrian Hercules (Melcarth), i. 112

Astyages, king of the Medes, i. 133 _n._ 1

_Asvattha_ tree, i. 82

Atargatis, Syrian goddess, i. 34 _n._ 3, 137; worshipped at Hierapolis-Bambyce, 162 _sq._; derivation of the name, 162; her husband-god, 162 _sq._

Ates, a Phrygian, i. 286

Athamas, the dynasty of, i. 287

Athanasius, on the mourning for Osiris, ii. 217

’Atheh, Cilician goddess, i. 162

Athena, temple of, at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145; and hot springs, 209, 210

——, Magarsian, a Cilician goddess, i. 169 _n._ 3

—— Sciras, sanctuary of, ii. 238

Athenian boys, race of, at the vintage, ii. 238; boy carrying an olive-branch in procession, 238

Athenians, their superstition as to an eclipse of the moon, ii. 141

Athens, sacred serpent at, i. 87; the Commemoration of the Dead at, 234; sacrifice of an ox at, 296 _sq._; marriage custom at, ii. 245

Athribis, heart of Osiris at, ii. 11

Athyr, Egyptian month, ii. 8, 41, 49 _n._ 1; Osiris murdered on the seventeenth day of, 8, 84; festival of Osiris in the month of, 84 _sqq._, 91

Atonga, tribe of Lake Nyassa, their theory of earthquakes, i. 199

Attica, summer festival of Adonis in, i. 226

Attis, priests of Cybele called, i. 140; sometimes identified with Adonis, 263; myth and ritual of, 263 _sqq._; beloved by Cybele, 263, 282; legends of his death, 264; his legend at Pessinus, 264; his self-mutilation, 264 _sq._; and the pine-tree, 264, 265, 267, 271, 277 _sq._, 285, ii. 98 _n._ 5; his eunuch priests, i. 265, 266; festival of his death and resurrection in March, 267 _sqq._, 272 _sq._, 307 _sq._; violets sprung from the blood of, 267; the mourning for, 272; bath of bull’s blood in the rites of, 274 _sqq._; mysteries of, 274 _sq._; as a god of vegetation, 277 _sqq._, 279; as the Father God, 281 _sqq._; identified with Zeus, 282; as a sky-god, 282 _sqq._; emasculation of, suggested explanation of myth, 283; his star-spangled cap, 284; identified with Phrygian moon-god Men Tyrannus, 284; human representatives of, 285 _sqq._; title borne by priests of Cybele, 285, 287

——, Adonis, Osiris, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. 201

Atys, son of Croesus, his death, i. 286; early king of Lydia, 286

Aubrey, John, on soul-cakes, ii. 78

Augustine on the effeminate priests of the Great Mother, i. 298; on the heathen origin of Christmas, 305; on the discovery of corn by Isis, ii. 116; on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, 233

Augustodunum (Autun), worship of Cybele at, i. 279

Augustus reputed a son of Apollo, i. 81

Aulus Gellius on the influence of the moon, ii. 132

Aun, or On, King of Sweden, sacrifices his sons to Odin, ii. 220

Aunis, feast of All Souls in, ii. 69 _sq._

Aurelia Aemilia, a sacred harlot, i. 38

Aurohuacas, Indians of Colombia, i. 23 _n._ 2

Aust, E., on the marriage of the Roman gods, ii. 236 _n._ 1

Australia, belief as to the reincarnation of the dead in, i. 99 _sqq._

Australian aborigines, their preparation for marriage, i. 60; their belief in conception without sexual intercourse, 99 _sqq._; their cuttings for the dead, 268

Austria, leaping over Midsummer fires in, i. 251

“Awakening of Hercules,” festival at Tyre, i. 111

Awemba, Bantu tribe of Rhodesia, ii. 174; their worship of ancestral spirits, 175; their prayers to dead kings before going to war, 191 _sq._

Axe, emblem of Hittite god of thundering sky, i. 134; as divine emblem, 163; symbol of Asiatic thunder-god, 183

——, double-headed, symbol of Sandan, i. 127; carried by Lydian kings, 182; a palladium of the Heraclid sovereignty, 182; figured on coins, 183 _n._

Ba-bwende, a tribe of the Congo, i. 271 _n._

Ba-sundi, a tribe of the Congo, i. 271 _n._

Baal, Semitic god, i. 15, 16; royal names compounded with, 16; as the god of fertility, 26 _sq._; conceived as god who fertilizes land by subterranean water, 159

—— and Sandan at Tarsus, i. 142 _sq._, 161

—— of the Lebanon, i. 32

—— of Tarsus, i. 117 _sqq._, 162 _sq._

Baalath or Astarte, i. 26, 34

—— and Baal, i. 27

—— Gebal, i. 14

Baalbec, i. 28; sacred prostitution at, 37; image of Hadad at, 163

Baalim, firstlings and first-fruits offered to the, i. 27; called lovers, 75 _n._

Babylon, early kings of, worshipped as gods, i. 15; worship of Mylitta at, 36; religious prostitution at, 58; human wives of Marduk at, 71; sanctuary of Serapis at, ii. 119 _n._

Babylonia, worship of Tammuz in, i. 6 _sqq._; the moon-god took precedence of the sun-god in ancient, ii. 138 _sq._

Babylonian hymns to Tammuz, i. 9

Bacchanals tear Pentheus in pieces, ii. 98

Bacchic orgies suppressed by Roman government, i. 301 _n._ 2

Bacchylides as to Croesus on the pyre, i. 175 _sq._

Backbone of Osiris represented by the _ded_ pillar, ii. 108 _sq._

Baden, feast of All Souls in, ii. 74

Baethgen, F., on goddess ’Hatheh, i. 162 _n._ 2

Baganda, their worship of the python, i. 86; rebirth of the dead among the, 92 _sq._; their theory of earthquakes, 199; their presentation of infants to the new moon, ii. 144, 145; ceremony observed by the king at new moon, 147; their worship of dead kings, 167 _sqq._; their veneration for the ghosts of dead relations, 191 _n._ 1; their pantheon, 196; human sacrifices offered to prolong the life of their kings, 223 _sqq._

Bagishu (Bageshu) of Mount Elgon, reincarnation of the dead among the, i. 92

Bagobos of the Philippine Islands, their theory of earthquakes, i. 200; of Mindanao, their custom of hanging and spearing human victims, 290 _sq._

Baharutsis, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. 179

Bahima, their belief as to dead kings and chiefs, i. 83 _n._ 1

—— of Ankole in Central Africa, their worship of the dead, ii. 190 _sq._; their belief in a supreme god Lugaba, 190

—— of Kiziba, ii. 173

Baigas, Dravidian tribe of India, their objection to agriculture, i. 89

Bailly, French astronomer, on the Arctic origin of the rites of Adonis, i. 229

Bairu, the, of Kiziba, ii. 173

Baku, on the Caspian, perpetual fires at, i. 192

Balinese, their conduct in an earthquake, i. 198

_Baloi_, witches and wizards, ii. 104

Banana, women impregnated by the flower of the, i. 93

Bangalas of the Congo, rebirth of dead among the, i. 92. _See also_ Boloki

Bantu tribes, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82 _sqq._; their worship of ancestral spirits, ii. 174 _sqq._; their main practical religion a worship of ancestors, 176 _sqq._; their worship of the dead, 176 _sqq._, 191 _sqq._

Banyoro, their worship of serpents, i. 86 _n._ 1

Baptism of bull’s blood in the rites of Cybele, i. 274 _sqq._

Bar-rekub, king of Samal, i. 15 _sq._

Baralongs, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. 179

Barea and Kunama, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 66

Barley forced for festival, i. 240, 241, 242, 244, 251 _sq._

—— and wheat discovered by Isis, ii. 116

Barotse, a Bantu tribe of the Zambesi, their belief in a supreme god Niambe, ii. 193; their worship of dead kings, 194 _sq._

Barren women resort to graves in order to get children, i. 90; entice souls of dead children to them, 94

Barrenness of women cured by passing through holed stone, i. 36, with _n._ 4; removed by serpent, 86; children murdered as a remedy for, 95

Barrows of Halfdan, ii. 100

Barsom, bundle of twigs used by Parsee priests, i. 191 _n._ 2

Barth, H., on sculptures at BoghazKeui, i. 133 _n._ 1

Basil, pots of, on St. John’s Day in Sicily, i. 245

Basuto chiefs buried secretly, ii. 104

Basutos, worship of the dead among the, ii. 179 _sq._

Bataks of Sumatra, their theory of earthquakes, i. 199 _sq._

Batara-guru, the Batak creator, i. 199 _sq._

Bath in river at the rites of Cybele, i. 273, 274 _n._; of bull’s blood in the rites of Attis, 274 _sqq._; of image of Cybele perhaps a rain-charm, 280

—— of Aphrodite, i. 280

—— of Demeter, i. 280

—— of Hera in the river Burrha, i. 280; in the spring of Canathus, 280

Bathing on St. John’s Day or Eve (Midsummer Day or Eve), i. 246 _sqq._; pagan origin of the custom, 249

Baths of Hercules, i. 212

—— of Solomon in Moab, i. 215

Batoo Bedano, an earthquake god, i. 202

Battle, purificatory ceremonies after a, ii. 251 _sq._

—— of the gods and giants, i. 157

Baudissin, W. W. Graf von, on Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 _n._ 1; on Adonis as the personification of the spring vegetation, 228 _n._ 6; on summer festival of Adonis, 232 _n._

Bavaria, gardens of Adonis in, i. 244

Bawenda, the, of South Africa, the positions of their villages hidden, ii. 251

Bearded Venus, in Cyprus, i. 165, ii. 259 _n._ 3

Beaufort, F., on perpetual flame in Lycia, i. 222 _n._

Bechuana ritual at founding a new town, ii. 249

Bechuanas, their sacrifice of a blind bull on various occasions, ii. 249, 250 _sq._

Bede, on the feast of All Saints, ii. 83

Beech, M. W. H., on serpent-worship, i. 85

_Beena_ marriage in Ceylon, ii. 215

Begbie, General, i. 62 _n._

Bel or Marduk at Babylon, i. 71

Belgium, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70

Bellerophon and Pegasus, i. 302 _n._ 4

Bellona and Mars, ii. 231

Ben-hadad, king of Damascus, i. 15

Bendall, Professor C., i. 229 _n._ 1

Benefit of clergy, i. 68

Bengal, the Oraons and Mundas of, i. 46, 240

Benin, human victims crucified at, i. 294 _n._ 3

Bent, J. Theodore, discovers ruins of Olba, i. 151; identifies site of Hieropolis-Castabala, 168 _n._ 1

Berecynthia, title of Cybele, i. 279 _n._ 4

Berenice and Ptolemy, annual festival in their honour, ii. 35 _n._ 1

Bes, Egyptian god, i. 118 _n._ 1

Bethlehem, worship of Adonis at, i. 257 _sqq._; fertility of the neighbourhood, 257 _n._ 3; the Star of, 259

Betsileo of Madagascar, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 83

Bghais, a Karen tribe of Burma, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 60 _sq._

Bhâdon, Indian month, i. 243

Bharbhunjas, of the Central Provinces, India, marriage custom of the, ii. 262

Bharias, of the Central Provinces, India, exchange of costume between men and women at marriage among the, ii. 260 _sq._

Bhujariya, festival in the Central Provinces of India, i. 242

Bilaspore, infant burial in, i. 94 _sq._; annual festival of the dead in, ii. 60

Bion on the scarlet anemone, i. 226 _n._ 1

Bird, soul of a tree in a, ii. 111 _n._ 1

—— called “the soul of Osiris,” ii. 110

Birds burnt in honour of Artemis, i. 126 _n._ 2; white, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 162

Birks, Rev. E. B., on harvest custom at Orwell, i. 237 _n._ 4

Birth, new, through blood in rites of Attis, i. 274 _sq._; of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. 153, 155 _sq._

Birthday of the Sun, the twenty-fifth of December, i. 303 _sqq._

Bisa chiefs reincarnated in pythons, ii. 193

Bishnois of the Punjaub, infant burial among the, i. 94

Bithynians invoke Attis, i. 282

Black-snake clan, i. 100

_Blay_, men’s clubhouse in the Pelew Islands, ii. 265

Blekinge, province of Sweden, Midsummer custom in, i. 251

Blind bull sacrificed at the foundation of a town, ii. 249; sacrificed before an army going to war, 250

Blood, bath of bull’s, in the rites of Attis, i. 274 _sqq._; remission of sins through the shedding of, 299; used in expiation for homicide, 299 _n._ 2; of pig used in exorcism and purification, 299 _n._ 2; not to be shed in certain sacrifices, ii. 222 _n._ 2

Blood, the Day of, in the festival of Attis, i. 268, 285

Blowing of Trumpets in the festival of Attis, i. 268

Blue Spring, the, at Syracuse, i. 213 _n._ 1

Boar, Attis killed by a, i. 264

Bocage of Normandy, rule as to the clipping of wool in the, ii. 134 _n._ 3

Bodies of the dead, magical uses made of the, ii. 100 _sqq._; guarded against mutilation, 103; thought to be endowed with magical powers, 103, 104 _sq._

Bodroum in Cilicia, ruins of, i. 167

Boghaz-Keui, Hittite capital, excavations of H. Winckler at, i. 125 _n._; situation and remains, 128 _sqq._; the gods of, 128 _sqq._; rock-hewn sculptures at, 129 _sqq._

Bohemia, May-pole or Midsummer-tree in, i. 250; feast of All Souls in, ii. 72 _sq._

Bolivia, the Chiriguanos Indians of, ii. 143 _n._ 4, 145

Boloki, or Bangala, of the Upper Congo, their ceremonies at the new moon, ii. 143; attempt to deceive spirit of disease among the, 262

Bones of the dead used in rain-making ceremonies, i. 22; of dead kings carried off or destroyed by enemies, ii. 103 _sq._

——, fossil, source of myths about giants, i. 157 _sq._

Bonfire on St. John’s Eve, dances round it, i. 245

_Book of the Dead_, ii. 13

Bor, the ancient Tyana, Hittite monument at, i. 122 _n._ 1

Borneo, custom of head-hunting in, i. 294 _sqq._; effeminate sorcerers in, ii. 253, 256

Bosanquet, Professor R. C., on the Four-handed Apollo, ii. 250 _n._ 2

Bosman, W., on serpent-worship, i. 67

Bouche, Abbé, on West African priestesses, i. 66 _n._ 3, 69

Boys of living parents in ritual, ii. 236 _sqq._; dressed as girls to avert the Evil Eye, 260; marriage customs to ensure the birth of, 262

Brahman marriage in Southern India, bride dressed as a boy at, ii. 260

Brazil, the Apinagos Indians of, ii. 145 _sqq._

Brazilian Indians, their belief in the noxious influence of the moon on children, ii. 148

Bread, fast from, in mourning for Attis, i. 272

Breasted, Professor J. H., on the eye of Horus, ii. 121 _n._ 3; on Amenophis IV., 123 _n._ 1; on the Sed festival, 156 _n._ 1

Breath not to defile sacred flame, i. 191

Brethren of the Ploughed Fields (_Fratres Arvales_), a Roman college of priests, ii. 239. _See also_ Arval Brethren

“Bride” of the Nile, ii. 38

—— and Bridegroom at Midsummer in Sweden, i. 251

Bridegroom disfigured in order to avert the evil eye, ii. 261

British Columbia, the Indians of, respect the animals and plants which they eat, ii. 44

Brittany, feast of All Souls in, ii. 69; belief as to warts and the moon in, 149

Bromo, volcano in Java, worshipped, i. 220 _sq._

Brother of a god, i. 51; dead elder, worshipped, ii. 175

Brothers and sisters, marriages of, in royal families, i. 44; in ancient Egypt, ii. 214 _sqq._; their intention to keep the property in the family, 215 _sq._

Brown, A. R., on the beliefs of the West Australian aborigines as to the causes of childbirth, i. 104 _sqq._

Brown, Dr. George, on snakes as reincarnations of chiefs, i. 84

Bruges, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70

Brugsch, H., on Egyptian names for a year, ii. 26 _n._ 1; on the Sothic period, 37 _n._; on the grave of Osiris at Philae, 111; on Isis as a personified corn-field, 117

Buddha and Buddhism, ii. 159

Buddhism, spiritual declension of, i. 310 _sq._

Budge, Dr. E. A. Wallis, on goddess Net, i. 282 _n._; on an Egyptian funeral rite, ii. 15 _n._ 2; on Isis, 115 _sq._; on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2; on the solar theory of Osiris, 131 _n._ 3; on the historical reality of Osiris, 160 _n._ 1; on Khenti-Amenti, 198 _n._ 2

Buduna tribe of West Australia, their beliefs as to the birth of children, i. 104 _sq._

Bugis of South Celebes, effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, ii. 253 _sq._

Bulgaria, marriage customs in, ii. 246

Bull as emblem of generative force, i. 123; worshipped by the Hittites, 123, 132; emblem of Hittite thunder-god, 134 _sqq._; Hittite god standing on a, 135; as emblem of a thunder-god, 136; as symbol of thunder and fertility, 163 _sq._; the emblem of the Father God, 164; worshipped at Euyuk, 164; testicles of, used in rites of Cybele and Attis, 276; sacrificed at Egyptian funeral, ii. 15; white, soul of dead king incarnate in a, 164; sacrificed to prolong the life of a king, 222; sacrificed to Zeus, the Saviour of the City, 238; blinded and sacrificed at the foundation of a town, 249

Bull’s blood, bath of, in the rites of Attis, i. 274 _sq._

—— hide cut in strips and pegged down round the site of a new town, ii. 249; bride seated on a, 246

—— skin, body of the dead placed in a, ii. 15 _n._ 2

Bulls, husband-god at Hierapolis seated on, i. 163

—— sacrificed at caves of Pluto, i. 206; sacrificed to Persephone, 213 _n._ 1; sacrificed to dead chiefs, ii. 191

Burial at cross-roads, i. 93 _n._ 1

—— of infants to ensure their rebirth, i. 91, 93 _sqq._; at Gezer, 108 _sq._; of Osiris in his rites, ii. 88

Burma, the Bghais of, ii. 60

Burmese, their conduct during an earthquake, i. 201

Burne, Miss C. S., and Miss G. F. Jackson on “Souling Day” in Shropshire, ii. 78 _sq._

Burning of Melcarth, i. 110 _sqq._; of Sandan, 117 _sqq._; of Cilician gods, 170 _sq._; of Sardanapalus, 172 _sqq._; of Croesus, 174 _sqq._; of a god, 188 _sq._

Burnings for dead kings of Judah, i. 177 _sq._; for dead Jewish Rabbis at Meiron, 178

Burns, Robert, on John Barleycorn, i. 230 _sq._

Burnt alive, apotheosis by being, i. 179 _sq._

—— Land of Lydia, i. 193 _sq._

Burrha, river, Hera’s bath in the, i. 280

Buru, East Indian island, use of oil as a charm in, i. 21 _n._ 2

Busiris, backbone of Osiris at, ii. 11; specially associated with Osiris, 18; the ritual of, 86; rites of Osiris at, 87 _sq._; festival of Osiris in the month of Khoiak at, 108; temple of Usirniri at, 151

Busiro, the district containing the graves and temples of the kings of Uganda, ii. 168, 169, 224

Bustard totem, i. 104

Buto, city in Egypt, ii. 10

Butterflies, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. 164

Byblus, Adonis at, i. 13 _sqq._; the kings of, 14 _sqq._; mourning for Adonis at, 38; religious prostitution at, 58; inspired prophets at, 75 _sq._; festival of Adonis at, 225; Osiris and Isis at, ii. 9; the queen of, 9; Osiris associated with, 22 _sq._, 127; its relation to Egypt, 127 _n._ 1

Byrsa, origin of the name, ii. 250

Cadmus turned into a snake, i. 86 _sq._; perhaps personated by the Laurel-bearer at Thebes, ii. 241

——, Mount, i. 207

Cadys, a Lydian, i. 183

Caeculus, son of the fire-god Vulcan, ii. 235

Caesar introduces the Julian calendar, ii. 37; as to German observation of the moon, 141

Caffre purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. 251 _sq._

Cairo, ceremony of cutting the dams at, ii. 38, 39 _sq._

Calabar district, heads of chiefs buried secretly in the, ii. 104

Calabria, Easter custom in, i. 254

Calauria, Poseidon worshipped in, i. 203 _n._ 2

Calendar, the natural, ii. 25

——, the Alexandrian, used by Plutarch, ii. 84

——, the Coptic, ii. 6 _n._ 3

——, the Egyptian, ii. 24 _sqq._; date of its introduction, 36 _n._ 2

—— of the Egyptian farmer, ii. 30 _sqq._

—— of Esne, ii. 49 _sq._

—— of the Indians of Yucatan, ii. 28 _n._

——, the Julian, ii. 93 _n._ 1

—— of the ancient Mexicans, its mode of intercalation, ii. 28 _n._ 3

—— of Philocalus, i. 303 _n._ 2, 304 _n._ 3, ii. 95 _n._ 1

Calendars, the Roman Rustic, ii. 95 _n._ 1

California, the Karok Indians of, ii. 47; the Indians of, their annual festivals of the dead, 52 _sq._

Californian Indians eat pine nuts, i. 278 _n._ 2; their notion that the owl is the guardian of the “California big tree,” ii. 111 _n._ 1

Callaway, Rev. Henry, on the worship of the dead among the Zulus, ii. 184 _sq._

Callirrhoe, the springs of, in Moab, i. 214 _sqq._

Calpurnius Piso, L., on the wife of Vulcan, ii. 232 _sq._

Calycadnus River, in Cilicia, i. 167 _n._ 2

Camasene and Janus, ii. 235 _n._ 6

Cambodia, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 61 _sq._

Cambridge, personal relics of Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, preserved at, ii. 197

Cambyses, king of Persia, his treatment of Amasis, i. 176 _n._ 2

Cameroon negroes, expiation for homicide among the, i. 299 _n._ 2

Camul, custom as to hospitality in, i. 39 _n._ 3

Canaanite kings of Jerusalem, i. 17

Canathus, Hera’s annual bath in the spring of, i. 280

Candaules, king of Lydia, i. 182, 183

Canicular year, a Sothic period, ii. 36 _n._ 2

Canopic decree, ii. 34 _n._ 1, 37 _n._, 88 _n._ 2

Canopus, the decree of, ii. 27

Capaneus and Evadne, i. 177 _n._ 3

Cape Bedford in Queensland, belief of the natives as to the birth of children, i. 102

Capital punishment among some peoples originally a sacrifice, i. 290 _n._ 2

Capitol at Rome, ceremonies at the rebuilding of the, ii. 244

Cappadocia, volcanic region of, i. 189 _sqq._; fire-worship in, 191 _sq._

Car Nicobar, exorcism in, i. 299 _n._ 2

Carchemish, Hittite capital on Euphrates, i. 123, 137 _n._ 2, 138 _n._

Carchi, a province of Ecuador, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 80

Caria, Zeus Labrandeus in, i. 182; poisonous vapours in, 205 _sq._

Carians, their mourning for Osiris, ii. 86 _n._ 1

Caribs worshipped the moon in preference to the sun, ii. 138

Carlyle, Thomas, on the execution of the astronomer Bailly, i. 229 _n._ 1

Carna and Janus, ii. 235 _n._ 6

Carnae, temples at, ii. 124; the sculptures at, 154

Carnival at Rome in the rites of Attis, i. 273

—— custom in Thracian villages, ii. 99 _sq._

Carpini, de Plano, on funeral customs of the Mongols, i. 293

Carthage, legend and worship of Dido at, i. 113 _sq._; Hamilcar worshipped at, 116; the _suffetes_ of, 116 _n._ 1; rites of Cybele at, 274 _n._; the effeminate priests of the Great Mother at, 298; legend as to the foundation of, ii. 250

Casalis, E., on serpent-worship, i. 84; on the worship of the dead among the Basutos, ii. 179 _sq._

Castabala in Cappadocia, i. 168

—— in Cilicia, worship of Perasian Artemis at, i. 115, 167 _sqq._

Castelnau, F. de, on the reverence of the Apinagos for the moon, ii. 146 _sq._

Castiglione a Casauria, in the Abruzzi, Midsummer custom at, i. 246

Castor’s tune, i. 196 _n._ 3

Castration of Cronus and Uranus, i. 283; of sky-god, suggested explanation of, 283; of priests, suggested explanation of, 283 _sq._

Catafalque burnt at funeral of king of Siam, i. 179

Catania in Sicily, the vineyards of, i. 194; gardens of Adonis at, 245

Catholic Church, the ritual of the, i. 54; ceremonies on Good Friday in the, 254, 255 _sq._

Cato, i. 43

Catullus on self-mutilation of a priest of Attis, i. 270

Caucasus, the Albanians of the, i. 73; the Chewsurs of the, ii. 65

Cauldron, the magical, which makes the old young again, i. 181

Caverns of Demeter, i. 88

Caves, limestone, i. 152; in Semitic religion, 169 _n._ 3

Cecrops, father of Agraulus, i. 145

Cedar forests of Cilicia, i. 149, 150 _n._ 1

—— sprung from the body of Osiris, ii. 110

—— -tree god, Osiris interpreted as a, ii. 109 _n._ 1

Celaenae, skin of Marsyas shown at, i. 288

Celebes, conduct of the inhabitants in an earthquake, i. 200

——, Central, the Toradjas of, ii. 33

——, Southern, marriage custom in, ii. 260

Celenderis in Cilicia, i. 41

Celtic year reckoned from November 1st, ii. 81

Censorinus, on the date of the rising of Sirius, ii. 34 _n._ 1

Central Provinces of India, gardens of Adonis in the, i. 242 _sq._

Ceos, the rising of Sirius observed in, ii. 35 _n._ 1; rule as to the pollution of death in, 227

Cereals cultivated in ancient Egypt, ii. 30

Ceremonies, magical, for the regulation of the seasons, i. 3 _sqq._

Ceres married to Orcus, ii. 231

Ceylon, _beena_ marriage in, ii. 215

Chadwick, Professor H. M., ii. 81 _n._ 3; on the dismemberment of Halfdan the Black, 100 _n._ 2; on a priest dressed as a woman, 259 _n._ 2

Change in date of Egyptian festivals with the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year, ii. 92 _sqq._

Chants, plaintive, of corn-reapers in antiquity, ii. 45 _sq._

Charlemagne compared to Osiris, ii. 199

Charm, to protect a town, ii. 249 _sqq._

Charon, places of, i. 204, 205

_Charonia_, places of Charon, i. 204

Chastity, ceremonial, i. 43; ordeal of, 115 _n._ 2

Chent-Ament (Khenti-Amenti), title of Osiris, ii. 87

Chephren, King of Egypt, his statue, ii. 21 _sq._

Cherokee Indians, their myth of the Old Woman of the corn, ii. 46 _sq._; their lamentations after “the first working of the corn,” 47

Cheshire, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 79

Chewsurs of the Caucasus, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 65

Cheyne, T. K., on lament for kings of Judah, i. 20 _n._ 2

Chief, ancestral, reincarnate in snakes, i. 84

Chiefs in the Pelew Islands, custom of slaying, ii. 266 _sqq._

——, dead, worshipped, ii. 175, 176, 177, 179, 181 _sq._, 187; thought to control the rain, 188; human sacrifices to, 191; spirits of, prophesy through living men and women, 192 _sq._

“Child-stones,” where souls of dead await rebirth, i. 100

Childbirth, primitive ignorance of the causes of, i. 106 _sq._

Childless women expect offspring from St. George, i. 78; resort to Baths of Solomon, 78; receive offspring from serpent, 86; resort to graves in order to secure offspring, 96; resort to hot springs in Syria, 213 _sqq._

Children bestowed by saints, i. 78 _sq._; given by serpent, 86; murdered that their souls may be reborn in barren women, 95; sacrificed to volcano in Siao, 219; sacrificed at irrigation channels, ii. 38; sacrificed by the Mexicans for the maize, 107; presented to the moon, 144 _sqq._

—— of God, i. 68

—— of living parents in ritual, ii. 236 _sqq._; apparently thought to be endowed with more vitality than others, 247 _sq._

Chili, earthquakes in, i. 202

Chimaera, Mount, in Lycia, perpetual fire on, i. 221

China, funeral of emperor of, i. 294

Chinese author on disturbance of earth-spirits by agriculture, i. 89

—— character compared to that of the ancient Egyptians, ii. 218

Chios, men sacrificed to Dionysus in, ii. 98 _sq._

Chiriguanos Indians of Bolivia, their address to the sun, ii. 143 _n._ 4

Chiriqui, volcano, i. 181

Chittim (Citium) in Cyprus, i. 31

Chnum of Elephantine identified with the sun, ii. 123

Choctaws, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 53 _sq._

Christ crucified on March 25th, tradition, i. 306

Christian, F. W., on the prostitution of unmarried girls in Yap, ii. 265 _sq._

Christian festivals displace heathen festivals, i. 308

Christianity and paganism, their resemblances explained as diabolical counterfeits, i. 302, 309 _sq._

Christians and pagans, their controversy as to Easter, i. 309 _sq._

Christmas, festival of, borrowed from the Mithraic religion, i. 302 _sqq._; the heathen origin of, 305

Chu-en-aten, name assumed by King Amenophis IV., ii. 124

Chukchees of North-Eastern Asia, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. 256 _sq._

Cicero at Cybistra, i. 122 _n._ 3; corresponds with Cilician king, 145 _n._ 2

Cilicia, male deity of, assimilated to Zeus, i. 118 _sq._; kings of, their affinity to Sandan, 144; the Assyrians in, 173

——, Western or Rugged, described, i. 148 _sqq._; fossils of, 152 _sq._

Cilician deity assimilated to Zeus, i. 144 _sqq._, 148, 152

—— Gates, pass of the, i. 120

—— goddesses, i. 161 _sqq._

—— gods, the burning of, i. 170 _sq._

—— pirates, i. 149 _sq._

—— priests, names of, i. 144

Cincius Alimentus, L., on Maia as the wife of Vulcan, ii. 232

Cinyrads, dynasty of the, i. 41 _sqq._

Cinyras, the father of Adonis, i. 13, 14, 49; king of Byblus, 27; founds sanctuary of Astarte, 28; said to have instituted religious prostitution, 41, 50; his daughters, 41, 50; his riches, 42; his incest, 43; wooed by Aphrodite, 48 _sq._; meaning of the name, 52; the friend of Apollo, 54; legends of his death, 55

Ciotat in Provence, bathing at Midsummer at, i. 248

Circumcision, exchange of dress between men and women at, ii. 263

Citium (Chittim), in Cyprus, i. 31, 50

Civilization, ancient, undermined by Oriental religions and other causes, i. 299 _sqq._

Claudianus, Lucius Minius, i. 164

Claudius, the Emperor, and the rites of Attis, i. 266

Claudius Gothicus, the Emperor, i. 266 _n._ 2

Clavigero, on the Mexican calendar, ii. 28 _n._

Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and serpents, i. 87

Cleon of Magnesia at Gades, i. 113

Climatic and geographical conditions, their effect on national character, ii. 217

Clymenus, king of Arcadia, his incest, i. 44 _n._ 1

Cnossus in Crete, prehistoric palace at, i. 34

Cochinchina, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 65

Cock as emblem of a priest of Attis, i. 279

Codrington, Dr. R. H., on mother-kin in Melanesia, ii. 211

Coimbatore, dancing-girls at, i. 62

Coincidence between the Christian and the heathen festivals of the divine death and resurrection, i. 308 _sq._

Cologne, Petrarch at, on St. John’s Eve, i. 247 _sq._

Colombia, rule as to the felling of timber in, ii. 136

Comana, in Cappadocia, i. 136 _n._ 1

—— in Pontus, worship of goddess Ma at, i. 39; swine not allowed to enter, 265 _n._ 1

——, the two cities, i. 168 _n._ 6

Commemoration of the Dead at Athens, i. 234

Commodus, conspiracy against, i. 273; addicted to the worship of Isis, ii. 118

Communal rights over women, i. 40, 61 _n._

Compromise of Christianity with paganism, parallel with Buddhism, i. 310 _sqq._

Conception, supposed, without sexual intercourse, i. 91, 93 _n._ 2, 264; in women supposed to be caused by food, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105. _See also_ Impregnation

Conceptional animals and plants as causes of pregnancy in women, i. 97 _sq._, 104 _sq._

Concubines, human, of the god Ammon, i. 72

Conder, C. R., on “holy men” in Syria, i. 77 _n._ 4; on turning money at the new moon, ii. 149 _n._ 2

Condylea in Arcadia, sacred grove of Artemis at, i. 291

Cone, image of Astarte, i. 14

Cones as emblems of a goddess, i. 34 _sqq._; votive, found in Babylonia, 35 _n._ 5

Confession of the dead, the Egyptian, ii. 13 _sq._

Confucianism, ii. 160

Congo, burial of infants on the, i. 91; priest dressed as a woman on the, ii. 254 _sq._

Conibos Indians of the Ucayali River, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198

Conical stone as divine emblem, i. 165, 166

Constantine destroys temple of Astarte, i. 28; suppresses sacred prostitution, 37; removes standard cubit from the Serapeum, ii. 216 _sq._

Consus and Ops, ii. 233 _n._ 6

Contest for the throne of Egypt, traditions of a, ii. 17 _sq._

Cook, A. B., i. 49 _n._ 6; on name of priest of Corycian Zeus, 155 _n._ 1; on the death of Romulus, ii. 98 _n._ 2; on the festival of Laurel-bearing at Thebes, 241 _n._ 3; on traces of mother-kin in the myth and ritual of Hercules, 259 _n._ 4

Coomassie, in Ashantee, i. 201

Copenhagen, bathing on St. John’s Eve at, i. 248

Coptic calendar, ii. 6 _n._ 3

Corea, dance of eunuchs in, i. 270 _n._ 2

Coreans, their ceremony on the fifteenth day of the moon, ii. 143

Corn sprouting from the dead body of Osiris, ii. 89; water thrown on the last corn cut, a rain-charm, i. 237 _sq._

—— and grapes, symbols of the god of Tarsus, i. 119, 143; of the god of Ibreez, 121; figured with double-headed axe on Lydian coin, 183

—— and vine, emblems of the gods of Tarsus and Ibreez, i. 160 _sq._

—— -god, Adonis as a, i. 230 _sqq._; Attis as a, 279; mourned at midsummer, ii. 34; Osiris as a, 89 _sqq._, 96 _sqq._

—— -reaping in Egypt, Palestine, and Greece, date of the, i. 231 _n._ 3

—— -sieve, severed limbs of Osiris placed on a, ii. 97

—— -spirit, Tammuz or Adonis as a, i. 230 _sqq._; propitiation of the, perhaps fused with a worship of the dead, 233 _sqq._; represented as a dead old man, ii. 48, 96; represented by human victims, 97, 106 _sq._

—— -stuffed effigies of Osiris buried with the dead as a symbol of resurrection, ii. 90 _sq._, 114

—— -wreaths as first-fruits, i. 43; worn by Arval Brethren, i. 44 _n._

Coronation, human sacrifices to prolong a king’s life at his, ii. 223

Corycian cave, priests of Zeus at the, i. 145; the god of the, 152 _sqq._; described, 153 _sq._; saffron at the, 187; name perhaps derived from crocus, 187

Corycus in Cilicia, ruins of, i. 153

Cos, traces of mother-kin in, ii. 259; Sacred Marriage in, 259 _n._ 4; bridegroom dressed as woman in, 260

Cosenza in Calabria, Easter custom at, i. 254

Cotys, king of Lydia, i. 187

Cow, image of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. 50, 84; Isis represented with the head of a, 50; thought to be impregnated by moonshine, 130 _sq._

—— goddess Shenty, ii. 88

Cows sacred to Isis, ii. 50

Creation of the world thought to be annually repeated, i. 284

Crescent-shaped chest in the rites of Osiris, ii. 85, 130

Crests of the Cilician pirates, i. 149

Crete, sacred trees and pillars in, i. 107 _n._ 2

Crimea, the Taurians of the, i. 294

Crocodile-shaped hero, i. 139 _n._ 1

Croesus, king of Lydia, captures Pteria, i. 128; the burning of, 174 sqq., 179; his burnt offerings to Apollo at Delphi, 180 _n._ 1; dedicates golden lion at Delphi, 184; his son Atys, 286

Cronion, a Greek month, ii. 238.

Cronus, identified with Phoenician El, i. 166; castrates his father Uranus and is castrated by his son Zeus, 283; name applied to winter, ii. 41

Crook and scourge or flail, the emblems of Osiris, ii. 108, 153, compare 20

Crooke, W., on sacred dancing-girls, i. 65 _n._ 1; on Mohammedan saints, 78 _n._ 2; on infant burial, 93 _sq._; on the custom of the False Bride, ii. 262 _n._ 2

Crops dependent on serpent-god, i. 67; human victims sacrificed for the, 290 _sq._

Cross-roads, burial at, i. 93 _n._ 1

Crown-wearer, priest of Hercules at Tarsus, i. 143

Crowns as amulets, ii. 242 _sq._; laid aside in mourning, etc., 243 _n._ 2

—— of Egypt, the White and the Red, ii. 21 _n._ 1

Crucifixion of Christ, tradition as to the date of, i. 306

—— of human victims at Benin, i. 294 _n._ 3; gentile, at the spring equinox, 307 _n._

_Crux ansata_, the Egyptian symbol of life, ii. 89

Cubit, the standard, kept in the temple of Serapis, ii. 217

Cultivation of staple food in the hands of women (Pelew Islands), ii. 206 _sq._

Cumont, Professor Franz, on the _taurobolium_, i. 275 _n._ 1; on the Nativity of the Sun, 303 _n._ 3; as to the parallel between Easter and the rites of Attis, 310 _n._ 1

Customs of the Pelew Islanders, ii. 253 _sqq._, 266 _sqq._

Cuthar, father of Adonis, i. 13 _n._ 2

Cuttings for the dead, i. 268

Cyaxares, king of the Medes, i. 133 _n._, 174

Cybele, the image of, i. 35 _n._ 3; her cymbals and tambourines, 54; her lions and turreted crown, 137; priests of, called Attis, 140; the Mother of the Gods, 263; her love for Attis, 263, 282; her worship adopted by the Romans, 265; sacrifice of virility to image of, 268; subterranean chambers of, 268; orgiastic rites of, 278; a goddess of fertility, 279; worshipped in Gaul, 279; fasts observed by the worshippers of, 280; a friend of Marsyas, 288; effeminate priests of, ii. 257, 258

Cybistra in Cappadocia, i. 120, 122, 124

Cymbal, drinking out of a, i. 274

Cymbals in religious music, i. 52, 54

—— and tambourines in worship of Cybele, i. 54

Cynopolis, the cemetery of, ii. 90

Cypriote syllabary, i. 49 _n._ 7

Cyprus, Phoenicians in, i. 31 _sq._; Adonis in, 31 _sqq._; sacred prostitution in, 36, 50, 59; Melcarth worshipped in, 117; human sacrifices in, 145 _sq._; the bearded Venus in, ii. 259 _n._ 3

Cyril of Alexandria on the festival of Adonis at Alexandria, i. 224 _n._ 2

Cyrus and Croesus, i. 174 _sqq._

Cyzicus, worship of the Placianian Mother at, i. 274 _n._

Dacia, hot springs in, i. 213

Dacotas, their theory of the waning moon, ii. 130

_Dad_ pillar. _See_ _Ded_ pillar

Dahomans, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 66

Dahomey, kings of, their human sacrifices, ii. 97 _n._ 7.

Dairyman, sacred, of the Todas, his custom as to the pollution of death, ii. 228; bound to live apart from his wife, 229

Dalisandos in Isauria, inscriptions at, ii. 213 _n._ 1

Damascus, Aramean kings of, i. 15

Damasen, a giant, i. 186

Damatrius, a Greek month, ii. 49 _n._ 1

Dams in Egypt, the cutting of the, ii. 31 _sq._, 37 _sq._, 39 _sq._

Dance of eunuchs in Corea, i. 270 _n._ 2; on the Congo, 271 _n._; of hermaphrodites in Pegu, 271 _n._; sacred, at the Sed festival, ii. 154; of king before the ghosts of his ancestor, 192

Dances, religious, i. 61, 65, 68; at festivals of the dead, ii. 52, 53, 55, 58, 59; at the new moon, 142

Dancing-girls in India, harlots and wives of the gods, i. 61 _sqq._

Dañh-gbi, python-god, i. 66

Darmesteter, James, on the Fravashis, ii. 67 _n._ 2; his theory as to the date of the _Gathas_, ii. 84 _n._

_Dâsî_, dancing-girl, i. 63

Dastarkon in Cappadocia, i. 147 _n._ 3

Dates forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280

Daughter of a god, i. 51

David, King, in relation to the old kings of Jerusalem, i. 18 _sq._; his conquest of Ammon, 19; his taking of a census, 24; as a harper, 52, 53, 54

—— and Goliath, i. 19 _n._ 2

—— and Saul, i. 21

Davis, Mr. R. F., on harvest custom in Nottinghamshire, i. 238 _n._

Day of Blood in rites of Attis, i. 268, 285

De Plano Carpini, on the funeral customs of the Mongols, i. 293

Dea Dia, a Roman goddess of fertility, ii. 239

Dead, Festival of the, in Java, i. 220; worship of the, perhaps fused with the propitiation of the corn-spirit, 233 _sqq._; cuttings for the, 268; Osiris king and judge of the, ii. 13 _sq._; the Egyptian, identified with Osiris, 16; annual festivals of the, 51 _sqq._; the spirits of the, personated by living men, 52, 53, 58; magical uses made of their bodies, 100 _sqq._; worship of the, among the Bantu tribes of Africa, 176 _sqq._ _See also_ Ancestral spirits

——, reincarnation of the, i. 82 _sqq._; in America, 91; in Africa, 91 _sq._

—— kings and chiefs worshipped in Africa, ii. 160 _sqq._; sacrifices offered to, 162, 166 _sq._; incarnate in animals, 162, 163 _sq._, 173; consulted as oracles, 167, 171, 172, 195; human sacrifices to, 173; worshipped by the Barotse, 194 _sq._

—— men believed to beget children, i. 91, 264

—— Sea, i. 23

Death in the fire as an apotheosis, i. 179 _sq._; the pollution of, ii. 227 _sqq._

—— and resurrection, annual, of gods, i. 6; of Adonis represented in his rites, 224 _sq._; coincidence between the pagan and the Christian festival of the divine, 308; of Osiris dramatically represented in his rites, ii. 85 _sq._; of Osiris interpreted as the decay and growth of vegetation, 126 _sqq._

December, the twenty-fifth of, reckoned the winter solstice, and the birthday of the Sun, i. 303 _sqq._

Decline of the civic virtues under the influence of Oriental religions, i. 300 _sq._

_Ded_ or _tet_ pillar, the backbone of Osiris, ii. 108 _sq._

Dedicated men and women in Africa, i. 65 _sqq._

Dedication of girls to the service of a temple, i. 61 _sqq._; of children to gods, 79

Dee, river, holed stone in the, i. 36 _n._ 4

Defoe, Daniel, on the Angel of the Plague, i. 24 _n._ 2

Delos, sacred embassy to, ii. 244

Delphi, Apollo and the Dragon at, ii. 240

_Delphinium Ajacis_, i. 314 _n._ 1

Demeter, her sacred caverns, i. 88; sacred vaults of, 278; sorrowing for the descent of the Maiden, ii. 41; the month of, 41; mysteries of, at Eleusis, 90; at the well, 111 _n._ 6; identified with Isis, 117

—— and ears of corn, i. 166

—— and Poseidon, i. 280

—— and the king’s son at Eleusis, i. 180

Denderah, inscriptions at, ii. 11, 86 _sqq._, 89, 91, 130 _n._; the hall of Osiris at, 110

Derceto, goddess at Ascalon, i. 34 _n._ 3

Dervishes revered in Syria, i. 77 _n._ 4; of Asia Minor, 170

Deucalion at Hierapolis, i. 162 _n._ 2

Deuteronomic redactor, i. 26 _n._ 1

Deuteronomy, publication of, i. 18 _n._ 3

Deutsch-Zepling in Transylvania, rule as to sowing in, ii. 133 _n._ 3

_Dêvadâsî_, dancing-girl, i. 63 _sq._

_Dêvaratiâl_, dancing-girl, i. 63

Dew, bathing in the, on Midsummer Eve or Day, i. 246 _sq._, 248; a daughter of Zeus and the moon, ii. 137

Diabolical counterfeits, resemblances of paganism to Christianity explained as, i. 302, 309 _sq._

Diana, a Mother Goddess, i. 45; her sanctuary at Nemi, 45

Dianus and Diana, i. 27, 45

Dido flees from Tyre, i. 50; her traditional death in the fire, 114; worshipped at Carthage, 114; meaning of the name, 114 _n._ 1; an Avatar of Astarte, 177; how she procured the site of Carthage, ii. 250

Dinant, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70

_Dinkard_, a Pahlavi work, ii. 68 _n._ 2

Dinkas, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82 _sq._; pour milk on graves, 87

Dio Chrysostom, on the people of Tarsus, i. 118; on pyre at Tarsus, 126 _n._ 1

Diodorus Siculus, on worship of Poseidon in Peloponnese, i. 203; on the burial of Osiris, ii. 10 _sq._; on the rise of the Nile, 31 _n._ 1; on the date of harvest in Egypt, 32 _n._ 2; on Osiris as a sun-god, 120; on the predominance of women over men in ancient Egypt, 214

Diomede, human sacrifices to, i. 145

Dionysus in form of bull, i. 123; with vine and ploughman on a coin, 166; ancient interpretation of, 194, 213; death, resurrection, and ascension of, 302 _n._ 4; torn in pieces, ii. 98; human sacrifices to, in Chios, 98 _sq._; his coarse symbolism, 113; identified with Osiris, 113; race of boys at vintage from his sanctuary, 238; men dressed as women in the rites of, 258; the effeminate, 259

Diospolis Parva (How), monument of Osiris at, ii. 110

Diphilus, king of Cyprus, i. 146

Disc, winged, as divine emblem, i. 132

Discoloration, annual, of the river Adonis, i. 30, 225

Discovery of the body of Osiris, ii. 85 _sq._

Disease of language the supposed source of myths, ii. 42

Disguises to avert the evil eye, ii. 262; to deceive dangerous spirits, 262 _sq._, 263 _sq._

Dismemberment of Osiris, suggested explanations of the, ii. 97; of Halfdan the Black, king of Norway, 100, 102; of Segera, a magician of Kiwai, 101; of kings and magicians, and use of their severed limbs to fertilize the country, 101 _sq._; of the bodies of the dead to prevent their souls from becoming dangerous ghosts, 188

_Ditino_, deified dead kings, ii. 194

Divination at Midsummer, i. 252 _sq._

Divining bones, ii. 180, 181

Divinities of the volcano Kirauea, i. 217

Divinity of Semitic kings, i. 15 _sqq._; of Lydian kings, 182 _sqq._

Dixmude, in Belgium, feast of All Souls at, ii. 70

Dobrizhoffer, M., on the respect of the Abipones for the Pleiades, i. 258 _n._ 2

Doctrine of lunar sympathy, ii. 140 _sqq._

_Dôd_, “beloved,” i. 19 _n._ 2, 20 _n._ 2

Dog-star. _See_ Sirius

Doliche in Commagene, i. 136

Domaszewski, Professor A., on the rites of Attis at Rome, i. 266 _n._ 2

Dorasques of Panama, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201

Dos Santos, J., Portuguese historian, on the method adopted by a Caffre king to prolong his life, ii. 222 _sq._

Double, the afterbirth or placenta, regarded as a person’s double, ii. 169 _sq._

—— -headed axe, symbol of Sandan, i. 127; carried by Lydian kings, 182; a palladium of the Heraclid sovereignty, 182; figured on coins, 183 _n._

—— -headed eagle, Hittite emblem, i. 133 _n._

Doutté, Edmond, on sacred prostitution in Morocco, i. 39 _n._ 3

Doves burnt in honour of Adonis, i. 126 _n._ 2, 147

——, sacred, of Aphrodite, i. 33; or Astarte, 147

Dowries earned by prostitution, i. 38, 59

Dragon slain by Cadmus at Thebes, ii. 241

—— and Apollo, at Delphi, ii. 240

Drama, sacred, of the death and resurrection of Osiris, ii. 85 _sq._

Dramas, magical, for the regulation of the seasons, i. 4 _sq._

Dramatic representation of the resurrection of Osiris in his rites, ii. 85

Dreams, revelations given to sick people by Pluto and Persephone in, i. 205; spirits of the dead appear to the living in, ii. 162, 190; as causes of attempted transformation of men into women, 255 _sqq._

Drenching last corn cut with water as a rain-charm, i. 237 _sq._

Drinking out of a king’s skull in order to be inspired by his spirit, ii. 171

Drought, kings answerable for, i. 21 _sq._

Drum, eating out of a, i. 274

Drums, human sacrifice for royal, ii. 223, 225

Duchesne, Mgr. L., on the origin of Christmas, i. 305 _n._ 4; on the date of the Crucifixion, 307

Dyaks of Sarawak, their custom of head-hunting, i. 295 _sq._

Ea, Babylonian god, i. 9

Eagle to carry soul to heaven, i. 126 _sq._; double-headed, Hittite emblem, 133 _n._

Ears of corn, emblem of Demeter, i. 166

Earth as the Great Mother, i. 27

—— and sky, myth of their violent separation, i. 283

——, the goddess, mother of Typhon, i. 156

Earth-goddess annually married to Sun-god, i. 47 _sq._; disturbed by the operations of husbandry, 88 _sqq._; married to Sky-god, 282, with _n._ 2

—— -spirits disturbed by agriculture, i. 89

Earthquake god, i. 194 _sqq._

Earthquakes, attempts to stop, i. 196 _sqq._

East, mother-kin and Mother Goddesses in the ancient, ii. 212 _sqq._

Easter, gardens of Adonis at, in Sicily, i. 253 _sq._; resemblance of the festival of, to the rites of Adonis, 254 _sqq._, 306; the festival of, assimilated to the spring festival of Attis, 306 _sqq._; controversy between Christians and pagans as to the origin of, 309 _sq._

“Eater of the Dead,” fabulous Egyptian monster, ii. 14

Eclipse of the moon, Athenian superstition as to an, ii. 141

Eden, the tree of life in, i. 186 _n._ 4

Edom, the kings of, i. 15; their bones burned by the Moabites, ii. 104

Edonians in Thrace, Lycurgus king of the, ii. 98, 99

Eesa, a Somali tribe, ii. 246

Effect of geographical and climatic conditions on national character, ii. 217

Effeminate sorcerers or priests, order of, ii. 253 _sqq._

Effigies of Osiris, stuffed with corn, buried with the dead as a symbol of resurrection, ii. 90 _sq._, 114

Egypt, wives of Ammon in, i. 72; date of the corn-reaping in, 231 _n._ 3; the Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice in, 303; in early June, ii. 31; mother-kin in ancient, 213 _sqq._

Egyptian astronomers acquainted with the true length of the solar year, ii. 26, 27, 37 _n._

—— calendar, the official, ii. 24 _sqq._; date of its introduction, 36 _n._ 2

—— ceremony at the winter solstice, ii. 50

—— dead identified with Osiris, ii. 16

—— farmer, calendar of the, ii. 30 _sqq._; his festivals, ii. 32 _sqq._

—— festivals, their dates shifting, ii. 24 _sq._, 92 _sqq._; readjustment of, 91 _sqq._

—— funeral rites a copy of those performed over Osiris, ii. 15

—— hope of immortality centred in Osiris, ii. 15 _sq._, 114, 159

—— kings worshipped as gods, i. 52; the most ancient, buried at Abydos, ii. 19; their oath not to correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, 26; perhaps formerly slain in the character of Osiris, 97 _sq._, 102; as Osiris, 151 _sqq._; renew their life by identifying themselves with the dead and risen Osiris, 153 _sq._; born again at the Sed festival, 153, 155 _sq._; perhaps formerly put to death to prevent their bodily and mental decay, 154 _sq._, 156

Egyptian language akin to the Semitic, ii. 161

—— months, table of, ii. 37 _n._

—— myth of the separation of earth and sky, i. 283 _n._ 3

—— people, the conservatism of their character, ii. 217 _sq._; compared to the Chinese, 218

—— reapers, their lamentations and invocations of Isis, i. 232, ii. 45, 117

—— religion, the development of, ii. 122 _sqq._; dominated by Osiris, 158 _sq._

—— standard resembling a placenta, ii. 156 _n._ 1

—— year vague, not corrected by intercalation, ii. 24 _sq._; the sacred, began with the rising of Sirius, 35

Egyptians sacrifice red-haired men, ii. 97, 106; the ancient, question of their ethnical affinity, 161

Ekoi of Southern Nigeria, their custom of mutilating men and women at festivals, i. 270 _n._ 2

El, Phoenician god, i. 13, 16 _n._ 1; identified with Cronus, 166

El-Bùgât, festival of mourning for Tammuz in Harran, i. 230

Elam, the kings of, their bones carried off by Ashurbanipal, ii. 103 _sq._

Eleusis, Demeter and the king’s son at, i. 180; sacrifice of oxen at, 292 _n._ 3; mysteries of Demeter at, ii. 90

Eli, the sons of, i. 76

Elisha prophesies to music, i. 53, 54; finds water in the desert, 53, 75

Ellis, A. B., on sacred prostitution in West Africa, i. 65 _sq._, 69 _sq._; on tattoo marks of priests, 74 _n._ 4; on an ordeal of chastity, 115

Emesa, sun-god Heliogabalus at, i. 35

Empedocles leaps into the crater of Etna, i. 181

Emperor of China, funeral of an, i. 294

Ἐναγίζειν distinguished from θύειν, i. 316 _n._ 1

Enemy, charms to disable an, ii. 252

England, harvest custom in, i. 237; the feast of All Souls in, ii. 78 _sq._

Ennius, on Hora and Quirinus, ii. 233

“Entry of Osiris into the moon,” ii. 130

Enylus, king of Byblus, i. 15 _n._

Ephesus, Artemis of, i. 269; Hecate at, 291; the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis at, ii. 243 _sq._

Epidaurus, Aesculapius at, i. 80

Epiphany, the sixth of January, i. 305

Epirus, the kings of, their bones scattered by Lysimachus, ii. 104

Equinox, the vernal, resurrection of Attis at the, i. 273, 307 _sq._; date of the Crucifixion assigned to the spring equinox, 307; tradition that the world was created at the spring equinox, 307

Erechtheum, sacred serpent in the, i. 87

Erechtheus, king of Athens, his incest with his daughter, i. 44 _n._ 1; his sacred serpent, 87

Eregli (the ancient Cybistra) in Cappadocia, i. 120, 122

Eresh-Kigal, Babylonian goddess, i. 9

_Erica_-tree, Osiris in the, ii. 9, 108, 109

Eriphyle, the necklace of, i. 32 _n._ 2

Erman, Professor A., on Anubis at Abydos, ii. 18 _n._ 3; on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, 91; on the development of Egyptian religion, 122 _n._ 2

_Erme_ or _Nenneri_, gardens of Adonis in Sardinia, i. 244

Eshmun, Phoenician deity, i. 111 _n._ 6

Esne, the festal calendar of, ii. 49 _sq._

Esquimaux of Alaska, their annual festival of the dead, i. 51 _sq._

Esthonian peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. 135

Esthonians, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. 143

Eternal life, initiate born again to, in the rites of Cybele and Attis, i. 274 _sq._

Etesian winds, i. 35 _n._ 1

Etna, Mount, Typhon buried under, i. 156, 157; the death of Empedocles on, 181; the ashes of, 194; offerings thrown into the craters of, 221

Euboea subject to earthquakes, i. 211; date of threshing in, 232 _n._; harvest custom in, 238

Eudoxus, on the Egyptian festivals, ii. 35 _n._ 2

Eunuch, priests of the Mother Goddess, i. 206; in the service of Asiatic goddesses of fertility, 269 _sq._; in various lands, 270 _n._ 2; of Attis tattooed with pattern of ivy, 278; of Cybele, ii. 258

Eunuchs, dances of, i. 270 _n._ 2, 271 _n._; dedicated to a goddess in India, 271 _n._; sacred, at Hierapolis-Bambyce, their rule as to the pollution of death, ii. 272

Euripides on the death of Pentheus, ii. 98 _n._ 5

Europe, custom of showing money to the new moon in, ii. 148 _sq._

Eusebius on sacred prostitution, i. 37 _n._ 2, 73 _n._ 1

Euyuk in Cappadocia, Hittite palace at, i. 123, 132, 133 _n._; bull worshipped at, 164

Evadne and Capaneus, i. 177 _n._ 3

Evil Eye, boys dressed as girls to avert the, ii. 260; bridegroom disfigured in order to avert the, 261; disguises to avert the, 262

Ewe farmers fear to wound the Earth goddess, i. 90

—— people of Togo-land, their belief in the marriage of Sky with Earth, i. 282 _n._ 2

—— speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, sacred prostitution among the, i. 65 _sq._; worship pythons, 83 _n._ 1

Exchange of dress between men and women in rites, ii. 259 _n._ 3; at marriage, 260 _sqq._; at circumcision, 263

Exogamous clans in the Pelew Islands, ii. 204

Exorcism by means of music, i. 54 _sq._

Expiation for homicide, i. 299 _n._ 2; Roman, for prodigies, ii. 244

Eye as a symbol of Osiris, ii. 121; of sacrificial ox cut out, 251 _sq._

—— of Horus, ii. 17, 121 with _n._ 3

——, the Evil, boys dressed as girls to avert the, ii. 260; bridegroom disfigured in order to avert, 261

Eyes of the dead, Egyptian ceremony of opening the, ii. 15

Ezekiel on the mourning for Tammuz, i. 11, 17, 20; on the Assyrian cavalry, 25 _n._ 3; on the king of Tyre, 114

False Bride, custom of the ii. 262 _n._ 2

Farnell, Dr. L. R., on Greek religious music, i. 55 _n._ 1 and 3; on religious prostitution in Western Asia, 57 _n._ 1, 58 _n._ 2; on the position of women in ancient religion, ii. 212 _n._ 1; on the Flamen Dialis, 227; on the children of living parents in ritual, 236 _sq._; on the festival of Laurel-bearing at Thebes, 242 _n._; on eunuch priests of Cybele, 258 _n._ 1

Farwardajan, a Persian festival of the dead, ii. 68

Fast from bread in mourning for Attis, i. 272

Fasts observed by the worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280; of Isis and Cybele, 302 _n._ 4

Father named after his son, i. 51 _n._ 4; of a god, 51, 52; dead, worshipped, ii. 175, 184 _sq._; the head of the family under a system of mother-kin, 211

—— -deity of the Hittites, the god of the thundering sky, i. 134 _sqq._

—— God, his emblem the bull, i. 164; Attis as the, 281 _sqq._; often less important than Mother Goddess, 282

—— -kin at Rome, i. 41

——, Mother, and Son divinities represented at Boghaz-Keui, i. 140 _sqq._

Father Sky fertilizes Mother Earth, i. 282

—— and mother, names for, i. 281; as epithets of Roman gods and goddesses, ii. 233 _sqq._

Fatherhood of God, the physical, i. 80 _sq._

Fauna, rustic Roman goddess, her relationship to Faunus, ii. 234

Faunus, old Roman god, his relationship to Fauna or the Good Goddess, ii. 234

Feast of All Saints on November 1st, perhaps substituted for an old pagan festival of the dead, ii. 82 _sq._; instituted by Lewis the Pious, 83

—— of All Souls, ii. 51 _sqq._; the Christian, originally a pagan festival of the dead, 81

—— of the Golden Flower at Sardes, i. 187

—— of Lanterns in Japan, ii. 65

Feet first, children born, custom observed at their graves, i. 93

Felkin, R. W. and C. T. Wilson, on the worship of the dead kings of Uganda, ii. 173 _n._ 2

Fellows, Ch., on flowers in Caria, i. 187 _n._ 6

Female kinship, rule of descent of the throne under, ii. 18. _See also_ Mother-kin

Fertility of ground thought to be promoted by prostitution, i. 39; promoted by marriage of women to serpent, 67; goddesses of, served by eunuch priests, 269 _sq._; Osiris as a god of, ii. 112 _sq._

Fertilization of the fig, artificial, ii. 98

Festival of “the awakening of Hercules” at Tyre, i. 111; of the Dead in Java, 220; of Flowers (_Anthesteria_), 234 _sq._; of Joy (_Hilaria_) in the rites of Attis, 273; of Sais, ii. 49 _sqq._; of Crowning at Delphi, 241

Festivals of the Egyptian farmer, ii. 32 _sqq._; of Osiris, the official, 49 _sqq._; Egyptian readjustment of, 91 _sqq._

Fetishism early in human history, ii. 43

“Field of the giants,” i. 158

Fig, artificial fertilization of the, at Rome in July, ii. 98, 259

Fiji, chiefs buried secretly in, ii. 105

Fijian god of fruit-trees, i. 90

—— Lent, i. 90

Fijians, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201

Financial oppression, Roman, i. 301 _n._ 2

Finlay, George, on Roman financial oppression, i. 301 _n._ 2

Fire, purification by, i. 115 _n._ 1, 179 _sqq._; Persian reverence for, 174 _sq._; death in the, as an apotheosis, 179 _sq._; supposed able to impregnate women, ii. 235

Fire, perpetual, in Zoroastrian religion, i. 191; worshipped, 191 _sqq._; in the temples of dead kings, ii. 174

—— -god, the father of Romulus, Servius Tullius, and Caeculus, ii. 235

—— -walk of the king of Tyre, i. 114 _sq._; of priestesses at Castabala, 168

—— -worship in Cappadocia, i. 191 _sq._

Firmicus Maternus, on the mourning for Osiris, ii. 86; on use of a pine-tree in the rites of Osiris, 108

First-born, Semitic sacrifice of the, i. 110; the sacrifice of, at Jerusalem, ii. 219 _sq._

—— -fruits offered to the Baalim, i. 27; offered to the Mother of the Gods, 280 _n._ 1; offered to dead chiefs, ii. 191

Firstlings offered to the Baalim, i. 27

Fish, soul of dead in, i. 95 _sq._

Fison, Rev. Lorimer, on Fijian god of earthquakes, i. 202 _n._; on secret burial of chiefs in Fiji, ii. 105

Flail or scourge, an emblem of Osiris, ii. 108, 153; for collecting incense, 109 _n._ 1

Flamen forbidden to divorce his wife, ii. 229; of Vulcan, 232

—— Dialis, the widowed, ii. 227 _sqq._; forbidden to touch a dead body, but allowed to attend a funeral, 228; bound to be married, 229

—— Dialis and Flaminica, i. 45 _sq._; assisted by boy and girl of living parents, ii. 236

Flamingoes, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. 163

Flaminica and her husband the Flamen Dialis, i. 45 _sq._, ii. 236

Flax, omens from the growth of, i. 244

Flower of the banana, women impregnated by the, i. 93

“—— of Zeus,” i. 186, 187

Flowers and leaves as talismans, ii. 242 _sq._

Flute, skill of Marsyas on the, i. 288

—— music, its exciting influence, i. 54

—— -players dressed as women at Rome, ii. 259 _n._ 3

Flutes played in the laments for Tammuz, i. 9; for Adonis, 225 _n._ 3

Food, virgins supposed to conceive through eating certain, i. 96; as a cause of conception in women, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105

Foreigners as kings, i. 16 _n._

Fortuna Primigenia, goddess of Praeneste, daughter of Jupiter, ii. 234

Fortune of the city on coins of Tarsus, i. 164; the guardian of cities, 164

Fossil bones in limestone caves, i. 152 _sq._; a source of myths about giants, 157 _sq._

Foucart, P., identifies Dionysus with Osiris, ii. 113 _n._ 3

Four-handed Apollo, ii. 250 _n._ 2

Fowler, W. Warde, on the celibacy of the Roman gods, ii. 230, 232 _n._ 1, 234 _n._, 236 _n._ 1

Fra Angelico, his influence on Catholicism, i. 54 _n._ 1

France, harvest custom in, i. 237; timber felled in the wane of the moon in, ii. 136

_Fratres Arvales_, ii. 239

Fravashis, the souls of the dead in the Iranian religion, ii. 67 _n._ 2, 68

French peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. 133 _n._ 3, 135

Frey, the Scandinavian god of fertility, ii. 100 _sq._

Frigento, Valley of Amsanctus near, i. 204

Frodsham, Dr., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 103 _n._ 3

Fruit-trees, worshippers of Osiris forbidden to injure, ii. 111

Fulgora, a Roman goddess, ii. 231

Funeral custom in Madagascar, ii. 247

—— pyre of Roman emperor, i. 126 _sq._

—— rites of the Egyptians a copy of those performed over Osiris, ii. 15; of Osiris, described in the inscription of Denderah, 86 _sqq._

Furies, their snakes, i. 88 _n._ 1

Furness, W. H., on the prostitution of unmarried girls in Yap, ii. 266

Gaboon, Mpongwe kings of the, ii. 104; negroes of the, regulate their planting by the moon, ii. 134

Gad, Semitic god of fortune, i. 164, 165

Gadabursi, a Somali tribe, ii. 246

Gades (Cadiz), worship of Hercules (Melcarth), at, i. 112 _sq._; temple of Melcarth at, ii. 258 _n._ 5

Galelareese of Halmahera, as to human sacrifices to volcanoes, i. 220

Gallas, their worship of serpents, i. 86 _n._ 1

Galli, the emasculated priests of Attis, i. 266, 283

Galton, Sir Francis, on the vale of the Adonis, i. 29

Game with fruit-stones played by kings of Uganda, ii. 224

—— law of the Njamus, ii. 39

Garden of Osiris, ii. 87 _sq._

Gardens of Adonis, i. 236 _sqq._; charms to promote the growth of vegetation, 236 _sq._, 239; in India, 239 _sqq._; in Bavaria, 244; in Sardinia, 244 _sq._; in Sicily, 245; at Easter, 253 _sq._

Gardens of God, i. 123, 159

Gardner, Professor E. A. on date of the corn-reaping in Greece, i. 232 _n._

Garstang, Professor J., on sculptures at Ibreez, i. 122 _n._ 1, 123 _n._ 2; on Hittite sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 133 _n._, 135 _n._; on Arenna, 136 _n._ 1; on Syrian god Hadad, 163 _n._ 3

_Gathas_, a part of the _Zend-Avesta_, ii. 84 _n._

Gaul, worship of Cybele in, i. 279

Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain, conduct of the natives in an earthquake, i. 201; the Melanesians of the, ii. 242 _sq._

Gazelles sacrificed at Egyptian funerals, ii. 15

Gebal, Semitic name of Byblus, i. 13 _n._ 3

Geese sacrificed at Egyptian funerals, ii. 15

Gellius, Aulus, his list of old Roman deities, ii. 232

Gellius, Cnaeus, on Mars and Nerio, ii. 232

Geminus, Greek astronomer, on the vague Egyptian year, ii. 26

Genital organs of Osiris, tradition as to the, ii. 10, 102; of dead man used to fertilize the fields, 102 _sq._

_Genius_, Roman, symbolized by a serpent, i. 86

Geographical and climatic conditions, their effect on national character, ii. 217

German peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. 135

Germans, the ancient, their regard for the phases of the moon, ii. 141

Germany, harvest custom in, i. 237; leaping over Midsummer fires in, 251; feast of All Souls in, ii. 70 _sqq._; popular superstition as to the influence of the moon in, 133, 140 _sq._, 149

Gezer, Canaanitish city, excavations at, i. 108

Gezo, King, i. 68

Ghineh, monument of Adonis at, i. 29

Ghost of afterbirth thought to adhere to navel-string, ii. 169 _sq._

Ghosts thought to impregnate women, i. 93; of the dead personated by living men, ii. 52, 53, 58

Giants, myths of, based on discovery of fossil bones, i. 157 _sq._

—— and gods, their battle, i. 157

Giaour-Kalesi, Hittite sculptures at, i. 138 _n._

Gilbert Islands, sacred stones in the, i. 108 _n._ 1

Gill, Captain W., on a tribe in China governed by a woman, ii. 211 _n._ 3

Gilyaks of the Amoor eat nutlets of stone-pine, i. 278 _n._ 2

Ginzel, Professor F. K., on the rise of the Nile, ii. 31 _n._ 1

Giraffes, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 162

Glaucus, son of Minos, restored to life, i. 186 _n._ 4

Goat sacrificed by being hanged, i. 292

God, children of, i. 68; sons of, 78 _sqq._; the physical fatherhood of, 80 _sq._; gardens of, 123, 159

——, the burning of a, i. 188 _sq._; the hanged, 288 _sqq._

—— of earthquakes, i. 194 _sqq._

Godavari District, Southern India, i. 95

Goddess, identified with priestess, i. 219; superiority of the, in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, ii. 201 _sq._

Goddesses, Cilician, i. 161 _sqq._; place infant sons of kings on fire to render them immortal, 180; of fertility served by eunuch priests, 269 _sq._; their superiority over gods in societies organized on mother-kin, ii. 202 _sqq._; the development of, favoured by mother-kin, 259

Gods, annual death and resurrection of, i. 6; personated by priests, 45, 46 _sqq._; married to sisters, 316; their human wives, ii. 207; made by men and worshipped by women, 211

—— and giants, the battle of, i. 157

Gold Coast of West Africa, the Tshi-speaking peoples of the, i. 69

Golden Flower, the Feast of the, i. 185

—— Sea, the, i. 150

Golgi in Cyprus, i. 35

Goliath and David, i. 19 _n._ 2

Gonds, ceremony of bringing back souls of the dead among the, i. 95 _sq._

Good Friday, effigies and sepulchres of Christ on, i. 254 _sqq._

—— Goddess (_Bona Dea_), her relationship to Faunus, ii. 234

Goowoong Awoo, volcano, children sacrificed to, i. 219

Gordias and Midas, names of Phrygian kings, i. 286

Gordon, E. M., on infant burial, i. 94 _sq._; on the festival of the dead in Bilaspore, ii. 60

Gouri, an Indian goddess of fertility, i. 241 _sq._

Gournia in Crete, prehistoric shrine at, i. 88 _n._ 1

Grandmother, title of an African priest, ii. 255

—— Earth thought to cause earthquakes, i. 198

Grandparents, dead, worshipped, ii. 175

Grapes as divine emblem, i. 165

Grave of Osiris, ii. 10 _sq._; human victims sacrificed at the, 97

—— shrines of Shilluk kings, ii. 161 _sq._; of dead kings, 194 _sq._

Graves, milk offered at, i. 87; childless women resort to, in order to ensure offspring, 96; illuminated on All Souls’ Day, ii. 72 _sq._, 74; the only places of sacrifice in the country of the Wahehe, 190

—— of kings, chiefs, and magicians kept secret, ii. 103 _sqq._; human sacrifices at, 168

“Great burnings” for kings of Judah, i. 177 _sq._

—— Marriage, annual festival of the dead among the Oraons of Bengal, ii. 59

—— men, history not to be explained without the influence of, i. 311 _n._ 2; great religious systems founded by, ii. 159 _sq._; their influence on the popular imagination, 199

—— Mother, popularity of her worship in the Roman empire, i. 298 _sq._

—— religious systems founded by individual great men, ii. 159 _sq._; religious ideals a product of the male imagination, 211

Greece, date of the corn-reaping in, i. 232 _n._; modern, marriage customs in, ii. 245 _sq._

Greek belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 86 _sq._

—— Church, ceremonies on Good Friday in the, i. 254

—— feast of All Souls in May, ii. 78 _n._ 1

—— gods, discrimination of their characters, i. 119

—— mythology, Adonis in, i. 10 _sqq._

—— notion as to birth from trees and rocks, i. 107 _n._ 1; of the noxious influence of moonshine on children, ii. 148

—— purification for homicide, i. 299 _n._ 2

—— use of music in religion, i. 54 _sq._

—— writers on the worship of Adonis, i. 223 _sq._

Gregory IV. and the feast of All Saints, ii. 83

Grenfell, B. P., and A. S. Hunt on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, ii. 90 _sq._

Grimm, Jacob, on hide-measured lands, ii. 250

Grotto of the Sibyl, at Marsala, i. 247

Growth and decay of all things associated with the waxing and waning of the moon, ii. 132 _sqq._, 140 _sqq._

Guarayos Indians of Bolivia, their presentation of children to the moon, ii. 145

Guardian spirits in the form of animals, i. 83; in serpents, 83, 86

Guaycurus of Brazil, men dressed as women among the, ii. 254 _n._ 2

Guevo Upas, the Valley of Poison, in Java, i. 203 _sq._

Gujrat District, Punjaub, i. 94

Gurdon, Major P. R. T., on the Khasis of Assam, ii. 202, 203 _n._ 1, 210 _n._ 1

Gwanya, a worshipful dead chief, ii. 177

Gyges, king of Lydia, dedicates double-headed axe to Zeus, i. 182

Gynaecocracy a dream, ii. 211

Hadad, chief male deity of the Syrians, i. 15, 16 _n._ 1; Syrian god of thunder and fertility, 163

Hadadrimmon, i. 164 _n._ 1; the mourning of or for, 15 _n._ 4

Haddon, A. C., on worship of animal-shaped heroes, i. 139 _n._ 1

Hadrian, human sacrifice suppressed in reign of, i. 146

Hair, sacrifice of women’s, i. 38; offered to goddess of volcano, 218; of head shaved in mourning for dead gods, 225; to be cut when the moon is waxing, ii. 133 _sq._

Halasarna in Cos, rites of Apollo and

Hercules at, ii. 259

Halfdan, the Black, King of Norway, dismembered after death, ii. 100

Halicarnassus, worship of Pergaean Artemis at, i. 35 _n._ 2

Hall of the Two Truths, the judgment hall in the other world, ii. 13

Halmahera, the Galelareese of, i. 220

Hamaspathmaedaya, old Iranian festival of the dead, ii. 67

Hamilcar, his self-sacrifice at the battle of Himera, i. 115 _sq._; worshipped at Carthage, 116; burns himself, 176; worshipped after death, 180

Hamilton, Alexander, on dance of hermaphrodites in Pegu, i. 271 _n._

Hamilton, Professor G. L., i. 57 _n._ 1

Hammurabi, the code of, i. 71 _n._ 3, 72 _n._ 1

Handel, the harmonies of, i. 54

Hanged god, the, i. 288 _sqq._

Hanging as a mode of sacrifice, i. 289 _sqq._

Hannah, the prayer of, i. 79

Hannibal, his prayers to Melcarth, i. 113; his retirement from Italy, 265

Hanway, J., on worship of perpetual fires at Baku, i. 192

Harmonia, the necklace of, i. 32 _n._ 2; turned into a snake, 86 _sq._

Harold the Fair-haired, ii. 100 _n._ 2

Harp, the music of the, in religion, i. 52 _sqq._

Harpalyce, her incest with her father, i. 44 _n._ 1

Harpocrates, the younger Horus, ii. 8, 9 _n._

Harran, mourning of women for Tammuz in, i. 230

Harrison, Miss J. E., on the hyacinth (_Delphinium Ajacis_), i. 314 _n._ 1

Hartland, E. S., on the reincarnation of the dead, i. 91 _n._ 3; on primitive paternity, 106 _n._ 1

Harvest, rites of, ii. 45 _sqq._; annual festival of the dead after, 61; new corn offered to dead kings or chiefs at, 162, 166, 188; prayers to the spirits of ancestors at, 175 _sq._; sacrifices to dead chiefs at, 191

—— in Egypt, the date of, ii. 32

—— custom of throwing water on the last corn cut as a rain-charm, i. 237 _sq._; of the Arabs of Moab, ii. 48, 96

Hathor, Egyptian goddess, ii. 9 _n._

Hattusil, king of the Hittites, i. 135

_Havamal_, how Odin learned the magic runes in the, i. 290

Hawaii, the volcano of Kirauea in, i. 216 _sqq._

Hawes, Mrs., on date of the corn-reaping in Crete, i. 232 _n._

Hawk, Isis in the form of a, ii. 8; the sacred bird of the earliest Egyptian dynasties, 21 _sq._; epithet regularly applied to the king of Egypt, 22

—— -town (Hieraconpolis) in Egypt, ii. 21 _sq._

Hawks carved on the bier of Osiris, ii. 20

Hazael, king of Damascus, i. 15

“Head-Feast” among the Dyaks of Borneo, i. 295 _sq._

—— -hunting in Borneo, i. 294 _sqq._

Heads of dead chiefs cut off and buried secretly, ii. 104

——, human, thought to promote the fertility of the ground and of women, i. 294 _sqq._; used as guardians by Taurians and tribes of Borneo, 294 _sqq._

Heathen festivals displaced by Christian, i. 308

—— origin of Midsummer festival (festival of St. John), i. 249 _sq._

Heavenly Virgin or Goddess, mother of the Sun, i. 303

Hebrew kings, traces of their divinity, i. 20 _sqq._

—— names ending in _-el_ or _-iah_, i. 79 _n._ 3

—— prophecy, the distinctive character of, i. 75

Hebrew prophets, their resemblance to those of Africa, i. 74 _sq._

Hebrides, peats cut in the wane of the moon in the, ii. 137 _sq._

Hecaerge, an epithet of Artemis, i. 292

Hecate at Ephesus, i. 291; sometimes identified with Artemis, 292 _n._

—— and Zeus worshipped at Stratonicea, ii. 227

Hecatombeus, a Greek month, i. 314

Hehn, V., on derivation of name Corycian, i. 187 _n._ 6

Helen of the Tree, worshipped in Rhodes, i. 292

Heliacal rising of Sirius, ii. 152

Helice, in Achaia, destroyed by earthquake, i. 203; Poseidon worshipped at, 203 _n._ 2

Heliodorus, on the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis at Ephesus, ii. 243 _sq._

Heliogabalus, sun-god at Emesa, i. 35; his sacrifice of children of living parents, ii. 248

Heliopolis (Baalbec), in Syria, i. 163 _n._ 2; sacred prostitution at, 37, 58

Heliopolis (the Egyptian), trial of the dead Osiris before the gods at, ii. 17

Hepding, H., on Attis, i. 263 _n._ 1; on Catullus’s poem _Attis_, 270 _n._ 2; on the bath of Cybele’s image, 280

Hephaestus and hot springs, i. 209

Heqet, Egyptian frog-goddess, ii. 9 _n._

Hera’s marriage with Zeus, i. 280

Heraclids, Lydian dynasty of the, i. 182, 184; perhaps Hittite, 185

Hercules identified with Melcarth, i. 16, 111; slain by Typhon and revived by Iolaus, 111; burnt on Mount Oeta, 111, 116, 211; worshipped at Gades, 112 _sq._; women excluded from sacrifices to, 113 _n._ 1; identified with Sandan, 125, 143, 161; burns himself, 176; worshipped after death, 180; the itch of, 209; his dispute with Aesculapius, 209 _sq._; the patron of hot springs, 209 _sqq._; altar of, at Thermopylae, 210; the effeminate, ii. 257, 258, 259; priest of, dressed as a woman, 258; vernal mysteries of, at Rome, 258; sacrifices to, at Rome, 258 _n._ 5

—— and the lion, i. 184

—— and Omphale, i. 182, ii. 258

—— and Sardanapalus, i. 172 _sqq._

——, the Lydian, identical with the Cilician Hercules, i. 182, 184, 185

—— with the lion’s scalp, Greek type of, i. 117 _sq._

Hereditary deities, i. 51

Herefordshire, soul-cakes in, ii. 79

Herero, a Bantu tribe of German South-West Africa, the worship of the dead among the, ii. 185 _sqq._

Hermaphrodite son of Sky and Earth, i. 282 _n._

Hermaphrodites, dance of, i. 271 _n._

Hermes and Aegipan, i. 157

Hermesianax, on the death of Attis, i. 264 _n._ 4

Hermus, river, i. 185, 186

Herod resorts to the springs of Callirrhoe, i. 214

Herodes Atticus, his benefaction at Thermopylae, i. 210

Herodotus on sanctuary of Aphrodite at Paphos, i. 34; on religious prostitution, 58; on wife of Bel, 71; on Cyrus and Croesus, 174; on the sacrifices of Croesus to Apollo, 180 _n._ 1; on so-called monument of Sesostris, 185; on the festival of Osiris at Sais, ii. 50; on the mourning for Osiris, 86; identifies Osiris with Dionysus, 113 _n._ 2; on the similarity between the rites of Osiris and Dionysus, 127; on human sacrifices offered by the wife of Xerxes, 221

Heroes worshipped in form of animals, i. 139 _n._ 1

Hertz, W., on religious prostitution, i. 57 _n._ 1, 59 _n._ 4

Hesse, custom at ploughing in, i. 239

_Hest_, the Egyptian name for Isis, ii. 50 _n._ 4, 115 _n._ 1

Hettingen in Baden, custom at sowing at, i. 239

Hezekiah, King, his reformation, i. 25, 107; date of his reign, 25 _n._ 4

Hibeh papyri, ii. 35 _n._ 1, 51 _n._ 1

Hide-measured lands, legends as to, ii. 249 _sq._

Hieraconpolis in Egypt, ii. 22 _n._ 1; representations of the Sed festival at, 151

Hierapolis, the Syrian, festival of the Pyre or Torch at, i. 146; sacred doves at, 147; great sanctuary of Astarte at, 269; eunuch priests of Astarte at, 269 _sq._

——, in the valley of the Maeander, cave of Pluto at, i. 206; hot springs at, 206 _sqq._

—— and _Hieropolis_, distinction between, i. 168 _n._ 2

—— -Bambyce, Atargatis the goddess of, i. 137, 162; mysterious golden image at, 162 _n._ 2; rules as to the pollution of death at, ii. 227

Hieroglyphics, Hittite, i. 124, 125 _n._

High-priest of Syrian goddess, i. 143 _n._ 1

—— Priestess, head of the State, ii. 203

Highlanders, Scottish, on the influence of the moon, ii. 132, 134, 140

_Hilaria_, Festival of Joy in the rites of Attis, i. 273

Hill, G. F., on image of Artemis at Perga, i. 35 _n._ 2; on legend of coins of Tarsus, 126 _n._ 2; on goddess ’Atheh, 162; on coins of Mallus, 165 _n._ 6

Hill Tout, C., on respect shown by the Indians of British Columbia for the animals and plants which they eat, ii. 44

Himalayan districts of North-Western India, gardens of Adonis in the, i. 242

Himera, the battle of, i. 115; hot springs of, 213 _n._ 1

Hindoo burial of infants, i. 94; marriage custom, old, ii. 246; worship of perpetual fire, i. 192

Hindoos of Northern India, their mode of drinking moonshine, ii. 144

Hinnom, the Valley of, i. 178; sacrifice of first-born children in, ii. 219

Hippodamia, her incest with her father, i. 44 _n._ 1

Hirpini, valley of Amsanctus in the land of the, i. 204

Hissar District, Punjaub, i. 94

History not to be explained without the influence of great men, i. 311 _n._ 2

Hittite, correct form of the national name Chatti or Hatti, i. 133 _n._

—— costume, i. 129 _sq._, 131

—— deity named Tark or Tarku, i. 147

—— god of thunder, i. 134, 163

—— gods at Tarsus and Sardes, 185

—— hieroglyphics, i. 124, 125 _n._

—— inscription on Mount Argaeus, i. 190 _n._ 1

—— priest or king, his costume, i. 131 _sq._, 133 _n._

—— sculptures at Carchemish, i. 38 _n._, 123; at Ibreez, 121 _sqq._; at Bor (Tyana), 122 _n._ 1; at Euyuk, 123; at Boghaz-Keui, 128 _sqq._; at Babylon, 134; at Zenjirli, 134; at Giaour-Kalesi, 138 _n._; at Kara-Bel, 138 _n._; at Marash, 173; in Lydia, 185

—— seals of treaty, i. 136, 142 _n._ 1, 145 _n._ 2

—— Sun-goddess, i. 133 _n._

—— treaty with Egypt, i. 135 _sq._

Hittites worship the bull, i. 123, 132; their empire, language, etc., 124 _sq._; traces of mother-kin among the, 141 _sq._

Hkamies of North Aracan, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 61

Ho tribe of Togoland, their kings buried secretly, ii. 104

Hofmayr, W., on the worship of Nyakang among the Shilluks, ii. 164, 166

Hogarth, D. G., on relics of paganism at Paphos, i. 36; on the Corycian cave, 155 _n._; on Roman remains at Tarsus, 172 _n._ 1

Hogs sacrificed to goddess of volcano, i. 218 _sq._

Hollis, A. C., on serpent-worship of the Akikuyu, i. 67 _sq._; on serpent-worship, 84 _sq._

“Holy men” in Syria, i. 77 _sq._

Hommel, Professor F., on the Hittite deity Tarku, i. 147 _n._ 3

Honey and milk offered to snakes, i. 85

Honey-cakes offered to serpent, i. 87

Hope of immortality, the Egyptian, centred in Osiris, ii. 15 _sq._, 90 _sq._, 114, 159

Hopladamus, a giant, i. 157 _n._ 2

Hora and Quirinus, ii. 233

Horkos, the Greek god of oaths, ii. 231 _n._ 5

Horned cap worn by priest or god, i. 123; of Hittite god, 134

—— god, Hittite and Greek, i. 123

—— lion, i. 127

Horns, as a religious emblem, i. 34; worn by gods, 163 _sq._

—— of a cow worn by Isis, ii. 50

Horses sacrificed for the use of the dead, i. 293 _sq._; Lycurgus, king of the Edonians, torn in pieces by, ii. 98

Horus, the four sons of, in the likeness of hawks, ii. 22; decapitates his mother Isis, 88; the eye of, 121 with _n._ 3

—— of Edfu identified with the sun, ii. 123

—— the elder, ii. 6

—— the younger, son of Isis and the dead Osiris, ii. 8, 15; accused by Set of being a bastard, 17; his combat with Set, 17; his eye destroyed by Set and restored by Thoth, 17; reigns over the Delta, 17

Hose, Ch., and McDougall, W., on head-hunting in Borneo, i. 295 _n._ 1

Hosea on religious prostitution, i. 58; on the Baalim, 75 _n._; on the prophet as a madman, 77

Hot springs, worship of, i. 206 _sqq._; Hercules the patron of, 209 _sqq._; resorted to by childless women in Syria, 213 _sqq._

Huligamma, Indian goddess, eunuchs dedicated to her, i. 271 _n._

Human representatives of Attis, i. 285 _sqq._

—— sacrifice, substitutes for, i. 146 _sq._, 285, 289, ii. 99, 221

—— sacrifices in worship of the moon, i. 73; to the Tauric Artemis, 115; to Diomede at Salamis, 145; offered at earthquakes, 201; offered at irrigation channels, ii. 38; of the kings of Ashantee and Dahomey, 97 _n._ 7; offered to Dionysus, 98 _sq._; offered by the Mexicans for the maize, 107; at the graves of the kings of Uganda, 168; to dead kings, 173; to dead chiefs, 191; to prolong the life of kings, 220 _sq._, 223 _sqq._

Human victims thrown into volcanoes, i. 219 _sq._; uses made of their skins, 293; as representatives of the corn-spirit, ii. 97, 106 _sq._; killed with hoes, spades, and rakes, 99 _n._ 2

Hunger the root of the worship of Adonis, i. 231

Hurons, their burial of infants, i. 91

Huzuls of the Carpathians, their theory of the waning moon, ii. 130; their cure for water-brash, 149 _sq._

Hyacinth, son of Amyclas, killed by Apollo, i. 313; his flower, 313 _sq._; his tomb and festival, 314 _sq._; an aboriginal deity, 315 _sq._; his sister Polyboea, 316; perhaps a deified king of Amyclae, i. 316 _sq._

Hyacinthia, the festival of Hyacinth, i. 314 _sq._

Hyacinthius, a Greek month, i. 315 _n._

Hybristica, an Argive festival, ii. 259 _n._ 3

Hygieia, the goddess, i. 88 _n._ 1

Hymns to Tammuz, i. 9; to the sun-god, ii. 123 _sq._

Hyria in Cilicia, i. 41

Ibani of the Niger delta, their sacrifices to prolong the lives of kings and others, ii. 222

Ibans or Sea Dyaks, their worship of serpents, i. 83. _See_ Sea Dyaks

Ibn Batuta, Arab traveller, on funeral of emperor of China, i. 293 _sq._

Ibreez in Southern Cappadocia, i. 119 _sqq._; village of, 120 _sq._; Hittite sculptures at, 121 _sqq._

——, the god of, i. 119 _sqq._; his horned cap, 164

Idalium in Cyprus, i. 50; bilingual inscription of, 49 _n._ 7; Melcarth worshipped at, 117

Ideals of humanity, two different, the heroic and the saintly, i. 300; great religious, a product of the male imagination, ii. 211

Ideler, L., on the date of the introduction of the fixed Alexandrian year, ii. 28 _n._ 1; on the Sothic period, 37 _n._

Ignorance of paternity, primitive, i. 106 _sq._

Il Mayek clan of the Njamus, their supposed power over irrigation water and the crops, ii. 39

Ilium, animals sacrificed by hanging at, i. 292

Illumination, nocturnal, at festival of Osiris, ii. 50 _sq._; of graves on All Souls’ Day, 72 _sq._, 74

Ilpirra of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 99

Images of Osiris made of vegetable mould, ii. 85, 87, 90 _sq._, 91

Immortality, Egyptian hope of, centred in Osiris, ii. 15 sq., 90 _sq._, 114, 159

Impregnation of women by serpents, i. 80 _sqq._; by the dead, 91; by ghosts, 93; by the flower of the banana, 93; supposed, through eating food, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105; by fire, ii. 235. _See also_ Conception

—— of Isis by the dead Osiris, ii. 8, 20

—— without sexual intercourse, belief in, i. 96 _sqq._

Incense burnt at the rites of Adonis, i. 228; burnt in honour of the Queen of Heaven, 228; collected by a flail, ii. 109 _n._ 1

Incest with a daughter in royal families, reported cases of, i. 43 _sq._

Inconsistency of common thought, i. 4

Increase of the moon the time for increasing money, ii. 148 _sq._

India, sacred women (dancing-girls) in, i. 61 _sqq._; impregnation of women by stone serpents in, 81 _sq._; burial of infants in, 93 _sq._; gardens of Adonis in, 239 _sqq._; eunuchs dedicated to a goddess in, 271 _n._; drinking moonlight as a medicine in, ii. 142

Indian ceremonies analogous to the rites of Adonis, i. 227

—— prophet, his objections to agriculture, i. 88 _sq._

Indians of tropical America represent the rain-god weeping, ii. 33 _n._ 3; of California, their annual festivals of the dead, 52 _sq._; of Brazil attend to the moon more than to the sun, 138 _n._; of San Juan Capistrano, their ceremony at the new moon, 142; of the Ucayali River in Peru, their greeting to the new moon, 142; of North America, effeminate sorcerers among the, 254, 255 _sq._

Infant sons of kings placed by goddesses on fire, i. 180

Infants buried so as to ensure their rebirth, i. 91, 93 _sqq._; burial of, at Gezer, 108 _sq._

Influence of great men on the popular imagination, ii. 199; of mother-kin on religion, 202 _sqq._

Ingarda tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 104

Ingleborough in Yorkshire, i. 152

Inheritance of property under mother-kin, rules of, ii. 203 _n._ 1

Injibandi tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 105

Insect, soul of dead in, i. 95 _sq._, ii. 162

Insensibility to pain as a sign of inspiration, i. 169 _sq._

Inspiration, insensibility to pain as sign of, i. 169 _sq._; savage theory of, i. 299

——, prophetic, under the influence of music, i. 52 _sq._, 54 _sq._, 74; through the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. 171, 172, 192 _sq._

Inspired men and women in the Pelew Islands, ii. 207 _sq._

Intercalation introduced to correct the vague Egyptian year, ii. 26, 27, 28; in the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. 28 _n._ 3

_Inuus_, epithet applied to Faunus, ii. 234 _n._ 3

Invisible, charm to make an army, ii. 251

Iolaus, friend of Hercules, i. 111

Iranian year, the old, ii. 67

Iranians, the old, their annual festival of the dead (Fravashis), ii. 67 _sq._

Ireland, sacred oaks in, i. 37 _n._ 2

Irle, J., on the religion of the Herero, ii. 186 _sq._

Iron not allowed to touch Atys, i. 286 _n._ 5

Irrigation in ancient Egypt, ii. 31 _sq._; rites of, in Egypt, 33 _sqq._; sacrifices offered in connexion with, 38 _sq._

Isa or Parvati, an Indian goddess, i. 241

Isaac, Abraham’s attempted sacrifice of, ii. 219 _n._ 1

Isaiah, on the king’s pyre in Tophet, i. 177, 178; possible allusion to gardens of Adonis in, 236 _n._ 1; on dew, 247 _n._ 1

Ishtar, great Babylonian goddess, i. 8, 20 _n._ 2; in relation to Tammuz, 8 _sq._

—— (Astarte) and Mylitta, i. 36, 37 _n._ 1

Isis, sister and wife of Osiris, ii. 6 _sq._; date of the festival of, 26 _n._ 2, 33; as a cow or a woman with the head of a cow, i. 50, ii. 50, 85, 88 _n._ 1, 91; invoked by Egyptian reapers, i. 232, ii. 45, 117; in the form of a hawk, 8, 20; in the papyrus swamps, 8; in the form of a swallow, 9; at Byblus, 9 _sq._; at the well, 9, 111 _n._ 6; her search for the body of Osiris, 10, 50, 85; recovers and buries the body of Osiris, 10 _sq._; mourns Osiris, 12; restores Osiris to life, 13; her tears supposed to swell the Nile, 33; her priest wears a jackal’s mask, 85 _n._ 3; decapitated by her son Horus, 88 _n._ 1; her temple at Philae, 89, 111; her many names, 115; sister and wife of Osiris, 116; a corn-goddess, 116 _sq._; her discovery of wheat and barley, 116; identified with Ceres, 117; identified with Demeter, 117; as the ideal wife and mother, 117 _sq._; refinement and spiritualization of, 117 _sq._; popularity of her worship in the Roman empire, 118; her resemblance to the Virgin Mary, 118 _sq._; Sirius her star, 34 _sq._, 152

Isis and the king’s son at Byblus, i. 180; and the scorpions, ii. 8

Iswara or Mahadeva, an Indian god, i. 241, 242

Italian myths of kings or heroes begotten by the fire-god, ii. 235

Italy, hot springs in, i. 213; divination at Midsummer in, 254

Itch of Hercules, i. 209

Itongo, an ancestral spirit (Zulu term, singular of Amatongo), ii. 184 _n._ 2, 185

Ivy, sacred to Attis, i. 278; sacred to Osiris, ii. 112

Jablonski, P. E., on Osiris as a sun-god, ii. 120

Jackal-god Up-uat, ii. 154

Jackal’s mask worn by priest of Isis, 11, 85 _n._ 3

Jamblichus on insensibility to pain as sign of inspiration, i. 169; on the purifying virtue of fire, 181

January, the sixth of, reckoned in the East the Nativity of Christ, i. 304

Janus in Roman mythology, ii. 235 _n._ 6

—— -like deity on coins, i. 165

Japan, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 65

Jars, children buried in, i. 109 _n._ 1

Jason and Medea, i. 181 _n._ 1

Jastrow, Professor M., on the festival of Tammuz, i. 10 _n._ 1; on the character of Tammuz, 230 _n._

Java, conduct of natives in an earthquake, i. 202 _n._ 1; the Valley of Poison in, 203 _sq._; worship of volcanoes in, 220 _sq._

Jawbone, the ghost of the dead thought to adhere to the, ii. 167 _sq._

—— and navel-string of Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, ii. 197

Jawbones, lower, of dead kings of Uganda preserved and worshipped, ii. 167 _sq._, 169 _sq._, 171 _sq._; the ghosts of the kings supposed to attach to their jawbones, 169

Jâyi or Jawâra, festival in Upper India, i. 242

_Jebel Hissar_, Olba, i. 151

Jehovah in relation to thunder, i. 22 _n._ 3; in relation to rain, 23 _n._ 1

Jensen, P., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 137 _n._ 4; on Hittite inscription, 145 _n._ 2; on the Syrian god Hadad, 163 _n._ 3

Jeremiah, on the prophet as a madman, i. 77; on birth from stocks and stones, 107

Jericho, death of Herod at, i. 214

Jerome, on the date of the month Tammuz, i. 10 _n._ 1; on the worship of Adonis at Bethlehem, 257

Jerusalem, mourning for Tammuz at, i. 11, 17, 20; the Canaanite kings of, 17; the returned captives at, 23; the Destroying Angel over, 24; besieged by Sennacherib, 25; the religious orchestra at, 52; “great burnings” for the kings at, 177 _sq._; the king’s pyre at, 177 _sq._; Church of the Holy Sepulchre at, Good Friday ceremonies in the, 255 _n._; the sacrifice of first-born children at, ii. 219

Jewish priests, their rule as to the pollution of death, ii. 230

Jews of Egypt, costume of bride and bridegroom among the, ii. 260

Joannes Lydus, on Phrygian rites at Rome, i. 266 _n._ 2

John Barleycorn, i. 230 _sq._

Johns, Dr. C. H. W., on Babylonian votaries, i. 71 _n._ 3 and 5

Johnston, Sir H. H., on eunuch priests on the Congo, i. 271 _n._

Josephus, on worship of kings of Damascus, i. 15; on the Tyropoeon, 178

Josiah, reforms of king, i. 17 _n._ 5, 18 _n._ 3, 25, 107

Jualamukhi in the Himalayas, perpetual fires, i. 192

Judah, laments for dead kings of, i. 20

Judean maid impregnated by serpent, i. 81

Julian, the emperor, his entrance into Antioch, i. 227, 258; on the Mother of the Gods, 299 _n._ 3; restores the standard cubit to the Serapeum, ii. 217 _n._ 1

Julian calendar introduced by Caesar, ii. 37, 93 _n._ 1

—— year, ii. 28

Juno, the Flaminica Dialis sacred to, ii. 230 _n._ 2; the wife of Jupiter, 231

Junod, Henri A., on the worship of the dead among the Thonga, ii. 180 _sq._

Juok, the supreme god and creator of the Shilluks, ii. 165

Jupiter, the husband of Juno, ii. 231; the father of Fortuna Primigenia, 234

Jupiter and Juturna, ii. 235 _n._ 6

—— Dolichenus, i. 136

Justice and Injustice in Aristophanes, i. 209

Justin Martyr on the resemblances of paganism to Christianity, i. 302 _n._ 4

Juturna in Roman mythology, ii. 235 _n._ 6

Kabyles, marriage custom of the, to ensure the birth of a boy, ii. 262

Kadesh, a Semitic goddess, i. 137 _n._ 2

Kai of German New Guinea, their belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 96 _sq._

Kaikolans, a Tamil caste, i. 62

Kaitish of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 99

Kalat el Hosn, in Syria, i. 78

_Kalids_, _kaliths_, deities in the Pelew Islands, ii. 204 _n._ 4, 207

Kalunga, the supreme god of the Ovambo, ii. 188

Kangra District, Punjaub, i. 94

Kantavu, a Fijian island, i. 201

Kanytelideis, in Cilicia, i. 158

Kara-Bel, in Lydia, Hittite sculpture at, i. 138 _n._, 185

Kariera tribe of West Australia, their beliefs as to the birth of children, i. 105

Karma-tree, ceremony of the Mundas over a, i. 240

Karo-Bataks, of Sumatra, their custom as to the first sheaf of rice at harvest, ii. 239

Karok Indians of California, their lamentations at hewing sacred wood, ii. 47 _sq._

Karunga, the supreme god of the Herero, ii. 186, 187 _n._ 1

_Katikiro_, Baganda term for prime minister, ii. 168

Kayans, their reasons for taking human heads, i. 294 _sq._

Keadrol, a Toda clan, ii. 228

Keb (Geb or Seb), Egyptian earth-god, father of Osiris, i. 6, 283 _n._ 3

_Ḳedeshim_, sacred men, i. 38 _n._, 59, 72, 76, 107; at Jerusalem, 17 _sq._; in relation to prophets, 76

_Ḳedeshoth_, sacred women, i. 59, 72, 107

Kemosh, god of Moab, i. 15

Kennett, Professor R. H., on David and Goliath, i. 19 _n._ 2; on Elisha in the wilderness, 53 _n._ 1; on _ḳedeshim_, 73 _n._ 1; on the sacrifice of first-born children at Jerusalem, ii. 219

Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, fossil bones in, i. 153

Keysser, Ch., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 96 _sq._

Khalij, old canal at Cairo, ii. 38

Khangars of the Central Provinces, India, bridegroom and his father dressed as women at a marriage among the, ii. 261

Khasi tribes governed by kings, not queens, ii. 210

Khasis of Assam, their system of mother-kin, i. 46, ii. 202 _sq._; goddesses predominate over gods in their religion, 203 _sq._; rules as to the succession to the kingship among the, 210 _n._ 1

Khent, early king of Egypt, ii. 154; his reign, 19 _sq._; his tomb at Abydos, 19 _sqq._; his tomb identified with that of Osiris, 20, 197

Khenti-Amenti, title of Osiris, ii. 87, 198 _n._ 2

Khoiak, festival of Osiris in the month of, ii. 86 _sqq._, 108 _sq._

Khyrim State, in Assam, i. 46; governed by a High Priestess, ii. 203

Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, a dead man, ii. 197; his personal relics preserved at Cambridge, 197

Kidd, Dudley, on the worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantus of South Africa, ii. 177 _sqq._

King, J. E., on infant burial, i. 91 _n._ 3

King, a masker at Carnival called the, ii. 99

—— of Tyre, his walk on stones of fire, i. 114 _sq._; of Uganda, his navel-string preserved and inspected every new moon, ii. 147 _sq._

Kings as priests, i. 42; as lovers of a goddess, 49 _sq._; held responsible for the weather and the crops, 183; marry their sisters, 316; slaughter human victims with their own hands, ii. 97 _n._ 7; torn in pieces, traditions of, 97 _sq._; human sacrifices to prolong the life of, 220 _sq._, 223 _sqq._

—— and magicians dismembered and their bodies buried in different parts of the country to fertilize it, ii. 101 _sq._

——, dead, reincarnate in lions, i. 83 _n._ 1; worshipped in Africa, 160 _sqq._; sacrifices offered to, 162, 166 _sq._; incarnate in animals, 162, 163 _sq._, 173; consulted as oracles, 167, 171, 172, 195; human sacrifices to, 173; worshipped by the Barotse, 194 _sq._

——, divinity of Semitic, i. 15 _sqq._; divinity of Lydian, 182 _sqq._

—— of Egypt worshipped as gods, i. 52; buried at Abydos, ii. 19; perhaps formerly slain in the character of Osiris, 97 _sq._, 102; as Osiris, 151 _sqq._; renew their life by identifying themselves with the dead and risen Osiris, 153 _sq._; born again at the Sed festival, 153, 156 _sq._; perhaps formerly put to death to prevent their bodily and mental decay, 154 _sq._, 156

Kings, Hebrew, traces of divinity ascribed to, i. 20 _sqq._

——, Shilluk, put to death before their strength fails, ii. 163

—— of Sweden answerable for the fertility of the ground, ii. 220; their sons sacrificed, 51

Kingship at Rome a plebeian institution, i. 45; under mother-kin, rules as to succession to the, ii. 210 _n._ 1; in Africa under mother-kin inherited by men, not women, 211

Kingsley, Miss Mary H., on secret burial of chief’s head, ii. 104

_Kinnor_, a lyre, i. 52

Kirauea, volcano in Hawaii, i. 216 _sq._; divinities of, 217; offerings to, 217 _sqq._

Kiriwina, one of the Trobriand Islands, annual festival of the dead in, i. 56; snakes as reincarnations of the dead in, 84; presentation of children to the full moon in, ii. 144

Kiwai, an island off New Guinea, magic for the growth of sago in, ii. 101

Kiziba, a district of Central Africa, dead kings worshipped in, ii. 173 _sq._; totemism in, 173

Klamath Indians of Oregon, their theory of the waning moon, ii. 130

Kocchs of North-Eastern India, succession to husband’s property among the, ii. 215 _n._ 2

Kois of Southern India, infant burial among the, i. 95

Komatis of Mysore, their worship of serpents, i. 81 _sq._

Koniags of Alaska, their magical uses of the bodies of the dead, ii. 106

Konkaus of California, their dance of the dead, ii. 53

_Kosio_, a dedicated person, i. 65, 66, 68

Kosti, in Thrace, carnival custom at, ii. 99 _sq._

Kotas, a tribe of Southern India, their priests not allowed to be widowers, ii. 230

Kretschmer, Professor P., on native population of Cyprus, i. 145 _n._ 3; on Cybele and Attis, 287 _n._ 2

Krishna, Hindoo god, ii. 254

Kuar, an Indian month, ii. 144

Kubary, J., on the system of mother-kin among the Pelew Islanders, ii. 204 _sqq._

Kuinda, Cilician fortress, i. 144 _n._ 1

Kuki-Lushai, men dressed as women to deceive dangerous ghosts or spirits among the, ii. 263

Kuklia, Old Paphos, i. 33, 36

Kundi in Cilicia, i. 144

Kupalo, figure of, passed across fire at Midsummer, i. 250 _sq._; a deity of vegetation, 253

Kupole’s festival at Midsummer in Prussia, i. 253

Labraunda in Caria, i. 182 _n._ 4

_Labrys_, Lydian word for axe, i. 182

Laconia, subject to earthquakes, i. 203 _n._ 2

Lactantius, on the rites of Osiris, ii. 85

Lagash in Babylonia, i. 35 _n._ 5

Lago di Naftia in Sicily, i. 221 _n._ 4

Lagrange, Father M. J., on the mourning for Adonis as a harvest rite, i. 231

Laguna, Pueblo village of New Mexico, ii. 54 _n._ 2

Lakhubai, an Indian goddess, i. 243

Lakor, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198

Lamas River in Cilicia, i. 149, 150

Lamentations of Egyptian reapers, i. 232, ii. 45; of the savage for the animals and plants which he eats, 43 _sq._; of Cherokee Indians “after the first working of the crop,” 47; of the Karok Indians at cutting sacred wood, 47 _sq._

Laments for Tammuz, i. 9 _sq._; for dead kings of Judah, 20; for Osiris, ii. 12

Lampblack used to avert the evil eye, ii. 261

Lamps lighted to show the dead the way, ii. 51 _sq._; for the use of ghosts at the feast of All Souls, 72, 73

Lancashire, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 79

Landen, the battle of, i. 234

Lane, E. W., on the rise of the Nile, ii. 31 _n._ 1

_Lantana salvifolia_, ii. 47

Lanterns, the feast of, in Japan, ii. 65

Lanzone, R. V., on the rites of Osiris, ii. 87 _n._ 5

Larnax Lapethus in Cyprus, Melcarth worshipped at, i. 117

Larrekiya, Australian tribe, their belief in conception without cohabitation, i. 103

Lateran Museum, statue of Attis in the, i. 279

Latham, R. G., on succession to husband’s property among the Kocchs, ii. 215 _n._ 2

Laurel, gold wreath of, worn by priest of Hercules, i. 143; in Greek purificatory rites, ii. 240 _sq._

—— -bearing, a festival at Thebes, in Boeotia, ii. 241

Leake, W. M., on flowers in Asia Minor, i. 187 _n._ 6

Leaping over Midsummer fires to make hemp or flax grow tall, i. 251

Leaves and flowers as talismans, ii. 242 _sq._

Lebanon, the forests of Mount, i. 14; Aphrodite of the, 30; Baal of the, 32; the charm of the, 235

Lech, a tributary of the Danube, ii. 70

Lechrain, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70 _sq._

Lecky, W. E. H., on the influence of great men on the popular imagination, ii. 199

Legend of the foundation of Carthage and similar tales, ii. 249 _sq._

Lehmann-Haupt, C. F., on the historical Semiramis, i. 177 _n._ 1

Lent, the Indian and Fijian, i. 90

Leo the Great, as to the celebration of Christmas, i. 305

Leonard, Major A. G., on sacrifices to prolong the lives of kings and others, ii. 222

Leprosy, king of Israel expected to heal, i. 23 _sq._

Lepsius, R., his identification of Osiris with the sun, ii. 121 _sq._

Leti, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198

Letopolis, neck of Osiris at, ii. 11

Letts, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 74 _sq._

Lewis the Pious, institutes the feast of All Saints, ii. 83

Leza, supreme being recognized by the Bantu tribes of Northern Rhodesia, ii. 174

Licinius Imbrex, on Mars and Nerio, ii. 232

Lightning thought by Caffres to be caused by the ghost of a powerful chief, ii. 177 with _n._ 1; no lamentations allowed for persons killed by, 177 _n._ 1;

“Lights of the dead” to enable the ghosts to enter houses, ii. 65

——, three hundred and sixty-five, in the rites of Osiris, ii. 88

Lion, deity standing on a, i. 123 _n._ 2, 127; the emblem of the Mother Goddess, 164; as emblem of Hercules and the Heraclids, 182, 184; carried round acropolis of Sardes, 184, ii. 249

—— -god at Boghaz-Keui, the mystery of the, i. 139 _sq._; of Lydia, 184

—— -slaying god, statue of, i. 117

Lions, dead kings reincarnate in, i. 83 _n._ 1, ii. 163; carved, at gate, i. 128; as emblems of the great Asiatic Mother-goddess, 137; deities seated on, 162; spirits of dead chiefs reincarnated in, ii. 193

Living parents, children of, in ritual, ii. 236 _sqq._

Loeboes, a tribe of Sumatra, exchange of costume between boys and girls among the, ii. 264

Loryma in Caria, Adonis worshipped at, i. 227 _n._

Lots, Greek custom as to the drawing of, ii. 248

Lovers, term applied to the Baalim, i. 75 _n._

Low, Hugh, on Dyak treatment of heads of slain enemies, i. 295

Lua and Saturn, ii. 233

Luangwa, district of Northern Rhodesia, prayers to dead ancestors in, ii. 175 _sq._

Lucian, on religious prostitution, i. 58; on image of goddess at Hierapolis-Bambyce, 137 _n._ 2; on the death of Peregrinus, 181; on dispute between Hercules and Aesculapius, 209 _sq._; on the ascension of Adonis, 225 _n._ 3

Lugaba, the supreme god of the Bahima, ii. 190

Lunar sympathy, the doctrine of, ii. 140 _sqq._

Lung-fish clan among the Baganda, ii. 224

Luritcha of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 99

Lushais, men dressed as women, women dressed as men, among the, ii. 255 _n._ 1

Luxor, temples at, ii. 124

Lyall, Sir Charles J., on the system of mother-kin among the Khasis, ii. 202 _sq._

Lycaonian plain, i. 123

Lycia, flowers in, i. 187 _n._ 6; Mount Chimaera in, 221; mother-kin in, ii. 212 _sq._

Lycian language, question of its affinity, ii. 213 _n._ 1

—— men dressed as women in mourning, ii. 264

Lycurgus, king of the Edonians, rent in pieces by horses, ii. 98, 99

Lycus, valley of the, i. 207

Lydia, prostitution of girls before marriage in, i. 38, 58; the lion-god of, 184; the Burnt Land of, 193 _sq._; traces of mother-kin in, ii. 259

Lydian kings, their divinity, i. 182 _sqq._; held responsible for the weather and the crops, 183

Lyell, Sir Charles, on hot springs, i. 213 _n._ 4; on volcanic phenomena in Syria and Palestine, 222 _n._ 1

Lyre as instrument of religious music, i. 52 _sq._, 54 _sq._; the instrument of Apollo, 288

Lysimachus scatters the bones of the kings of Epirus, ii. 104

Ma, goddess of Comana in Pontus, i. 39, 265 _n._ 1

Macalister, Professor R. A. Stewart, on infant burial at Gezer, i. 109 _n._ 1

Macdonald, Rev. James, on the worship of ancestors among the Bantus, ii. 176

Mace of Narmer, representation of the Sed festival on the, ii. 154

McLennan, J. F., on brother and sister marriages, i. 44 _n._ 2, ii. 216 _n._ 1

Macrobius, on the mourning Aphrodite, i. 30; on the Egyptian year, ii. 28 _n._ 3; on Osiris as a sun-god, 121; his solar theory of the gods, 121, 128; on the influence of the moon, 132

Madagascar, vicarious sacrifice for a king in, ii. 221; men dressed as women in, 254

Madonna and Isis, ii. 119

Maeander, the valley of the, subject to earthquakes, i. 194; sanctuaries of Pluto in the valley of the, 205, 206

Mafuie, the Samoan god of earthquakes, i. 200

Magarsus in Cilicia, i. 169 _n._ 3

Magic and religion, combination of, i. 4

Magical ceremonies for the regulation of the seasons, i. 3 _sqq._

—— dramas for the regulation of the seasons, i. 4 _sq._

—— uses made of the bodies of the dead, ii. 100 _sqq._

Magnesia, on the Maeander, worship of Zeus at, ii. 238

Mahadeo and Parvati, Indian deities, i. 242, 251

Mahadeva, Indian god, i. 241

Mahdi, an ancient, i. 74

Mahratta, dancing-girls in, i. 62

Maia or Majestas, the wife of Vulcan, ii. 232 _sq._

Maiau, hero in form of crocodile, i. 139 _n._ 1

Maiden, the (Persephone), the descent of, ii. 41

Malagasy use of children of living parents in ritual, ii. 247

Malay Peninsula, the Mentras or Mantras of the, ii. 140

Mallus in Cilicia, deities on coins of, i. 165 _sq._

Malta, bilingual inscription of, i. 16; Phoenician temples of, 35

Mamre, sacred oak or terebinth at, i. 37 _n._ 2

Mandingoes of Senegambia, their attention to the phases of the moon, ii. 141

Maneros, chant of Egyptian reapers, ii. 45, 46

Manes, first king of Lydia, i. 186 _n._ 5

Manetho, on the Egyptian burnt-sacrifice of red-haired men, ii. 97; on Isis as the discoverer of corn, 116; quoted by Diodorus Siculus, 120

Manichaeans, their theory of earthquakes, i. 197

Manichaeus, the heretic, his death, i. 294 _n._ 3

Manipur, the Tangkul Nagas of, ii. 57 _sq._

Mantinea, Poseidon worshipped at, i. 203 _n._ 2

Maori priest catches the soul of a tree, ii. 111 _n._ 1

Marash, Hittite monuments at, i. 173

March, festival of Attis in, i. 267

——, the twenty-fifth of, tradition that Christ was crucified on, i. 306

Marduk, human wives of, at Babylon, i. 71

Mariette-Pacha, A., on the burial of Osiris, ii. 89 _n._

Marigolds used to adorn tombstones on All Souls’ Day, ii. 71

Marks, bodily, of prophets, i. 74

Marriage as an infringement of old communal rights, i. 40; of the Sun and Earth, 47 _sq._; of women to serpent-god, 66 _sqq._; of Adonis and Aphrodite celebrated at Alexandria, 224; of Sky and Earth, 282 with _n._ 2; of the Roman gods, ii. 230 _sqq._; exchange of dress between men and women at, 260 _sqq._

——, sacred, of priest and priestess as representatives of deities, i. 46 _sqq._; represented in the rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 140; in Cos, ii. 259 _n._ 4

—— customs of the Aryan family, ii. 235; use of children of living parents in, 245 _sqq._; to ensure the birth of boys, 262

Marriages of brothers with sisters in ancient Egypt, ii. 214 _sqq._; their intention to keep the property in the family, 215 _sq._

Mars, the father of Romulus and Remus, ii. 235

—— and Bellona, ii. 231

—— and Nerio, ii. 232

Marsala in Sicily, Midsummer customs at, i. 247

Marseilles, Midsummer custom at, i. 248 _sq._

Marshall, Mr. A. S. F., on the felling of timber in Mexico, ii. 136 _n._ 3

Marsyas, his musical contest with Apollo and his death, i. 288 _sq._; perhaps a double of Attis, 289

—— and Apollo, i. 55

——, the river, i. 289

Martin, M., on the cutting of peat in the Hebrides, ii. 138

Masai, of East Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 84; their ceremonies at the new moon, ii. 142 _sq._

—— boys wear female costume at circumcision, ii. 263

—— rule as to the choice of a chief, ii. 248

Masnes, a giant, i. 186

_Masoka_, the spirits of the dead, ii. 188 _sq._

Maspero, Sir Gaston, edits the Pyramid Texts, ii. 4 _n._ 1; on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2

Masquerade at the Carnival in Thrace, ii. 99 _sq._

Masquerades at festivals of the dead, ii. 53

Massacres for sick kings of Uganda, ii. 226

Massaya, volcano in Nicaragua, human victims sacrificed to, i. 219

_Massebah_ (plural _masseboth_), sacred stone or pillar, i. 107, 108

Maternal uncle in marriage ceremonies in India, i. 62 _n._ 1

Maternity and paternity of the Roman deities, ii. 233 _sqq._

“Matriarchate,” i. 46

Maui, Fijian god of earthquakes, i. 202 _n._

Maundrell, H., on the discoloration of the river Adonis, i. 225 _n._ 4

Maury, A., on the Easter ceremonies compared with those of Adonis, i. 257 _n._ 1

Maximus Tyrius, on conical image at Paphos, i. 35 _n._

May, modern Greek feast of All Souls in May, ii. 78 _n._ 1

—— Day, ceremony at Meiron in Galilee on the eve of, i. 178

—— -pole or Midsummer-tree in Sweden and Bohemia, i. 250

Medea and her magic cauldron, i. 180 _sq._

Medicine-men of Zulus, i. 74 _n._ 4; of Wiimbaio, 75 _n._ 4

Mefitis, Italian goddess of mephitic vapours, i. 204, 205

Megalopolis, battle of gods and giants in plain of, i. 157

Megassares, king of Hyria, i. 41

Meiners, C., on purification by blood, i. 299 _n._ 2

Meiron, in Galilee, burnings for dead Jewish Rabbis at, i. 178 _sq._

Mela’s description of the Corycian cave, i. 155 _n._, 156

Melanesia, belief in conception without sexual intercourse in, i. 97 _sq._

Melanesian magicians buried secretly, ii. 105

Melanesians, mother-kin among the, ii. 211; of New Britain, their use of flowers and leaves as talismans, 242 _sq._

Melcarth, the god of Tyre, identified with Hercules, i. 16, 111; worshipped at Amathus in Cyprus, 32, 117; the burning of, 110 _sqq._; worshipped at Gades, 112 _sq._, ii. 258 _n._ 5

Melchizedek, king of Salem, i. 17

_Melech_ and Moloch, ii. 219 _sq._

Meles, king of Lydia, banished because of a dearth, i. 183; causes lion to be carried round acropolis, 184

Melicertes, a form of Melcarth, i. 113

Melite in Phthia, i. 291

Melito on the father of Adonis, i. 13 _n._ 2

Memnonium at Thebes, ii. 35 _n._

Memorial stones, ii. 203

Memphis, head of Osiris at, ii. 11; oath of the kings of Egypt at, 24; festival of Osiris in the month of Khoiak at, 108; Apis the sacred bull of, 119 _n._; the sanctuary of Serapis at, 119 _n._

Men, make gods, ii. 211; dressed as women at marriage, 262 _sqq._; dressed as women to deceive dangerous spirits, 262 _sq._; dressed as women at circumcision, 263

—— and women inspired by the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. 171, 172, 192 _sq._

—— “of God,” prophets, i. 76

Men Tyrannus, Phrygian moon-god, i. 284; custom as to pollution of death at his shrine, ii. 227

Mentras or Mantras of the Malay Peninsula, their tradition as to primitive man, ii. 140

Mephitic vapours, worship of, i. 203 _sqq._

Mercurial temperament of merchants and sailors, ii. 218

Mesha, king of Moab, i. 15; sacrifices his first-born, 110

Messiah, “the Anointed One,” i. 21

Meteor as signal for festival, i. 259

Metharme, daughter of Pygmalion, i. 41

_Methide_ plant growing over grave of Osiris, ii. 111

Mexican calendar, its mode of intercalation, ii. 28 _n._ 3

Mexicans, their human sacrifices for the maize, ii. 107

Mexico, rule as to the felling of timber in, ii. 136

Meyer, Professor Eduard, on prophecy in Canaan, i. 75 _n._ 5; on the Hittite language, 125 _n._; on costume of Hittite priest or king, 133 _n._, 141 _n._ 1; on the rock-hewn sculptures of Boghaz-Keui, 133 _n._; on Anubis at Abydos, ii. 18 _n._ 3; on the hawk as an Egyptian emblem, 22 _n._ 1; on the date of the introduction of the Egyptian calendar, 36 _n._ 2; on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2; on the relation of Byblus to Egypt, 127 _n._ 1; on the Lycian language, 213 _n._ 1

Michael Angelo, the Pietà of, i. 257

Michaelmas, 29th September, ii. 74

Midas, the tomb of, i. 286

—— and Gordias, names of Phrygian kings, i. 286

Midsummer, old heathen festival of, in Europe and the East, i. 249 _sq._; divination at, 252 _sq._

—— bathing, pagan origin of the custom, i. 249

—— Bride and Bridegroom in Sweden, i. 251

—— Day or Eve, custom of bathing on, i. 246 _sqq._

—— fires and couples in relation to vegetation, i. 250 _sq._; leaping over the fires to make flax or hemp grow tall, 251

Milcom, the god of Ammon, i. 19

Milk, serpents fed with, i. 84 _sqq._, 87; offered at graves, 87

Mill, women mourning for Tammuz eat nothing ground in a mill, i. 230

Milne, Mrs. Leslie, on the Shans, ii. 136

Milton on the laments for Tammuz, i. 226 _n._

Minoan age of Greece, i. 34

Minucius Felix on the rites of Osiris, ii. 85 _n._ 3

Miraculous births of gods and heroes, i. 107

“Mistress of Turquoise,” goddess at Sinai, i. 35

Mitani, ancient people of Northern Mesopotamia, i. 135 _n._

Mithra, Persian deity, popularity of his worship in the Roman Empire, i. 301 _sq._; identified with the Unconquered Sun, 304

Mithraic religion a rival to Christianity, i. 302; festival of Christmas borrowed from it, 302 _sqq._

Miztecs of Mexico, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 54 _sq._

Mnevis, sacred Egyptian bull, ii. 11

Moa, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198

Moab, Mesha, king of, i. 15; the wilderness of, 52 _sq._; the springs of Callirrhoe in, 214 _sqq._

——, Arabs of, their custom at harvest, ii. 48, 96; their remedies for ailments, 242

Moabite stone, the inscription on the, i. 15 _n._ 3, 20 _n._ 2, 163 _n._ 3

Moabites burn the bones of the kings of Edom, ii. 104

Models in cardboard offered to the dead instead of the things themselves, ii. 63 _sq._

Mohammedan peoples of North Africa, their custom of bathing at Midsummer, i. 249

—— saints as givers of children, i. 78 _n._ 2

Mohammedanism, ii. 160

Mohammedans of Oude, their mode of drinking moonshine, ii. 144

Moire, sister of Tylon, i. 186

Moloch, meaning of the name, i. 15; sacrifices of first-born children to, 178; the king, ii. 219 _sqq._

—— and _Melech_, ii. 219 _sq._

Mommsen, Th., on the date of the festival of Osiris at Rome, ii. 95 _n._ 1

Mongols, funeral customs of the, i. 293

Monmouthshire, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 79

Monomotapa, a Caffre king, his way of prolonging his life, ii. 222 _sq._

Montanists, their view as to the date of Creation, i. 307 _n._ 2

Months, the Egyptian, table of, ii. 37 _n._

Moon, human victims sacrificed to the, i. 73; albinoes thought to be the offspring of the, 91; popularly regarded as the cause of growth and decay, ii. 132, 138; practical rules based on a theory of the influence of the, 132 _sqq._, 140 _sqq._; popularly regarded as the source of moisture, 137 _sq._; worshipped by the agricultural Indians of tropical America, 138 _sq._; viewed as the husband of the sun, 139 _n._; Athenian superstition as to an eclipse of the, 141; children presented to the, 144 _sqq._; thought to have a harmful influence on children, 148

——, the new, ceremonies at, ii. 141 _sqq._; dances at, 142; custom of showing money to, or turning it in the pocket, 148 _sq._

——, the waning, theories to explain, ii. 130; thought to be broken or eaten up, 130

—— Being of the Omahas, ii. 256

——, the infant god, ii. 131, 153

—— -god conceived as masculine, i. 73; inspiration by the, 73; in ancient Babylonia, ii. 138 _sq._

Moonshine drunk as a medicine in India, ii. 144; thought to be beneficial to children, ii. 144

Móooi, Tongan god who causes earthquakes, i. 201

Moore, G. F., on the burnt sacrifice of children, ii. 219 _n._ 1

Moravia, the feast of All Souls in, ii. 73

Moret, Alexandre, on Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1; on the Sed festival, 155 _sq._

Mori, a district of Central Celebes, belief of the natives as to a spirit in the moon, ii. 139 _n._

Moriah, Mount, traditionally identified with Mount Zion, ii. 219 _n._ 1

Morning Star, appearance of, perhaps the signal for the festival of Adonis, i. 258 _sq._

Morocco, custom of prostitution in an Arab tribe in, i. 39 _n._ 3

Morrison, Rev. C. W., on belief of Australian aborigines as to childbirth, i. 103 _n._ 3

Mostene in Lydia, double-headed axe at, i. 183 _n._

Mota, belief as to conception in women in, i. 97 _sq._

“Mother” and “Father” as epithets applied to Roman goddesses and gods, ii. 233 _sqq._

——, dead, worshipped, ii. 175, 185

—— Earth, festival in her honour in Bengal, i. 90; fertilized by Father Sky, myth of, 282

—— Goddess of Western Asia, sacred prostitution in the worship of the, i. 36; lions as her emblems, 137, 164; her eunuch priests, 206; of Phrygia conceived as a Virgin Mother, 281

—— -kin, succession in royal houses with, i. 44; trace of, at Rome and Nemi, 45; among the Khasis of Assam, 46, ii. 202 _sqq._; among the Hittites, traces of, i. 141 _sq._; and Mother Goddesses, ii. 201 _sqq._, 212 _sqq._; and father-kin, 202, 261 _n._ 3; favours the superiority of goddesses over gods in religion, 202 _sqq._, 211 _sq._; its influence on religion, 202 _sqq._; among the Pelew Islanders, 204 _sqq._; does not imply that government is in the hands of women, 208 _sqq._; among the Melanesians, 211; in Africa, 211; in Lycia, 212 _sq._; in ancient Egypt, 213 _sqq._; traces of, in Lydia and Cos, 259; favours the development of goddesses, 259. _See also_ Female kinship

—— of a god, i. 51, 52

—— of the gods, first-fruits offered to the, i. 280 _n._ 1; popularity of her worship in the Roman Empire, 298 _sq._

—— Plastene on Mount Sipylus, i. 185

“Mother’s Air,” a tune on the flute, i. 288

“Mothers of the Clan” in the Pelew Islands, ii. 205, 206

Motlav, belief as to conception in women in, i. 98

Mournful character of the rites of sowing, ii. 40 _sqq._

Mourning for Attis, i. 272; for the corn-god at midsummer, ii. 34

—— costume of men in Lycia, ii. 264; perhaps a mode of deceiving the ghost, 264

Mouth of the dead, Egyptian ceremony of opening the, ii. 15

Moylar, male children of sacred prostitutes, i. 63

Mpongwe kings of the Gaboon, buried secretly, ii. 104

_Mugema_, the earl of Busiro, ii. 168

Mukasa, the chief god of the Baganda, probably a dead man, ii. 196 _sq._; gives oracles through a woman, 257

_Mukuru_, an ancestor (plural _Ovakuru_, ancestors), ii. 185 _sq._

Müller, Professor W. Max, on Hittite name for god, i. 148 _n._

Mundas of Bengal, gardens of Adonis among the, i. 240

Mungarai, Australian tribe, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 101

Murder of children to secure their rebirth in barren women, i. 95

Murli, female devotee, i. 62

Music as a means of prophetic inspiration, i. 52 _sq._, 54 _sq._, 74; in exorcism, 54 _sq._; and religion, 53 _sq._

Musquakie Indians, infant burial among the, i. 91 _n._ 3

Mutilation of dead bodies of kings, chiefs, and magicians, ii. 103 _sqq._; to prevent their souls from becoming dangerous ghosts, 188

Mycenae, royal graves at, i. 33, 34

Mycenaean age of Greece, i. 34

Mylasa in Caria, i. 182 _n._ 4

Mylitta, Babylonian goddess, sacred prostitution in her worship, i. 36, 37 _n._ 1

Myrrh or Myrrha, the mother of Adonis, i. 43, 227 _sq._

—— -tree, Adonis born of a, i. 227, ii. 110

Mysore, sacred women in, i. 62 _n._; the Komatis of, 81 _sq._

Mysteries of Sabazius, i. 90 _n._ 4; of Attis, 274 _sq._

Myth and ritual of Attis, i. 263 _sqq._

Myths supposed to originate in verbal misapprehensions or a disease of language, ii. 42

——, Italian, of kings or heroes begotten by the fire-god, ii. 235

Naaburg, in Bavaria, custom at sowing at, i. 239

“Naaman, wounds of the,” Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226

Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, i. 174

_Naga_, serpent god, i. 81

Naga-padoha, the agent of earthquakes, i. 200

Nahanarvals, a German tribe, priest dressed as a woman among the, ii. 259

Nahr Ibrahim, the river Adonis, i. 14, 28

Namal tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 105

Names, royal, signifying relation to deity, i. 15 _sqq._; Semitic personal, indicating relationship to a deity, 51; Hebrew, ending in _-el_ or _-iah_, 79 _n._ 3

Nana, the mother of Attis, i. 263, 269, 281

Nandi, the, of British East Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 85; their ceremony at the ripening of the eleusine grain, ii. 47; boys dressed as women and girls dressed as men at circumcision among the, 263

Nanjundayya, H. V., on serpent worship in Mysore, i. 81 _sq._

Naples, grotto _del cani_ at, i. 205 _n._ 1; custom of bathing on St. John’s Eve at, 246

Narmer, the mace of, ii. 154

National character partly an effect of geographical and climatic conditions, ii. 217

Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice, i. 303 _sqq._

Natural calendar of the husbandman, shepherd, and sailor, ii. 25

Nature of Osiris, ii. 96 _sqq._

Navel-string of the king of Uganda preserved and inspected every new moon, ii. 147 _sq._

Navel-strings of dead kings of Uganda preserved, ii. 167, 168, 171; ghosts of afterbirths thought to adhere to, 169 _sq._; preserved by the Baganda as their twins and as containing the ghosts of their afterbirths, 169 _sq._

Ndjambi, Njambi, Njame, Zambi, Nyambe, etc., name of the supreme god among various tribes of Africa, ii. 186, with note 5

—— Karunga, the supreme god of the Herero, ii. 186

Nebseni, the papyrus of, ii. 112

Neith or Net, an Egyptian goddess, i. 282 _n._, ii. 51 _n._ 1

Nekht, the papyrus of, ii. 112

Nemi, Dianus and Diana at, i. 45

Nephthys, Egyptian goddess, sister of Osiris and Isis, ii. 6; mourns Osiris, 12

Neptune and Salacia, ii. 231, 233

Nerio and Mars, ii. 232

New birth through blood in the rites of Attis, i. 274 _sq._; savage theory of, 299; of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. 153, 155 _sq._

—— Britain, theory of earthquakes in, i. 201

—— Guinea, German, the Kai of, i. 96; the Tami of, 198

—— Mexico, the Pueblo Indians of, ii. 54

—— moon, ceremonies at the, ii. 141 _sqq._

—— World, bathing on St. John’s Day in the, i. 249; All Souls’ Day in the, ii. 80

—— Year’s Day, festival of the dead on, ii. 53, 55, 62, 65

—— Zealand, Rotomahana in, i. 207, 209 _n._

Newberry, Professor P. E., on Osiris as a cedar-tree god, ii. 109 _n._ 1

Newman, J. H., on music, i. 53 _sq._

Ngai, God, i. 68

Ngoni, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82

Nguruhi, the supreme god of the Wahehe, ii. 188 _sq._

Niambe, the supreme god of the Barotse, ii. 193

Nias, conduct of the natives of, in an earthquake, i. 201 _sq._; head-hunting in, 296 _n._ 1

Nicaragua, Indians of, sacrifice human victims to volcanoes, i. 219

Nietzold, J., on the marriage of brothers with sisters in ancient Egypt, ii. 216 _n._ 1

Nigmann, E., on the religion of the Wahehe, ii. 188 _sq._

Nikunau, one of the Gilbert Islands, sacred stones in, i. 108 _n._ 1

Nile, the rise and fall of the, ii. 30 _sqq._; rises at the summer solstice in June, 31 _n._ 1, 33; commanded by the King of Egypt to rise, 33; thought to be swollen by the tears of Isis, 33; gold and silver thrown into the river at its rising, 40; the rise of, attributed to Serapis, 216 _sq._

——, the “Bride” of the, ii. 38

Nilsson, Professor M. P., on custom of sacred prostitution, i. 37 _n._ 2, 57 _n._ 1, 58 _n._ 2; on the sacrifice of a bull to Zeus, ii. 239 _n._ 1

Nineveh, the end of, i. 174

Njamus, the, of British East Africa, their sacrifices at irrigation channels, ii. 38 _sq._

Normandy, rolling in dew on St. John’s Day in, i. 248

Northern Territory, Australia, beliefs as to the birth of children in the, i. 103 _sq._

Nottinghamshire, harvest custom in, i. 238 _n._

November, festivals of the dead in, ii. 51, 54, 69 _sqq._; the month of sowing in Egypt, 94

Novitiate of priests and priestesses, i. 66, 68

Nullakun tribe of Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 101

Nut, Egyptian sky-goddess, mother of Osiris, i. 283 _n._ 3, ii. 6, 16; in a sycamore tree, 110

Nutlets of pines used as food, i. 278 _n._ 2

Nutritive and vicarious types of sacrifice, ii. 226

Nyakang, the first of the Shilluk kings, worshipped as the god of his people, ii. 162 _sqq._; incarnate in various animals, 163 _sq._; his mysterious disappearance, 163; his graves, 163, 166; historical reality of, 164, 166 _sq._; his relation to the creator Juok, 164 _sq._; compared to Osiris, 167

Nymphs of the Fair Crowns at Olympia, ii. 240

Nysa, in the valley of the Maeander, i. 205, 206 _n._ 1; sacrifice of bull at, 292 _n._ 3

Nyuak, L., on guardian spirits of Sea Dyaks, i. 83

Oak or terebinth, sacred at Mamre, i. 37 _n._ 2

Oath of Egyptian kings not to correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, ii. 26

Obelisk, image of Astarte, i. 14

Obelisks, sacred, at Gezer, i. 108

Obscene images of Osiris, ii. 112

Octennial cycle, old, in Greece, ii. 242 _n._

October, the first of, a great Saxon festival, ii. 81 _n._ 3

Odilo, abbot of Clugny, institutes feast of All Souls, ii. 82

Odin, hanged on a tree, i. 290; human victims dedicated by hanging to, 290; king’s sons sacrificed to, ii. 220

Oenomaus, king of Pisa, his incest with his daughter, i. 44 _n._ 1

Oeta, Mount, Hercules burnt on, i. 111, 116, 211

Offerings to dead kings, ii. 194

Oil, holy, poured on king’s head, i. 21;

poured on sacred stones, 36; as vehicle of inspiration, 74

Olba, priestly kings of, i. 143 _sqq._, 161; the name of, 148; the ruins of, 151 _sq._

Old Woman of the corn, mythical being of the Cherokee Indians, ii. 46 _sq._

Olive of the Fair Crown at Olympia, ii. 240

—— -branches carried in procession and hung over doors at Athens, ii. 238

Olo Ngadjoe, the, of Borneo, i. 91

Olonets, Russian Government of, festival of the dead in, ii. 75

Olympia, the quack Peregrinus burns himself at, i. 181; the cutting of the olive-branches to form the victors’ crowns at, ii. 240

Olympic festival based on an octennial cycle, ii. 242 _n._ 1

Olympus, Mount, in Cyprus, i. 32

Omahas, Indian tribe of North America, effeminate men among the, ii. 255 _sq._

Omonga, a rice-spirit who lives in the moon, ii. 139 _n._

Omphale and Hercules, i. 182, ii. 258

On, King of Sweden. _See_ Aun.

Oodeypoor, in Rajputana, gardens of Adonis at, i. 241 _sq._

Opening the eyes and mouth of the dead, Egyptian funeral rite, ii. 15

Operations of husbandry regulated by observation of the moon, ii. 133 _sqq._

Ops, the wife of Saturn, ii. 233; in relation to Consus, 233 _n._ 6

Oracles given by the spirits of dead kings, ii. 167, 171, 172

Oraons of Bengal, their annual marriage of the Sun and Earth, i. 46 _sqq._; gardens of Adonis among the, 240; their annual festival of the dead, ii. 59

Orcus, Roman god of the lower world, his marriage celebrated by the pontiffs, ii. 231

Ordeal of chastity, i. 115 _n._ 2

Orestes at Castabala, i. 115

Orgiastic rites of Cybele, i. 278

Oriental mind untrammelled by logic, i. 4 _n._ 1

—— religions in the West, i. 298 _sqq._; their influence in undermining ancient civilization, 299 _sqq._; importance attached to the salvation of the individual soul in, 300

Origen, on the refusal of Christians to fight, i. 301 _n._ 1

Origin of Osiris, ii. 158 _sqq._

Orion, appearance of the constellation, a signal for sowing, i. 290 _sq._

Orpheus, prophet and musician, i. 55; the legend of his death, ii. 99

Orwell in Cambridgeshire, harvest custom at, i. 237 _n._ 4

Oschophoria, vintage festival at Athens, ii. 258 _n._ 6

Osirian mysteries, the hall of the, at Abydos, ii. 108

Osiris identified with Adonis and Attis, i. 32, ii. 127 _n._; myth of, ii. 3 _sqq._; his birth, 6; introduces the cultivation of corn and the vine, 7, 97, 112; his violent death, 7 _sq._; at Byblus, 9 _sq._, 22 _sq._, 127; his body rent in pieces, 10; the graves of, 10 _sq._; his dead body sought and found by Isis, 10, 50, 85; tradition as to his genital organs, 10, 102; mourned by Isis and Nephthys, 12; invited to come to his house, 12, 47; restored to life by Isis, 13; king and judge of the dead, 13 _sq._; his body the first mummy, 15; the funeral rites performed over his body the model of all funeral rites in Egypt, 15; all the Egyptian dead identified with, 16; his trial and acquittal in the court of the gods, 17; represented in art as a royal mummy, 18; specially associated with Busiris and Abydos, 18; his tomb at Abydos, 18 _sq._, 197 _sq._; official festivals of, 49 _sqq._; his sufferings displayed in a mystery at night, 50; his festival in the month of Athyr, 84 _sqq._; dramatic representation of his resurrection in his rites, 85; his images made of vegetable mould, 85, 87, 90 _sq._, 91; the funeral rites of, described in the inscription of Denderah, 86 _sqq._; his festival in the month of Khoiak, 86 _sqq._, 108 _sq._; his “garden,” 87 _sq._; ploughing and sowing in the rites of, 87, 90, 96; the burial of, in his rites, 88; the holy sepulchre of, under Persea-trees, 88; represented with corn sprouting from his dead body, 89; his resurrection depicted on the monuments, 89 _sq._; as a corn-god, 89 _sqq._, 96 _sqq._; corn-stuffed effigies of, buried with the dead as a symbol of resurrection, 90 _sq._, 114; date of the celebration of his resurrection at Rome, 95 _n._ 1; the nature of, 96 _sqq._; his severed limbs placed on a corn-sieve, 97; human victims sacrificed by kings at the grave of, 97; suggested explanations of his dismemberment, 97; sometimes explained by the ancients as a personification of the corn, 107; as a tree-spirit, 107 _sqq._; his image made out of a pine-tree, 108; his emblems the crook and scourge or flail, 108, 153, compare 20; his backbone represented by the _ded_ pillar, 108 _sq._; interpreted as a cedar-tree god, 109 _n._ 1; his soul in a bird, 110; represented as a mummy enclosed in a tree, 110, 111; obscene images of, 112; as a god of fertility, 112 _sq._; identified with Dionysus, 113, 126 _n._ 3; a god of the dead, 113 _sq._; universal popularity of his worship, 114; interpreted by some as the sun, 120 _sqq._, reasons for rejecting this interpretation, 122 _sqq._; his death and resurrection interpreted as the decay and growth of vegetation, 126 _sqq._; his body broken into fourteen parts, 129; interpreted as the moon by some of the ancients, 129; reigned twenty-eight years, 129; his soul thought to be imaged in the sacred bull Apis, 130; identified with the moon in hymns, 131; represented wearing on his head a full moon within a crescent, 131; distinction of his myth and worship from those of Adonis and Attis, 158 _sq._; his dominant position in Egyptian religion, 158 _sq._; the origin of, 158 _sqq._; his historical reality asserted in recent years, 160 _n._ 1; his temple at Abydos, 198; his title Khenti-Amenti, 198 _n._ 2; compared to Charlemagne, 199; the question of his historical reality left open, 199 _sq._; his death still mourned in the time of Athanasius, 217; his old type better preserved than those of Adonis and Attis, 218

Osiris, Adonis, Attis, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. 201

—— and Adonis, similarity between their rites, ii. 127

—— and Dionysus, similarity between their rites, ii. 127

—— and the moon, ii. 129 _sqq._

“—— of the mysteries,” ii. 89

—— -Sep, title of Osiris, ii. 87

Ostrich-feather, king of Egypt supposed to ascend to heaven on an, ii. 154, 155

Otho, the emperor, addicted to the worship of Isis, ii. 118 _n._ 1

Oulad Abdi, Arab tribe of Morocco, i. 39 _n._ 3

Oura, ancient name of Olba, i. 148, 152

Ourwira, theory of earthquakes in, i. 199

Ovambo, the, of German South-West Africa, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. 142; the worship of the dead among the, 188

Ovid, on the story of Pygmalion, i. 49 _n._ 4

Owl regarded as the guardian spirit of a tree, ii. 111 _n._ 1

Ox substituted for human victim in sacrifice, i. 146; embodying corn-spirit sacrificed at Athens, 296 _sq._; black, used in purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. 251 _sq._

Ozieri, in Sardinia, St. John’s festival at, i. 244

Pacasmayu, the temple of the moon at, ii. 138

Padmavati, an Indian goddess, i. 243

Pagan origin of the Midsummer festival (festival of St. John), i. 249 _sq._

Paganism and Christianity, their resemblances explained as diabolic counterfeits, i. 302, 309 _sq._

Παῖς ἀμφιθαλής, a boy whose parents are both alive, ii. 236 _n._ 2

Palatinate, the Upper, the feast of All Souls in, ii. 72

Palestine, religious prostitution in, i. 58; date of the corn-reaping in, 232 _n._

Palestinian Aphrodite, i. 304 _n._

Palestrina, the harmonies of, i. 54

Pampa del Sacramento, Peru, earthquakes in, i. 198

Pampas, bones of extinct animals in the, i. 158

Pamyles, an Egyptian, ii. 6

Pandharpur, in the Bombay Presidency, i. 243

Panaghia Aphroditessa at Paphos, i. 36

Panku, a being who causes earthquakes, i. 198

Papas, a name for Attis, i. 281, 282

Paphlagonian belief that the god is bound fast in winter, ii. 41

Paphos in Cyprus, i. 32 _sqq._; sanctuary of Aphrodite at, 32 _sqq._; founded by Cinyras, 41

Papyrus of Nebseni, ii. 112; of Nekht, 112

—— swamps, Isis in the, ii. 8

Parilia and the festival of St. George, i. 308

Parr, Thomas, i. 56

Parvati or Isa, an Indian goddess, i. 241, 242

Pasicyprus, king of Citium, i. 50 _n._ 2

Patagonia, funeral customs of Indians of, i. 294

Patagonians, effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, ii. 254

Paternity, primitive ignorance of, i. 106 _sq._; unknown in primitive savagery, 282

—— and maternity of the Roman deities, ii. 233 _sqq._

Paton, W. R., on modern Greek feast of All Souls in May, ii. 78 _n._ 1

Patrae, Laphrian Artemis at, i. 126 _n._ 2

Pausanias on the necklace of Harmonia, i. 32 _n._ 2; on bones of superhuman size, 157 _n._ 2; on offerings to Etna, 221 _n._ 4; on the Hanged Artemis, 291 _n._ 2

Payne, E. J., on the origin of moon-worship, ii. 138 _n._ 2

Pegasus and Bellerophon, i. 302 _n._ 4

Pegu, dance of hermaphrodites in, i. 271 _n._

Peking, Ibn Batuta at, i. 289

Pélé, goddess of the volcano Kilauea in Hawaii, i. 217 _sqq._

Pelew Islanders, their system of mother-kin, ii. 204 _sqq._; predominance of goddesses over gods among them, 204 _sqq._; customs of the, 253 _sqq._

—— Islands and the ancient East, parallel between, ii. 208; prostitution of unmarried girls in, 264 _sq._; custom of slaying chiefs in the, 266 _sqq._

Pelion, Mount, sacrifices offered on the top of, at the rising of Sirius, ii. 36 _n._

Peloponnese, worship of Poseidon in, i. 203

Pelops restored to life, i. 181

Peneus, the river, at Tempe, ii. 240

Pennefather River in Queensland, belief of the natives as to the birth of children, i. 103

Pentheus, king of Thebes, rent in pieces by Bacchanals, ii. 98

Peoples of the Aryan stock, annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. 67 _sqq._

Pepi the First, ii. 5; his pyramid, 4 _n._ 1

Perasia, Artemis, at Castabala, i. 167 _sqq._

Peregrinus, his death in the fire, i. 181

Perga in Pamphylia, Artemis at, i. 35

Periander, tyrant of Corinth, his burnt sacrifice to his dead wife, i. 179

Perigord, rolling in dew on St. John’s Day in, i. 248

Peritius, month of, i. 111

Perpetual holy fire in temples of dead kings, ii. 174

—— fires worshipped, i. 191 _sqq._

Perrot, G., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 138 _n._

Persea-trees in the rites of Osiris, ii. 87 _n._ 5; growing over the tomb of Osiris, 88

Persephone, name applied to spring, ii. 41

—— and Aphrodite, their contest for Adonis, i. 11 _sq._

—— and Pluto, temple of, i. 205

Perseus, the virgin birth of, i. 302 _n._ 4

Persian reverence for fire, i. 174 _sq._

—— festival of the dead, ii. 68

Persian fire-worship and priests, 191

Personation of gods by priests, i. 45, 46 _sqq._

Peru, earthquakes in, i. 202; sacrifice of sons in, ii. 220 _n._ 4

Peruvian Indians, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201

Pescara River, in the Abruzzi, i. 246

Pescina in the Abruzzi, Midsummer custom at, i. 246

Pessinus, image of Cybele at, i. 35 _n._ 3; priests called Attis at, 140; local legend of Attis at, 264; image of the Mother of the Gods at, 265; people of, abstain from swine, 265; high-priest of Cybele at, 285

Petrarch at Cologne on St. John’s Eve, i. 247 _sq._

Petrie, Professor W. M. Flinders, on the date of the corn-reaping in Egypt and Palestine, i. 231 _n._ 3; on the Sed festival, ii. 151 _n._ 3, 152 _n._ 3, 154 _sq._; on the marriage of brothers with sisters in Egypt, 216 _n._ 1

Petrified cascades of Hierapolis, i. 207

Petroff, Ivan, on a custom of the Koniags of Alaska, ii. 106

Phamenoth, an Egyptian month, ii. 49 _n._ 1, 130

Phaophi, an Egyptian month, ii. 49 _n._ 1, 94

Pharnace, daughter of Megassares, i. 41

Phatrabot, a Cambodian month, ii. 61

Phidias, his influence on Greek religion, i. 54 _n._ 1

Philadelphia, subject to earthquakes, i. 194 _sq._

Philae, Egyptian relief at, ii. 50 _n._ 5; mystic representation of Osiris in the temple of Isis at, 89; sculptures in the temple of Isis at, 111; the grave of Osiris at, 111; the dead Osiris in the sculptures at, 112

Philo of Alexandria on the date of the corn-reaping, i. 231 _n._ 3

Philocalus, calendar of, i. 303 _n._ 2, 304 _n._ 3, 307 _n._, ii. 95 _n._ 1

Philosophy, school of, at Tarsus, i. 118

Philostephanus, Greek historian, i. 49 _n._ 4

Phoenician temples in Malta, i. 35; sacred prostitution in, 37

—— kings in Cyprus, i. 49

Phoenicians in Cyprus, i. 31 _sq._

Phrygia, Attis a deity of, i. 263; festival of Cybele in, 274 _n._; indigenous race of, 287

Phrygian belief that the god sleeps in winter, ii. 41

—— cap of Attis, i. 279

—— cosmogony, i. 263 _sq._

—— kings named Midas and Gordias, i. 286

Phrygian moon-god, i. 73

—— priests named Attis, i. 285, 287

Phrygians, invaders from Europe, i. 287

_Pietà_ of Michael Angelo, i. 257

Pig’s blood used in exorcism and purification, i. 299 _n._ 2

Pigs sacrificed annually to the moon and Osiris, ii. 131. _See also_ Swine

Pillars as a religious emblem, i. 34; sacred, in Crete, 107 _n._ 2

Pindar on the music of the lyre, i. 55; on Typhon, 156

Pine-cones symbols of fertility, i. 278; thrown into vaults of Demeter, 278; on the monuments of Osiris, ii. 110

—— seeds or nutlets used as food, i. 278

—— -tree in the myth and ritual of Attis, i. 264, 265, 267, 271, 277 _sq._, 285, ii. 98 _n._ 5 Marsyas hung on a, i. 288; in relation to human sacrifices, ii. 98 _n._ 5; Pentheus on the, 98 _n._ 5; in the rites of Osiris, 108

Pipiles of Central America expose their seeds to moonlight, ii. 135

Piraeus, processions in honour of Adonis at, i. 227 _n._

Pirates, the Cilician, i. 149 _sq._

_Pitr Pāk_, the Fortnight of the Manes, ii. 60

Pitrè, G., on Good Friday ceremonies in Sicily, i. 255 _sq._

Placenta, Egyptian standard resembling a, ii. 156 _n._ 1 _See also_ Afterbirth.

Placianian Mother, a form of Cybele, worshipped at Cyzicus, i. 274 _n._

Plastene, Mother, on Mount Sipylus, i. 185

Plato, on gardens of Adonis, i. 236 _n._ 1

Plautus on Mars and Nerio, ii. 232

Pleiades worshipped by the Abipones, i. 258 _n._ 2; the setting of, the time of sowing, ii. 41

Pliny, on the date of harvest in Egypt, ii. 32 _n._ 2; on the influence of the moon, 132; on the grafting of trees, 133 _n._ 3; on the time for felling timber, 136 _n._

Plotinus, the death of, i. 87

Ploughing, Prussian custom at, i. 238; and sowing, ceremony of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. 87

Ploughmen and sowers drenched with water as a rain-charm, i. 238 _sq._

Plutarch on the double-headed axe of Zeus Labrandeus, i. 182; on the myth of Osiris, ii. 3, 5 _sqq._; on Harpocrates, 9 _n._; on Osiris at Byblus, 22 _sq._; on the rise of the Nile, 31 _n._ 1; on the mournful character of the rites of sowing, 40 _sqq._; his use of the Alexandrian year, 49, 84; on an Egyptian ceremony at the winter solstice, 50 _n._ 4; on the date of the death of Osiris, 84; on the festival of Osiris in the month of Athyr, 91 _sq._; on the dating of Egyptian festivals, 94 _sq._; on the rites of Osiris, 108; on the grave of Osiris, 111; on the similarity between the rites of Osiris and Dionysus, 127; on the Flamen Dialis, 229 _sq._; on the Flaminica Dialis, 230 _n._ 2

Pluto, the breath of, i. 204, 205; places or sanctuaries of, 204 _sqq._; cave and temple of, at Acharaca, 205

_Plutonia_, places of Pluto, i. 204

Pollution of death, ii. 227 _sqq._

Polo, Marco, on custom of people of Camul, i. 39 _n._ 3

Polyboea, sister of Hyacinth, i. 314, 316; identified with Artemis or Persephone, 315

Polyidus, a seer, i. 186 _n._ 4

Polynesian myth of the separation of earth and sky, i. 283

Pomegranate causes virgin to conceive, i. 263, 269

Pomegranates forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280 _n._ 7

Pomona and Vertumnus, ii. 235 _n._ 6

Pompey the Great, i. 27

Pondomisi, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. 177

Pontiffs, the Roman, their mismanagement of the Julian calendar, ii. 93 _n._ 1; celebrated the marriage of Orcus, 231

Pontus, sacred prostitution in, i. 39, 58

Populonia, a Roman goddess, ii. 231

Port Darwin, Australia, i. 103

Porta Capena at Rome, i. 273

Poseidon the Establisher or Securer, i. 195 _sq._; the earthquake god, 195, 202 _sq._

—— and Demeter, i. 280

Possession of priest or priestess by a divine spirit, i. 66, 68 _sq._, 72 _sqq._; by the spirits of dead chiefs, ii. 192 _sq._

Potniae in Boeotia, priest of Dionysus killed at, ii. 99 _n._ 1

Pots of Basil on St. John’s Day in Sicily, i. 245

Potter in Southern India, custom observed by a, i. 191 _n._ 2

Potters in Uganda bake their pots when the moon is waxing, ii. 135

Praeneste, Fortuna Primigenia, goddess of, ii. 234; founded by Caeculus, 235

Prague, the feast of All Souls in, ii. 73

Prayers to dead ancestors, ii. 175 _sq._, 178 _sq._, 183 _sq._; to dead kings, 192

Pregnancy, causes of, unknown, i. 92 _sq._, 106 _sq._; Australian beliefs as to the causes of, 99 _sqq._

Priestess identified with goddess, i. 219; head of the State under a system of mother-kin, ii. 203

Priestesses more important than priests, i. 45, 46

Priesthood vacated on death of priest’s wife, i. 45; of Hercules at Tarsus, 143

Priestly dynasties of Asia Minor, i. 140 _sq._

—— king and queen personating god and goddess, i. 45

—— kings, i. 42, 43; of Olba, 143 _sqq._, 161; Adonis personated by, 223 _sqq._

Priests personate gods, i. 45, 46 _sqq._; tattoo-marks of, 74 _n._ 4; not allowed to be widowers, ii. 227 _sqq._; the Jewish, their rule as to the pollution of death, 230; dressed as women, 253 _sqq._

—— of Astarte, kings as, i. 26

—— of Attis, the emasculated, i. 265, 266

—— of Zeus at the Corycian cave, i. 145, 155

Procession to the Almo in the rites of Attis, i. 273

Processions carved on rocks at Boghaz-Keui, i. 129 _sqq._; in honour of Adonis, 224 _sq._, 227 _n._, 236 _n._ 1

Procreation, savage ignorance of the causes of, i. 106 _sq._

Procris, her incest with her father Erechtheus, i. 44

Profligacy of human sexes supposed to quicken the earth, i. 48

Property, rules as to the inheritance of, under mother-kin, ii. 203 _n._ 1; landed, combined with mother-kin tends to increase the social importance of women, 209

Prophecy, Hebrew, distinctive character of, i. 75

Prophet regarded as madman, i. 77

Prophetesses inspired by dead chiefs, ii. 192 _sq._; inspired by gods, 207

Prophetic inspiration under the influence of music, i. 52 _sq._, 54 _sq._, 74; through the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. 171, 172, 192 _sq._

—— marks on body, i. 74

—— water drunk on St. John’s Eve, i. 247

Prophets in relation to _ḳedeshim_, i. 76; or mediums inspired by the ghosts of dead kings, ii. 171, 172

——, Hebrew, their resemblance to those of Africa, i. 74 _sq._

Prophets of Israel, their religious and moral reform, i. 24 _sq._

Propitiation of deceased ancestors, i. 46

Prostitution, sacred, before marriage, in Western Asia, i. 36 _sqq._; suggested origin of, 39 _sqq._; in Western Asia, alternative theory of, 57 _sqq._; in India, 61 _sqq._; in Africa, 65 _sqq._

—— of unmarried girls in the Pelew Islands, ii. 264 _sq._; in Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, 265 _sq._

Provence, bathing at Midsummer in, i. 248

Prussia, customs at ploughing and harvest in, i. 238; divination at Midsummer in, 252 _sq._

Pteria, captured by Croesus, i. 128

Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, i. 43

Ptolemy and Berenice, annual festival in honour of, ii. 35 _n._ 1

Ptolemy I. and Serapis, ii. 119 _n._

Ptolemy III. Euergetes, his attempt to correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, ii. 27

Ptolemy V. on the Rosetta Stone, ii. 152 _n._

Ptolemy Soter, i. 264 _n._ 4

Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 54

Pumi-yathon, king of Citium and Idalium, i. 50

Punjaub, belief in the reincarnation of infants in the, i. 94

Puppet substituted for human victim, i. 219 _sq._

Purification by fire, i. 115 _n._ 1, 179 _sqq._; by pig’s blood, 299 _n._ 2; of Apollo at Tempe, ii. 240 _sq._

Purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. 251 _sq._

Pyanepsion, an Athenian month, ii. 41

Pygmalion, king of Citium and Idalium in Cyprus, i. 50

——, king of Cyprus, i. 41, 49

——, king of Tyre, i. 50

—— and Aphrodite, i. 49 _sq._

Pymaton of Citium, i. 50 _n._ 2

Pyramid Texts, ii. 4 _sqq._, 9 _n._; intended to ensure the life of dead Egyptian kings, 4 _sq._; Osiris and the sycamore in the, 110; the mention of Khenti-Amenti in the, 198 _n._ 2

Pyramus, river in Cilicia, i. 165, 167, 173

Pyre at festivals of Hercules, i. 116; at Tarsus, 126; of dead kings at Jerusalem, 177 _sq._

—— or Torch, name of great festival at the Syrian Hierapolis, i. 146

Pythian games, their period, ii. 242 _n._ 1

Python worshipped by the Baganda, i. 86

—— -god, human wives of the, i. 66

Pythons worshipped in West Africa, i. 83 _n._ 1; dead chiefs reincarnated in, ii. 193

“Quail-hunt,” legend on coins of Tarsus, i. 126 _n._ 2

Quails sacrificed to Hercules (Melcarth), i. 111 _sq._; migration of, 112

Quatuordecimans of Phrygia celebrate the Crucifixion on March 25th, i. 307 _n._

Queen of Egypt the wife of Ammon, i. 72

—— of Heaven, i. 303 _n._ 5; incense burnt in honour of the, 228

Queensland, aborigines of, their beliefs as to the birth of children, i. 102 _sq._

Quirinus and Hora, ii. 233

Ra, the Egyptian sun-god, ii. 6, 8, 12; identified with many originally independent local deities, 122 _sqq._

Rabbah, captured by David, i. 19

Rabbis, burnings for dead Jewish, i. 178 _sq._

Rain procured by bones of the dead, i. 22; excessive, ascribed to wrath of God, 22 _sq._; instrumental in rebirth of dead infants, 95; regarded as the tears of gods, ii. 33; thought to be controlled by the souls of dead chiefs, 188

—— -charm in rites of Adonis, i. 237; by throwing water on the last corn cut, 237 _sq._

—— -god represented with tears running from his eyes, ii. 33 _n._ 3

Rainbow totem, i. 101

Rainless summer on the Mediterranean, i. 159 _sq._

Rajaraja, king, i. 61

Rajputana, gardens of Adonis in, i. 241 _sq._

Rambree, sorcerers dressed as women in the island of, ii. 254

Rameses II., his treaty with the Hittites, i. 135 _sq._; his order to the Nile, ii. 33

Ramman, Babylonian and Assyrian god of thunder, i. 163 _sq._

Rams, testicles of, in the rites of Attis, i. 269

Ramsay, Sir W. M., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 134 _n._ 1, 137 _n._ 4; on priest-dynasts of Asia Minor, 140 _n._ 2; on the god Tark, 147 _n._ 3; on the name Olba, 148 _n._ 1; on _Hierapolis_ and _Hieropolis_, 168 _n._ 2; on Attis and Men, 284 _n._ 5; on cruel death of the human representative of a god in Phrygia, 285 _sq._

Raoul-Rochette on Asiatic deities with lions, i. 138 _n._; on the burning of doves to Adonis, 147 _n._ 1; on apotheosis by death in the fire, 180 _n._ 1

Ratumaimbulu, Fijian god of fruit-trees, i. 90

Readjustment of Egyptian festivals, ii. 91 _sqq._

Reapers, Egyptian, their lamentations, i. 232, ii. 45; invoke Isis, 117

Rebirth of infants, means taken to ensure the, i. 91, 93 _sqq._; of the dead, precautions taken to prevent, 92 _sq._; of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. 153, 155 _sq._

Red the colour of Lower Egypt, ii. 21 _n._ 1

—— -haired men burnt by Egyptians, ii. 97, 106

Reform, the prophetic, in Israel, i. 24 _sq._

Reformations of Hezekiah and Josiah, i. 25

Rehoboam, King, his family, i. 51 _n._ 2

Reincarnation of the dead, i. 82 _sqq._; in America, 91; in Australia, 99 _sqq._

Rekub-el, Syrian god, i. 16

Relations, spirits of near dead, worshipped, i. 175, 176; at death become gods, ii. 180

Religion, volcanic, i. 188 _sqq._; how influenced by mother-kin, ii. 202 _sqq._

—— and magic, combination of, i. 4; and music, 53 _sq._

Religious ideals a product of the male imagination, ii. 211

—— systems, great permanent, founded by great men, ii. 159 _sq._

Remission of sins through the shedding of blood, i. 299

Remus, the birth of, ii. 235

Renan, E., on Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 _n._ 1; his excavations at Byblus, 14 _n._ 1; on Adom-melech, 17; on the vale of the Adonis, 29 _n._; on the burnings for the kings of Judah, 178 _n._ 1; on the discoloration of the river Adonis, 225 _n._ 4; on the worship of Adonis, 235

Renouf, Sir P. le Page, on Osiris as the sun, ii. 126

Resemblance of the rites of Adonis to the festival of Easter, i. 254 _sqq._, 306

Resemblances of paganism to Christianity explained as diabolic counterfeits, i. 302, 309 _sq._

Reshef, Semitic god, i. 16 _n._ 1

Resurrection of the dead conceived on the pattern of the resurrection of Osiris, ii. 15 _sq._

—— of Attis at the vernal equinox, i. 272 _sq._, 307 _sq._

—— of Hercules (Melcarth), i. 111 _sq._

—— of Osiris dramatically represented in his rites, ii. 85; depicted on the monuments, 89 _sq._; date of its celebration at Rome, 95 _n._ 1; symbolized by the setting up of the _ded_ pillar, 109

Resurrection of Tylon, i. 186 _sq._

Rhine, bathing in the, on St. John’s Eve, i. 248

Rhodes described by Strabo, i. 195 _n._ 3; worship of Helen in, 292

Rhodesia, Northern, the Bantu tribes of, their worship of ancestral spirits, ii. 174 _sqq._; their worship of dead chiefs or kings, 191 _sqq._

Rhodians, the Venetians of antiquity, i. 195

Rice, the soul of the, in the first sheaf cut, ii. 239

Ridgeway, Professor W., on the marriage of brothers with sisters, ii. 216 _n._ 1

Rites of irrigation in Egypt, ii. 33 _sqq._; of sowing, 40 _sqq._; of harvest, 45 _sqq._

Ritual, children of living parents in, ii. 236 _sqq._; of the Bechuanas at founding a new town, 249

—— of Adonis, i. 223 _sqq._

Rivers as the seat of worship of deities, i. 160; bathing in, at Midsummer, 246, 248, 249; gods worshipped beside, 289

Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., as to Melanesian theory of conception in women, i. 97 _sq._; on the sacred dairyman of the Todas, ii. 228

Rizpah and her sons, i. 22

Robinson, Edward, on the vale of the Adonis, i. 29 _n._

Roccacaramanico, in the Abruzzi, Easter ceremonies at, i. 256 _n._ 2

Rock-hewn sculptures at Ibreez, i. 121 _sq._; at Boghaz-Keui, 129 _sqq._

Rockhill, W. Woodville, on dance of eunuchs in Corea, i. 270 _n._ 2

Rohde, E., on purification by blood, i. 299 _n._ 2; on Hyacinth, 315

Roman deities called “Father” and “Mother,” ii. 233 _sqq._

—— emperor, funeral pyre of, i. 126 _sq._

—— expiation for prodigies, ii. 244

—— financial oppression, i. 301 _n._ 2

—— _genius_ symbolized by a serpent, i. 86

—— gods, the marriage of the, ii. 230 _sqq._; compared to Greek gods, 235

—— law, revival of, i. 301

—— marriage custom, ii. 245

—— mythology, fragments of, ii. 235, with _n._ 6

Romans adopt the worship of the Phrygian Mother of the Gods, i. 265; correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, ii. 27 _sq._

Rome, high-priest of Cybele at, i. 285; the celebration of the resurrection of Osiris at, ii. 95 _n._ 1

Romulus cut in pieces, ii. 98; the birth of, 235

Roper River, in Australia, i. 101

Roscoe, Rev. John, on serpent-worship, i. 86 _n._ 1; on the rebirth of the dead, 92 _sq._; on potters in Uganda, ii. 135; on the religion of the Bahima, 190 _sq._; on the worship of the dead among the Baganda, 196; on Mukasa, the chief god of the Baganda, 196 _sq._; on massacres for sick kings of Uganda, 226

Rose, the white, dyed red by the blood of Aphrodite, i. 226

Rosetta stone, the inscription, ii. 27, 152 _n._

Roth, W. E., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 103 _n._ 2

Rotomahana in New Zealand, pink terraces at, i. 207, 209 _n._

Rugaba, supreme god in Kiziba, ii. 173

Rules of life based on a theory of lunar influence, ii. 132 _sqq._, 140 _sqq._

Rumina, a Roman goddess, ii. 231

Runes, how Odin learned the magic, i. 290

Russia, annual festivals of the dead in, ii. 75 _sqq._

Russian Midsummer custom, i. 250 _sq._

Rustic Calendars, the Roman, ii. 95 _n._ 1

Sabazius, mysteries of, i. 90 _n._ 4

Sacrament in the rites of Attis, i. 274 _sq._

Sacred harlots in Asia Minor, i. 141

—— marriage of priest and priestess as representing god and goddess, i. 46 _sqq._; represented in the rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 140; in Cos, ii. 259 _n._ 4

“—— men” (_kedeshim_), at Jerusalem, i. 17 _sq._; and women, 57 _sqq._; in West Africa, 65 _sqq._; in Western Asia, 72 _sqq._; at Andania, 76 _n._ 3

—— prostitution, i. 36 _sqq._; suggested origin of, 39 _sqq._; in Western Asia, alternative theory of, 55 _sqq._; in India, 61 _sqq._; in West Africa, 65 _sqq._

—— slaves, i. 73, 79

—— stocks and stones among the Semites, i. 107 _sqq._

—— women in India, i. 61 _sqq._; in West Africa, 65 _sqq._; in Western Asia, 70 _sqq._; at Andania, 76 _n._ 3

Sacrifice of virginity, i. 60; of virility in the rites of Attis and Astarte, 268 _sq._, 270 _sq._; other cases of, 270 _n._ 2; nutritive and vicarious types of, ii. 226

Sacrifices to earthquake god, i. 201, 202; to volcanoes, 218 _sqq._; to the dead distinguished from sacrifices to the gods, 316 _n._ 1; offered at the rising of Sirius, ii. 36 _n._; offered in connexion with irrigation, 38 _sq._; to dead kings, 101, 162, 166 _sq._; to ancestral spirits, 175, 178 _sq._, 180, 181 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 190; of animals to prolong the life of kings, 221; without shedding of blood, 222 _n._ 2

Sacrifices, human, offered at earthquakes, i. 201; offered to Dionysus, ii. 98 _sq._; at the graves of the kings of Uganda, 168; to dead kings, 173; to dead chiefs, 191; to prolong the life of kings, 220 _sq._, 223 _sqq._

Sadyattes, son of Cadys, viceroy of Lydia, i. 183

Saffron at the Corycian cave, i. 154, 187

Sago, magic for the growth of, ii. 101

Sahagun, B. de, on the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. 28 _n._

St. Denys, his seven heads, ii. 12

St. George in Syria, reputed to bestow offspring on women, i. 78, 79, 90; festival of, and the Parilia, 308, 309

St. John, Sweethearts of, in Sardinia, i. 244 _sq._

St. John, Spenser, on reasons for head-hunting in Sarawak, i. 296

St. John’s Day or Eve (Midsummer Day or Eve), custom of bathing on, i. 246 _sqq._

—— Midsummer festival in Sardinia, i. 244 _sq._

—— wort gathered at Midsummer, i. 252 _sq._

St. Kilda, All Saints’ Day in, ii. 80

St. Luke, the festival of, on October 18th, ii. 55

Saint-Maries, Midsummer custom at, i. 248

S. Martinus Dumiensis, on the date of the Crucifixion in Gaul, i. 307 _n._

St. Michael in Alaska, ii. 51

St. Simon and St. Jude’s day, October 28th, ii. 74

St. Vitus, festival of, i. 252

Saintonge, feast of All Souls in, ii. 69

Saints as the givers of children to women, i. 78 _sq._, 91, 109

Sais, the festival of, ii. 49 _sqq._

Sakkara, pyramids at, ii. 4

_Sal_ tree, festival of the flower of the, i. 47

Salacia and Neptune, ii. 231, 233

Salamis in Cyprus, human sacrifices at, i. 145; dynasty of Teucrids at, 145

Salem, Melchizedek, king of, i. 17

Salii, priests of Mars, rule as to their election, ii. 244

Salono, a Hindoo festival, i. 243 _n._ 1

Salvation of the individual soul, importance attached to, in Oriental religions, i. 300

Samagitians, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 75

Samal, in North-Western Syria, i. 16

Samaria, the fall of, i. 25

Samoa, conduct of the inhabitants in an earthquake, i. 200

Samuel consulted about asses, i. 75; meaning of the name, 79

—— and Saul, i. 22

San Juan Capistrano, the Indians of, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. 142

Sanda-Sarme, a Cilician king, i. 144

Sandacus, a Syrian, i. 41

Sandan of Tarsus, i. 124 _sqq._; the burning of, 117 _sqq._, 126; identified with Hercules, 125, 143, 161; monument of, at Tarsus, 126 _n._ 2

—— (Sandon, Sandes), Cappadocian and Cilician god of fertility, i. 125

—— and Baal at Tarsus, i. 142 _sq._, 161

Sandon, or Sandan, name of the Lydian and Cilician Hercules, i. 182, 184, 185; a Cilician name, 182

Sandu’arri, a Cilician king, i. 144

Santa Felicita, successor of Mefitis, i. 205

Santiago Tepehuacan, Indians of, their custom at sowing, i. 239; their annual festival of the dead, ii. 55

Santorin, island of, its volcanic activity, i. 195

Sappho on the mourning for Adonis, i. 6 _n._ 2

Saracus, last king of Assyria, i. 174

Sarawak, head-hunting in, i. 295 _sq._

Sardanapalus, monument of, at Tarsus, i. 126 _n._ 2; his monument at Anchiale, 172; the burning of, 172 _sqq._; the effeminate, ii. 257

—— and Hercules, i. 172 _sqq._

Sardes, captured by Cyrus, i. 174; lion carried round acropolis of, i. 184, ii. 249

Sardinia, gardens of Adonis in, i. 244 _sq._

Sargal, in India, gardens of Adonis at, i. 243

Sarpedonian Artemis, i. 167, 171

Sasabonsun, earthquake god of Ashantee, i. 201

Saturn, the husband of Ops, ii. 233

—— and Lua, ii. 233

Saturn’s period of revolution round the sun, ii. 151 _sq._

Saturnine temperament of the farmer, ii. 218

Sauks, an Indian tribe of North America, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. 255

Saul, burial of, i. 177 _n._ 4

—— and David, i. 21

Saul’s madness soothed by music, i. 53, 54

Savages lament for the animals and plants which they eat, ii. 43 _sq._

Sâwan, Indian month, i. 242

Saxons of Transylvania, harvest custom of the, i. 238

Sayce, A. H., on kings of Edom, i. 16; on name of David, 19 _n._ 2

Schäfer, H., on the tomb of Osiris at Abydos, ii. 198 _n._ 1

Schlanow, in Brandenburg, custom at sowing at, i. 238 _sq._

Schloss, Mr. Francis S., on the rule as to the felling of timber in Colombia, ii. 136 _n._ 4

Schwegler, A., on the death of Romulus, ii. 98 _n._ 2

Scipio, his fabulous birth, i. 81

Scorpions, Isis and the, ii. 8

Scotland, harvest custom in, i. 237

Scottish Highlanders on the influence of the moon, ii. 132, 134, 140

Scythian king, human beings and horses sacrificed at his grave, i. 293

Scythians, their belief in immortality, i. 294; their treatment of dead enemies, 294 _n._ 3

Sea, custom of bathing in the, on St. John’s Day or Eve, i. 246, 248

—— Dyaks or Ibans of Borneo, their worship of serpents, i. 83; their festivals of the dead, ii. 56 _sq._; effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, 253, 256

—— Dyaks of Sarawak, their reasons for taking human heads, i. 295 _sq._

Season of festival a clue to the nature of a deity, ii. 24

Seasons, magical and religious theories of the, i. 3 _sq._

Seb (Keb or Geb), Egyptian earth-god, i. 283 _n._ 3, ii. 6

Secret graves of kings, chiefs, and magicians, ii. 103 _sqq._

Sed festival in Egypt, ii. 151 _sqq._; its date perhaps connected with the heliacal rising of Sirius, 152 _sq._; apparently intended to renew the king’s life by identifying him with the dead and risen Osiris, 153 _sq._

Segera, a sago magician of Kiwai, dismembered after death, ii. 101, 102

Seker (Sokari), title of Osiris, ii. 87

Seler, Professor E., on the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. 28 _n._

Seleucus, a grammarian, i. 146 _n._ 1

—— Nicator, king, i. 151

—— the Theologian, i. 146 _n._ 1

Self-mutilation of Attis and his priests, i. 265

Seligmann, Dr. C. G., on the five supplementary Egyptian days, ii. 6 _n._ 3; on the divinity of Shilluk kings, 161 _n._ 2; on custom of putting Shilluk kings to death, 163

Selwanga, python-god of Baganda, i. 86

Semiramis at Hierapolis, i. 162 _n._ 2; as a form of Ishtar (Astarte), 176 _sq._; said to have burnt herself, 176 _sq._; the mythical, a form of the great Asiatic goddess, ii. 258

Semites, agricultural, worship Baal as the giver of fertility, i. 26 _sq._; sacred stocks and stones among the, 107 _sqq._; traces of mother-kin among the, ii. 213

Semitic gods, uniformity of their type, i. 119

—— kings, the divinity of, i. 15 _sqq._; as hereditary deities, 51

—— language, Egyptian language akin to the, ii. 161 _n._ 1

—— personal names indicating relationship to a deity, i. 51

—— worship of Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 _sqq._

_Semlicka_, festival of the dead among the Letts, ii. 74

Seneca, on the offerings of Egyptian priests to the Nile, ii. 40; on the marriage of the Roman gods, 231; on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, 233

Senegal and Niger region of West Africa, belief as to conception without sexual intercourse in, i. 93 _n._ 2; myth of marriage of Sky and Earth in the, 282 _n._ 2

Senegambia, the Mandingoes of, ii. 141

Sennacherib, his siege of Jerusalem, i. 25; said to have built Tarsus, 173 _n._ 4

Separation of Earth and Sky, myth of the, i. 283

Serapeum at Alexandria, ii. 119 _n._; its destruction, 217

Serapis, the later form of Osiris, ii. 119 _n._; the rise of the Nile attributed to, 216 _sq._; the standard cubit kept in his temple, 217

Serpent as the giver of children, i. 86; at rites of initiation, 90 _n._ 4

—— -god married to human wives, i. 66 _sqq._; thought to control the crops, 67

Serpents reputed the fathers of human beings, i. 80 _sqq._; as embodiments of Aesculapius, 80 _sq._; worshipped in Mysore, 81 _sq._; as reincarnations of the dead, 82 _sqq._; fed with milk, 84 _sqq._, 87; thought to have knowledge of life-giving plants, 186; souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 163, 173

Servius, on the death of Attis, i. 264 _n._ 4; on the marriage of Orcus, ii. 231; on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, 233

—— Tullius, begotten by the fire-god, ii. 235

Sesostris, so-called monument of, i. 185

Set, or Typhon, brother of Osiris, ii. 6; murders Osiris, 7 _sq._; accuses Osiris before the gods, 17; brings a suit of bastardy against Horus, 17; his combat with Horus, 17; reigns over Upper Egypt, 17; torn in pieces, 98. _See also_ Typhon

Sety I., King of Egypt, ii. 108

Shamash, Babylonian sun-god, his human wives, i. 71

—— Semitic god, i. 16 _n._ 1

Shamashshumukin, King of Babylon, burns himself, i. 173 _sq._, 176

Shammuramat, Assyrian queen, i. 177 _n._ 1

Shans of Burma, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198; cut bamboos for building in the wane of the moon, ii. 136

Shark-shaped hero, i. 139 _n._ 1

Sheaf, the first cut, ii. 239

Sheep to be shorn when the moon is waxing, ii. 134; to be shorn in the waning of the moon, 134 _n._ 3

_Sheitan dere_, the Devil’s Glen, in Cilicia, i. 150

Shenty, Egyptian cow-goddess, ii. 88

Shifting dates of Egyptian festivals, ii. 24 _sq._

Shilluk kings put to death before their strength fails, ii. 163

Shilluks, their worship of dead kings, ii. 161 _sq._; their worship of Nyakang, the first of the Shilluk kings, 162 _sqq._

Shoulders of medicine-men especially sensitive, i. 74 _n._ 4

Shouting as a means of stopping earthquakes, i. 197 _sqq._

Shropshire, feast of All Souls in, ii. 78

Shu, Egyptian god of light, i. 283 _n._ 3

Shuswap Indians of British Columbia eat nutlets of pines, i. 278 _n._ 2

Siam, catafalque burnt at funeral of king of, i. 179; annual festival of the dead in, ii. 65

Siao, children sacrificed to volcano in, i. 219

Sibitti-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14

Sibyl, the Grotto of the, at Marsala, i. 247

Sibylline Books, i. 265

Sicily, Syrian prophet in, i. 74; fossil bones in, 157; hot springs in, 213; gardens of Adonis in, 245, 253 _sq._; divination at Midsummer in, 254; Good Friday ceremonies in, 255 _sq._

Sick people resort to cave of Pluto, i. 205 _sq._

Sicyon, shrine of Aesculapius at, i. 81

Sidon, kings of, as priests of Astarte, i. 26

_Siem_, king, among the Khasis of Assam, ii. 210 _n._ 1

Sigai, hero in form of shark, i. 139 _n._ 1

Sihanaka, the, of Madagascar, funeral custom of the, ii. 246

Sinai, “Mistress of Turquoise” at, i. 35

Sinews of sacrificial ox cut, ii. 252

Sins, the remission of, through the shedding of blood, i. 299

Sinsharishkun, last king of Assyria, i. 174

Sipylus, Mother Plastene on Mount, i. 185

Siriac or Sothic period, ii. 36

Sirius (the Dog-star), observed by Egyptian astronomers, ii. 27; called Sothis by the Egyptians, 34; date of its rising in ancient Egypt, 34; heliacal rising of, on July 20th, 34 _n._ 1, 93; its rising marked the beginning of the sacred Egyptian year, 35; its rising observed in Ceos, 35 _n._ 1; sacrifices offered at its rising on the top of Mount Pelion, 36 _n._

—— the star of Isis, ii. 34, 119; in connexion with the Sed festival, 152 _sq._

Sis in Cilicia, i. 144

Sister of a god, i. 51

Sisters, kings marry their, i. 316

Sizu in Cilicia, i. 144

Skin, bathing in dew at Midsummer as remedy for diseases of the, i. 247, 248; of ox stuffed and set up, 296 _sq._; body of Egyptian dead placed in a bull’s, ii. 15 _n._ 2; of sacrificial victim used in the rite of the new birth, 155 _sq._

Skinner, Principal J., on the burnt sacrifice of children, ii. 219

Skins of human victims, uses made of, i. 293; of horses stuffed and set up at graves, 293, 294

Skull, drinking out of a king’s, in order to be inspired by his spirit, ii. 171

Sky conceived by the Egyptians as a cow, i. 283 _n._ 3

—— and earth, myth of their violent separation, i. 283

—— -god, Attis as a, i. 282 _sqq._; married to Earth-goddess, 282, with _n._ 2; mutilation of the, 283

Slaughter of prisoners often a sacrifice to the gods, i. 290 _n._ 2

Slave Coast of West Africa, sacred men and women on the, i. 65, 68; Ewe-speaking peoples of the, 83 _n._ 1

Slaves, sacred, in Western Asia, i. 39 _n._ 1

Slaying of the Dragon by Apollo at Delphi, ii. 240 _sq._

Sleep of the god in winter, ii. 41

Smell, evil, used to avert demons, ii. 261

Smeroe, Mount, volcano in Java, i. 221

Smith, George Adam, on fertility of Bethlehem, i. 257 _n._ 3

Smith, W. Robertson, on the date of the month Tammuz, i. 10 _n._ 1; on anointing as consecration, 21 _n._ 3; on Baal as god of fertility, 26 _sq._; on caves in Semitic religion, 169 _n._ 3; on Tophet, 177 _n._ 4; on the predominance of goddesses over gods in early Semitic religion, ii. 213; on the sacrifice of children to Moloch, 220 _n._ 1

Smoking as a mode of inducing inspiration, ii. 172

Snake-entwined goddess found at Gournia, i. 88

Snakes as fathers of human beings, i. 82; fed with milk, 84 _sqq._ _See also_ Serpents

Snorri Sturluson, on the dismemberment of Halfdan the Black, ii. 100

Sobk, a crocodile-shaped Egyptian god, identified with the sun, ii. 123

_Sochit_ or _Sochet_, epithet of Isis, ii. 117

Society, ancient, built on the principle of the subordination of the individual to the community, i. 300

Socrates (church historian) on sacred prostitution, i. 37 _n._ 2

Söderblom, N., on an attempted reform of the old Iranian religion, ii. 83 _n._ 2

Sodom and Gomorrah, the destruction of, i. 222 _n._ 1

Soerakarta, district of Java, conduct of natives in an earthquake, i. 202 _n._ 1

Sokari (Seker), a title of Osiris, ii. 87

_Sol invictus_, i. 304 _n._ 1

_Solanum campylanthum_, ii. 47

Solomon, King, puts Adoni-jah to death, i. 51 _n._ 2

——, the Baths of, i. 78; in Moab, 215 _sq._

Solstice, the summer, the Nile rises at the, ii. 31 _n._ 1, 33

——, the winter, reckoned the Nativity of the Sun, i. 303; Egyptian ceremony at, ii. 50

Somali, marriage custom of the, ii. 246, 247

Son of a god, i. 51

Sons of God, i. 78 _sqq._

Sophocles on the burning of Hercules, i. 111

Sorcerers or priests, order of effeminate, ii. 253 _sqq._

Sorrowful One, the vaults of the, ii. 41

Sothic or Siriac period, ii. 36

Sothis, Egyptian name for the star Sirius, ii. 34. _See_ Sirius

Soul of a tree in a bird, ii. 111 _n._ 1; of the rice in the first sheaf cut, 239

“—— of Osiris,” a bird, ii. 110

—— -cakes eaten at the feast of All Souls in Europe, ii. 70, 71 _sq._, 73, 78 _sqq._

“Souling,” custom of, on All Souls’ Day in England, ii. 79

“—— Day” in Shropshire, ii. 78

Souls of the dead, reincarnation of the, i. 91 _sqq._; brought back among the Gonds, 95 _sq._

——, feasts of All, ii. 51 _sqq._

South Slavs, devices of women to obtain offspring, i. 96; marriage customs of, ii. 246

Sowers and ploughmen drenched with water as a rain-charm, i. 238 _sq._

Sowing, Prussian custom at, i. 238 _sq._; rites of, ii. 40 _sqq._

—— and ploughing, ceremony of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. 87, 90, 96; and planting, regulated by the phases of the moon, 133 _sqq._

Sozomenus, church historian, on sacred prostitution, i. 37

Spain, bathing on St. John’s Eve in, i. 248

Sparta destroyed by an earthquake, i. 196 _n._ 4

Spartans, their attempt to stop an earthquake, i. 196

—— their flute-band, i. 196

—— their uniform red, i. 196

—— at Thermopylae, i. 197 _n._ 1

—— their regard for the full moon, ii. 141

—— their brides dressed as men on the wedding night, ii. 260

Spencer, Baldwin, on reincarnation of the dead, i. 100 _n._ 3

Spencer, B., and Gillen, F. J., on Australian belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 99

Spermus, king of Lydia, i. 183

Spieth, J., on the Ewe peoples, i. 70 _n._ 2

Spirit animals supposed to enter women and be born from them, i. 97 _sq._

—— -children left by ancestors, i. 100 _sq._

Spirits supposed to consort with women, i. 91; of ancestors in the form of animals, 83; of forefathers thought to dwell in rivers, ii. 38

—— of dead chiefs worshipped by the whole tribe, ii. 175, 176, 177, 179, 181 _sq._, 187; thought to control the rain, 188; prophesy through living men and women, 192 _sq._; reincarnated in animals, 193. _See also_ Ancestral spirits

Spring called Persephone, ii. 41

Springs, worship of hot, i. 206 _sqq._; bathing in, at Midsummer, 246, 247, 248, 249

Staffordshire, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 79

Standard, Egyptian, resembling a placenta, ii. 156 _n._ 1

Stanikas, male children of sacred prostitutes, i. 63

Star of Bethlehem, i. 259

—— of Salvation, i. 258

—— -spangled cap of Attis, i. 284

Steinn in Hringariki, barrow of Halfdan at, ii. 100

_Stella Maris_, an epithet of the Virgin Mary, ii. 119

Stengel, P., on sacrificial ritual of Eleusis, i. 292 _n._ 3

Stlatlum Indians of British Columbia respect the animals and plants which they eat, ii. 44

Stocks, sacred, among the Semites, i. 107 _sqq._

Stones, holed, custom of passing through, i. 36; to commemorate the dead, ii. 203

——, sacred, anointed, i. 36; among the Semites, 107 _sqq._; among the Khasis, 108 _n._ 1

Strabo, on the concubines of Ammon, i. 72; on Albanian moon-god, 73 _n._ 4; on Castabala, 168 _n._ 6; his description of the Burnt Land of Lydia, 193; on the frequency of earthquakes at Philadelphia, 195; his description of Rhodes, 195 _n._ 3; on Nysa, 206 _n._ 1; on the priests of Pessinus, 286

Stratonicea in Caria, eunuch priest at, i. 270 _n._ 2; rule as to the pollution of death at, ii. 227 _sq._

String music in religion, i. 54

Su-Mu, a tribe of Southern China, said to be governed by a woman, ii. 211 _n._ 2

Subordination of the individual to the community, the principle of ancient society, i. 300

Substitutes for human sacrifices, i. 146 _sq._, 219 _sq._, 285, 289, ii. 99, 221

Succession to the crown under mother-kin (female kinship), i. 44, ii. 18, 210 _n._ 1

Sudan, the negroes of, their regard for the phases of the moon, ii. 141

Sudanese, their conduct in an earthquake, i. 198

_Suffetes_ of Carthage, i. 116

Sugar-bag totem, i. 101

Suicides, custom observed at graves of, i. 93; ghosts of, feared, 292 _n._ 3

Suk, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 85

Sulla at Aedepsus, i. 212

Sumatra, the Bataks of, i. 199, ii. 239; the Loeboes of, 264

Sumba, East Indian island, annual festival of the New Year and of the dead in, ii. 55 _sq._

Sumerians, their origin and civilization, i. 7 _sq._

Summer on the Mediterranean rainless, i. 159 _sq._

—— called Aphrodite, ii. 41

—— festival of Adonis, i. 226, 232 _n._

Sun, temple of the, at Baalbec, i. 163; Adonis interpreted as the, 228; the Nativity of the, at the winter solstice, 303 _sqq._; Osiris interpreted as the, ii. 120 _sqq._; called “the eye of Horus,” 121; worshipped in Egypt, 122, 123 _sqq._; the power of regeneration ascribed to the, 143 _n._ 4; salutations to the rising, 193

—— and earth, annual marriage of, i. 47 _sq._

—— -god annually married to Earth-goddess, i. 47 _sq._; the Egyptian, ii. 123 _sqq._; hymns to the, 123 _sq._

—— -goddess of the Hittites, i. 133 _n._

—— the Unconquered, Mithra identified with, i. 304

Superiority of the goddess in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, ii. 201 _sq._; of goddesses over gods in societies organized on mother-kin, 202 _sqq._; legal, of women over men in ancient Egypt, 214

Supplementary days, five, in the Egyptian year, ii. 6; in the ancient Mexican year, 28 _n._ 3; in the old Iranian year, 67, 68

Supreme gods in Africa, ii. 165, 173 _sq._, 174, 186, with note 5, 187 _n._ 1, 188 _sq._, 190

_Swastika_, i. 122 _n._ 1

Sweden, May-pole or Midsummer-tree in, i. 250; Midsummer bride and bridegroom in, 251; kings of, answerable for the fertility of the ground, ii. 220; marriage custom in, to ensure the birth of a boy, 262

“Sweethearts of St. John” in Sardinia, i. 244 _sq._

Swine not eaten by people of Pessinus, i. 265; not eaten by worshippers of Adonis, 265; not allowed to enter Comana in Pontus, 265. _See also_ Pigs

Sword, girls married to a, i. 61

Sycamore, effigy of Osiris placed on boughs of, ii. 88, 110; sacred to Osiris, 110

Syene (Assuan), inscriptions at, ii. 35 _n._ 1

Symbolism, coarse, of Osiris and Dionysus, ii. 112, 113

Symmachus, on the festival of the Great Mother, i. 298

Syracuse, the Blue Spring at, i. 213 _n._ 1

Syria, Adonis in, i. 13 _sqq._; “holy men” in, 77 _sq._; hot springs resorted to by childless women in, 213 _sqq._; subject to earthquakes, 222 _n._ 1; the Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice in, 303; turning money at the new moon in, ii. 149

Syrian god Hadad, i. 15

—— peasants believe that women can conceive without sexual intercourse, i. 91

—— women apply to saints for offspring, i. 109

—— writer on the reasons for assigning Christmas to the twenty-fifth of December, i. 304 _sq._

Tâ-uz (Tammuz), mourned by Syrian women in Harran, i. 230

Taanach, burial of children in jars at, i. 109 _n._ 1

Tacitus as to German observation of the moon, ii. 141

Taenarum in Laconia, Poseidon worshipped at, i. 203 _n._ 2

Talaga Bodas, volcano in Java, i. 204

Talbot, P. Amaury, on self-mutilation, i. 270 _n._ 1

Talismans, crowns and wreaths as, ii. 242 _sq._

Tamarisk, sacred to Osiris, ii. 110 _sq._

Tami, the, of German New Guinea, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198

Tamil temples, dancing-girls in, i. 61

Tamirads, diviners, i. 42

Tammuz, i. 6 _sqq._; equivalent to Adonis, 6 _n._ 1; his worship of Sumerian origin, 7 _sq._; meaning of the name, 8; “true son of the deep water,” 8, 246; laments for, 9 _sq._; the month of, 10 _n._ 1, 230; mourned for at Jerusalem, 11, 17, 20; as a corn-spirit, 230; his bones ground in a mill and scattered to the wind, 230

—— and Ishtar, i. 8 _sq._

Tangkul Nagas of Assam, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 57 _sqq._

Tanjore, dancing-girls at, i. 61

Tantalus murders his son Pelops, i. 181

Tark, Tarku, Trok, Troku, syllables in names of Cilician priests, i. 144; perhaps the name of a Hittite deity, 147; perhaps the name of the god of Olba, 148, 165

Tarkimos, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145

Tarkondimotos, name of two Cilician kings, i. 145 _n._ 2

Tarkuaris, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145; priestly king of Olba, 145

Tarkudimme or Tarkuwassimi, name on Hittite seal, i. 145 _n._ 2

Tarkumbios, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145

Tarsus, climate and fertility of, i. 118; school of philosophy at, 118; Sandan and Baal at, 142 _sq._, 161; priesthood of Hercules at, 143; Fortune of the City on coins of, 164; divine triad at, 171

——, the Baal of, i. 117 _sqq._, 162 _sq._

——, Sandan of, i. 124 _sqq._

_Tat_ or _tatu_ pillar. _See_ _Ded_ pillar

Tate, H. R., on serpent-worship, i. 85

Tattoo-marks of priests, i. 74 _n._ 4

Taurians of the Crimea, their use of the heads of prisoners, i. 294

_Taurobolium_ in the rites of Cybele, i. 274 _sqq._; or _Tauropolium_, 275 _n._ 1

Taurus mountains, i. 120

Tears of Isis thought to swell the Nile, ii. 33; rain thought to be the tears of gods, 33

Tegea, tombstones at, i. 87

Telamon, father of Teucer, i. 145

Tell-el-Amarna letters, i. 16 _n._ 5, 21 _n._ 2, 135 _n._; the new capital of King Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1, 124, 125

Tell Ta’annek (Taanach), burial of children in jars at, i. 109 _n._ 1

Tempe, the Vale of, ii. 240

Temple-tombs of kings, ii. 161 _sq._, 167 _sq._, 170 _sqq._, 174, 194 _sq._

Temples of dead kings, ii. 161 _sq._, 167 _sq._, 170 _sqq._, 194 _sq._

Tenggereese of Java sacrifice to volcano, i. 220

Tentyra (Denderah), temple of Osiris at, ii. 86

Ternate, the sultan of, his sacrifice of human victims to a volcano, i. 220

Tertullian on the fasts of Isis and Cybele, i. 302 _n._ 4; on the date of the Crucifixion, 306 _n._ 5

Teshub or Teshup, name of Hittite god, i. 135 _n._, 148 _n._

Teso, the, of Central Africa, medicine-men dressed as women among the, ii. 257

Testicles of rams in the rites of Attis, i. 269 _n._; of bull used in rites of Cybele and Attis, 276

Têt, New Year festival in Annam, ii. 62

_Tet_ pillar. _See_ _Ded_ pillar

Teti, king of Egypt, ii. 5

Teucer, said to have instituted human sacrifice, i. 146

—— and Ajax, names of priestly kings of Olba, i. 144 _sq._, 148, 161

Teucer, son of Tarkuaris, priestly king of Olba, i. 151, 157

——, son of Telamon, founds Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145

——, son of Zenophanes, high-priest of Olbian Zeus, i. 151

Teucrids, dynasty at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145

Teutonic year reckoned from October 1st, ii. 81

Thargelion, an Attic month, ii. 239 _n._ 1

Theal, G. McCall, on the worship of ancestors among the Bantus, ii. 176 _sq._

Theban priests, their determination of the solar year, ii. 26

Thebes in Boeotia, stone lion at, i. 184 _n._ 3; festival of the Laurel-bearing at, ii. 241

—— in Egypt, temple of Ammon at, i. 72; the Memnonium at, ii. 35 _n._; the Valley of the Kings at, 90

Theias, a Syrian king, i. 43 _n._ 4; father of Adonis, 55 _n._ 4

Theism late in human history, ii. 41

Theocracy in the Pelew Islands, tendency to, ii. 208

Theopompus on the names of the seasons, ii. 41

Thera, worship of the Mother of the Gods in, i. 280 _n._ 1

Thermopylae, the Spartans at, i. 197 _n._ 1; the hot springs of, 210 _sqq._

Thesmophoria, i. 43 _n._ 4; sacrifice to serpents at the, 88; pine-cones at the, 278; fast of the women at the, ii. 40 _sq._

Thetis and her infant son, i. 180

Thirty years, the Sed festival held nominally at intervals of, ii. 151

Thonga, Bantu tribe of South Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82; their presentation of infants to the moon, ii. 144 _sq._; worship of the dead among the, 180 _sq._

—— chiefs buried secretly, ii. 104 _sq._

Thongs, legends as to new settlements enclosed by, ii. 249 _sq._

Thoth, Egyptian god of wisdom, ii. 7, 17; teaches Isis a spell to restore the dead to life, 8; restores the eye of Horus, 17

Thoth, the first month of the Egyptian year, ii. 36, 93 _sqq._

Thracian villages, custom at Carnival in, ii. 99 _sq._

Threshing corn by oxen, ii. 45

Threshold, burial of infants under the, i. 93 _sq._

Thucydides on military music, i. 196 _n._ 3; on the sailing of the fleet for Syracuse, 226 _n._ 4

Θύειν distinguished from ἐναγίζειν, i. 316 _n._ 1

Thunder and lightning, sacrifices to, i. 157; the Syrian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Hittite god of, 163 _sq._

—— -god of the Hittites, with a bull and an axe as his emblems, i. 134 _sqq._

—— totem, i. 101

Thunderbolt, as emblem of Hittite god, i. 134, 136; as divine emblem, 163

—— and ears of corn, emblem of god Hadad, i. 163

Thurston, Edgar, on dancing-girls in India, i. 62

Thyatira, hero Tyrimnus at, i. 183 _n._

Thymbria, sanctuary of Charon at, i. 205

Tiberius, the Emperor, persecuted the Egyptian religion, ii. 95 _n._ 1

Tibullus, on the rising of Sirius, ii. 34 _n._ 1

Tiele, C. P., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 140 _n._ 1; on the death of Saracus, 174 _n._ 2; on Isis, ii. 115; on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2

Tiger’s ghost, deceiving a, ii. 263

Tiglath-Pileser III., king of Assyria, i. 14, 16, 163 _n._ 3

Tii, Egyptian queen, mother of Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1

Tille, A., on beginning of Teutonic winter, ii. 81 _n._ 3

Timber felled in the waning of the moon, ii. 133, 135 _sq._, 137

Timor, theory of earthquakes in, i. 197

Timotheus, on the death of Attis, i. 264 _n._ 4

Tiru-kalli-kundram, dancing-girls at, i. 61

Titane, shrine of Aesculapius at, i. 81

_Tobolbel_, in the Pelew Islands, ii. 266

Tod, J., on rites of goddess Gouri, i. 241 _sq._

Todas of the Neilgherry Hills, custom as to the pollution of death observed by sacred dairyman among the, ii. 228

Togo-land, West Africa, the Ewe people of, i. 282 _n._ 2; the Ho tribe of, ii. 104

Tomb of Midas, i. 286; of Hyacinth, 314

Tombs of the kings of Uganda, ii. 168 _sq._; of kings sacred, 194 _sq._

Tongans, their theory of an earthquake, i. 200 _sq._

Tongue of sacrificial ox cut out, ii. 251 _sq._

Tonquin, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 62

Tophet, at Jerusalem, i. 177

Toradjas of Central Celebes, their theory of rain, ii. 33

Torres Straits Islands, worship of animal-shaped heroes in the, i. 139 _n._ 1; death-dances in the, ii. 53 _n._ 2

Totemism in Kiziba, ii. 173, 174 _n._ 1

Toulon, Midsummer custom at, i. 248 _sq._

Town, charm to protect a, ii. 249 _sqq._

Tozer, H. F., on Mount Argaeus, i. 191

Traditions of kings torn in pieces, ii. 97 _sq._

Tralles in Lydia, i. 38

Transference of Egyptian festivals from one month to the preceding month, ii. 92 _sqq._

Transformation of men into women, attempted, in obedience to dreams, ii. 255 _sqq._; of women into men, attempted, 255 _n._ 1

Transition from mother-kin to father-kin, ii. 261 _n._ 3

Transylvania, harvest customs among the Roumanians and Saxons of, i. 237 _sq._

Travancore, dancing-girls in, i. 63 _sqq._

Treason, old English punishment of, i. 290 _n._ 2

Tree decked with bracelets, anklets, etc., i. 240; soul of a, in a bird, ii. 111 _n._ 1

—— of life in Eden, i. 186 _n._ 4

—— -bearers (_Dendrophori_) in the worship of Cybele and Attis, i. 266 _n._ 2, 267

—— -spirit, Osiris as a, ii. 107 _sqq._

Trees, spirit-children awaiting birth in, i. 100; sacrificial victims hung on, 146; represented on the monuments of Osiris, ii. 110 _sq._; felled in the waning of the moon, 133, 135 _sq._, 137; growing near the graves of dead kings revered, 162, 164

—— and rocks, Greek belief as to birth from, i. 107 _n._ 1

Triad, divine, at Tarsus, i. 171

Trident, emblem of Hittite thunder-god, i. 134, 135; emblem of Indian deity, 170

Tristram, H. B., on date of the corn-reaping in Palestine, i. 232 _n._

Trobriands, the, i. 84

Trokoarbasis, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145

Trokombigremis, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145

“True of speech,” epithet of Osiris, ii. 21

Trumpets, blowing of, in the rites of Attis, i. 268

Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast, dedicated men and women among the, i. 69 _sq._; ordeal of chastity among the, 115 _n._ 2; their annual festival of the dead, ii. 66 _n._ 2

_Tubilustrium_ at Rome, i. 268 _n._ 1

Tulava, sacred prostitution in, i. 63

Tully River, in Queensland, belief of the natives as to conception without sexual intercourse, i. 102

Tum of Heliopolis, an Egyptian sun-god, ii. 123

Turner, George, on sacred stones, i. 108 _n._ 1

“Turquoise, Mistress of,” at Sinai, i. 53

Tusayan Indians, their custom at planting, i. 239

Tuscany, volcanic district of, i. 208 _n._ 1

Tusser, Thomas, on planting peas and beans, ii. 134

Twin, the navel-string of the King of Uganda called his Twin, ii. 147

Twins, precautions taken by women at the graves of, i. 93 _n._ 1

Two-headed deity, i. 165 _sq._

Tyana, Hittite monument at, i. 122 _n._ 1

Tybi, an Egyptian month, ii. 93 _n._ 2

Tylon or Tylus, a Lydian hero, i. 183; his death and resurrection, 186 _sq._

Tylor, Sir Edward B., on fossil bones as a source of myths, i. 157 _sq._; on names for father and mother, 281

Typhon slays Hercules, i. 111; Corycian cave of, 155 _sq._; his battle with the gods, 193, 194

—— and Zeus, battle of, i. 156 _sq._

——, or Set, the brother of Osiris, ii. 6; murders Osiris, 7 _sq._; and mangles his body, 10; interpreted as the sun, 129. _See also_ Set

Tyre, Melcarth at, i. 16; burning of Melcarth at, 110 _sq._; festival of “the awakening of Hercules” at, 111; king of, his walk on stones of fire, 114 _sq._

——, kings of, their divinity, i. 16; as priests of Astarte, 26

Tyrimnus, axe-bearing hero at Thyatira, i. 183 _n._

Tyrol, feast of All Souls in the, ii. 73 _sq._

Tyropoeon, ravine at Jerusalem, i. 178

Ucayali River, the Conibos of the, i. 198; their greetings to the new moon, ii. 142

Uganda, the country of the Baganda, ii. 167; temples of the dead kings of, 167, 168 _sq._, 170 _sqq._; human sacrifices offered to prolong the lives of the kings of, 223 _sqq._ _See also_ Baganda

Uncle, dead, worshipped, ii. 175

——, maternal, in marriage ceremonies in India, i. 62 _n._ 1

Uncleanness caused by contact with the dead, ii. 227 _sqq._

Unconquered Sun, Mithra identified with the, i. 304

Unis, king of Egypt, ii. 5

Unkulunkulu, “the Old-Old-one,” the first man in the traditions of the Zulus, ii. 182

Unnefer, “the Good Being,” a title of Osiris, ii. 12

“Unspoken water” in marriage rites, ii. 245 _sq._

Upsala, human sacrifices in the holy grove at, i. 289 _sq._, ii. 220; the reign of Frey at, 100

Up-uat, Egyptian jackal-god, ii. 154

Uranus castrated by Cronus, i. 283

Uri-melech or Adom-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14

Usirniri, temple of, at Busiris, ii. 151

Valesius, on the standard Egyptian cubit, ii. 217 _n._ 1

Vallabha, an Indian sect, men assimilated to women in the, ii. 254

Valley of Hinnom, sacrifices to Moloch, in the, i. 178

—— of the Kings at Thebes, ii. 90

—— of Poison, in Java, i. 203 _sq._

Vancouver Island, the Ahts of, ii. 139 _n._ 1

Vapours, worship of mephitic, i. 203 _sqq._

Varro, on the marriage of the Roman gods, ii. 230 _sq._, 236 _n._ 1; his derivation of _Dialis_ from Jove, 230 _n._ 2; on Salacia, 233; on Fauna or the Good Goddess, 234 _n._ 4

Vase-painting of Croesus on the pyre, i. 176

Vatican, worship of Cybele and Attis on the site of the, i. 275 _sq._

Vegetable and animal life associated in primitive mind, i. 5

Vegetation, mythical theory of the growth and decay of, i. 3 _sqq._; annual decay and revival of, represented dramatically in the rites of Adonis, 227 _sqq._; gardens of Adonis charms to promote the growth of, 236 _sq._, 239; Midsummer fires and couples in relation to, 250 _sq._; Attis as a god of, 277 _sqq._; Osiris as a god of, ii. 112, 126, 131, 158

“Veins of the Nile,” near Philae, ii. 40

Venus, the planet, identified with Astarte, i. 258, ii. 35

—— and Vulcan, ii. 231

Venus, the bearded, in Cyprus, ii. 259 _n._ 3

Vernal festival of Adonis, i. 226

Verrall, A. W., on the _Anthesteria_, i. 235 _n._ 1

Vertumnus and Pomona, ii. 235 _n._ 6

Vestal Virgin, mother of Romulus and Remus, ii. 235

—— Virgins, rule as to their election, ii. 244

Vicarious sacrifices for kings, ii. 220 _sq._

Vicarious and nutritive types of sacrifice, ii. 226

Victims, sacrificial, hung on trees, i. 146

Victoria Nyanza Lake, Mukasa the god of the, ii. 257

Victory, temple of, on the Palatine Hill at Rome, i. 265

Viehe, Rev. G., on the worship of the dead among the Herero, ii. 187 _n._ 1

Vine, the cultivation of, introduced by Osiris, ii. 7, 112

Vintage festival, Oschophoria, at Athens, ii. 258 _n._ 6

—— rites at Athens, ii. 238

Violets sprung from the blood of Attis, i. 267

Virbius or Dianus at Nemi, i. 45

Virgin, the Heavenly, mother of the Sun, i. 303

—— birth of Perseus, i. 302 _n._ 4

—— Mary and Isis, ii. 118 _sq._

—— Mother, the Phrygian Mother Goddess as a, i. 281

—— mothers, tales of, i. 264; of gods and heroes, 107

Virginity, sacrifice of, i. 60; recovered by bathing in a spring, 280

Virgins supposed to conceive through eating certain food, i. 96

Virility, sacrifice of, in the rites of Attis and Astarte, i. 268 _sq._, 270 _sq._; other cases of, 270 _n._ 2

Vitrolles, bathing at Midsummer at, i. 248

Viza, in Thrace, Carnival custom at, ii. 91

Volcanic region of Cappadocia, i. 189 _sqq._

—— religion, i. 188 _sqq._

Volcanoes, the worship of, i. 216 _sqq._; human victims thrown into, 219 _sq._

Vosges, the Upper, rule as to the shearing of sheep in, ii. 134 _n._ 3

—— Mountains, feast of All Souls in the, ii. 69

Votiaks of Russia, annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. 76 _sq._

Voyage in boats of papyrus in the rites of Osiris, ii. 88

Vulcan, the fire-god, father of Caeculus, ii. 235

——, the husband of Maia or Majestas, ii. 232 _sq._; his Flamen, 232

—— and Venus, ii. 231

Wabisa, Bantu tribe of Rhodesia, ii. 174

Wabondei, of Eastern Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82; their rule as to the cutting of posts for building, ii. 137

Wachsmuth, C., on Easter ceremonies in the Greek Church, i. 254

Wagogo, the, of German East Africa, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. 143

Wahehe, a Bantu tribe of German East Africa, the worship of the dead among the, ii. 188 _sqq._; their belief in a supreme god Nguruhe, 188 _sq._

Wailing of women for Adonis, i. 224

Wajagga of German East Africa, their way of appeasing ghosts of suicides, i. 292 _n._ 3; their human sacrifices at irrigation, ii. 38

Wales, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 79

Wallachia, harvest custom in, i. 237

Wamara, a worshipful dead king, ii. 174

Waning of the moon, theories to account for the, ii. 130; time for felling timber, 135 _sqq._

War, sacrifice of a blind bull before going to, ii. 250 _sq._

—— -dance of king before the ghosts of his ancestors, ii. 192

Warner, Mr., on Caffre ideas about lightning, ii. 177 _n._ 1

Warramunga of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 100; their tradition of purification by fire, 180 _n._ 2

Warts supposed to be affected by the moon, ii. 149

Water thrown on the last corn cut, a rain-charm, i. 237 _sq._; marvellous properties attributed to, at Midsummer (the festival of St. John), 246 _sqq._; prophetic, drunk on St. John’s Eve, 247

—— of Life, i. 9

Waterbrash, a Huzul cure for, ii. 149 _sq._

Wave accompanying earthquake, i. 202 _sq._

Weaning of children, belief as to the, in Angus, ii. 148

Weavers, caste of, i. 62

Weeks, Rev. J. H., on inconsistency of savage thought, i. 5 _n._; on the names for the supreme god among many tribes of Africa, ii. 186 _n._ 5

_Wellalaick_, festival of the dead among the Letts, ii. 74

Wen-Ammon, Egyptian traveller, i. 14, 75 _sq._

West, Oriental religions in the, i. 298 _sqq._

Westermann, D., on the worship of Nyakang among the Shilluks, ii. 165

Whalers, their bodies cut up and used as charms, ii. 106

Wheat forced for festival, i. 243, 244, 251 _sq._, 253

—— and barley, the cultivation of, introduced by Osiris, ii. 7; discovered by Isis, 116

Whip made of human skin used in ceremonies for the prolongation of the king’s life, ii. 224, 225

Whitby, All Souls’ Day at, ii. 79

White, Rev. G. E., on dervishes of Asia Minor, i. 170

White, Miss Rachel Evelyn (Mrs. Wedd), on the position of women in ancient Egypt, ii. 214 _n._ 1, 216 _n._ 1

White the colour of Upper Egypt, ii. 21 _n._ 1

—— birds, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 162

—— bull, soul of a dead king incarnate in a, ii. 164

—— Crown of Upper Egypt, ii. 20, 21 _n._ 1; worn by Osiris, 87

—— roses dyed red by the blood of Aphrodite, i. 226

Whydah, King of, his worship of serpents, i. 67; serpents fed at, 86 _n._ 1

Wicked after death, fate of the, in Egyptian religion, ii. 14

Widow-burning in Greece, i. 177 _n._ 3

Widowed Flamen, the, ii. 227 _sqq._

Wiedemann, Professor A., on Wen-Ammon, i. 76 _n._ 1; on the Egyptian name of Isis, ii. 50 _n._ 4

Wigtownshire, harvest custom in, i. 237 _n._ 4

Wiimbaio tribe of South-Eastern Australia, their medicine-men, i. 75 _n._ 4

Wilkinson, Sir J. G., on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, ii. 91 _n._ 3

Wilson, C. T., and R. W. Felkin, on the worship of the dead kings of Uganda, ii. 173 _n._ 2

Winckler, H., his excavations at Boghaz-Keui, i. 125 _n._, 135 _n._

Winged deities, i. 165 _sq._

—— disc as divine emblem, i. 132

Winnowing-fans, ashes of human victims scattered by, ii. 97, 106

Winter called Cronus, ii. 41

—— sleep of the god, ii. 41

—— solstice reckoned the Nativity of the Sun, i. 303; Egyptian ceremony at the, ii. 50

Wissowa, Professor G., on introduction of Phrygian rites at Rome, i. 267 _n._; on Orcus, ii. 231 _n._ 5; on Ops and Consus, 233 _n._ 6; on the marriage of the Roman gods, 236 _n._ 1

Wives of dead kings sacrificed at their tombs, ii. 168

Wives, human, of gods, i. 61 _sqq._, ii. 207; in Western Asia and Egypt, 70 _sqq._

Wiwa chiefs reincarnated in pythons, ii. 193

Wogait, Australian tribe, their belief in conception without cohabitation, i. 103

Woman feeding serpent in Greek art, i. 87 _sq._; as inspired prophetess of a god, ii. 257

Woman’s dress assumed by men to deceive dangerous spirits, ii. 262 _sq._

Women pass through holed stones as cure for barrenness, i. 36, with _n._ 4; impregnated by dead saints, 78 _sq._; impregnated by serpents, 80 _sqq._; fear to be impregnated by ghosts, 93; impregnated by the flower of the banana, 93; excluded from sacrifices to Hercules, 113 _n._ 1; their high importance in the social system of the Pelew Islanders, ii. 205 _sqq._; the cultivation of the staple food in the hands of women (Pelew Islands), 206 _sq._; their social importance increased by the combined influence of mother-kin and landed property, 209; their legal superiority to men in ancient Egypt, 214; impregnated by fire, 235; priests dressed as, 253 _sqq._; dressed as men, 255 _n._ 1, 257; excluded from sacrifices to Hercules, 258 _n._ 5; dressed as men at marriage, 262 _sqq._; dressed as men at circumcision, 263. _See also_ Barrenness, Childless, _and_ Sacred Women

—— as prophetesses inspired by dead chiefs, ii. 192 _sq._; inspired by gods, 207

——, living, regarded as the wives of dead kings, ii. 191, 192; reputed the wives of gods, 207

Women’s hair, sacrifice of, i. 38

_Wororu_, man supposed to cause conception in women without sexual intercourse, i. 105

Worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of Africa, ii. 174 _sqq._; among the Khasis of Assam, 203

—— of the dead perhaps fused with the propitiation of the corn-spirit, i. 233 _sqq._; among the Bantu tribes, ii. 174 _sqq._

—— of dead kings and chiefs in Africa, ii. 160 _sqq._; among the Barotse, 194 _sq._; an important element in African religion, 195 _sq._

—— of hot springs, i. 206 _sqq._

—— of mephitic vapours, i. 203 _sqq._

—— of volcanoes, i. 216 _sqq._

Worshippers of Osiris forbidden to injure fruit-trees and to stop up wells, ii. 111

“Wounds between the arms” of Hebrew prophets, i. 74 _n._ 4

“—— of the Naaman,” Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226

Wreaths as amulets, ii. 242 _sq._

Wünsch, R., on the _Anthesteria_, i. 235 _n._ 1; on modern survivals of festivals of Adonis, 246; on Easter ceremonies in the Greek church, 254 _n._

Wyse, W., ii. 35 _n._ 1, 51 _n._ 1

Xenophanes of Colophon on the Egyptian rites of mourning for gods, ii. 42, 43

Yam, island of Torres Straits, heroes worshipped in animal forms in, i. 139 _n._ 1

Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, prostitution of unmarried girls in, ii. 265 _sq._

Yarilo, a personification of vegetation, i. 253

Year, length of the solar, determined by the Theban priests, ii. 26

——, the fixed Alexandrian, ii. 28, 49, 92

——, the Celtic, reckoned from November 1st, ii. 81

——, the Egyptian, a vague year, not corrected by intercalation, ii. 24 _sq._

—— of God, a Sothic period, ii. 36 _n._ 2; began with the rising of Sirius, 35

——, the old Iranian, ii. 67

——, the Julian, ii. 28

——, the Teutonic, reckoned from October 1st, ii. 81

Yehar-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14

Yehaw-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14

Ynglings, a Norse family, descended from Frey, ii. 100

Yombe, a Bantu tribe of Northern Rhodesia, their sacrifice of first-fruits to the dead, ii. 191

Youth restored by the witch Medea, i. 180 _sq._

Yucatan, calendar of the Indians of, ii. 28 _n._

Yukon River in Alaska, ii. 51

Yungman tribe of Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 101

Yuruks, pastoral people of Cilicia, i. 150 _n._ 1

Zambesi, the Barotse of the, ii. 193

Zas, name of priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 155

Zechariah, on the mourning of or for Hadadrimmon, i. 15 _n._ 4; on wounds of prophet, 74 _n._ 4

Zekar-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14

_Zend-Avesta_, on the Fravashis, ii. 67 _sq._

Zenjirli in Syria, Hittite sculptures at, i. 134; statue of horned god at, 163

Zer, old Egyptian king, his true Horus name Khent, ii. 20 _n._ 1, 154. _See_ Khent

Zerka, river in Moab, i. 215 _n._ 1

Zeus, god of Tarsus assimilated to, i. 119, 143; Cilician deity assimilated to, 144 _sqq._, 148, 152; the flower of, 186, 187; identified with Attis, 282; castrates his father Cronus, 283; the father of dew, ii. 137; the Saviour of the City, at Magnesia on the Maeander, 238

——, Corycian, priests of, i. 145, 155; temple of, 155

—— and Hecate at Stratonicea in Caria, i. 270 _n._ 2, 227

——, Labrandeus, the Carian, i. 182

——, Olbian, ruins of his temple at Olba, i. 151; his cave or chasm, 158 _sq._; his priest Teucer, 159; a god of fertility, 159 _sqq._

——, Olybrian, i. 167 _n._ 1

—— Papas, i. 281 _n._ 2

Zeus and Typhon, battle of, i. 156 _sq._, 160

Zimmern, H., on Mylitta, i. 37 _n._ 1

Zimri, king of Israel, burns himself, i. 174 _n._ 2, 176

Zion, Mount, traditionally identified with Mount Moriah, ii. 219 _n._ 1

Zoroastrian fire-worship in Cappadocia, i. 191

Zulu medicine-men or diviners, i. 74 _n._ 4, 75; their charm to fertilize fields, ii. 102 _sq._

Zulus, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 84; their observation of the moon, ii. 134 _sq._; the worship of the dead among the, 182 _sqq._; their sacrifice of a bull to prolong the life of the king, 222

FOOTNOTES

M1 Osiris the Egyptian counterpart of Adonis and Attis. M2 The myth of Osiris. The Pyramid Texts.

1 See Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 12-20; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_ (Turin, 1881-1884), vol. ii. pp. 692 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_ (Tübingen, N.D.), pp. 365-369; _id._, _Die ägyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, 1909), pp. 38 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_ (Münster i. W. 1890), pp. 109 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1897), pp. 207 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 172 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London, 1904), ii. 123 _sqq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London, 1911), i. 1 _sqq._

2 J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_ (London, 1912), pp. vii. _sq._, 77 _sqq._, 84 _sqq._, 91 _sqq._ Compare _id._, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), p. 68; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 116 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London, 1911), i. 100 _sqq._ The first series of the texts was discovered in 1880 when Mariette’s workmen penetrated into the pyramid of King Pepi the First. Till then it had been thought by modern scholars that the pyramids were destitute of inscriptions. The first to edit the Pyramid Texts was Sir Gaston Maspero.

M3 The Pyramid Texts intended to ensure the blissful immortality of Egyptian kings.

3 J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 91 _sq._ Among the earlier works referred to in the Pyramid Texts are “the chapter of those who ascend” and “the chapter of those who raise themselves up” (J. H. Breasted, _op. cit._ p. 85). From their titles these works would seem to have recorded a belief in the resurrection and ascension of the dead.

M4 The story of Osiris in the Pyramid Texts.

4 This has been done by Professor J. H. Breasted in his _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 18 _sqq._

M5 Osiris a son of the earth-god and the sky-goddess.

5 In Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 12, we must clearly read ἑβδομηκοστὸν δεύτερον with Scaliger and Wyttenbach for the ἑβδομηκοστόν of the MSS.

6 Herodotus, ii. 4, with A. Wiedemann’s note; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 94 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 468 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 208 _sq._

7 The birth of the five deities on the five supplementary days is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (i. 13. 4) as well as by Plutarch (_Isis et Osiris_, 12). The memory of the five supplementary days seems to survive in the modern Coptic calendar of Egypt. The days from the first to the sixth of Amshir (February) are called “the days outside the year” and they are deemed unlucky. “Any child begotten during these days will infallibly be misshapen or abnormally tall or short. This also applies to animals so that cattle and mares are not covered during these days; moreover, some say (though others deny) that neither sowing nor planting should be undertaken.” However, these unlucky days are not the true intercalary days of the Coptic calendar, which occur in the second week of September at the end of the Coptic year. See C. G. Seligmann, “Ancient Egyptian Beliefs in Modern Egypt,” _Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway_ (Cambridge, 1913), p. 456. As to the unluckiness of intercalary days in general, see _The Scapegoat_, pp. 339 _sqq._

M6 Osiris introduces the cultivation of corn and of the vine. His violent death. Isis searches for his body.

8 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13; Diodorus Siculus, i. 14, 17, 20; Tibullus, i. 7. 29 _sqq._

9 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13 _sq._

M7 She takes refuge in the papyrus swamps. Isis and her infant son Horus.

10 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 366; _id._, _Die ägyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, 1909), p. 40; A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1897), pp. 213 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, i. 487 _sq._, ii. 206-211; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London, 1911), i. 92-96, ii. 84, 274-276. These incidents of the scorpions are not related by Plutarch but are known to us from Egyptian sources. The barbarous legend of the begetting of Horus by the dead Osiris is told in unambiguous language in the Pyramid Texts, and it is illustrated by a monument which represents the two sister goddesses hovering in the likeness of hawks over the god, while Hathor sits at his head and the Frog-goddess Heqet squats in the form of a huge frog at his feet. See J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. 28, with note 2; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 280. Harpocrates is in Egyptian _Her-pe-khred_, “Horus the child” (A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 223). Plutarch, who appears to distinguish him from Horus, says that Harpocrates was begotten by the dead Osiris on Isis, and that he was born untimely and was weak in his lower limbs (_Isis et Osiris_, 19). Elsewhere he tells us that Harpocrates “was born, incomplete and youthful, about the winter solstice along with the early flowers and blossoms” (_Isis et Osiris_, 65).

M8 The body of Osiris floats to Byblus, where it is recovered by Isis. The body of Osiris dismembered by Typhon, and the pieces recovered by Isis. Diodorus Siculus on the burial of Osiris.

11 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8, 18.

12 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.

13 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. Compare Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 7, p. 142, ed. L. Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin (Göttingen, 1859).

14 Diodorus Siculus, i. 21. 5-11; compare _id._, iv. 6. 3; Strabo, xvii. 1. 23, p. 803.

M9 The various members of Osiris treasured as relics in various parts of Egypt.

15 H. Brugsch, “Das Osiris-Mysterium von Tentyra,” _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, xix. (1881) pp. 77 _sqq._; V. Loret, “Les fêtes d’Osiris au mois de Khoiak,” _Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la Philologie et à l’Archéologie Égyptiennes et Assyriennes_, iii. (1882) pp. 43 _sqq._; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 697 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_ (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 584 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, p. 115; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 215 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 367 _sq._

16 J. Rendel Harris, _The Annotators of the Codex Bezae_ (London, 1901), p. 104, note 2, referring to Dulaure.

M10 Osiris mourned by Isis and Nephthys.

17 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, 1909), pp. 39 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 59 _sqq._

18 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 211.

M11 Being brought to life again, Osiris reigns as king and judge of the dead in the other world. The confession of the dead.

19 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 39 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 176; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 140, 262; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 70-75, 80-82. On Osiris as king of the dead see Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 79.

20 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), pp. 8, 17, 18.

21 On Osiris as judge of the dead see A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp. 131 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 248 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 187 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Book of the Dead_2 (London, 1909), i. pp. liii. _sqq._; _id._, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 141 _sqq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 305 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 116 _sqq._

_ 22 The Book of the Dead_, ch. cxxv. (vol. ii. pp. 355 _sqq._ of Budge’s translation; P. Pierret, _Le Livre des Morts_, Paris, 1882, pp. 369 _sqq._); R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 788 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp. 132-134; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 249 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 188-191; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 117-121; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 337 _sqq._; J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 297 _sqq._

23 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 p. 121. Compare A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp. 134 _sq._; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 253.

24 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 254; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 305 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _op. cit._ i. 194 _sq._; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 121 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 97 _sq._, 100 _sqq._; E. Lefébure, “Le Paradis Egyptien,” _Sphinx_, iii. (Upsala, 1900) pp. 191 _sqq._

M12 The fate of the wicked.

25 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 249. Compare A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 117, 121; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 317, 328.

M13 In the resurrection of Osiris the Egyptians saw a pledge of their own immortality.

26 G. Maspero, “Le rituel du sacrifice funéraire,” _Études de Mythologie et d’Archéologie Égyptiennes_ (Paris, 1893-1912), i. 291 _sq._

27 G. Maspero, _op. cit._ pp. 300-316. Compare A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp. 123 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 234 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Book of the Dead_2 (London, 1909), i. pp. iiii. _sqq._; _id._, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 126, 140 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 66 _sqq._, 101 _sq._, 176, 305, 399 _sq._; A. Moret, _Du Caractère religieux de la Royauté Pharaonique_ (Paris, 1902), p. 312; _id._, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and London, 1912), pp. 91 _sqq._; _id._, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 37 _sqq._ “In one of the ceremonies of the ‘Opening of the Mouth’ the deceased was temporarily placed in a bull’s skin, which was probably that of one of the bulls which were offered up during the celebration of the service. From this skin the deceased obtained further power, and his emergence from it was the visible symbol of his resurrection and of his entrance into everlasting life with all the strength of Osiris and Horus” (E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 400).

M14 Every dead Egyptian identified with Osiris.

28 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 416; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 149 _sq._; Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 31. Under the earlier dynasties only kings appear to have been identified with Osiris.

29 A. Moret, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), p. 40.

30 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 111-113. However, in later times the body with which the dead came to life was believed to be a spiritual, not a material body; it was called _sāhu_. See E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Book of the Dead_,2 i. pp. lvii. _sqq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 123 _sq._

M15 Combat between Set and Horus, the brother and the son of Osiris, for the crown of Egypt.

31 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 19 and 55; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 368; _id._, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 41 _sq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, p. 114; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 214 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 176-178; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 62 _sq._, 64, 89 _sqq._, 309 _sqq._

M16 The legend of their contest may be a reminiscence of dynastic struggles.

_ 32 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 290 _sqq._

M17 Osiris represented as a king in tradition and art. The tomb of Osiris at Abydos.

33 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 217. For details see E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 30 _sqq._

34 J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), p. 61; _id._, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. 38; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 37, 67, 81, 210, 212, 214, 290, ii. 1, 2, 8-13, 82-85; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 21, 23, 110; A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 289; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 70, 96, 97. It appears to be now generally held that the original seat of the worship of Osiris was at Busiris, but that at Abydos the god found a second home, which in time eclipsed the old one in glory. According to Professors Ed. Meyer and A. Erman, the god whom Osiris displaced at Abydos was Anubis.

35 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 417; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 148 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 209; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 68 _sq._, ii. 3.

M18 The tombs of the old kings at Abydos. The tomb of King Khent identified with the tomb of Osiris. The sculptured effigy of Osiris. The hawk the crest of the earliest dynasties.

36 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 125.

37 J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 43, 50 _sq._ The excavations were begun by E. Amélineau and continued by W. M. Flinders Petrie (Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 119). See E. Amélineau, _Le Tombeau d’Osiris_ (Paris, 1899); W. M. Flinders Petrie, _The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_, Part ii. (London, 1901). The excavations of the former have been criticized by Sir Gaston Maspero (_Études de Mythologie et d’Archéologie Égyptiennes_, vi. (Paris, 1912) pp. 153-182).

38 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 119, 124; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 8. The place is now known by the Arabic name of Umm al-Ka’âb or “Mother of Pots” on account of the large quantity of pottery that has been found there.

39 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 119, 125, 127, 128, 129, 209. The king’s Horus name has sometimes been read Zer, but according to Professor Meyer (_op. cit._ p. 128) and Dr. Budge (_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 83) the true reading is Khent (Chent). The king’s personal name was perhaps Ka (Ed. Meyer, _op. cit._ p. 128).

40 E. Amélineau, _Le Tombeau d’Osiris_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 107-115; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_,

## Part ii. (London, 1901) pp. 8 _sq._, 16-19, with the frontispiece

and plates lx. lxi.; G. Maspero, _Études de Mythologie et d’Archéologie Égyptiennes_ (Paris, 1893-1912), vi. 167-173; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 50 _sq._, 148; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 8-10, 13, 83-85. The tomb, with its interesting contents, was discovered and excavated by Monsieur E. Amélineau. The masses, almost the mountains, of broken pottery, under which the tomb was found to be buried, are probably remains of the vessels in which pious pilgrims presented their offerings at the shrine. See E. Amélineau, _op. cit._ pp. 85 _sq._; J. H. Breasted, _op. cit._ pp. 51, 148. The high White Crown, worn by Osiris, was the symbol of the king’s dominion over Upper Egypt; the flat Red Crown, with a high backpiece and a projecting spiral, was the symbol of his dominion over Lower Egypt. On the monuments the king is sometimes represented wearing a combination of the White and the Red Crown to symbolize his sovereignty over both the South and the North. White was the distinctive colour of Upper, as red was of Lower, Egypt. The treasury of Upper Egypt was called “the White House”; the treasury of Lower Egypt was called “the Red House.” See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 103 _sq._; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 34 _sq._, 36, 41.

41 A. Moret, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 159-162, with plate iii. Compare Victor Loret, “L’Égypte au temps du totémisme,” _Conférences faites au Musée Guimet, Bibliothèque de Vulgarisation_, xix. (Paris, 1906) pp. 179-186. Both these writers regard the hawk as the totem of the royal clan. This view is rejected by Prof. Ed. Meyer, who, however, holds that Horus, whose emblem was the hawk, was the oldest national god of Egypt (_Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 102-106). He prefers to suppose that the hawk, or rather the falcon, was the emblem of a god of light because the bird flies high in the sky (_op. cit._ p. 73; according to him the bird is not the sparrow-hawk but the falcon, ib. p. 75). A similar view is adopted by Professor A. Wiedemann (_Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 26). Compare A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 10, 11. The native Egyptian name of Hawk-town was Nechen, in Greek it was Hieraconpolis (Ed. Meyer, _op. cit._ p. 103). Hawks were worshipped by the inhabitants (Strabo, xvii. 1. 47, p. 817).

42 According to the legend the four sons of Horus were set by Anubis to protect the burial of Osiris. They washed his dead body, they mourned over him, and they opened his cold lips with their fingers. But they disappeared, for Isis had caused them to grow out of a lotus flower in a pool of water. In that position they are sometimes represented in Egyptian art before the seated effigy of Osiris. See A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 p. 43; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 40, 41, 327.

M19 The association of Osiris with Byblus.

43 See above, pp. 9 _sq._

44 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 16 _sq._

45 Cyril of Alexandria, _In Isaiam_, lib. ii. Tomus iii. (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, lxx. 441).

M20 The date of a festival sometimes furnishes a clue to the nature of the god. M21 The year of the Egyptian calendar a vague or movable one.

46 As to the Egyptian calendar see L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 93 _sqq._; Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), ii. 368 _sqq._; R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der Aegypter_, i. (Berlin, 1849) pp. 125 _sqq._; H. Brugsch, _Die Ägyptologie_ (Leipsic, 1891), pp. 347-366; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 468 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 207-210; Ed. Meyer, “Aegyptische Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1904, pp. 2 _sqq._; _id._, “Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907, pp. 3 _sqq._; _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98 _sqq._; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) pp. 150 _sqq._

47 Herodotus, ii. 4, with A. Wiedemann’s note; Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, 8, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius (Leipsic, 1898); Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 10.

48 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, 8, pp. 106 _sqq._, ed. C. Manitius.

M22 Thus the official calendar was divorced from the natural calendar, which is marked by the course of the seasons.

49 Diodorus Siculus, i. 50. 2; Strabo, xvii. i. 46, p. 816. According to H. Brugsch (_Die Ägyptologie_, pp. 349 _sq._), the Egyptians would seem to have denoted the movable year of the calendar and the fixed year of the sun by different written symbols. For more evidence that they were acquainted with a four years’ period, corrected by intercalation, see R. Lepsius, _Chronologie der Aegypter_, i. 149 _sqq._

50 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, 8, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius. The same writer further (p. 108) describes as a popular Greek error the opinion that the Egyptian festival of Isis coincided with the winter solstice. In his day, he tells us, the two events were separated by an interval of a full month, though they had coincided a hundred and twenty years before the time he was writing.

_ 51 Scholia in Caesaris Germanici Aratea_, p. 409, ed. Fr. Eyssenhardt, in his edition of Martianus Capella (Leipsic, 1866).

M23 Attempt of Ptolemy III. to reform the Egyptian calendar by intercalation.

52 Copies of the decree in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek have been found inscribed on stones in Egypt. See Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, 1900), pp. 415 _sqq._, No. 551; W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_ (Leipsic, 1903-1905), vol. i. pp. 91 _sqq._, No. 56; J. P. Mahaffy, _The Empire of the Ptolemies_ (London, 1895), pp. 205 _sqq._, 226 _sqq._ The star mentioned in the decree is the Dog-star (Sirius). See below, pp. 34 _sqq._

53 W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, vol. i. pp. 140 _sqq._, No. 90, with note 25 of the editor.

M24 Institution of the fixed Alexandrian year by the Romans.

54 On the Alexandrian year see L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 140 _sqq._ That admirable chronologer argued (pp. 153-161) that the innovation was introduced not, as had been commonly supposed, in 25 B.C., but in 30 B.C., the year in which Augustus defeated Mark Antony under the walls of Alexandria and captured the city. However, the question seems to be still unsettled. See F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 226 _sqq._, who thinks it probable that the change was made in 26 B.C. For the purposes of this study the precise date of the introduction of the Alexandrian year is not material.

55 In demotic the fixed Alexandrian year is called “the year of the Ionians,” while the old movable year is styled “the year of the Egyptians.” Documents have been found which are dated by the day and the month of both years. See H. Brugsch, _Die Ägyptologie_, pp. 354 _sq._

56 L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 149-152. Macrobius thought that the Egyptians had always employed a solar year of 365-¼ days (_Saturn._ i. 12. 2, i. 14. 3). The ancient calendar of the Mexicans resembled that of the Egyptians except that it was divided into eighteen months of twenty days each (instead of twelve months of thirty days each), with five supplementary days added at the end of the year. These supplementary days (_nemontemi_) were deemed unlucky: nothing was done on them: they were dedicated to no deity; and persons born on them were considered unfortunate. See B. de Sahagun, _Histoire générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 50, 164; F. S. Clavigero, _History of Mexico_ (London, 1807), i. 290. Unlike the Egyptian calendar, however, the Mexican appears to have been regularly corrected by intercalation so as to bring it into harmony with the solar year. But as to the mode of intercalation our authorities differ. According to the positive statement of Sahagun, one of the earliest and best authorities, the Mexicans corrected the deficiency of their year by intercalating one day in every fourth year, which is precisely the correction adopted in the Alexandrian and the Julian calendar. See B. de Sahagun, _op. cit._ pp. 286 _sq._, where he expressly asserts the falsehood of the view that the bissextile year was unknown to the Mexicans. This weighty statement is confirmed by the practice of the Indians of Yucatan. Like the Aztecs, they reckoned a year to consist of 360 days divided into 18 months of 20 days each, with 5 days added so as to make a total of 365 days, but every fourth year they intercalated a day so as to make a total of 366 days. See Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp. 202 _sqq._ On the other hand the historian Clavigero, who lived in the eighteenth century, but used earlier authorities, tells us that the Mexicans “did not interpose a day every four years, but thirteen days (making use here even of this favourite number) every fifty-two years; which produces the same regulation of time” (_History of Mexico_, Second Edition, London, 1807, vol. i. p. 293). However, the view that the Mexicans corrected their year by intercalation is rejected by Professor E. Seler. See his “Mexican Chronology,” in _Bulletin 28_ of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington, 1904), pp. 13 _sqq._; and on the other side Miss Zelia Nuttall, “The Periodical Adjustments of the Ancient Mexican Calendar,” _American Anthropologist_, N.S. vi. (1904) pp. 486-500.

M25 In Egypt the operations of husbandry are dependent on the annual rise and fall of the Nile.

57 Herodotus, ii. 36, with A. Wiedemann’s note; Diodorus Siculus, i. 14-1, i. 17. 1; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 57 _sq._, xviii. 60; Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), ii. 398, 399, 418, 426 _sq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 577 _sqq._; A. de Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp. 354 _sq._, 369, 381; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 66.

58 Herodotus, ii. 14; Diodorus Siculus, i. 36; Strabo, xvii. 1. 3, pp. 786-788; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 167-170; Seneca, _Natur. Quaest._ iv. 2. 1-10; E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley and London, 1895), pp. 17 _sq._, 495 _sqq._; A. Erman, _op. cit._ pp. 21-25; G. Maspero, _op. cit._ i. 22 _sqq._ However, since the Suez Canal was cut, rain has been commoner in Lower Egypt (A. H. Sayce on Herodotus, ii. 14).

59 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 22-26; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 23. According to Lane (_op. cit._ pp. 17 _sq._) the Nile rises in Egypt about the summer solstice (June 21) and reaches its greatest height by the autumnal equinox (September 22). This agrees exactly with the statement of Diodorus Siculus (i. 36. 2). Herodotus says (ii. 19) that the rise of the river lasted for a hundred days from the summer solstice. Compare Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 57, xviii. 167; Seneca, _Nat. Quaest._ iv. 2. 1. According to Prof. Ginzel the Nile does not rise in Egypt till the last week of June (_Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 154). For ancient descriptions of Egypt in time of flood see Herodotus, ii. 97; Diodorus Siculus, i. 36. 8 _sq._; Strabo, xvii. 1. 4, p. 788; Aelian, _De natura animalium_, x. 43; Achilles Tatius, iv. 12; Seneca, _Natur. Quaest._ iv. 2. 8 and 11.

M26 Irrigation, sowing, and harvest in Egypt.

60 Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), ii. 365 _sq._; E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley and London, 1895), pp. 498 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 23 _sq._, 69. The last-mentioned writer says (p. 24) that the dams are commonly cut between the first and sixteenth of July, but apparently he means August.

61 Sir J. D. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ ii. 398 _sq._; Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, cited above, vol. i. p. 231, note 3. According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 60) barley was reaped in Egypt in the sixth month from sowing, and wheat in the seventh month. Diodorus Siculus, on the other hand, says (i. 36. 4) that the corn was reaped after four or five months. Perhaps Pliny refers to Lower, and Diodorus to Upper Egypt. Elsewhere Pliny affirms (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 169) that the corn was sown at the beginning of November, and that the reaping began at the end of March and was completed in May. This certainly applies better to Lower than to Upper Egypt.

M27 The events of the agricultural year were probably celebrated with religious rites. M28 Mourning for Osiris at midsummer when the Nile begins to rise.

62 Pausanias, x. 32. 18.

63 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 278.

64 N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, _De Bare’e-sprekende Toradjas van Midden-Celebes_ (Batavia, 1912), i. 273. The more civilized Indians of tropical America, who practised agriculture and had developed a barbaric art, appear to have commonly represented the rain-god in human form with tears streaming down from his eyes. See T. A. Joyce, “The Weeping God,” _Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway_ (Cambridge, 1913), pp. 365-374.

65 This we learn from inscriptions at Silsilis. See A. Moret, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), p. 180.

66 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley and London, 1895), ch. xxvi. pp. 495 _sq._

M29 Sirius regarded as the star of Isis. The rising of Sirius marked the beginning of the sacred Egyptian year. The observation of the gradual displacement of Sirius in the calendar led to the determination of the true length of the solar year.

67 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 124 _sqq._; R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der Aegypter_, i. 168 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 190 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, “Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907 (Berlin, 1908), pp. 11 _sq._; _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 28 _sq._, 99 _sqq._ The coincidence of the rising of Sirius with the swelling of the Nile is mentioned by Tibullus (i. 7. 21 _sq._) and Aelian (_De natura animalium_, x. 45). In later times, as a consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, the rising of Sirius gradually diverged from the summer solstice, falling later and later in the solar year. In the sixteenth and fifteenth century B.C. Sirius rose seventeen days after the summer solstice, and at the date of the Canopic decree (238 B.C.) it rose a whole month after the first swelling of the Nile. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 130; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 190; Ed. Meyer, “Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” pp. 11 _sq._ According to Censorinus (_De die natali_, xxi. 10), Sirius regularly rose in Egypt on the twentieth of July (Julian calendar); and this was true of latitude 30° in Egypt (the latitude nearly of Heliopolis and Memphis) for about three thousand years of Egyptian history. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 128-130. But the date of the rising of the star is not the same throughout Egypt; it varies with the latitude, and the variation within the limits of Egypt amounts to seven days or more. Roughly speaking, Sirius rises nearly a whole day earlier for each degree of latitude you go south. Thus, whereas near Alexandria in the north Sirius does not rise till the twenty-second of July, at Syene in the south it rises on the sixteenth of July. See R. Lepsius, _op. cit._ i. 168 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 182 _sq._ Now it is to be remembered that the rising of the Nile, as well as the rising of Sirius, is observed earlier and earlier the further south you go. The coincident variation of the two phenomena could hardly fail to confirm the Egyptians in their belief of a natural or supernatural connexion between them.

68 Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 4; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 21, 22, 38, 61; Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 24; Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, ii. 517; Canopic decree, lines 36 _sq._, in W. Dittenberger’s _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, vol. i. p. 102, No. 56 (lines 28 _sq._ in Ch. Michel’s _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, p. 417, No. 551); R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 825 _sq._ On the ceiling of the Memnonium at Thebes the heliacal rising of Sirius is represented under the form and name of Isis (Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_, London, 1878, iii. 102).

69 Porphyry and the Canopic decree, _ll.cc._; Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 10, xxi. 10. In inscriptions on the temple at Syene, the modern Assuan, Isis is called “the mistress of the beginning of the year,” the goddess “who revolves about the world, near to the constellation of Orion, who rises in the eastern sky and passes to the west perpetually” (R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 826). According to some, the festival of the rising of Sirius and the beginning of the sacred year was held on the nineteenth, not the twentieth of July. See Ed. Meyer, “Ägyptische Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1904, pp. 22 _sqq._; _id._, “Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907, pp. 7 _sqq._; _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98 _sqq._

_ 70 Eudoxi ars astronomica, qualis in charta Aegyptiaca superest_, ed. F. Blass (Kiliae, 1887), p. 14, οἱ δὲ ἀσ[τρο]λ[ό]γοι καὶ οἱ ἱερογραμμ[ατεῖς] χ[ρῶν]ται ταῖς κατὰ σελή[ν]ἠ[ν] ἡμ[έ]ραις καὶ ἄγουσι πανδημ[ι]κὰς ἕ[ορ]τας τινὰς μὲν ὡς ἐνομί[σθ]ἠ τὰ δὲ καταχυτήρια καὶ κυνὸς ἀνατολὴν καὶ σεληναῖα κατὰ θεό[ν], ἀναλεγόμενοι τὰς ἡμέρας ἐκ τῶν Αἰγυπτίων. This statement of Eudoxus or of one of his pupils is important, since it definitely proves that, besides the shifting festivals of the shifting official year, the Egyptians celebrated other festivals, which were dated by direct observation of natural phenomena, namely, the annual inundation, the rise of Sirius, and the phases of the moon. The same distinction of the fixed from the movable festivals is indicated in one of the Hibeh papyri, but the passage is unfortunately mutilated. See _The Hibeh Papyri_, part i., edited by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (London, 1906), pp. 145, 151 (pointed out to me by my friend Mr. W. Wyse). The annual festival in honour of Ptolemy and Berenice was fixed on the day of the rising of Sirius. See the Canopic decree, in W. Dittenberger’s _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, No. 56 (vol. i. pp. 102 _sq._).

The rise of Sirius was carefully observed by the islanders of Ceos, in the Aegean. They watched for it with arms in their hands and sacrificed on the mountains to the star, drawing from its aspect omens of the salubrity or unhealthiness of the coming year. The sacrifice was believed to secure the advent of the cool North winds (the Etesian winds as the Greeks call them), which regularly begin to blow about this time of the year, and mitigate the oppressive heat of summer in the Aegean. See Apollonius Rhodius, _Argon._ ii. 516-527, with the notes of the Scholiast on vv. 498, 526; Theophrastus, _De ventis_, ii. 14; Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ vi. 3. 29, p. 753, ed. Potter; Nonnus, _Dionys._ v. 269-279; Hyginus, _Astronomica_, ii. 4; Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 57. 130; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 6-8; C. Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_ (Breslau, 1885), pp. 96 _sqq._ On the top of Mount Pelion in Thessaly there was a sanctuary of Zeus, where sacrifices were offered at the rising of Sirius, in the height of the summer, by men of rank, who were chosen by the priest and wore fresh sheep-skins. See [Dicaearchus,] “Descriptio Graeciae,” _Geographi Graeci Minores_, ed. C. Müller, i. 107; _Historicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_, ed. C. Müller, ii. 262.

71 Above, pp. 24 _sq._

72 We know from Censorinus (_De die natali_, xxi. 10) that the first of Thoth coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius on July 20 (Julian calendar) in the year 139 A.D. Hence reckoning backwards by Sothic periods of 1460 solar years we may infer that Sirius rose on July 20th (Julian calendar) in the years 1321 B.C., 2781 B.C., and 4241 B.C.; and accordingly that the civil or vague Egyptian year of 365 days was instituted in one of these years. In favour of supposing that it was instituted either in 2781 B.C. or 4241 B.C., it may be said that in both these years the rising of Sirius nearly coincided with the summer solstice and the rising of the Nile; whereas in the year 1321 B.C. the summer solstice, and with it the rising of the Nile, fell nineteen days before the rising of Sirius and the first of Thoth. Now when we consider the close causal connexion which the Egyptians traced between the rising of Sirius and the rising of the Nile, it seems probable that they started the new calendar on the first of Thoth in a year in which the two natural phenomena coincided rather than in one in which they diverged from each other by nineteen days. Prof. Ed. Meyer decides in favour of the year 4241 B.C. as the date of the introduction of the Egyptian calendar on the ground that the calendar was already well known in the Old Kingdom. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 125 _sqq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 192 _sqq._; Ed. Meyer, “Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907 (Berlin, 1908), pp. 11 _sq._; _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98 _sqq._ When the fixed Alexandrian year was introduced in 30 B.C. (see above, pp. 27 _sq._) the first of Thoth fell on August 29, which accordingly was thenceforth reckoned the first day of the year in the Alexandrian calendar. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 153 _sqq._ The period of 1460 solar or 1461 movable Egyptian years was variously called a Sothic period (Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ i. 21. 136, p. 401 ed. Potter), a Canicular year (from _Canicula_, “the Dog-star,” that is, Sirius), a heliacal year, and a year of God (Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 10). But there is no evidence or probability that the period was recognized by the Egyptian astronomers who instituted the movable year of 365 days. Rather, as Ideler pointed out (_op. cit._ i. 132), it must have been a later discovery based on continued observations of the heliacal rising of Sirius and of its gradual displacement through the whole length of the official calendar. Brugsch, indeed, went so far as to suppose that the period was a discovery of astronomers of the second century A.D., to which they were led by the coincidence of the first of Thoth with the heliacal rising of Sirius in 139 A.D. (_Die Ägyptologie_, p. 357). But the discovery, based as it is on a very simple calculation (365 × 4 = 1460), could hardly fail to be made as soon as astronomers estimated the length of the solar year at 365-¼ days, and that they did so at least as early as 238 B.C. is proved conclusively by the Canopic decree. See above, pp. 25 _sq._, 27. As to the Sothic period see further R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der Aegypter_, i. 165 _sqq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 187 _sqq._

For the convenience of the reader I subjoin a table of the Egyptian months, with their dates, as these fell, (1) in a year when the first of Thoth coincided with July 20 of the Julian calendar, and (2) in the fixed Alexandrian year.

Egyptian Months, Sothic Year beginning July 20, Alexandrian Year. 1 Thoth, 20 July, 29 August 1 Phaophi, 19 August, 28 September 1 Atbyr, 18 September, 28 October 1 Khoiak, 18 October, 27 November 1 Tybi, 17 November, 27 December 1 Mechir, 17 December, 26 January 1 Phamenoth, 16 January, 25 February 1 Pharmuthi, 15 February, 27 March 1 Pachon, 17 March, 26 April 1 Payni, 16 April, 26 May 1 Epiphi, 16 May, 25 June 1 Mesori, 15 June, 25 July 1 Supplementary, 15 July, 24 August

See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 143 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 200.

73 The Canopic decree (above, p. 27) suffices to prove that the Egyptian astronomers, long before Caesar’s time, were well acquainted with the approximately exact length of the solar year, although they did not use their knowledge to correct the calendar except for a short time in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes. With regard to Caesar’s debt to the Egyptian astronomers see Dio Cassius, xliii. 26; Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 14. 3, i. 16. 39; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 166 _sqq._

M30 Ceremonies observed in Egypt at the cutting of the dams early in August. The Bride of the Nile. Sacrifices offered by savages at the cutting of dams.

74 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley and London, 1895), ch. xxvi. pp. 499 _sq._

75 Bruno Gutmann, “Feldbausitten und Wachstumsbräuche der Wadschagga,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913) pp. 484 _sq._

76 Hon. K. R. Dundas, “Notes on the tribes inhabiting the Baringo District, East Africa Protectorate,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 54.

M31 Modern Egyptian ceremony at the cutting of the dams.

77 E. W. Lane, _op. cit._ pp. 500-504; Sir Auckland Colvin, _The Making of Modern Egypt_ (London, 1906), pp. 278 _sq._ According to the latter writer, a dressed dummy was thrown into the river at each cutting of the dam.

78 Seneca, _Naturales Quaestiones_, iv. 2. 7. The cutting of the dams is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (i. 36. 3), and the festival on that occasion (τὰ καταχυτήρια) is noticed by Eudoxus (or one of his pupils) in a passage which has already been quoted. See above, p. 35, note 2.

79 Sir Auckland Colvin, _l.c._

M32 The sowing of the seed in November. Plutarch on the mournful character of the rites of sowing. The sadness of autumn.

80 Τῆς Ἀχαίας. Plutarch derives the name from ἄχος, “pain,” “grief.” But the etymology is uncertain. It has lately been proposed to derive the epithet from ὀχή, “nourishment.” See M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), p. 326. As to the vaults (μέγαρα) of Demeter see Pausanias, ix. 8. 1; Scholiast on Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ ii. pp. 275 _sq._, ed. H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906).

81 In antiquity the Pleiades set at dawn about the end of October or early in November. See L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 242; Aug. Mommsen, _Chronologie_ (Leipsic, 1883), pp. 16, 27; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in Iwan Müller’s _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i.1 (Nördlingen, 1886) pp. 558, 585.

82 Τὰς παρουσίας τῶν ἀναγκαίων καί ἀποκρύψεις.

83 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69-71. With the sleep of the Phrygian gods we may compare the sleep of Vishnu. The toils and anxieties of the Indian farmer “are continuous, and his only period of comparative rest is in the heavy rain time, when, as he says, the god Vishnu goes to sleep, and does not wake till October is well advanced and the time has come to begin cutting and crushing the sugar-cane and boiling down the juice” (W. Crooke, _Natives of Northern India_, London, 1907, p. 159).

M33 Plutarch’s view that the worship of the fruits of the earth sprang from a verbal misunderstanding.

84 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 77.

M34 His theory is an inversion of the truth: for fetishism is the antecedent, not the corruption, of theism. Lamentations of the savage for the animals and plants which he kills and eats. M35 Respect shown by savages for the fruits and the animals which they eat.

_ 85 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 204 _sqq._

86 C. Hill Tout, “Report on the Ethnology of the Stlatlum Indians of British Columbia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp. 140 _sq._

M36 Thus the lamentations of the sower become intelligible.

87 Psalm cxxvi. 5 _sq._ Firmicus Maternus asks the Egyptians (_De errore profanarum religionum_, ii. 7), “_Cur plangitis fruges terrae et crescentia lugetis semina?_”

M37 Lamentations of the Egyptian corn-reapers.

88 As to the Egyptian modes of reaping and threshing see Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), ii. 419 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 572 _sqq._

89 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 2.

90 Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7; Athenaeus, xiv. 11 _sq._, pp. 618-620. As to these songs see _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 214 _sqq._

91 H. Brugsch, _Adonisklage und Linoslied_ (Berlin, 1852), p. 24, corrected by A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 336. As to the lamentations for Osiris see above, p. 12.

M38 Similar ceremonies observed by the Cherokee Indians in the cultivation of the corn. The Old Woman of the corn and the laments for her death.

92 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1900), pp. 423 _sq._ I do not know what precisely the writer means by “the last working of the crop” and “the first working of the corn.”

_ 93 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 180 _sqq._

94 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 46.

M39 Lamentations of Indians at cutting sacred wood.

95 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 25.

M40 Arab ceremony of burying “the old man” at harvest.

96 A. Jaussen, “Coutumes Arabes,” _Revue Biblique_, 1er avril 1903, p. 258; _id._, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris 1908), pp. 252 _sq._

M41 With the adoption of the Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. the Egyptian festivals ceased to rotate through the natural year.

97 Thus with regard to the Egyptian month of Athyr he tells us that the sun was then in the sign of the Scorpion (_Isis et Osiris_, 13), that Athyr corresponded to the Athenian month Pyanepsion and the Boeotian month Damatrius (_op. cit._ 69), that it was the month of sowing (_ib._), that in it the Nile sank, the earth was laid bare by the retreat of the inundation, the leaves fell, and the nights grew longer than the days (_op. cit._ 39). These indications agree on the whole with the date of Athyr in the Alexandrian calendar, namely October 28-November 26. Again, he says (_op. cit._ 43) that the festival of the beginning of spring was held at the new moon of the month Phamenoth, which, in the Alexandrian calendar, corresponded to February 24-March 26. Further, he tells us that a festival was celebrated on the 23rd of Phaophi after the autumn equinox (_op. cit._ 52), and in the Alexandrian calendar Phaophi began on September 28, a few days after the autumn equinox. Once more, he observes that another festival was held after the spring equinox (_op. cit._ 65), which implies the use of a fixed solar year. See G. Parthey in his edition of Plutarch’s _Isis et Osiris_ (Berlin, 1850), pp. 165-169.

98 H. Brugsch, _Die Ägyptologie_, p. 355.

M42 The sufferings of Osiris displayed as a mystery at Sais. The illumination of houses throughout Egypt on the night of the festival suggests that the rite was a Feast of All Souls.

99 Herodotus, ii. 170.

100 Herodotus, ii. 129-132.

101 Herodotus, ii. 41, with Prof. A. Wiedemann’s note (_Herodots zweites Buch_, pp. 187 _sqq._); Diodorus Siculus, i. 11. 4; Aelian, _De natura animalium_, x. 27; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 19 and 39. According to Prof. Wiedemann “the Egyptian name of the cow of Isis was _ḥes-t_, and this is one of the rare cases in which the name of the sacred animal agrees with that of the deity.” _Hest_ was the usual Egyptian form of the name which the Greeks and Romans represented as Isis. See R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 813 _sqq._

102 In this form she is represented on a relief at Philae pouring a libation in honour of the soul of Osiris. See E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 8. She is similarly portrayed in a bronze statuette, which is now in the Louvre. See G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l’Art dans l’Antiquité_, i. (Paris, 1882) p. 60, fig. 40.

103 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 52. The interpretation is accepted by Prof. A. Wiedemann (_Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 482).

104 Herodotus, ii. 62. In one of the Hibeh papyri (No. 27, lines 165-167) mention is made of the festival and of the lights which were burned throughout the district. See _The Hibeh Papyri_, part i., ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (London, 1906), p. 149 (pointed out to me by Mr. W. Wyse). In the papyrus the festival is said to have been held in honour of Athena (_i.e._ Neith), the great goddess of Sais, who was there identified with Isis. See A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, pp. 77 _sq._; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 140 _sq._

105 In the period of the Middle Kingdom the Egyptians of Siut used to light lamps for the dead on the last day and the first day of the year. See A. Erman, “Zehn Vorträge aus dem mittleren Reich,” _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, xx. (1882) p. 164; _id._, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 434 _sq._

M43 Annual festival of the dead among the Esquimaux. The lighting of the lamps for the dead. Annual festivals of the dead among the Indians of California. Annual festivals of the dead among the Choctaws and Pueblo Indians.

106 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. 363 _sqq._

107 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 328, 355, 356, 384.

108 Kostromitonow, “Bemerkungen über die Indianer in Ober-Kalifornien,” in K. F. v. Baer and Gr. v. Helmersen’s _Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen Reiches_, i. (St. Petersburg, 1839) pp. 88 _sq._ The natives of the western islands of Torres Straits used to hold a great death-dance at which disguised men personated the ghosts of the lately deceased, mimicking their characteristic gait and gestures. Women and children were supposed to take these mummers for real ghosts. See A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 252-256; _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 176 _sqq._

109 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, pp. 437 _sq._

110 Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes Occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), ii. 95 _sq._

111 T. G. S. Ten Broeck, in H. R. Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iv. 78. The Pueblo village to which the writer particularly refers is Laguna.

M44 Annual festival of the dead among the Miztecs of Mexico.

112 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 23 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876), ii. 623. Similar customs are still practised by the Indians of a great part of Mexico and Central America (Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 24, note 1).

113 “Lettre du curé de Santiago Tepehuacan àson évêque,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), IIme Série, ii. (1834) p. 179.

M45 Annual festival of the dead in Sumba.

114 S. Roos, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van taal, land en volk op het eiland Soemba,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxxvi. (1872) pp. 63-65.

M46 Annual festival of the dead in Kiriwina. Festival of the dead among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo.

115 Rev. S. B. Fellows, quoted by George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. 237.

116 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ (London, 1911), pp. 216-218. For another and briefer account of this festival see _The Scapegoat_, p. 154.

M47 Annual festival of the dead among the Nagas of Manipur.

117 Rev. Wm. Pettigrew, “Kathi Kasham, the ‘Soul Departure’ feast as practised by the Tangkkul Nagas, Manipur, Assam,” _Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, N.S. vol. v. 1909 (Calcutta, 1910), pp. 37-46; T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), pp. 153-158.

M48 Annual festival of the dead among the Oraons of Bengal.

118 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., “Religion and Customs of the Uraons,” _Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906), p. 136. Compare Rev. F. Hahn, “Some Notes on the Religion and Superstition of the Orāōs,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) pp. 12 _sq._ According to the latter writer the pots containing the relics of the dead are buried, not in the sand of the river, but in a pit, generally covered with huge stones, which is dug for the purpose in some field or grove.

M49 Annual festival of the dead in Bilaspore.

119 E. M. Gordon, _Indian Folk Tales_ (London, 1908), p. 18. According to Mr. W. Crooke, the Hindoo Feast of Lamps (_Diwálî_) seems to have been based on “the idea that on this night the spirits of the dead revisit their homes, which are cleaned and lighted for their reception.” See W. Crooke, _The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 295 _sq._

M50 Annual festival of the dead among the Bghais and Hkamies.

120 Rev. F. Mason, D.D., “Physical Character of the Karens,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, Part ii. pp. 29 _sq._ Lights are not mentioned by the writer, but the festival being nocturnal we may assume that they are used for the convenience of the living as well as of the dead. In other respects the ceremonies are typical.

121 R. F. St. Andrew St. John, “A Short Account of the Hill Tribes of North Aracan,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 238. At this festival the dead are apparently not supposed to return to the houses.

M51 Annual festival of the dead in Cambodia.

122 E. Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_ (Paris, 1875), p. 59; A. Leclère, _Le Buddhisme au Cambodge_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 374-376. The departure of the souls is described only by the latter writer. Compare E. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” _Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 205 _sq._

123 Mariny, _Relation nouvelle et curieuse des royaumes de Tunquin et de Lao_ (Paris, 1666), pp. 251-253.

M52 Annual festival of the dead in Annam.

124 Le R. P. Cadière, “Coutumes populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So’n,” _Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient_, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) pp. 376-379; P. d’Enjoy, “Du droit successoral en Annam,” etc., _Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, Ve Série, iv. (1903) pp. 500-502; E. Diguet, _Les Annamites_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 372-375.

M53 Annual festival of friendless ghosts in Annam.

125 E. Diguet, _Les Annamites_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 254 _sq._; Paul Giran, _Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), pp. 258 _sq._ According to the latter writer the offerings to the vagrant souls are made on the first and last days of the month, while sacrifices of a more domestic character are performed on the fifteenth.

M54 Annual festivals of the dead in Cochinchina, Siam and Japan.

126 L. E. Louvet, _La Cochinchine religieuse_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 149-151.

_ 127 The Scapegoat_, pp. 149 _sqq._

M55 Annual festivals of the dead among the Chewsurs and Armenians.

128 C. v. Hahn, “Religiöse Anschauungen und Totengedächtnisfeier der Chewsuren,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) pp. 211 _sq._

129 M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 23 _sq._

M56 Annual festivals of the dead in Africa.

130 Fred. E. Forbes, _Dahomey and the Dahomans_ (London, 1851), ii. 73. Compare John Duncan, _Travels in Western Africa_ (London, 1847), i. 125 _sq._; A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, 1890), p. 108. The Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast and Ashantee celebrate an annual festival of eight days in honour of the dead. It falls towards the end of August. The offerings are presented to the departed at their graves. See A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London, 1887), pp. 227 _sq._; E. Perregaux, _Chez les Achanti_ (Neuchâtel, 1908), pp. 136, 138. According to the latter writer the festival is celebrated at the time of the yam harvest.

131 W. Munzinger, _Ostafrikanische Studien_ (Schaffhausen, 1864), p. 473.

_ 132 The Scapegoat_, pp. 136 _sq._

M57 Annual festivals of the dead among peoples of the Aryan stock. Annual festival of the dead (the Fravashis) among the old Iranians. Annual festival of the dead among the Persians.

133 On the worship of the dead, and especially of ancestors, among Aryan peoples, see W. Caland, _Über Totenverehrung bei einigen der indo-germanischen Völker_ (Amsterdam, 1888); O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 21 _sqq._; _id._, _s.v._ “Aryan Religion,” in Dr. J. Hastings’s _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, ii. (Edinburgh, 1909) pp. 16 _sqq._

134 As to the Iranian calendar see W. Geiger, _Altiranische Kultur im Altertum_ (Erlangen, 1882), pp. 314 _sqq._; as to the Iranian worship of the sainted dead (the Fravashis) see _id._ pp. 286 _sqq._ As to the annual festival of the dead (Hamaspathmaedaya) see W. Caland, _Über Totenverehrung bei einigen der indo-germanischen Völker_ (Amsterdam, 1888), pp. 64 _sq._; N. Söderblom, _Les Fravashis_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 4 _sqq._; J. H. Moulton, _Early Zoroastrianism_ (London, 1913), pp. 256 _sqq._ All these writers agree that the Fravashis of the _Zend-Avesta_ were originally the souls of the dead. See also James Darmesteter, _Zend-Avesta_, Part ii. (Oxford, 1883) p. 179: “The Fravashi is the inner power in every being that maintains it and makes it grow and subsist. Originally the Fravashis were the same as the _Pitris_ of the Hindus or the _Manes_ of the Latins, that is to say, the everlasting and deified souls of the dead; but in course of time they gained a wider domain, and not only men, but gods and even physical objects, like the sky and the earth, etc., had each a Fravashi.” Compare _id._, _Ormazd et Ahriman_ (Paris, 1877), pp. 130 _sqq._; N. Söderblom, _La Vie Future d’après Le Mazdéisme_ (Paris, 1901), pp. 7 _sqq._ A different view of the original nature of the Fravashis was taken by C. P. Tiele, according to whom they were essentially guardian spirits. See C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_ (Gotha, 1896-1903), ii. 256 _sqq._

_ 135 The Zend-Avesta_, translated by James Darmesteter, Part ii. (Oxford, 1883) pp. 192 _sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxiii.).

136 Albiruni, _The Chronology of Ancient Nations_, translated and edited by Dr. C. Edward Sachau (London, 1879), p. 210. In the _Dinkard_, a Pahlavi work which seems to have been composed in the first half of the ninth century A.D., the festival is spoken of as “those ten days which are the end of the winter and termination of the year, because the five Gathic days, among them, are for that purpose.” By “the five Gathic days” the writer means the five supplementary days added at the end of the twelfth month to complete the year of 365 days. See _Pahlavi Texts_ translated by E. W. West, Part iv. (Oxford, 1892) p. 17 (_The Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxxvii.).

M58 Feast of All Souls in Brittany and other parts of France.

137 A. le Braz, _La Légende de la Morten Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1893), pp. 280-287. Compare J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 283 _sqq._

138 L. F. Sauvé, _Le folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 295 _sq._

139 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ (Saintes, 1891), p. 76. As to the observance of All Souls’ Day in other parts of France see A. Meyrac, _Traditions, coutumes, légendes et contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), pp. 22-24; Ch. Beauquier, _Les mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 123-125.

M59 Feast of All Souls in Belgium.

140 Above, p. 52.

141 W. Crooke, _The Natives of Northern India_ (London, 1907), p. 219.

142 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), ii. 236-240; _id._, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 229 _sq._

M60 Feast of All Souls in Lechrain.

143 Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855), pp. 198-200.

M61 Soul-cakes and All Souls’ Day in Southern Germany.

144 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 330. As to these cakes (called “souls”) in Swabia see E. Meyer, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 452, § 174; Anton Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 167 _sq._ The cakes are baked of white flour, and are of a longish rounded shape with two small tips at each end.

145 Adalbert Kuhn, _Mythologische Studien_, ii. (Gütersloh, 1912) pp. 41 _sq._, citing F. Schönwerth, _Aus der Oberpfalz_, i. 283.

M62 Feast of All Souls in Bohemia.

146 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. 493-495.

147 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 97.

M63 Feast of All Souls in Moravia.

148 Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 330.

M64 Feast of All Souls in the Tyrol and Baden.

149 Ignaz V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meiningen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 176-178.

150 Christian Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 238.

151 Elard Hugo Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 601.

M65 Annual festivals of the dead among the Letts and Samagitians.

152 P. Einhorn, “Historia Lettica,” in _Scriptores Rerum Livonicarum_, ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 587, 598, 630 _sq._, 645 _sq._ See also the description of D. Fabricius in his “Livonicae Historiae compendiosa series,” _ib._ p. 441. Fabricius assigns the custom to All Souls’ Day.

153 J. Lasicius, “De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” in _Magazin herausgegeben von der lettisch-literärischen Gesellschaft_, xiv. 1. (Mitau, 1868), p. 92.

154 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1876), pp. 366 _sq._; Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 89.

M66 Festival of the dead in Russia.

155 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_2 (London, 1872), pp. 321 _sq._ The date of the festival is not mentioned. Apparently it is celebrated at irregular intervals.

M67 Annual festivals of the dead among the Votiaks of Russia.

156 M. Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 145.

157 J. Wasiljev, _Übersicht über die heidnischen Gebräuche, Aberglauben und Religion der Wotjäken_ (Helsingfors, 1902), pp. 34 _sq._ (_Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne_, xviii.). As to the Votiak clans see the same work, pp. 42-44.

M68 Feast of All Souls in the Abruzzi.

158 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 180-182. Mr. W. R. Paton writes to me (12th December 1906): “You do not mention the practice[s] on the modern Greek feast τῶν ψυχῶν (in May) which quite correspond. The κόλυβα is made in every house and put on a table laid with a white tablecloth. A glass of water and a taper are put on the table, and all is left so for the whole night. Our Greek maid-servant says that when she was a child she remembers seeing the souls come and partake. Almost the same rite is practised for the κόλυβα made on the commemoration of particular dead.”

M69 Soul-cakes on All-Souls’ Day in England. “Souling Day” in Shropshire.

159 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 393.

160 John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881), p. 23.

161 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 381. The writers record (pp. 382 _sqq._) some of the ditties which were sung on this occasion by those who begged for soul-cakes.

162 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, i. 392, 393; W. Hone, _Year Book_ (London, N.D.), col. 1288; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 405, 406, 407, 409; J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-lore_ (London, 1882), p. 251; Elizabeth Mary Wright, _Rustic Speech and Folk-lore_ (Oxford, 1913), p. 300.

163 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 255. See also T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 410, who, quoting Pennant as his authority, says that the poor people who received soul-cakes prayed God to bless the next crop of wheat.

_ 164 County Folk-lore_, vol. ii. _North Riding of Yorkshire, York, and the Ainsty_ (London, 1901), quoting George Young, _A History of Whitby and Streoneshalth Abbey_ (Whitby, 1817), ii. 882.

165 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 410.

166 M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in John Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii. 666.

M70 Feast of All Souls among the Indians of Ecuador.

167 Dr. Rivet, “Le Christianisme et les Indiens de la République de l’Équateur,” _L’Anthropologie_, xvii. (1906) pp. 93 _sq._

M71 The nominally Christian feast of All Souls on Nov. 2 appears to be an old Celtic festival of the dead adopted by the Church in 998 A.D. Institution of the Feast of All Souls by the Abbot of Clugny.

168 See above, pp. 53, 55, 62, 65.

169 Sir John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 460, 514 _sq._; _id._, “Celtae and Galli,” _Proceedings of the British Academy, 1905-1906_ (London, N.D.), p. 78; _Balder the Beautiful_, i. 224 _sq._

170 K. Müllenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, iv. (Berlin, 1900) pp. 379 _sq._ The first of October seems to have been a great festival among the Saxons and also the Samagitians. See Widukind, _Res gestae Saxonicae_, i. 12 (Migne’s _Patrologia Latina_, cxxxvii. 135); M. A. Michov, “De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,” in S. Grynaeus’s _Novus Orbis Regionum ac Insularum veteribus incognitarum_ (Bâle, 1532), p. 520. I have to thank Professor H. M. Chadwick for pointing out these two passages to me. Mr. A. Tille prefers to date the Teutonic winter from Martinmas, the eleventh of November. See A. Tille, _Die Geschichte der deutschen Weihnacht_ (Leipsic, N.D.), pp. 23 _sqq._; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), p. 395.

171 A. J. Binterim, _Die vorzüglichsten Denkwürdigkeiten der Christ-Katholischen Kirche_, v. 1 (Mayence, 1829), pp. 493 _sq._; J. J. Herzog und G. F. Plitt, _Real-Encyclopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche_,2 i. (Leipsic, 1877), pp. 303 _sq._; W. Smith and S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_ (London, 1875-1880), i. 57 _sq._

M72 The feast of All Saints on Nov. 1 seems also to have displaced a heathen festival of the dead.

172 A. J. Binterim, _op. cit._ v. 1, pp. 487 _sqq._; J. J. Herzog und G. F. Plitt, _op. cit._ i. p. 303; W. Smith and S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, i. 57. In the last of these works a passage from the _Martyrologium Romanum Vetus_ is quoted which states that a feast of Saints (_Festivitas Sanctorum_) on the first of November was celebrated at Rome. But the date of this

## particular Martyrology is disputed. See A. J. Binterim, _op. cit._

v. 1, pp. 52-54.

173 J. J. Herzog und G. F. Plitt, _op. cit._ i. 304. A similar attempt to reform religion by diverting the devotion of the people from the spirits of their dead appears to have been made in antiquity by the doctors of the Persian faith. For that faith “in its most finished and purest form, in the _Gathas_, does not recognize the dead as objects worthy of worship and sacrifice. But the popular beliefs were too firmly rooted, and the Mazdeans, like the sectaries of many other ideal and lofty forms of religion, were forced to give way. As they could not suppress the worship and get rid of the primitive and crude ideas involved in it, they set about the reform in another way: they interpreted the worship in a new manner, and thus the worship of the dead became a worship of the gods or of a god in favour of the loved and lost ones, a pious commemoration of their names and their virtues.” See N. Söderblom, _Les Fravashis_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 6 _sq._ The _Gathas_ form the oldest part of the _Zend-Avesta_. James Darmesteter, indeed, in his later life startled the learned world by a theory that the _Gathas_ were a comparatively late work based on the teaching of Philo of Alexandria. But this attempt of a Jew to claim for his race the inspiration of the Persian scriptures has been coldly received by Gentile scholars. See J. H. Moulton, _Early Zoroastrianism_ (London, 1913), pp. 8 _sqq._

M73 Festival of the death and resurrection of Osiris in the month of Athyr. The finding of Osiris.

174 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 39. As to the death of Osiris on the seventeenth of Athyr see _ib._ 13 and 42. Plutarch’s statement on this subject is confirmed by the evidence of the papyrus Sallier IV., a document dating from the 19th dynasty, which places the lamentation for Osiris at Sais on the seventeenth day of Athyr. See A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262; _id._, _Die Religion der alten Ägypter_, p. 112; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 211 _sq._

175 See above, p. 50.

176 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 39. The words which I have translated “vegetable mould” are γῆν κάρπιμον, literally, “fruitful earth.” The composition of the image was very important, as we shall see presently.

177 Lactantius, _Divin. Institut._, i. 21; _id._, _Epitome Inst. Divin._ 23 (18, ed. Brandt and Laubmann). The description of the ceremony which Minucius Felix gives (_Octavius_, xxii. 1) agrees closely with, and is probably copied from, that of Lactantius. We know from Appian (_Bell. Civ._ iv. 6. 47) that in the rites of Isis a priest personated Anubis, wearing a dog’s, or perhaps rather a jackal’s, mask on his head; for the historian tells how in the great proscription a certain Volusius, who was on the condemned list, escaped in the disguise of a priest of Isis, wearing a long linen garment and the mask of a dog over his head.

178 The suggestion is due to Prof. A. Wiedemann (_Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 261).

179 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 2. Herodotus tells (ii. 61) how the Carians cut their foreheads with knives at the mourning for Osiris.

180 In addition to the writers who have been already cited see Juvenal, viii. 29 _sq._; Athenagoras, _Supplicatio pro Christianis_, 22, pp. 112, 114, ed. J. C. T. Otto (Jena, 1857); Tertullian, _Adversus Marcionem_, i. 13; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 10.

M74 The great Osirian inscription at Denderah.

181 W. Smith, _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography_, ii. 1127.

182 For complete translations of the inscription see H. Brugsch, “Das Osiris-Mysterium von Tentyra,” _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, 1881, pp. 77-111; V. Loret, “Les fêtes d’Osiris au mois de Khoiak,” _Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la Philologie et à l’Archéologie Égyptiennes et Assyriennes_, iii. (1882) pp. 43-57, iv. (1883) pp. 21-33, v. (1884) pp. 85-103. On the document and the festivals described in it see further A. Mariette-Pacha, _Dendérah_ (Paris, 1880), pp. 334-347; J. Dümichen, “Die dem Osiris im Denderatempel geweihten Räume,” _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, 1882, pp. 88-101; H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_ (Leipsic, 1885-1888), pp. 616-618; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 725-744; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262; _id._, “Osiris végétant,” _Le Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 113; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 128 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 21 _sqq._; Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), pp. 27 _sq._

M75 The rites of Osiris in the month of Khoiak represented the god as dead, dismembered, and then reconstituted by the union of his scattered limbs.

183 R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 727.

184 H. Brugsch, in _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, 1881, pp. 80-82; A. Wiedemann, in _Le Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 113. The corn used in the making of the images is called barley by Brugsch and Miss M. A. Murray (_l.c._), but wheat (_blé_) by Mr. V. Loret.

185 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 99, 101.

186 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 82 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 728; Miss Margaret A. Murray, _op. cit._ p. 27.

187 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 90 _sq._, 96 _sq._, 98; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ pp. 743 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 128. According to Lanzone, the ploughing took place, not on the first, but on the last day of the festival, namely, on the thirtieth of Khoiak; and that certainly appears to have been the date of the ploughing at Busiris, for the inscription directs that there “the ploughing of the earth shall take place in the Serapeum of _Aa-n-beḥ_ under the fine Persea trees on the last day of the month Khoiak” (H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 84).

188 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, p. 28; H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 83, 92. The headless human image in the cow may have stood for Isis, who is said to have been decapitated by her son Horus, and to have received from Thoth a cow’s head as a substitute. See Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 177; Ed. Meyer, _s.v._ “Isis,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 366.

189 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 92 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ pp. 738-740; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262; Miss M. A. Murray, _op. cit._ p. 35. An Egyptian calendar, written at Sais about 300 B.C., has under the date 26 Khoiak the following entry: “Osiris goes about and the golden boat is brought forth.” See _The Hibeh Papyri_, Part i., edited by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (London, 1906), pp. 146, 153. In the Canopic decree “the voyage of the sacred boat of Osiris” is said to take place on the 29th of Khoiak from “the sanctuary in the Heracleum” to the Canopic sanctuary. See W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, No. 56 (vol. i. pp. 105, 108). Hence it would seem that the date of this part of the festival varied somewhat in different places or at different times.

190 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 99; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 129; compare Miss Margaret A. Murray, _op. cit._ p. 28, who refers the ceremony to the twenty-fifth of Khoiak.

191 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 94, 99; A. Mariette-Pacha, _Dendérah_, pp. 336 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 744. Mariette supposed that after depositing the new image in the sepulchre they carried out the old one of the preceding year, thus setting forth the resurrection as well as the death of the god. But this view is apparently not shared by Brugsch and Lanzone.

M76 The resurrection of Osiris represented on the monuments.

192 A. Mariette-Bey, _Dendérah_, iv. (Paris, 1873) plates 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 88, 89, 90; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 757 _sqq._, with plates cclxviii.-ccxcii.; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 131-138; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 31 _sqq._

193 H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 621; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, plate cclxi.; A. Wiedemann, “L’Osiris végétant,” _Le Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 112; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 58. According to Prof. Wiedemann, the corn springing from the god’s body is barley. Similarly in a papyrus of the Louvre (No. 3377) Osiris is represented swathed as a mummy and lying on his back, while stalks of corn sprout from his body. See R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ pp. 801 _sq._, with plate ccciii. 2; A. Wiedemann, “L’Osiris végétant,” _Le Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 112.

194 Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 8, p. 162 ed. L. Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin (Göttingen, 1859). See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 38 _sq._

195 Prof. A. Erman rightly assumes (_Die ägyptische Religion_,2 p. 234) that the images made in the month of Khoiak were intended to germinate as a symbol of the divine resurrection.

M77 Corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris buried with the dead to ensure their resurrection.

196 A. Wiedemann, “L’Osiris végétant,” _Le Muséon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 111; _Egyptian Exploration Fund Archaeological Report, 1898-1899_, pp. 24 _sq._; A. Moret, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and London, 1912), p. 94, with plate xi.; _id._, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), p. 41.

197 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, in _Egyptian Exploration Fund Archaeological Report, 1902-1903_, p. 5.

198 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, pp. 28 _sq._

199 Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _A Second Series of the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1841), ii. 300, note §. The writer seems to have doubted whether these effigies represented Osiris. But the doubt has been entirely removed by subsequent discoveries. Wilkinson’s important note on the subject is omitted by his editor, S. Birch (vol. iii. p. 375, ed. 1878).

200 A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 209 _sq._

M78 The festivals of Osiris in the months of Athyr and Khoiak seem to have been substantially the same.

201 See above, pp. 24 _sq._, 27 _sq._, 49 _sq._

M79 The old festival of Khoiak may have been transferred to Athyr when the Egyptians adopted the fixed Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. M80 The transference would be intelligible if we suppose that in 30 B.C. the dates of all the Egyptian festivals were shifted backward by about a month in order to restore them to their natural places in the calendar.

202 So it was reckoned at the time. But, strictly speaking, Thoth in that year began on August 31. The miscalculation originated in a blunder of the ignorant Roman pontiffs who, being charged with the management of the new Julian calendar, at first intercalated a day every third, instead of every fourth, year. See Solinus, _Collectanea_, i. 45-47 (p. 15, ed. Th. Mommsen, Berlin, 1864); Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 14. 13 _sq._; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 157-161.

203 Theoretically the shift should have been 40, or rather 42 days, that being the interval between July 20 and August 29 or 31 (see the preceding note). If that shift was actually made, the calendar date of any festival in the old vague Egyptian year could be found by adding 40 or 42 days to its date in the Alexandrian year. Thus if the death of Osiris fell on the 17th of Athyr in the Alexandrian year, it should have fallen on the 27th or 29th of Khoiak in the old vague year; and if his resurrection fell on the 19th of Athyr in the Alexandrian year, it should have fallen on the 29th of Khoiak or the 1st of Tybi in the old vague year. These calculations agree nearly, but not exactly, with the somewhat uncertain indications of the Denderah calendar (above, p. 88), and also with the independent evidence which we possess that the resurrection of Osiris was celebrated on the 30th of Khoiak (below, pp. 108 _sq._). These approximate agreements to some extent confirm my theory that, with the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year, the dates of the official Egyptian festivals were shifted from their accidental places in the calendar to their proper places in the natural year.

Since I published in the first edition of this book (1906) my theory that with the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. the Egyptian festivals were shifted about a month backward in the year, Professor Ed. Meyer has shown independent grounds for holding “that the festivals which gave rise to the later names of the (Egyptian) months were demonstrably held a month later in earlier ages, under the twentieth, eighteenth, indeed partly under the twelfth dynasty; in other words, that after the end of the New Kingdom the festivals and the corresponding names of the months were displaced one month backwards. It is true that this displacement can as yet be proved for only five months; but as the names of these months and the festivals keep their relative position towards each other, the assumption is inevitable that the displacement affected not merely

## particular festivals but the whole system equally.” See Ed. Meyer,

_Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 3 _sqq._ (_Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften vom Jahre 1907_). Thus it is possible that the displacement of the festivals by a month backward in the calendar took place a good deal earlier than I had supposed. In the uncertainty of the whole question I leave my theory as it stood.

204 If the results of the foregoing inquiry be accepted, the resurrection of Osiris was regularly celebrated in Egypt on the 15th of November from the year 30 B.C. onward, since the 15th of November corresponded to the 19th of Athyr (the resurrection day) in the fixed Alexandrian year. This agrees with the indications of the Roman Rustic Calendars, which place the resurrection (_heuresis_, that is, the discovery of Osiris) between the 14th and the 30th of November. Yet according to the calendar of Philocalus, the official Roman celebration of the resurrection seems to have been held on the 1st of November, not on the 15th. How is the discrepancy to be explained? Th. Mommsen supposed that the festival was officially adopted at Rome at a time when the 19th of Athyr of the vague Egyptian year corresponded to the 31st of October or the 1st of November of the Julian calendar, and that the Romans, overlooking the vague or shifting character of the Egyptian year, fixed the resurrection of Osiris permanently on the 1st of November. Now the 19th of Athyr of the vague year corresponded to the 1st of November in the years 32-35 A.D. and to the 31st of October in the years 36-39; and it appears that the festival was officially adopted at Rome some time before 65 A.D. (Lucan, _Pharsalia_, viii. 831 _sqq._). It is unlikely that the adoption took place in the reign of Tiberius, who died in 37 A.D.; for he is known to have persecuted the Egyptian religion (Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 85; Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 36; Josephus, _Antiquit. Jud._ xviii. 3. 4); hence Mommsen concluded that the great festival of Osiris was officially adopted at Rome in the early years of the reign of Caligula, that is, in 37, 38, or 39 A.D. See Th. Mommsen, _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i.2 Pars prior (Berlin, 1893), pp. 333 _sq._; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. p. 995, No. 8745. This theory of Mommsen’s assumes that in Egypt the festivals were still regulated by the old vague year in the first century of our era. It cannot, therefore, be reconciled with the conclusion reached in the text that the Egyptian festivals ceased to be regulated by the old vague year from 30 B.C. onward. How the difference of date between the official Roman and the Egyptian festival of the resurrection is to be explained, I do not pretend to say.

M81 Osiris in one of his aspects a personification of the corn. Osiris a child of Sky and Earth. The legend of the dismemberment of Osiris points to the dismemberment of human beings, perhaps of the kings, in the character of the corn-spirit.

205 See above, p. 48.

206 See above, p. 6.

207 See above, p. 7.

208 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 166.

_ 209 The Dying God_, p. 250.

_ 210 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 236 _sqq._

211 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73, compare 33.

212 Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. 5. The slaughter may have been performed by the king with his own hand. On Egyptian monuments the king is often represented in the act of slaying prisoners before a god. See A. Moret, _Du caractère religieux de la royauté Pharaonique_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 179, 224; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 197 _sqq._ Similarly the kings of Ashantee and Dahomey used often themselves to cut the throats of the human victims. See A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London, 1887), p. 162; _id._, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, 1890), pp. 125, 129.

M82 Roman and Greek traditions of the dismemberment of kings. Modern Thracian pretence of killing a man, who is sometimes called a king, for the good of the crops.

_ 213 Scholia in Caesaris Germanici Aratea_, in F. Eyssenhardt’s edition of Martianus Capella, p. 408 (Leipsic, 1866).

214 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 56. 4. Compare Livy, i. 16. 4; Florus, i. 1. 16 _sq._; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 27. Mr. A. B. Cook was, I believe, the first to interpret the story as a reminiscence of the sacrifice of a king. See his article “The European Sky-God,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 324 _sq._ However, the acute historian A. Schwegler long ago maintained that the tradition rested on some very ancient religious rite, which was afterwards abolished or misunderstood, and he rightly compared the legendary deaths of Pentheus and Orpheus (_Römische Geschichte_, Tübingen, 1853-1858, vol. i. pp. 534 _sq._). See further W. Otto, “Juno,” _Philologus_, lxiv. (1905) pp. 187 _sqq._

_ 215 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 313 _sqq._

216 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 43 _sqq._, 1043 _sqq._; Theocritus, xxvi.; Pausanias, ii. 2. 7; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 1 _sq._; Hyginus, _Fab._ 132 and 184. The destruction of Lycurgus by horses seems to be mentioned only by Apollodorus. As to Pentheus see especially A. G. Bather, “The Problem of the Bacchae,” _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xiv. (1904) pp. 244-263.

217 Nonnus, _Dionys._ vi. 165-205; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 17 _sq._, p. 15 ed. Potter; Justin Martyr, _Apology_, i. 54; Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 6; Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 19. According to the Clementine _Recognitiones_, x. 24 (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, i. 1434) Dionysus was torn in pieces at Thebes, the very place of which Pentheus was king. The description of Euripides (_Bacchae_, 1058 _sqq._) suggests that the human victim was tied or hung to a pine-tree before being rent to pieces. We are reminded of the effigy of Attis which hung on the sacred pine (above, vol. i. p. 267), and of the image of Osiris which was made out of a pine-tree and then buried in the hollow of the trunk (below, p. 108). The pine-tree on which Pentheus was pelted by the Bacchanals before they tore him limb from limb is said to have been worshipped as if it were the god himself by the Corinthians, who made two images of Dionysus out of it (Pausanias, ii. 2. 7). The tradition points to an intimate connexion between the tree, the god, and the human victim.

218 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 55. At Potniae in Boeotia a priest of Dionysus is said to have been killed by the drunken worshippers (Pausanias, ix. 8. 2). He may have been sacrificed in the character of the god.

219 Lucian, _De saltatione_, 51; Plato, _Symposium_, 7, p. 179 D, E; Pausanias, ix. 30. 5; Ovid, _Metam._ xi. 1-43; O. Gruppe, _s.v._ “Orpheus,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1165 _sq._ That Orpheus died the death of the god has been observed both in ancient and modern times. See E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903) ii. 118, note 2, quoting Proclus on Plato; S. Reinach, “La mort d’Orphée,” _Cultes, Mythes et Religions_, ii. (1906) pp. 85 _sqq._ According to Ovid, the Bacchanals killed him with hoes, rakes, and mattocks. Similarly in West Africa human victims used to be killed with spades and hoes and then buried in a field which had just been tilled (J. B. Labat, _Relation historique de l’Ethiopie occidentale_, Paris, 1732, i. 380). Such a mode of sacrifice points to the identification of the human victim with the fruits of the earth.

220 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 1.

221 R. M. Dawkins, “The Modern Carnival in Thrace and the Cult of Dionysus,” _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxvi. (1906) pp. 191-206. See further _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 25 _sqq._

M83 Norwegian tradition of the dismemberment of a king, Halfdan the Black. Frey, the Scandinavian god of fertility, buried at Upsala.

222 Snorri Sturluson, _Heimskringla, Saga Halfdanar Svarta_, ch. 9. I have to thank Professor H. M. Chadwick for referring me to this passage and translating it for me. See also _The Stories of the Kings of Norway (Heimskringla)_, done into English by W. Morris and E. Magnússon (London, 1893-1905), i. 86 _sq._ Halfdan the Black was the father of Harold the Fair-haired, king of Norway (860-933 A.D.). Professor Chadwick tells me that, though the tradition as to the death and mutilation of Halfdan was not committed to writing for three hundred years, he sees no reason to doubt its truth. He also informs me that the word translated “abundance” means literally “the produce of the season.” “Plenteous years” is the rendering of Morris and Magnússon.

223 As to the descent of Halfdan and the Ynglings from Frey, see _Heimskringla_, done into English by W. Morris and E. Magnússon, i. 23-71 (_The Saga Library_, vol. iii.). With regard to Frey, the god of fertility, both animal and vegetable, see E. H. Meyer, _Mythologie der Germanen_ (Strasburg, 1903), pp. 366 _sq._; P. Hermann, _Nordische Mythologie_ (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 206 _sqq._

_ 224 Heimskringla_, done into English by W. Morris and E. Magnússon, i. 4, 22-24 (_The Saga Library_, vol. iii.).

M84 Segera, a magician of Kiwai, said to have been cut up after death and the pieces buried in gardens to fertilize them.

_ 225 Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 32 _sq._, from information supplied by Dr. C. G. Seligmann.

M85 Apparently widespread custom of dismembering a king or magician and burying the pieces in different parts of the kingdom. M86 In this dismemberment a special virtue seems to have been ascribed to the genital organs.

226 See above, p. 10.

227 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), p. 291.

228 Above, p. 97.

229 Above, pp. 268 _sq._

M87 The Egyptian kings probably opposed the custom and succeeded in abolishing it. Precautions taken to preserve the bodies of kings from mutilation.

230 See my notes on Pausanias, i. 28. 7 and viii. 47. 5 (vol. ii. pp. 366 _sq._, vol. iv. pp. 433 _sq._).

231 R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_ (New York, 1901), p. 116; C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 34 _sq._

232 Amos ii. 1.

233 Pausanias, i. 9. 7 _sq._

M88 Graves of kings and chiefs in Africa kept secret. Burial-place of chiefs in Fiji kept secret. Graves of Melanesian magicians kept secret.

234 P. B. du Chaillu, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1861), pp. 18 _sq._

235 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 107.

236 Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp. 449 _sq._ In West African jargon the word ju-ju means fetish or magic.

237 Father Porte, “Les reminiscences d’un missionnaire du Basutoland,” _Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) pp. 311 _sq._ As to the _Baloi_, see A. Merensky, _Beiträge zur Kenntniss Süd-Afrikas_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 138 _sq._; E. Gottschling, “The Bawenda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 375. For these two references I have to thank Mr. E. S. Hartland.

238 Henri A. Junod, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchâtel, 1912-1913), i. 387 _sq._

239 Lorimer Fison, “Notes on Fijian Burial Customs,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, x. (1881) pp. 141 _sq._

240 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 269.

M89 Among the Koniags of Alaska the bodies of dead whalers were cut up and used as talismans.

241 Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska_, p. 142. The account seems to be borrowed from H. J. Holmberg, who adds that pains were taken to preserve the flesh from decay, “because they believed that their own life depended on it.” See H. J. Holmberg, “Über die Völker des russischen Amerika,” _Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) p. 391.

M90 Assimilation of human victims to the corn.

242 Above, p. 97.

243 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31; Herodotus, ii. 38.

244 Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_ (Berlin, 1878), ii. 639; _id._, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-26), ii. 379 _sq._ (whose version of the passage is inadequate). Compare Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-59), i. 327, iii. 525.

245 E. Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_ (Paris, 1874-75), p. 188.

246 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 2, “_Defensores eorum volunt addere physicam rationem, frugum semina Osirim dicentes esse, Isim terram, Tyfonem calorem: et quia maturatae fruges calore ad vitam hominum colliguntur et divisae a terrae consortio separantur et rursus adpropinquante hieme seminantur, hanc volunt esse mortem Osiridis, cum fruges recondunt, inventionem vero, cum fruges genitali terrae fomento conceptae annua rursus coeperint procreatione generari._” Tertullian, _Adversus Marcionem_, i. 13, “_Sic et Osiris quod semper sepelitur et in vivido quaeritur et cum gaudio invenitur, reciprocarum frugum et vividorum elementorum et recidivi anni fidem argumentantur_.” Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 65, οὕτω δὲ καὶ τοῖς πολλοῖς καὶ φορτικοῖς ἐπιχειρήσομεν, εἴτε ταῖς καθ᾽ ὤραν μεταβολαῖς τοῦ περιέχοντος εἴτε ταῖς καρπῶν γενέσεσι καὶ σποραῖς καὶ ἀρότοις χαίρουσι τὰ περὶ τοὺς θεοὺς τούτους συνοικειοῦντες, καὶ λέγοντες θάπτεσθαι μὲν Ὄσιριν ὅτε κρύπτεται τῇ γῇ σπειρόμενος ὁ καρπός, αὖθις δ᾽ ἀναβιοῦσθαι καὶ ἀναφαίνεσφαι ὅτε βλαστήσεως ἀρχή. Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 11. 31, ὁ δὲ Ὄσιρις παρ᾽ Αἰγυπτίοις τὴν κάρπιμον παρίστησι δύναμιν, ἢν θρήνοις ἀπομειλίσσονται εἰς γὴν ἀφανιζομένην ἐν τῷ σπόρῳ καὶ ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν καταναλισκομένην εἰς τὰς τροφάς. Athenagoras, _Supplicatio pro Christianis_, 22, pp. 112, 114 ed. J. C. T. Otto, τὰ δὲ στοιχεῖα καὶ τὰ μόρια αὐτῶν θεοποιοῦσιν, ἄλλοτε ἄλλα ὀνόματα αὐτοῖς τιθέμενοι, τὴν μὲν τοῦ σίτου σπορὰν Ὄσιριν (ὄφεν φασὶ μυστικῶς ἐπὶ τῇ ἀνευρέσει τῶν μελῶν ἢ τῶν καρπῶν ἐπιλεχθῆναι τῇ Ἴσιδι. Εὐρήκαμεν, συγχαίρομεν). See also the passage of Cornutus quoted above, vol. i. p. 229, note 2.

M91 Osiris as a tree-spirit. His image enclosed in a pine-tree.

_ 247 De errore profanarum religionum_, 27.

248 See above, vol. i. pp. 267, 277.

249 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 21, αἰνῶ δὲ τομὴν ξύλου καὶ σχίσιν λίνου καὶ χοὰς χεομένας, διὰ τὸ πολλὰ τῶν μυστικῶν ἀναμεμίχθαι τούτοις. Again, _ibid._ 42, τὸ δὲ ξύλον ἐν ταῖς λεγομέναις Ὀσίριδος ταφαῖς τέμνοντες κατασκευάζουσι λάρνακα μηνοειδῆ.

250 See above, p. 9.

M92 The setting up of the _ded_ pillar at the great festival of Osiris in the month of Khoiak. The setting up of the pillar may have been an emblem of the god’s resurrection.

251 As to the _tet_ or _ded_ pillar and its erection at the festival see H. Brugsch in _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, 1881, pp. 84, 96; _id._, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 618; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 377 _sq._; _id._, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 22, 64; C. P. Tiele, _History of the Egyptian Religion_ (London, 1882), pp. 46 _sq._; Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. pp. 67, note 3, and 82; A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 289 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 130 _sq._; A. Moret, _Du caractère religieux de la royauté Pharaonique_, p. 153, note 1; _id._, _Mystères Égyptiens_, pp. 12-16; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 122, 124, _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 6, 37, 48, 51 _sqq._; Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, pp. 27, 28; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2, p. 70. In a letter to me (dated 8th December, 1910) my colleague Professor P. E. Newberry tells me that he believes Osiris to have been originally a cedar-tree god imported into Egypt from the Lebanon, and he regards the _ded_ pillar as a lopped cedar-tree. The flail, as a symbol of Osiris, he believes to be the instrument used to collect incense. A similar flail is used by peasants in Crete to extract the ladanum gum from the shrubs. See P. de Tournefort, _Relation d’un Voyage du Levant_ (Amsterdam, 1718), i. 29, with the plate. For this reference I am indebted to Professor Newberry.

252 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 15. See above, p. 9.

_ 253 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 88-90.

M93 Osiris associated with the pine, the sycamore, the tamarisk, and the acacia.

254 A. Mariette-Bey, _Dendérah_, iv. pl. 66.

255 A. Mariette-Bey, _Dendérah_, iv. pl. 72. Compare E. Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_, pp. 194, 196, who regards the tree as a conifer. But it is perhaps a tamarisk.

256 E. Lefébure, _op. cit._ pp. 195, 197.

257 S. Birch, in Sir J. G. Wilkinson’s _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 84.

258 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ iii. 62-64; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 106 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 185.

259 J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_ (London, 1912), p. 28.

260 A. Moret, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and London, 1912), p. 83.

261 Above, vol. i. pp. 227 _sq._

262 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ iii. 349 _sq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 368; H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 621.

263 We may compare a belief of some of the Californian Indians that the owl is the guardian spirit and deity of the “California big tree,” and that it is equally unlucky to fell the tree or to shoot the bird. See S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 398. When a Maori priest desires to protect the life or soul (_hau_) of a tree against the insidious arts of magicians, he sets a bird-snare in the tree, and the first bird caught in the snare, or its right wing, embodies the life or soul of the tree. Accordingly the priest recites appropriate spells over the bird or its wing and hides it away in the forest. After that no evil-disposed magician can hurt the tree, since its life or soul is not in it but hidden away in the forest. See Elsdon Best, “Spiritual Concepts of the Maori,” _Journal of the Polynesian Society_, ix. (1900) p. 195. Thus the bird or its wing is the depository of the external soul of the tree. Compare _Balder the Beautiful_, i. 95 _sqq._

264 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ iii. 349 _sq._; H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 621; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, tav. cclxiii.; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20. In this passage of Plutarch it has been proposed by G. Parthey to read μυρίκης (tamarisk) for μηθίδης (_methide_), and the conjecture appears to be accepted by Wilkinson, _loc. cit._

265 E. Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_, p. 191.

266 E. Lefébure, _op. cit._ p. 188.

267 R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, tav. ccciv.; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, ii. 570, fig.

M94 Osiris in relation to fruit-trees, wells, the vine, and ivy.

268 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35. One of the points in which the myths of Isis and Demeter agree is that both goddesses in the search for the loved and lost one are said to have sat down, sad at heart and weary, on the edge of a well. Hence those who had been initiated at Eleusis were forbidden to sit on a well. See Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 15; Homer, _Hymn to Demeter_, 98 _sq._; Pausanias, i. 39. 1; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 1; Nicander, _Theriaca_, 486; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 20, p. 16 ed. Potter.

269 Tibullus, i. 7. 33-36; Diodorus Siculus, i. 17. 1, i. 20. 4.

270 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 38, 39.

271 E. A. Wallis Budge, _op. cit._ i. 19, 45, with frontispiece.

272 Diodorus Siculus, i. 17. 4 _sq._

M95 Osiris perhaps conceived as a god of fertility in general.

273 Herodotus, ii. 48; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 12, 18, 36, 51; Diodorus Siculus, i. 21. 5, i. 22. 6 _sq._, iv. 6. 3.

274 Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 7, p. 144 ed. Duncker and Schneidewin.

275 A. Mariette-Bey, _Dendérah_, iv. plates 66, 68, 69, 70, 88, 89, 90. Compare R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, tavv. cclxxi., cclxxii., cclxxvi., cclxxxv., cclxxxvi., cclxxxvii., cclxxxix., ccxc.; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 132, 136, 137.

276 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, p. 27.

277 That the Greek Dionysus was nothing but a slightly disguised form of the Egyptian Osiris has been held by Herodotus in ancient and by Mr. P. Foucart in modern times. See Herodotus, ii. 49; P. Foucart, _Le culte de Dionysos en Attique_ (Paris, 1904) (_Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xxxvii.).

M96 As god of the corn Osiris came to be viewed as the god of the resurrection.

278 Above, pp. 13 _sq._

279 Above, pp. 90 _sq._

280 1 Corinthians xv. 36-38, 42-44.

M97 Great popularity of the worship of Osiris.

281 Herodotus, ii. 42. Compare E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 115 _sq._, 203 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 22 _sq._

M98 Multifarious attributes of Isis.

282 H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 645; W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, vol. ii. p. 433, No. 695; _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, iii. p. 1232, No. 4941. Compare H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. Pars i. p. 179, No. 4376 A. In Egyptian her name is _Hest_ or _Ast_, but the derivation and meaning of the name are unknown. See A. Wiedemann, _The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 218 _sq._

283 C. P. Tiele, _History of Egyptian Religion_ (London, 1882), p. 57.

284 E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 203 _sq._

M99 How Isis resembled yet differed from the Mother Goddesses of Asia. Isis perhaps originally a goddess of the corn.

285 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 1 _sq._ Eusebius (_Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 3) quotes from Diodorus a long passage on the early religion of Egypt, prefacing it with the remark that Diodorus’s account of the subject was more concise than that of Manetho.

286 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, viii. 27. Tertullian says that Isis wore a wreath of the corn she had discovered (_De corona_, 7).

287 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 2.

288 See above, p. 45, and vol. i. p. 232.

289 H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 647; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 277.

290 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 649. Compare E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 216.

291 H. Brugsch, _loc. cit._

292 Herodotus, ii. 59, 156; Diodorus Siculus, i. 13, 25, 95; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 1. 3; J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 212. See further W. Drexler, _s.v._ “Isis,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 443 _sq._

_ 293 Anthologia Planudea_, cclxiv. 1.

_ 294 Epigrammata Graeca ex lapidibus conlecta_, ed. G. Kaibel (Berlin, 1878), No. 1028, pp. 437 _sq._; _Orphica_, ed. E. Abel (Leipsic and Prague, 1885), pp. 295 _sqq._

295 W. Drexler, _op. cit._ ii. 448 _sqq._

M100 Refinement and spiritualization of Isis in later times: the popularity of her worship in the Roman empire. Resemblance of Isis to the Madonna.

296 Otho often celebrated, or at least attended, the rites of Isis, clad in a linen garment (Suetonius, _Otho_, 12). Commodus did the same, with shaven head, carrying the effigy of Anubis. See Lampridius, _Commodus_, 9; Spartianus, _Pescennius Niger_, 6; _id._, _Caracallus_, 9.

297 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 373-385; J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_ (Leipsic, 1885), iii.2 77-81; E. Renan, _Marc-Aurèle et la fin du Monde Antique_ (Paris, 1882), pp. 570 _sqq._; J. Reville, _La religion romaine à Rome sous les Sévères_ (Paris, 1886), pp. 54-61; G. Lafaye, _Histoire du culte des divinités d’Alexandrie_ (Paris, 1884); E. Meyer and W. Drexler, _s.v._ “Isis,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 360 _sqq._; S. Dill, _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_2 (London, 1899), pp. 79 _sq._, 85 _sqq._; _id._, _Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius_ (London, 1904), pp. 560 _sqq._ The chief passage on the worship of Isis in the West is the eleventh book of Apuleius’s _Metamorphoses_. On the reputation which the goddess enjoyed as a healer of the sick see Diodorus Siculus, i. 25; W. Drexler, _op. cit._ ii. 521 _sqq._ The divine partner of Isis in later times, especially outside of Egypt, was Serapis, that is Osiris-Apis (_Asar-Ḥāpi_), the sacred Apis bull of Memphis, identified after death with Osiris. His oldest sanctuary was at Memphis (Pausanias, i. 18. 4), and there was one at Babylon in the time of Alexander the Great (Plutarch, _Alexander_, 76; Arrian, _Anabasis_, vii. 26). Ptolemy I. or II. built a great and famous temple in his honour at Alexandria, where he set up an image of the god which was commonly said to have been imported from Sinope in Pontus. See Tacitus, _Histor._ iv. 83 _sq._; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 27-29; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ iv. 48, p. 42 ed. Potter. In after ages the institution of the worship of Serapis was attributed to this Ptolemy, but all that the politic Macedonian monarch appears to have done was to assimilate the Egyptian Osiris to the Greek Pluto, and so to set up a god whom Egyptians and Greeks could unite in worshipping. Serapis gradually assumed the attributes of Aesculapius, the Greek god of healing, in addition to those of Pluto, the Greek god of the dead. See G. Lafaye, _Histoire du culte des divinités d’Alexandrie_, pp. 16 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 589; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 195 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 237 _sq._

298 The resemblance of Isis to the Virgin Mary has often been pointed out. See W. Drexler, _s.v._ “Isis,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 428 _sqq._

299 W. Drexler, _op. cit._ ii. 430 _sq._

300 Th. Trede, _Das Heidentum in der römischen Kirche_ (Gotha, 1889-1891), iii. 144 _sq._

301 On this later aspect of Isis see W. Drexler, _op. cit._ ii. 474 _sqq._

M101 Osiris interpreted as the sun by many modern writers.

302 P. E. Jablonski, _Pantheon Aegyptiorum_ (Frankfort, 1750-1752), i. 125 _sq._

303 Diodorus Siculus, i. 11. 1.

304 See p. 116, note 2.

305 See Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, bk. i.

_ 306 Saturn._ i. 21. 11.

307 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 10 and 51; Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 353; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 782 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 113 _sq._; J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 11 _sq._ Strictly speaking, the eye was the eye of Horus, which the dutiful son sacrificed in behalf of his father Osiris. “This act of filial devotion, preserved to us in the Pyramid Texts, made the already sacred Horus-eye doubly revered in the tradition and feeling of the Egyptians. It became the symbol of all sacrifice; every gift or offering might be called a ‘Horus-eye,’ especially if offered to the dead. Excepting the sacred beetle, or scarab, it became the commonest and the most revered symbol known to Egyptian religion, and the myriads of eyes, wrought in blue or green glaze, or even cut from costly stone, which fill our museum collections, and are brought home by thousands by the modern tourist, are survivals of this ancient story of Horus and his devotion to his father” (J. H. Breasted, _op. cit._ p. 31).

308 E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, i. 467; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 p. 8.

_ 309 Isis et Osiris_, 52.

_ 310 De errore profanarum religionum_, 8.

M102 The later identification of Osiris with Ra, the sun-god, does not prove that Osiris was originally the sun. Such identifications sprang from attempts to unify and amalgamate the many local cults of Egypt.

311 Lepsius, “Über den ersten ägyptischen Götterkreis und seine geschichtlich-mythologische Entstehung,” in _Abhandlungen der königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1851, pp. 194 _sq._

312 The view here taken of the history of Egyptian religion is based on the sketch in Ad. Erman’s _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 351 _sqq._ Compare C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_ (Gotha, 1896-1903), i. 79 _sq._

M103 Most Egyptian gods were at some time identified with the sun. Attempt of Amenophis IV. to abolish all gods except the sun-god. Failure of the attempt.

313 On this attempted revolution in religion see Lepsius, in _Verhandlungen der königl. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1851, pp. 196-201; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 74 _sq._, 355-357; _id._, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 76-84; H. Brugsch, _History of Egypt_ (London, 1879), i. 441 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Aegyptische Geschichte_ (Gotha, 1884), pp. 396 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Religion der alten Agypter_, pp. 20-22; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 35-43; C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, i. 84-92; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 316 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 68-84; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 264-279; A. Moret, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and London, 1912), pp. 41-68. A very sympathetic account of this remarkable religious reformer is given by Professor J. H. Breasted (_Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 319-343). Amenophis IV. reigned from about 1375 to 1358 B.C. His new capital, Akhetaton, the modern Tell-el-Amarna, was on the right bank of the Nile, between Memphis and Thebes. The king has been described as “of all the Pharaohs the most curious and at the same time the most enigmatic figure.” To explain his bodily and mental peculiarities some scholars conjectured that through his mother, Queen Tii, he might have had Semitic blood in his veins. But this theory appears to have been refuted by the discovery in 1905 of the tomb of Queen Tii’s parents, the contents of which are of pure Egyptian style. See A. Moret, _op. cit._ pp. 46 _sq._

M104 Identification with the sun is no evidence of the original character of an Egyptian god. M105 The solar theory of Osiris does not explain his death and resurrection.

314 P. Le Page Renouf, _Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion_2 (London, 1884), p. 113.

315 The late eminent scholar C. P. Tiele, who formerly interpreted Osiris as a sun-god (_History of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 43 _sqq._), afterwards adopted a view of his nature which approaches more nearly to the one advocated in this book. See his _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, i. 35 _sq._, 123. Professor Ed. Meyer also formerly regarded Osiris as a sun-god; he now interprets him as a great vegetation god, dwelling in the depths of the earth and causing the plants and trees to spring from it. The god’s symbol, the _ded_ pillar (see above, pp. 108 _sq._), he takes to be a tree-trunk with cross-beams. See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i. p. 67, § 57 (first edition, 1884); _id._, i.2 2. pp. 70, 84, 87 (second edition, 1909). Sir Gaston Maspero has also abandoned the theory that Osiris was the sun; he now supposes that the deity originally personified the Nile. See his _Histoire ancienne_4 (Paris, 1886), p. 35; and his _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. (Paris, 1895), p. 130. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge also formerly interpreted Osiris as the Nile (_The Gods of the Egyptians_, i. 122, 123), and this view was held by some ancient writers (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 32, 34, 36, 38, 39). Compare Miss M. A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 29. Dr. Budge now explains Osiris as a deified king. See his _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, vol. i. pp. xviii, 30 _sq._, 37, 66 _sq._, 168, 254, 256, 290, 300, 312, 384. As to this view see below, pp. 158 _sqq._

M106 The death and resurrection of Osiris are more naturally explained by the annual decay and growth of vegetation.

316 For the identification of Osiris with Dionysus, and of Isis with Demeter, see Herodotus, ii. 42, 49, 59, 144, 156; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13, 35; Diodorus Siculus, i. 13, 25, 96, iv. 1; _Orphica_, Hymn 42; Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._ iii. 11. 31; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 287; _id._, on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 166; J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 212; Διηγήματα, xxii. 2, in _Mythographi Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, 1843), p. 368; Nonnus, _Dionys._ iv. 269 _sq._; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28; Ausonius, _Epigrammata_, 29 and 30. For the identification of Osiris with Adonis and Attis see Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ Ἀμαθοῦς; Damascius, “Vita Isodori,” in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, ed. Im. Bekker (Berlin, 1824), p. 343_a_, lines 21 _sq._; Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 9. p. 168 ed. Duncker and Schneidewin; _Orphica_, Hymn 42. For the identification of Attis, Adonis, and Dionysus see Socrates, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, iii. 23 (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, lxvii. 448); Plutarch, _Quaestiones Conviviales_, iv. 5. 3; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 19, p. 16 ed. Potter.

317 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 7. According to Professor Ed. Meyer, the relations of Egypt to Byblus were very ancient and close; he even suggests that there may have been from early times an Egyptian colony, or at all events an Egyptian military post, in the city. The commercial importance of Byblus arose from its possession of the fine cedar forests on the Lebanon; the timber was exported to Egypt, where it was in great demand. See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. xix, 391 _sqq._

318 Herodotus, ii. 49.

319 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35.

320 Osiris, Attis, Adonis, and Dionysus were all resolved by him into the sun; but he spared Demeter (Ceres), whom, however, he interpreted as the moon. See the _Saturnalia_, bk. i.

M107 Osiris was sometimes interpreted by the ancients as the moon.

321 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 41.

322 On Osiris as a moon-god see E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 19-22, 59, 384 _sqq._

323 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13, 42.

_ 324 Ibid._ 18, 42. The hieroglyphic texts sometimes speak of fourteen pieces, and sometimes of sixteen, or even eighteen. But fourteen seems to have been the true number, because the inscriptions of Denderah, which refer to the rites of Osiris, describe the mystic image of the god as composed of fourteen pieces. See E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 126 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 386 _sq._

325 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8.

326 A. S. Gatschet, _The Klamath Indians of South-Western Oregon_ (Washington, 1890), p. lxxxix.

327 S. R. Riggs, _Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography_ (Washington, 1893), p. 16.

328 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), p. 97.

329 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 43.

_ 330 Ibid._ 43.

_ 331 Ibid._ 20, 29.

332 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 43; _id._, _Quaest. Conviv._ viii. 1. 3. Compare Herodotus, iii. 28; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xi. 10; Mela, i. 9. 58.

333 Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8. As to pigs in relation to Osiris, see _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 24 _sqq._

334 P. J. de Horrack, “Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys,” _Records of the Past_, ii. (London, N.D.) pp. 121 _sq._; H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, pp. 629 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 389. “Apart from the fact that Osiris is actually called _Āsār Aāḥ_, _i.e._ ‘Osiris the Moon,’ there are so many passages which prove beyond all doubt that at one period at least Osiris was the Moon-god, that it is difficult to understand why Diodorus stated that Osiris was the sun and Isis the moon” (E. A. Wallis Budge, _op. cit._ i. 21).

335 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 59.

M108 The identification of Osiris with the moon appears to be based on a comparatively late theory that all things grow and decay with the waxing and waning of the moon.

336 According to C. P. Tiele (_Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, i. 79) the conception of Osiris as the moon was late and never became popular. This entirely accords with the view adopted in the text.

337 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 221.

338 Macrobius, _Comment. in somnium Scipionis_, i. 11. 7.

339 Aulus Gellius, xx. 8. For the opinions of the ancients on this subject see further W. H. Roscher, _Über Selene und Verwandtes_ (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 61 _sqq._

340 John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 449.

341 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 306 _sq._

M109 Practical rules founded on this lunar theory. Supposed influence of the phases of the moon on the operations of husbandry.

342 Palladius, _De re rustica_, i. 34. 8. Compare _id._ i. 6. 12; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 321, “_omnia quae caeduntur, carpuntur, tondentur innocentius decrescente luna quam crescente fiunt_”; _Geoponica_, i. 6. 8, τινὲς δοκιμάζουσι μηδὲν φθινούσης τῆς σελήνης ἀλλὰ αὐξανομένης φυτεύειν.

343 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 144, quoting Werenfels, _Dissertation upon Superstition_ (London, 1748), p. 6.

344 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_3 (Berlin, 1869), § 65, pp. 57 _sq._ Compare J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), ii. 595; Montanus, _Die deutsche Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 128; M. Prätorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), p. 18; O. Schell, “Einige Bemerkungen über den Mond im heutigen Glauben des bergischen Volkes,” _Am Ur-quell_, v. (1894) p. 173. The rule that the grafting of trees should be done at the waxing of the moon is laid down by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xvii. 108). At Deutsch-Zepling in Transylvania, by an inversion of the usual custom, seed is generally sown at the waning of the moon (A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, Hermannstadt, 1880, p. 7). Some French peasants also prefer to sow in the wane (F. Chapiseau, _Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_, Paris, 1902, i. 291). In the Abruzzi also sowing and grafting are commonly done when the moon is on the wane; timber that is to be durable must be cut in January during the moon’s decrease (G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_, Palermo, 1890, p. 43).

345 P. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882), ii. 355; L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 5; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, iii. 150; Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnichen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. (1872) p. 47.

346 The rule is mentioned by Varro, _Rerum Rusticarum_, i. 37 (where we should probably read “_ne decrescente tendens calvos fiam_,” and refer _istaec_ to the former member of the preceding sentence); A. Wuttke, _l.c._; Montanus, _op. cit._ p. 128; P. Sébillot, _l.c._; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 511, § 421; W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 283; A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 386, § 92; L. Schandein, in _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), iv. 2, p. 402; F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_ (Münster, i. W. 1890), p. 15; E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 91; R. Wuttke, _Sächsische Volkskunde_2 (Dresden, 1901), p. 369; C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 259. The reason assigned in the text was probably the original one in all cases, though it is not always the one alleged now.

347 F. S. Krauss, _op. cit._ p. 16; Montanus, _l.c._; Varro, _Rerum Rusticarum_, i. 37 (see above, note 2). However, the opposite rule is observed in the Upper Vosges, where it is thought that if the sheep are shorn at the new moon the quantity of wool will be much less than if they were shorn in the waning of the moon (L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 5). In the Bocage of Normandy, also, wool is clipped during the waning of the moon; otherwise moths would get into it (J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887, ii. 12).

348 Father Lejeune, “Dans la forêt,” _Missions Catholiques_, xxvii. (1895) p. 272.

349 S. Johnson, _Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland_ (Baltimore, 1810), p. 183.

350 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_, p. 306.

351 Thomas Tusser, _Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_, New Edition (London, 1812), p. 107 (under February).

352 Fairweather, in W. F. Owen’s _Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar_ (London, 1833), ii. 396 _sq._

353 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,3 § 65, p. 58; J. Lecœur, _loc. cit._; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 511, § 422; Th. Siebs, “Das Saterland,” _Zeitschrift für Volkskunde_, iii. (1893) p. 278; Holzmayer, _op. cit._ p. 47.

354 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876), ii. 719 _sq._

355 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 402.

M110 The phases of the moon in relation to the felling of timber.

356 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 37. 4; Varro, _Rerum Rusticarum_, i. 37; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 190; Palladius, _De re rustica_, ii. 22, xii. 15; Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iii. 10. 3; Macrobius, _Saturn._ vii. 16; A. Wuttke, _l.c._; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iv. 2, p. 402; W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_2 (Marburg, 1888), p. 58; L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 5; F. Chapiseau, _Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_, i. 291 _sq._; M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 630; J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_, p. 306; G. Amalfi, _Tradizioni ed Usi nella peninsola Sorrentina_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 87; K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 559. Compare F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1851-1852), iii. 438. Pliny, while he says that the period from the twentieth to the thirtieth day of the lunar month was the season generally recommended, adds that the best time of all, according to universal opinion, was the interlunar day, between the old and the new moon, when the planet is invisible through being in conjunction with the sun.

357 J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. 11 _sq._

358 Mrs. Leslie Milne, _Shans at Home_ (London, 1910), p. 100.

359 Letter of Mr. A. S. F. Marshall, dated Hacienda “La Maronna,” Cd. Porfirio Diaz, Coah., Mexico, 2nd October 1908. The writer gives instances confirmatory of this belief. I have to thank Professor A. C. Seward of Cambridge for kindly showing me this letter.

360 Letter of Mr. Francis S. Schloss to me, dated 58 New Cavendish Street, W., 12th May 1912. Mr. Schloss adds that “as a matter of practical observation, timber, etc., should only be felled when the moon is waning. This has been stated to me not only by natives, but also by English mining engineers of high repute, who have done work in Colombia.”

361 O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p. 125.

362 Montanus, _Die deutsche Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_, p. 128.

M111 The moon regarded as the source of moisture.

363 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iii. 10. 3; Macrobius, _Saturn._ vii. 16. See further, W. H. Roscher, _Über Selene und Verwandtes_ (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 49 _sqq._

364 Plutarch and Macrobius, _ll.cc._; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 223, xx. 1; Aristotle, _Problemata_, xxiv. 14, p. 937 B, 3 _sq._ ed. I. Bekker (Berlin).

365 Macrobius and Plutarch, _ll.cc._

366 L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 5.

367 Above, p. 136.

368 M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 630.

M112 The moon, being viewed as the cause of vegetable growth, is naturally worshipped by agricultural peoples.

369 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford, 1892) p. 495. In his remarks on the origin of moon-worship this learned and philosophical historian has indicated (_op. cit._ i. 493 _sqq._) the true causes which lead primitive man to trace the growth of plants to the influence of the moon. Compare Sir E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_2 (London, 1873), i. 130. Payne suggests that the custom of naming the months after the principal natural products that ripen in them may have contributed to the same result. The custom is certainly very common among savages, as I hope to show elsewhere, but whether it has contributed to foster the fallacy in question seems doubtful.

The Indians of Brazil are said to pay more attention to the moon than to the sun, regarding it as a source both of good and ill. See J. B. von Spix und C. F. von Martius, _Reise in Brasilien_ (Munich, 1823-1831), i. 379. The natives of Mori, a district of Central Celebes, believe that the rice-spirit Omonga lives in the moon and eats up the rice in the granary if he is not treated with due respect. See A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 231.

370 E. A. Budge, _Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, on recently-discovered inscriptions of this King_, pp. 5 _sq._; A. H. Sayce, _Religion of the Ancient Babylonians_, p. 155; M. Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 68 _sq._, 75 _sq._; L. W. King, _Babylonian Religion and Mythology_ (London, 1899), pp. 17 _sq._ The Ahts of Vancouver Island, a tribe of fishers and hunters, view the moon as the husband of the sun and as a more powerful deity than her (G. M. Sproat, _Scenes and Studies of Savage Life_, London, 1868, p. 206).

M113 Thus Osiris, the old corn-god, was afterwards identified with the moon. M114 The doctrine of lunar sympathy. M115 Theory that all things wax or wane with the moon. The ceremonies observed at new moon are often magical rather than religious, being intended to renew sympathetically the life of man.

371 This principle is clearly recognized and well illustrated by J. Grimm (_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 594-596).

372 D. F. A. Hervey, “The Mentra Traditions,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 190; W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906), ii. 337.

373 Rev. J. Grant (parish minister of Kirkmichael), in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xii. 457.

374 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Nord-deutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 457, § 419.

375 Tacitus, _Germania_, 11.

376 Caesar, _De bello Gallico_, i. 50.

377 Herodotus, vi. 106; Lucian, _De astrologia_, 25; Pausanias, i. 28. 4.

378 Thucydides, vii. 50.

379 Le capitaine Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée_ (Paris, 1892), ii. 116.

380 Mungo Park, _Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa_5 (London, 1807), pp. 406 _sq._

381 W. Smythe and F. Lowe, _Narrative of a Journey from Lima to Para_ (London, 1836), p. 230.

382 Father G. Boscana, “Chinig-chinich,” in _Life in California, by an American_ [A. Robinson] (New York, 1846), pp. 298 _sq._

383 Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. 273.

384 H. Schinz, _Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic, N.D.), p. 319.

385 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 274.

386 H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 330.

387 John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 142.

388 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 279. Compare Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), pp. 142 _sq._; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 595, note 1. The power of regeneration ascribed to the moon in these customs is sometimes attributed to the sun. Thus it is said that the Chiriguanos Indians of South-Eastern Bolivia often address the sun as follows: “Thou art born and disappearest every day, only to revive always young. Cause that it may be so with me.” See A. Thouar, _Explorations dans l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1891), p. 50.

389 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions of Korea,” _The American Anthropologist_, iv. (Washington, 1891), p. 185.

M116 Attempts to eat or drink the moonlight.

390 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 14 _sq._

M117 The supposed influence of moonlight on children: presentation of infants to the new moon.

391 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. 37.

392 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 58.

393 Henri A. Junod, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchatel, 1912-1913), i. 51.

M118 Infants presented to the moon by the Guarayos Indians of Bolivia and the Apinagos Indians of Brazil.

394 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. 1re Partie (Paris and Strasburg, 1844), p. 24.

395 F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), ii. 31-34.

M119 The presentation of infants to the moon is probably intended to make them grow. M120 Baganda ceremonies at new moon.

396 J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda.” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 63, 76; _id._, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911) pp. 235 _sq._ In the former passage the part of the king’s person which is treated with this ceremony is said to be the placenta, not the navel-string.

M121 Baleful influence supposed to be exercised by the moon on children.

397 M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), p. 49.

398 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Conviviales_, iv. 10. 3. 7.

399 J. B. von Spix und C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Reise in Brasilien_ (Munich, 1823-1831), i. 381, iii. 1186.

400 J. Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition edited by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 300 (_s.v._ “Mone”).

M122 Use of the moon to increase money or decrease sickness.

401 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 260; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 131; W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England_ (London, 1879), p. 114; C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 257; W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 151.

402 C. R. Conder, _Heth and Moab_ (London, 1883), p. 286.

403 P. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882), ii. 355.

404 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 387, § 93.

_ 405 Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759), p. 447.

406 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 302. Compare J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 596.

407 R. F. Kaindl, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 256.

M123 Osiris personated by the king of Egypt.

408 See above, vol. i. pp. 16 _sq._, 48 _sqq._, 110, 114, 170 _sq._, 172 _sqq._, 176 _sqq._, 179 _sqq._, 285 _sqq._, 288 _sqq._

409 See above, pp. 97 _sq._, 101 _sq._

M124 The Sed festival celebrated in Egypt at intervals of thirty years.

410 A. Moret, _Du caractère religieux de la royauté Pharaonique_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 235-238. The festival is discussed at length by M. Moret (_op. cit._ pp. 235-273). See further R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der Aegypter_, i. 161-165; Miss M. A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, pp. 32-34; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_ (London, 1906), pp. 176-185. In interpreting the festival I follow Professor Flinders Petrie. That the festival occurred, theoretically at least, at intervals of thirty years, appears to be unquestionable; for in the Greek text of the Rosetta Stone Ptolemy V. is called “lord of periods of thirty years,” and though the corresponding part of the hieroglyphic text is lost, the demotic version of the words is “master of the years of the Sed festival.” See R. Lepsius, _op. cit._ pp. 161 _sq._; W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, No. 90, line 2 (vol. i. p. 142); A. Moret, _op. cit._ 260. However, the kings appear to have sometimes celebrated the festival at much shorter intervals, so that the dates of its recurrence cannot safely be used for chronological purposes. See Ed. Meyer, _Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 43 _sq._ (_Abhandlungen der königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften vom Jahre 1907_); _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. xix. 130.

411 This was Letronne’s theory (R. Lepsius, _op. cit._ p. 163).

412 See above, pp. 24 _sqq._, 34 _sqq._

413 This was in substance the theory of Biot (R. Lepsius, _l.c._), and it is the view of Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie (_Researches in Sinai_, pp. 176 _sqq._).

414 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_, p. 180.

M125 Intention of the Sed festival to renew the king’s life.

415 A. Moret, _Du caractère religieux de la royauté Pharaonique_, pp. 255 _sq._

M126 The king identified with the dead Osiris at the Sed festival.

416 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_, p. 181.

417 A. Moret, _op. cit._ p. 240; Miss M. A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, pp. 33 _sq._, with the slip inserted at p. 33; W. Flinders Petrie, _op. cit._ p. 184.

418 A. Moret, _op. cit._ p. 242.

419 Miss M. A. Murray, _op. cit._, slip inserted at p. 33.

420 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_, p. 183.

421 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _l.c._ As to the king’s name (Khent instead of Zer) see above, p. 20, note 1.

422 J. Capart, “Bulletin critique des religions de l’Égypte,” _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, liii. (1906) pp. 332-334. I have to thank Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie for calling my attention to this passage.

M127 Professor Flinders Petrie’s explanation of the Sed festival.

423 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_, p. 185. As to the Coptic mock-king see C. B. Klunzinger, _Bilder aus Oberägypten, der Wüste und dem Rothen Meere_ (Stuttgart, 1877), pp. 180 _sq._; _The Dying God_, pp. 151 _sq._ For examples of human sacrifices offered to prolong the lives of kings see below, vol. ii. pp. 219 _sqq._

M128 Alexandre Moret’s theory that at the Sed festivals the king was supposed to die and to be born again.

424 A. Moret, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 187-190. For a detailed account of the Egyptian evidence, monumental and inscriptional, on which M. Moret bases his view of the king’s rebirth by deputy from the hide of a sacrificed animal, see pp. 16 _sqq._, 72 _sqq._ of the same work. Compare his article, “Du sacrifice en Égypte,” _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, lvii. (1908) pp. 93 _sqq._ In support of the view that the king of Egypt was deemed to be born again at the Sed festival it has been pointed out that on these solemn occasions, as we learn from the monuments, there was carried before the king on a pole an object shaped like a placenta, a part of the human body which many savage or barbarous peoples regard as the twin brother or sister of the new-born child. See C. G. Seligmann and Margaret A. Murray, “Note upon an early Egyptian standard,” _Man_, xi. (1911) pp. 165-171. The object which these writers take to represent a human placenta is interpreted by M. Alexandre Moret as the likeness of a human embryo. As to the belief that the afterbirth is a twin brother or sister of the infant, see above, vol. i. p. 93, and below, pp. 169 _sq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 82 _sqq._

Professor J. H. Breasted thinks that the Sed festival is probably “the oldest religious feast of which any trace has been preserved in Egypt”; he admits that on these occasions “the king assumed the costume and insignia of Osiris, and undoubtedly impersonated him,” and further that “one of the ceremonies of this feast symbolized the resurrection of Osiris”; but he considers that the significance of the festival is as yet obscure. See J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_ (London, 1912), p. 39.

M129 Osiris personated by the king of Egypt. M130 How did the conception of Osiris as a god of vegetation and of the dead originate? M131 While Adonis and Attis were subordinate figures in their respective pantheons, Osiris was the greatest and most popular god of Egypt. M132 The personal devotion of the Egyptians to Osiris suggests that he may have been a real man; for all the permanent religious or semi-religious systems of the world have been founded by individual great men. M133 The historical reality of Osiris as an old king of Egypt can be supported by modern African analogies.

425 It is maintained by the discoverer of the tomb of Osiris at Abydos, Monsieur E. Amélineau, in his work _Le Tombeau d’Osiris_ (Paris, 1899) and by Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge in his elaborate treatise _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, in which the author pays much attention to analogies drawn from the religion and customs of modern African tribes.

426 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique_, i. 43 _sqq._; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 29 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 41 _sqq._ The affinity of the Egyptian language to the Semitic family of speech seems now to be admitted even by historians who maintain the African origin of the Egyptians.

M134 The spirits of dead kings worshipped by the Shilluks of the White Nile. Sacrifices to the dead kings.

_ 427 The Dying God_, pp. 17 _sqq._ The information there given was kindly supplied by Dr. C. G. Seligmann, who has since published it with fuller details. See C. G. Seligmann, _The Cult of Nyakang and the Divine Kings of the Shilluk_ (Khartoum, 1911), pp. 216-232 (reprint from _Fourth Report of the Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories, Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum_); W. Hofmayr, “Religion der Schilluk,” _Anthropos_, vi. (1911) pp. 120-131; Diedrich Westermann, _The Shilluk People, their Language and Folk-lore_ (Berlin, preface dated 1912), pp. xxxix. _sqq._ In what follows I have drawn on all these authorities.

M135 Worship of Nyakang, the first of the Shilluk kings.

428 C. G. Seligmann, _The Cult of Nyakang_, p. 221.

429 D. Westermann, _The Shilluk People_, p. xlii.

430 D. Westermann, _l.c._

M136 The spirit of Nyakang supposed to manifest itself in certain animals.

431 W. Hofmayr, “Religion der Schilluk,” _Anthropos_, vi. (1911) pp. 123 _sq._; C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ p. 230; D. Westermann, _op. cit._ p. xliii.

432 C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ pp. 229 _sq._

433 W. Hofmayr, _op. cit._ p. 125.

M137 The deified Nyakang seems to have been a real man. Relation of Nyakang to the creator Juok.

434 W. Hofmayr, _op. cit._ p. 123. This writer spells the name of the deified king as Nykang. I have adopted Dr. Seligmann’s spelling.

435 Diederich Westermann, _The Shilluk People, their Language and Folklore_ (Berlin, preface dated 1912), pp. xlii, xliii. Mr. Westermann gives the names of the demi-god and the god as Nyikang and Jwok respectively. For the sake of uniformity I have altered them to Nyakang and Juok, the forms adopted by Dr. C. G. Seligmann.

436 C. G. Seligmann, _The Cult of Nyakang and the Divine Kings of the Shilluk_ (Khartoum, 1911), p. 220.

437 C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ p. 231.

M138 The belief in the former humanity of Nyakang is confirmed by the analogy of his worship to that of the dead Shilluk kings.

438 W. Hofmayr, _op. cit._ p. 125. “It must be remembered that the due growth of the crops, _i.e._ of the most important part of the vegetable world, depends on the well-being of the divine king” (C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ p. 229).

439 C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ p. 227.

M139 Comparison of Nyakang with Osiris. M140 The spirits of dead kings worshipped by the Baganda of Central Africa.

440 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 283.

441 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 113, 282.

442 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 110, 282, 285.

443 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 104, 252 _sq._; L. F. Cunningham, _Uganda and its People_ (London, 1905), p. 226.

M141 Tombs of the dead kings of Uganda.

444 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 104-107, _id._, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 129; _id._, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _ibid._, xxxii. (1902) pp. 44 _sq._ Compare L. F. Cunningham, _Uganda and its People_ (London, 1905), pp. 224, 226.

M142 Ghosts of the dead kings of Uganda supposed to adhere to their lower jawbones and their navel-strings, which are accordingly preserved in temples dedicated to the worship of the kings.

445 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 109 _sq._

446 Above, p. 147.

447 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Kibuka, the War God of the Baganda,” _Man_, vii. (1907) pp. 164 _sq._; _id._, _The Baganda_, pp. 235 _sq._

M143 The temples of the dead kings of Uganda.

448 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 110-112, 283 _sq._

449 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 129 _sq._; _id._, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _ibid._, xxxii. (1902) p. 45.

M144 Oracles given by the dead kings of Uganda by the mouth of an inspired prophet.

450 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 283.

451 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 130; _id._, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _ibid._, xxxii. (1902) p. 46; _id._, _The Baganda_, pp. 283-285.

M145 Visit paid by the living king to the temple of his dead father. Human victims sacrificed in order that their ghosts might serve the ghost of the dead king.

452 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 112, 284.

453 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 112. It may be worth while to quote an early notice of the worship of the Kings of Uganda. See C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan_ (London, 1882), i. 208: “The former kings of the country appear also to be regarded as demi-gods, and their graves are kept with religious care, and houses are erected over them, which are under the constant supervision of one of the principal chiefs of the country, and where human sacrifices are also occasionally offered.” The graves here spoken of are no doubt the temples in which the jawbones and navel-strings of the dead kings are kept and worshipped.

M146 The souls of dead kings worshipped in Kiziba.

454 Hermann Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), pp. 4-7, 106 _sqq._, 121, 125 _sqq._, 130. Among the totems of the people are the long-tailed monkey (_Cercopithecus_), a small species of antelope, the locust, the hippopotamus, the buffalo, the otter, dappled cows, and the hearts of all animals. The members of the clan which is charged with the duty of burying the king’s body have for their totem the remains of a goat that has been killed by a leopard. See H. Rehse, _op. cit._ pp. 5 _sq._

M147 The worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of Northern Rhodesia.

455 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), pp. 80 _sq._

456 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_, pp. 82 _sq._

457 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ pp. 84 _sq._

M148 The worship of ancestral spirits is apparently the main practical religion of all the Bantu tribes. M149 The worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of South Africa.

458 Rev. James Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of South African Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 286. Compare _id._, _Light in Africa_2 (London, 1890), p. 191.

459 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) pp. 399 _sq._ With regard to the ghost who controls lightning see Mr. Warner’s notes in Col. Maclean’s _Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), pp. 82 _sq._: “The Kafirs have strange notions respecting the lightning. They consider that it is governed by the _umshologu_, or ghost, of the greatest and most renowned of their departed chiefs; and who is emphatically styled the _inkosi_; but they are not at all clear as to which of their ancestors is intended by this designation. Hence they allow of no lamentation being made for a person killed by lightning; as they say that it would be a sign of disloyalty to lament for one whom the _inkosi_ had sent for, and whose services he consequently needed; and it would cause him to punish them, by making the lightning again to descend and do them another injury.”

460 G. McCall Theal, _op. cit._ vii. 400.

M150 Sacrifices to the dead among the Bantu tribes of South Africa.

461 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 88-91.

M151 Worship of the dead among the Basutos.

462 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 248-250.

M152 Worship of the dead among the Thonga.

463 Henri A. Junod, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchâtel, 1912-1913), ii. 347.

464 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 385.

465 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 344.

466 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 385.

467 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 348 _sq._

468 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 341.

469 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 346.

M153 Sacrifices to dead chiefs among the Basutos and Bechuanas.

470 A. Merensky, _Beiträge zur Kenntnis Süd-Afrikas_ (Berlin, 1875), p. 130.

M154 Worship of the dead among the Zulus.

471 Rev. H. Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, i. (Natal, Springvale, etc., 1868) pp. 1 _sq._

472 Rev. Joseph Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London, 1857), p. 159.

473 Rev. J. Shooter, _op. cit._ p. 161.

M155 Sacrifices and prayers to the dead among the Zulus.

474 Rev. Lewis Grout, _Zulu-land, or Life among the Zulu-Kafirs_ (Philadelphia, N.D.), pp. 137, 143-145.

M156 A native Zulu account of the worship of the dead.

475 “That is, they suggest to the Itongo [ancestral spirit, singular of Amatongo], by whose ill-will or want of care they are afflicted, that if they should all die in consequence, and thus his worshippers come to an end, he would have none to worship him; and therefore for his own sake, as well as for theirs, he had better preserve his people, that there may be a village for him to enter, and meat of the sacrifices for him to eat.”

476 Rev. Henry Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part ii., _Amatongo or Ancestor Worship as existing among the Amazulu, in their own words, with a translation into English_ (Natal, Springvale, etc., 1869), pp. 144-146.

M157 The worship of the dead among the Herero of German South-West Africa. Ancestral spirits (_Ovakuru_) worshipped by the Herero.

477 Missionar J. Irle, _Die Herero, ein Beitrag zur Landes- Volks- und Missionskunde_ (Gütersloh, 1906), pp. 72 _sq._

478 J. Irle, _op. cit._ p. 73.

_ 479 Ovakuru_, the plural form of _Mukuru_.

480 J. Irle, _op. cit._ p. 74.

481 J. Irle, _op. cit._ p. 75. The writer tells us (_l.c._) that the Herero name for the good celestial God, whom they acknowledge but do not worship, is common, in different forms, to almost all the Bantu tribes. Among the Ovambo it is Kalunga; among tribes of Loango, the Congo, Angola and Benguela it is Zambi, Njambi, Ambi, Njame, Onjame, Ngambe, Nsambi; in the Cameroons it is Nzambi, etc. Compare John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), pp. 246 _sq._: “We have found a vague knowledge of a Supreme Being, and a belief in Him, very general among those tribes on the Congo with which we have come into contact.... On the Lower Congo He is called _Nzambi_, or by His fuller title _Nzambi a mpungu_; no satisfactory root word has yet been found for _Nzambi_, but for _mpungu_ there are sayings and proverbs that clearly indicate its meaning as, most of all, supreme, highest, and _Nzambi a mpungu_ as the Being most High, or Supreme. On the Upper Congo among the Bobangi folk the word used for the Supreme Being is _Nyambe_; among the Lulanga people, _Nzakomba_; among the Boloki, _Njambe_; among the Bopoto people it is _Libanza_.... It is interesting to note that the most common name for the Supreme Being on the Congo is also known, in one form or another, over an extensive area of Africa reaching from 6° north of the Equator away to extreme South Africa; as, for example, among the Ashanti it is _Onyame_, at Gaboon it is _Anyambie_, and two thousand miles away among the Barotse folk it is _Niambe_. These are the names that stand for a Being who is endowed with strength, wealth, and wisdom by the natives; and He is also regarded and spoken of by them as the principal Creator of the world, and the Maker of all things.... But the Supreme Being is believed by the natives to have withdrawn Himself to a great distance after performing His creative works; that He has now little or no concern in mundane affairs; and apparently no power over spirits and no control over the lives of men, either to protect them from malignant spirits or to help them by averting danger. They also consider the Supreme Being (_Nzambi_) as being so good and kind that there is no need to appease Him by rites, ceremonies or sacrifices. Hence they never pray to this Supreme One, they never worship Him, or think of Him as being interested in the doings of the world and its peoples.”

482 J. Irle, _op. cit._ p. 77. Mr. Irle’s account of the religion of the Herero or Ovaherero is fully borne out by the testimony of earlier missionaries among the tribe. See Rev. G. Viehe, “Some Customs of the Ovaherero” _(South African) Folk-lore Journal_, i. (Cape Town, 1879) pp. 64 _sq._: “The religious customs and ceremonies of the Ovaherero are all rooted in the presumption that the deceased continue to live, and that they have a great influence on earth, and exercise power over the life and death of man. This influence and power is ascribed especially to those who have been great men, and who become _Ovakuru_ after death. The numerous religious customs and ceremonies are a worshipping of the ancestors.” Further, Mr. Viehe reports that “the Ovaherero have a slight idea of another being (Supreme being?) which differs greatly from the _Ovakuru_, is superior to them, and is supposed never to have been a human being. It is called _Karunga_.... _Karunga_ does only good; whilst the influence of the _Ovakuru_ is more feared than wished for; and, therefore, it is not thought necessary to bring sacrifices to _Karunga_ to guard against his influence.” He is situated so high, and is so superior to men “that he takes little special notice of them; and so the Ovaherero, on their part, also trouble themselves little about this superior being” (_op. cit._ p. 67 note 1). Similar evidence is given by another missionary as to the belief of the Herero in a superior god Karunga and their fear and worship of ancestral spirits. See the Rev. H. Beiderbecke, “Some Religious Ideas and Customs of the Ovaherero” _(South African) Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (Cape Town, 1880) pp. 88 _sqq._

M158 The worship of the dead among the Ovambo.

483 Hermann Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 193-197.

M159 The worship of the dead among the Wahehe of German East Africa.

484 E. Nigmann, _Die Wahehe_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 22 _sq._ The writer does not describe the Wahehe as a Bantu tribe, but from the characteristic prefixes which they employ to designate the tribe, individual tribesmen, the country, and so forth (_op. cit._ p. 124) we may infer that the people belong to the Bantu stock.

485 E. Nigmann, _Die Wahehe_, pp. 23 _sq._

486 E. Nigmann, _op. cit._ p. 35.

487 E. Nigmann, _op. cit._ p. 39.

488 E. Nigmann, _op. cit._ pp. 24 _sqq._, 35 _sqq._

M160 The worship of the dead among the Bahima of Ankole, in Central Africa.

489 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 108 _sq._ The supreme god Lugaba is no doubt the same with the supreme god Rugaba worshipped by the Bahimas in Kiziba. See above, p. 173. With regard to the religion of the Baganda the same authority tells us that “the last, and possibly the most venerated, class of religious objects were the ghosts of departed relatives. The power of ghosts for good or evil was incalculable” (_The Baganda_, p. 273).

M161 The worship of dead chiefs or kings among the Bantu tribes of Northern Rhodesia.

490 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_, p. 83.

491 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ p. 11.

492 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ p. 292.

493 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ pp. 294 _sq._

494 J. H. West Sheane, “Wemba Warpaths,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. xli. (October, 1911) pp. 25 _sq._

M162 Among these tribes the spirits of dead chiefs or kings are thought sometimes to take bodily possession of men and women or to be incarnate in animals.

495 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Nigeria_, p. 83.

496 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ p. 84.

M163 Belief of the Barotse in a supreme god Niambe.

497 Eugène Béguin, _Les Ma-rotsé_ (Lausanne and Fontaines, 1903), pp. 118 _sq._

M164 The worship of dead kings among the Barotse.

498 Eugène Béguin, _Les Ba-rotsé_, pp. 120-123. Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 306 _sq._

M165 Thus the worship of dead kings has been an important element in the religion of many African tribes. M166 Perhaps some African gods, who are now distinguished from ghosts, were once dead men.

499 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 271.

500 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 290, 291. In the worship of Mukasa “the principal ceremony was the annual festival, when the king sent his presents to the god, to secure a blessing on the crops and on the people for the year.” (J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ p. 298).

M167 The human remains of Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda.

501 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Kibuka, the War God of the Baganda,” _Man_, vii. (1907) pp. 161-166; _id._, _The Baganda_, pp. 301-308. Among the personal relics of Kibuka kept in his temple were his genital organs; these also were rescued when the Mohammedans burned down his temple in the civil wars of 1887-1890. They are now with the rest of the god’s, or rather the man’s, remains at Cambridge.

M168 Thus it is possible that Osiris and Isis may have been a real king and queen of Egypt, perhaps identical with King Khent and his queen.

502 This consideration is rightly urged by H. Schäfer as a strong argument in favour of the antiquity of the tradition which associated the grave of Osiris with the grave of King Khent. See H. Schäfer, _Die Mysterien des Osiris in Abydos_ (Leipsic, 1904), pp. 28 _sq._

503 One of the commonest and oldest titles of Osiris was Chent (Khent)-Ament or Chenti (Khenti)-Amenti, as the name is also written. It means “Chief of those who are in the West” and refers to the Egyptian belief that the souls of the dead go westward. See R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, p. 727; H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 617; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_,2 pp. 23, 103 _sq._; J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 38, 143 (who spells the name Khenti-Amentiu); E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 31 _sq._, 67. “Khenti-Amenti was one of the oldest gods of Abydos, and was certainly connected with the dead, being probably the ancient local god of the dead of Abydos and its neighbourhood. Now, in the Pyramid Texts, which were written under the VIth dynasty, there are several mentions of Khenti-Amenti, and in a large number of instances the name is preceded by that of Osiris. It is quite clear, therefore, that the chief attributes of the one god must have resembled those of the other, and that Osiris Khenti-Amenti was assumed to have absorbed the powers of Khenti-Amenti. In the representations of the two gods which are found at Abydos there is usually no difference, at least not under the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties” (E. A. Wallis Budge, _op. cit._ i. 31). However, it would be unsafe to infer that the resemblance between the name of the god and the name of the king is more than accidental.

M169 Suggested parallel between Osiris and Charlemagne.

504 W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_, Third Edition (London, 1877), ii. 271.

M170 The question of the historical reality of Osiris left open. M171 Essential similarity of Adonis, Attis, and Osiris. M172 The superiority of the goddesses associated with Adonis, Attis, and Osiris points to a system of mother-kin. M173 Mother-kin and father-kin. The Khasis of Assam have mother-kin, and among them goddesses predominate over gods and priestesses over priests.

505 I have adopted the terms “mother-kin” and “father-kin” as less ambiguous than the terms “mother-right” and “father-right,” which I formerly employed in the same sense.

_ 506 The Khasis_, by Major P. R. T. Gurdon, I.A., Deputy Commissioner Eastern Bengal and Assam Commission, and Superintendent of Ethnography in Assam (London, 1907).

507 “The Khasi saying is, ‘_long jaid na ka kynthei_’ (from the woman sprang the clan). The Khasis, when reckoning descent, count from the mother only; they speak of a family of brothers and sisters, who are the great grandchildren of one great grandmother, as _shi kpoh_, which, being literally translated, is one womb, _i.e._ the issue of one womb. The man is nobody” (P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_, p. 82). “All land acquired by inheritance must follow the Khasi law of entail, by which property descends from the mother to the youngest daughter, and again from the latter to her youngest daughter. Ancestral landed property must therefore be always owned by women. The male members of the family may cultivate such lands, but they must carry all the produce to the house of their mother, who will divide it amongst the members of the family” (_op. cit._ p. 88). “The rule amongst the Khasis is that the youngest daughter ‘holds’ the religion, ‘_ka bat ka niam_.’ Her house is called, ‘_ka iing seng_,’ and it is here that the members of the family assemble to witness her performance of the family ceremonies. Hers is, therefore, the largest share of the family property, because it is she whose duty it is to perform the family ceremonies, and propitiate the family ancestors” (_op. cit._ p. 83).

508 Sir C. J. Lyall, in his Introduction to _The Khasis_, by Major P. R. T. Gurdon, pp. xxiii. _sq._ Sir C. J. Lyall himself lived for many years among the Khasis and studied their customs. For the details of the evidence on which his summary is based see especially pp. 63 _sqq._, 68 _sq._, 76, 82 _sqq._, 88, 106 _sqq._, 109 _sqq._, 112 _sq._, 121, 150, of Major Gurdon’s book. As to the Khasi priestesses, see above, vol. i. p. 46.

M174 Again, the Pelew Islanders have mother-kin, and the deities of their clans are all goddesses.

509 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_ (Berlin, 1885), pp. 35 _sq._ The writer calls one of these kins indifferently a _Familie_ or a _Stamm_.

510 J. S. Kubary, “Die Todtenbestattung auf den Pelau-Inseln,” _Original-Mittheilungen aus der ethnologischen Abtheilung der königlichen Museen zu Berlin_, i. (Berlin, 1885) p. 7.

511 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 40.

512 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 20-22. The writer says that the family or clan gods of the Pelew Islanders are too many to be enumerated, but he gives as a specimen a list of the family deities of one particular district (Ngarupesang). Having done so he observes that they are all goddesses, and he adds that “this is explained by the importance of the woman for the clan. The deity of the mother is inherited, that of the father is not” (_op. cit._ p. 22). As he says nothing to indicate that the family deities of this

## particular district are exceptional, we may infer, as I have done,

that the deities of all the families or clans are goddesses. Yet a few pages previously (pp. 16 _sq._) he tells us that a village which contains twenty families will have at least forty deities, if not more, “for some houses may have two _kalids_ [deities], and every house has also a goddess.” This seems to imply that the families or clans have gods as well as goddesses. The seeming discrepancy is perhaps to be explained by another statement of the writer that “in the family only the _kalids_ [deities] of the women count” (“_sich geltend machen_,” J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 38).

513 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, pp. 33 _sq._, 63; _id._, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 16.

514 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 15-17, 22, 25-27.

515 From the passages cited in the preceding note it appears that this was Kubary’s opinion, though he has not stated it explicitly.

516 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 28 _sq._

M175 This preference for goddesses is to be explained by the importance of women in the social system of the Pelew Islanders.

517 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 38. See also above, p. 204, note 4.

518 J. Kubary, _l.c._

519 See the statement of Kubary quoted in the next paragraph.

520 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 39.

521 See the statement of Kubary quoted in the next paragraph.

M176 The high position of women in the Pelew Islands has also an industrial basis; for they alone cultivate the taro, the staple food of the people.

522 J. S. Kubary, _Ethnographische Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Karolinen Archipels_ (Leyden, 1895), p. 159. On the importance of the taro or sweet potato as the staple food of the people, see _ib._ pp. 156 _sq._

M177 Both men and women in the Pelew Islands attain to power by posing as the inspired mouthpieces of the gods.

523 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 34.

524 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 30-35. The author wrote thus in the year 1883, and his account of the Pelew religion was published in 1888. Compare his work _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 81. Great changes have probably taken place in the islands since Kubary wrote.

M178 Parallel between the Pelew Islands of to-day and the religious and social state of Western Asia and Egypt in antiquity.

525 For some other parallels between the state of society and religion in these two regions, see Note IV. at the end of the volume.

M179 Mother-kin does not imply that the government is in the hands of women.

526 Compare E. Stephan und F. Graebner, _Neu-Mecklenburg_ (Berlin, 1907), p. 107 note 1: “It is necessary always to repeat emphatically that the terms father-right and mother-right indicate simply and solely the group-membership of the individual and the systems of relationship which that membership implies, but that they have nothing at all to do with the higher or lower position of women. Rather the opposite might be affirmed, namely, that woman is generally more highly esteemed in places where father-right prevails than in places where mother-right is the rule.”

M180 The inheritance of property, especially of landed property, through the mother certainly tends to raise the social importance of women, but this tendency is never carried so far as to subordinate men politically to women. M181 Thus while the Khasis and Pelew Islanders have mother-kin, they are governed by men, not by women.

527 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_, pp. 66-71. The rule of succession is as follows. A _Siem_, or king, “is succeeded by the eldest of his uterine brothers; failing such brothers, by the eldest of his sisters’ sons; failing such nephews, by the eldest of the sons of his sisters’ daughters; failing such grand-nephews, by the eldest of the sons of his mother’s sisters; and, failing such first cousins, by the eldest of his male cousins on the female side, other than first cousins, those nearest in degree of relationship having prior claim. If there were no heirs male, as above, he would be succeeded by the eldest of his uterine sisters; in the absence of such sisters, by the eldest of his sisters’ daughters; failing such nieces, by the eldest of the daughters of his sisters’ daughters; failing such grand-nieces, by the eldest of the daughters of his mother’s sisters; and failing such first cousins, by the eldest of his female cousins on the female side, other than first cousins, those nearest in degree of relationship having prior claim. A female _Siem_ would be succeeded by her eldest son, and so on” (_op. cit._ p. 71). The rule illustrates the logical precision with which the system of mother-kin is carried out by these people even when the intention is actually to exclude women from power.

528 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, pp. 35, 39 _sq._, 73-83. See also above, pp. 204 _sq._

529 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 34.

M182 The theory of a gynaecocracy and of the predominance of the female imagination in religion is an idle dream.

530 See A. H. Post, _Afrikanische Jurisprudenz_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic, 1887), i. 140 _sq._ Captain W. Gill reports that the Su-Mu, a Man-Tzŭ tribe in Southern China numbering some three and a half millions, is always ruled by a queen (_The River of Golden Sand_, London, 1880, i. 365). But Capt. Gill was not nearer to the tribe than a six days’ journey; and even if his report is correct we may suppose that the real power is exercised by men, just as it is in the solitary Khasi tribe which is nominally governed by a woman.

M183 But mother-kin is a solid fact, which can hardly have failed to modify the religion of the peoples who practise it.

531 The theory, or at all events the latter part of it, has been carefully examined by Dr. L. R. Farnell; and if, as I apprehend, he rejects it, I agree with him. See his article “Sociological Hypotheses concerning the position of Women in Ancient Religion,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, vii. (1904) pp. 70-94; his _Cults of the Greek States_ (Oxford, 1896-1909), iii. 109 _sqq._; and _The Hibbert Journal_, April 1907, p. 690. But I differ from him, it seems, in thinking that mother-kin is favourable to the growth of mother goddesses.

M184 Mother-kin and mother-goddesses in Western Asia.

532 The Lycians traced their descent through women, not through men; and among them it was the daughters, not the sons, who inherited the family property. See Herodotus, i. 174; Nicolaus Damascenus, in Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, xliv. 41 (_Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, iii. 461); Plutarch, _De mulierum virtutibus_, 9. An ancient historian even asserts that the Lycians were ruled by women (ἐκ παλαιοῦ γυναικοκρατοῦνται, Heraclides Ponticus, Frag. 15, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, ii. 217). Inscriptions found at Dalisandos, in Isauria, seem to prove that it was not unusual there to trace descent through the mother even in the third or the fourth century after Christ. See Sir W. M. Ramsay, “The Permanence of Religion at Holy Places in the East,” _The Expositor_, November 1906, p. 475. Dr. L. Messerschmidt seems to think that the Lycians were Hittites (_The Hittites_, p. 20). Scholars are not agreed as to the family of speech to which the Lycian language belongs. Some think that it was an Indo-European tongue; but this view is now abandoned by Professor Ed. Meyer (_Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 626).

533 W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_2 (London, 1903), p. 306. The hypothesis of the former existence of mother-kin among the Semites is rejected by Professor Ed. Meyer (_Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2, p. 360) and W. W. Graf Baudissin (_Adonis und Esmun_, pp. 46 _sq._).

M185 Mother-kin in ancient Egypt.

534 Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 1 _sq._ In spite of this express testimony to the existence of a true gynaecocracy in ancient Egypt, I am of opinion that the alleged superiority of the queen to the king and of the wife to her husband must have been to a great extent only nominal. Certainly we know that it was the king and not the queen who really governed the country; and we can hardly doubt that in like manner it was for the most part the husband and not the wife who really ruled the house, though unquestionably in regard to property the law seems to have granted important rights to women which it denied to men. On the position of women in ancient Egypt see especially the able article of Miss Rachel Evelyn White (Mrs. Wedd), “Women in Ptolemaic Egypt,” _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xviii. (1898) pp. 238-256.

535 Herodotus, ii. 35.

M186 Marriages of brothers with sisters in ancient Egypt.

536 Sir Gaston Maspero, quoted by Miss R. E. White, _op. cit._ p. 244.

537 J. Nietzold, _Die Ehe in Ägypten zur ptolemäisch-römischen Zeit_ (Leipzic, 1903), p. 12.

538 A. Erman, _Ägypten und ägyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 221 _sq._; U. Wilcken, “Arsinoitische Steuerprofessionen aus dem Jahre 189 n. Chr.,” _Sitzungsberichte der könig. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1883, p. 903; J. Nietzold, _Die Ehe in Ägypten zur ptolemäisch-römischen Zeit_, pp. 12-14.

M187 Such marriages were based on a wish to keep the property in the family.

539 J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_ (London, 1886), pp. 101 _sqq._ Among the Kocchs of North-Eastern India “the property of the husband is made over to the wife; when she dies it goes to her daughters, and when he marries he lives with his wife’s mother” (R. G. Latham, _Descriptive Ethnology_, London, 1859, i. 96).

540 This is in substance the explanation which Miss Rachel Evelyn White (Mrs. Wedd) gives of the Egyptian custom. See her paper, “Women in Ptolemaic Egypt,” _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xviii. (1898) p. 265. Similarly Mr. J. Nietzold observes that “economical considerations, especially in the case of great landowners, may often have been the occasion of marriages with sisters, the intention being in this way to avoid a division of the property” (_Die Ehe in Ägypten_, p. 13). The same explanation of the custom has been given by Prof. W. Ridgeway. See his “Supplices of Aeschylus,” in _Praelections delivered before the Senate of the University of Cambridge_ (Cambridge, 1906), pp. 154 _sq._ I understand from Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie that the theory has been a commonplace with Egyptologists for many years. McLennan explained the marriage of brothers and sisters in royal families as an expedient for shifting the succession from the female to the male line; but he did not extend the theory so as to explain similar marriages among common people in Egypt, perhaps because he was not aware of the facts. See J. F. McLennan, _The Patriarchal Theory_, edited and completed by D. McLennan (London, 1885), p. 95.

M188 Thus the traditional marriage of Osiris with his sister Isis reflected a real social custom. The passing of the old world in Egypt.

541 Socrates, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, i. 18 (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, lxvii. 121). The learned Valesius, in his note on this passage, informs us that the cubit was again transferred by the Emperor Julian to the Serapeum, where it was left in peace till the destruction of that temple.

542 Athanasius, _Oratio contra Gentes_, 10 (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, xxv. 24).

543 Socrates, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, v. 16 _sq._ (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, lxvii. 604 _sq._); Sozomenus, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, vii. 15 (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, lxvii. 1152 _sq._). These events took place under the Emperor Theodosius in the year 391 A.D.

M189 Egyptian conservatism partly an effect of natural conditions and habits of life. M190 The old type of Osiris better preserved than those of Adonis and Attis. M191 Moloch perhaps the human king regarded as an incarnate deity.

544 See above, vol. i. pp. 17 sqq.

_ 545 The Dying God_, pp. 168 _sqq._; G. F. Moore, in _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ “Molech.” The phrase translated “make pass through the fire to Molech” (2 Kings xxiii. 10) means properly, Professor Kennett tells me, “make to pass over by means of fire to Molech,” where the verb has the sense of “make over to,” “dedicate,” “devote,” as appears from its use in Exodus xiii. 12 (“set apart,” English Version) and Ezekiel xx. 26. That the children were not made simply to pass through the fire, but were burned in it, is shown by a comparison of 2 Kings xvi. 3, xxiii. 10, Jeremiah xxxii. 35, with 2 Chronicles xxviii. 3, Jeremiah vii. 31, xix. 5. As to the use of the verb העכיר in the sense of “dedicate,” “devote,” see G. F. Moore, _s.v._ “Molech,” _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3184; F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs, _Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament_ (Oxford, 1906), p. 718. “The testimony of both the prophets and the laws is abundant and unambiguous that the victims were slain and burnt as a holocaust” (G. F. Moore, in _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3184). Similarly Principal J. Skinner translates the phrase in 2 Kings xvi. 3 by “dedicated his son by fire,” and remarks that the expression, “whatever its primary sense may be, undoubtedly denoted actual burning” (commentary on Kings in _The Century Bible_). The practice would seem to have been very ancient at Jerusalem, for tradition placed the attempted burnt-sacrifice of Isaac by his father Abraham on Mount Moriah, which was no other than Mount Zion, the site of the king’s palace and of the temple of Jehovah. See Genesis xxii. 1-18; 2 Chronicles iii. 1; J. Benzinger, _Hebräische Archäologie_ (Freiburg i. Baden and Leipsic, 1894), pp. 45, 233; T. K. Cheyne, _s.v._ “Moriah,” _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3200 _sq._

546 Leviticus xviii. 21, xx. 2-5; 1 Kings xi. 7; 2 Kings xxiii. 10; Jeremiah xxxii. 35.

547 W. Robertson Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_,2 p. 372, note 1.

548 “It is plain, from various passages of the prophets, that the sacrifices of children among the Jews before the captivity, which are commonly known as sacrifices to Moloch, were regarded by the worshippers as oblations to Jehovah, under the title of king” (W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 p. 372, referring to Jeremiah vii. 31, xix. 5, xxxii. 35; Ezekiel xxiii. 39; Micah vi. 7). The same view is taken by Prof. G. F. Moore, in _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ “Molech,” vol. iii. 3187 _sq._

M192 The sacrifices to Moloch may have been intended to prolong the king’s life. Vicarious sacrifices for a king or queen in Sweden, Persia, and Madagascar.

_ 549 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 366 _sq._

550 “Ynglinga Saga,” 29, in _The Heimskringla or Chronicle of the Kings of Norway_, translated by S. Laing (London, 1844), i. 239 _sq._; H. M. Chadwick, _The Cult of Othin_ (London, 1899), pp. 4, 27; _The Dying God_, pp. 160 _sq._ Similarly in Peru, when a person of note was sick, he would sometimes sacrifice his son to the idol in order that his own life might be spared. See A. de Herrera, _The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 347 _sq._

551 Micah vi. 6-8.

552 Herodotus, vii. 114; Plutarch, _De superstitione_, 13.

553 W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 344 _sq._

M193 Other sacrifices for prolonging the king’s life appear to be magical rather than religious. Custom in the Niger delta.

554 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), p. 457.

M194 Customs observed by the Zulus and Caffres to prolong the king’s life.

555 D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_2 (Edinburgh, 1875), p. 91. This sacrifice may be the one described by J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 26. The reason for not stabbing the animal is perhaps a wish not to lose any of the blood, but to convey its life intact to the king. The same reason would explain the same rule which the Baganda observed in killing a human victim for the same purpose (see below, p. 224).

556 J. Dos Santos, _Eastern Ethiopia_, bk. ii. chap. 16 (G. M’Call Theal’s _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. 289).

M195 Customs observed by the Baganda to prolong the king’s life. Human victims killed in order to invigorate the king.

557 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 27 _sq._

558 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 200.

559 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 209 _sq._

M196 Chief’s son killed to provide the king with anklets.

560 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 210 _sq._

M197 The king’s game.

561 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 211 _sq._ I have abridged the account of the ceremonies.

M198 The whip of human skin.

562 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 213 _sq._

M199 Modes in which the strength of the human victims was thought to pass into the king. M200 Massacres perpetrated when a king of Uganda was ill.

563 From information furnished by my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe. Compare his book, _The Baganda_, pp. 331 _sqq._

M201 Yet the sacrifices of children to Moloch may be otherwise explained.

564 See _The Dying God_, pp. 166 _sqq._

M202 Theory that the resignation of the widowed Flamen Dialis was caused by the pollution of death.

565 See above, vol. i. p. 45.

_ 566 The Hibbert Journal_, April 1907, p. 689.

567 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 53.

568 G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. pp. 725 _sqq._, Nos. 877, 878.

569 G. Dittenberger, _op. cit._ vol. ii. pp. 429 _sq._, No. 633.

_ 570 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, ed. Aug. Boeckh, etc. (Berlin, 1828-1877), vol. ii. pp. 481 _sqq._, No. 2715, οὔσης ἐξουσίας το[ῖς παισίν, ἐά]ν τινες αὐτῶν μὴ ὦσιν ὑγιεῖς ἤ πένθει οἰκείῳ κατέχωνται, where I understand ἐξουσία to mean “leave of absence.”

M203 Apparent parallel among the Todas.

571 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_ (London, 1906), pp. 99 _sq._

572 Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 24.

M204 But on inspection the analogy breaks down.

573 Aulus Gellius, _l.c._: “_funus tamen exequi non est religio._”

574 Gaius, _Instit._ i. 112, “_quod jus etiam nostris temporibus in usu est: nam flamines majores, id est Diales, Martiales, Quirinales, item reges sacrorum, nisi_ (qui) _ex farreatis nati_ sunt _non leguntur: ac ne ipsi quidem sine confarreatione sacerdotium habere possunt_”; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 103, “_quae res ad farreatas nuptias pertinet, quibus flaminem et flaminicam jure pontificio in matrimonium necesse est convenire_.” For a fuller description of the rite see Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 374. From the testimony of Gaius it appears that not only the Flamen Dialis but all the other principal Flamens were bound to be married. However, the text of Gaius in this passage is somewhat uncertain. I have quoted it from P. E. Huschke’s third edition (Leipsic, 1878).

575 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 99. According to an old account, there was an important exception to the rule, but Dr. Rivers was not able to verify it; he understood that during the tenure of his office the dairyman is really celibate.

576 Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 23, “_Matrimonium flaminis nisi morte dirimi jus non est_”; Festus, p. 89, ed. C. O. Müller, _s.v._ “Flammeo”; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 50. Plutarch mentions as an illegal exception that in his own time the Emperor Domitian allowed a Flamen to divorce his wife, but the ceremony of the divorce was attended by “many awful, strange, and gloomy rites” performed by the priests.

577 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 50. That the wives of Roman priests aided their husbands in the performance of sacred rites is mentioned by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who attributes the institution of these joint priesthoods to Romulus (_Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 22).

578 The epithet Dialis, which was applied to the Flaminica as well as to the Flamen (Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 26; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 137), would of itself prove that husband and wife served the same god or pair of gods; and while the word was doubtfully derived by Varro from Jove (_De lingua Latina_, v. 84), we are expressly told that the Flamen was the priest and the Flaminica the priestess of that god (Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 109; Festus, p. 92, ed. C. O. Müller, _s.v._ “Flammeo”). There is therefore every reason to accept the statement of Plutarch (_Quaest. Rom._ 86) that the Flaminica was reputed to be sacred to Juno, the divine partner of Jupiter, in spite of the objections raised by Mr. W. Warde Fowler (“Was the Flaminica Dialis priestess of Juno?” _Classical Review_, ix. (1895) pp. 474 _sqq._).

M205 Customs of the Kota and Jewish priests.

579 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), iv. 10.

580 Leviticus, xxi. 1-3; Ezekiel, xliv. 25.

M206 The theory that the Roman gods were celibate is contradicted by Varro and Seneca.

_ 581 The Hibbert Journal_, iv. (1906) p. 932.

582 Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 67, “_Quod Jovis Juno conjux et is caelum._”

583 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, iv. 32, “_Dicit etiam [scil. Varro] de generationibus deorum magis ad poetas quam ad physicos fuisse populos inclinatos, et ideo et sexum et generationes deorum majores suos, id est veteres credidisse Romanos et eorum constituisse conjugia._”

584 Seneca, quoted by Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 10, “_Quid quod et matrimonia, inquit, deorum jungimus, et ne pie quidem, fratrum ac sororum? Bellonam Marti conlocamus, Vulcano Venerem, Neptuno Salaciam. Quosdam tamen caelibes relinquimus, quasi condicio defecerit, praesertim cum quaedam viduae sint, ut Populonia vel Fulgora et diva Rumina; quibus non miror petitorem defuisse._” In this passage the marriage of Venus to Vulcan is probably Greek; all the rest is pure Roman.

M207 The marriage of Orcus.

585 Servius, on Virgil, Georg. i. 344, “_Aliud est sacrum, aliud nuptias Cereri celebrare, in quibus re vera vinum adhiberi nefas fuerat, quae Orci nuptiae dicebantur, quas praesentia sua pontifices ingenti solemnitate celebrabant._”

586 Servius, on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 344, and on _Aen._ iv. 58. As to the prohibition of wine, compare Macrobius, _Saturn._ iii. 11. There seems to be no doubt that Orcus was a genuine old Italian god of death and the dead. See the evidence collected by R. Peter, _s.v._ “Orcus,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 940 _sqq._, who says that “Orcus was obviously one of those old Roman gods who occupied the thoughts of the people in the most lively manner.” On the other hand, Prof. G. Wissowa supposes that Orcus is merely a borrowed form of the Greek Horkos (_Religion und Kultus der Römer_,2 p. 310). But Horkos was not a god of death and the dead; he was simply a personified oath (ὅρκος; see Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 804 Ὅρκον γεινόμενον, τὸν Ἔρις τέκε πῆμ᾽ ἐπιόρκοις), an abstract idea which makes no figure in Greek mythology and religion. That such a rare and thin Greek abstraction should through a gross misunderstanding be transformed into a highly popular Roman god of death, who not only passed muster with the people but was admitted by the pontiffs themselves to the national pantheon and honoured by them with a solemn ritual, is in the last degree improbable.

M208 Evidence of Aulus Gellius as to the marriage of the Roman gods. Paternity and maternity of Roman deities.

587 Aulus Gellius, xiii. 23 (22), 1 _sq._, “_Conprecationes deum inmortalium, quae ritu Romano fiunt, expositae sunt in libris sacerdotum populi Romani et in plerisque antiquis orationibus. In his scribtum est: Luam Saturni, Salaciam Neptuni, Horam Quirini, Virites Quirini, Maiam Volcani, Heriem Junonis, Moles Martis Nerienemque Martis._” As to this list see Mr. W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 60-62; _id._, _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_ (London, 1911), pp. 150 _sqq._, 481 _sqq._ He holds (p. 485) that the feminine names Salacia, etc., do not designate goddesses, the wives of the gods, but that they “indicate functions or attributes of the male deity to whom they are attached.”

588 Aulus Gellius, xiii. 23 (22), 11-16.

589 Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 18, “_Cingius mensem [Maium] nominatum putat a Maia, quam Vulcani dicit uxorem, argumentoque utitur quod flamen Vulcanalis Kalendis Maiis huic deae rem divinam facit: sed Piso uxorem Vulcani Majestam, non Maiam, dicit vocari._” The work of Cincius (Cingius) is mentioned by Macrobius in the same chapter (§ 12, “_Cingius in eo libro quem de fastis reliquit_”). As to the life and writings of this old annalist and antiquary see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_,2 i. (Munich, 1898), p. 128; G. Wissowa, Münzer, and Cichorius, _s.v._ “Cincius,” in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2555 _sqq._ All these writers distinguish the old annalist from the antiquary, whom they take to have been a later writer of the same name. But the distinction appears to be purely arbitrary and destitute of any ancient authority.

590 Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 18. See the preceding note.

591 Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 18. See the passage cited above, p. 232, note 3.

592 Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 72, “_Salacia Neptuni a salo_.” This was probably one of the cases which Varro had in his mind when he stated that the ancient Roman gods were married.

593 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 22, “_Jam utique habebat Salaciam Neptunus uxorem_”; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ x. 76, “_Sane hanc Veniliam quidam Salaciam accipiunt, Neptuni uxorem_.” As for Seneca’s evidence see above, p. 231, note 3.

594 Nonius Marcellus, _De compendiosa doctrina_, p. 125, ed. L. Quicherat (Paris, 1872), “_Hora juventutis dea. Ennius Annali[um] lib. i. [Teque,] Quirine pater, veneror, Horamque Quirini._”

595 Livy, viii. 1. 6, xlv. 33. 2.

596 Festus, p. 186, ed. C. O. Müller, “_Opima spolia dicuntur originem quidem trahentia ab Ope Saturni uxore_”; _id._, p. 187, “_Opis dicta est conjux Saturni_”; Macrobius, _Saturnal._ i. 10. 19, “_Hanc autem deam Opem Saturni conjugem crediderunt, et ideo hoc mense Saturnalia itemque Opalia celebrari, quod Saturnus ejusque uxor tam frugum quam fructuum repertores esse creduntur._” Varro couples Saturn and Ops together (_De lingua Latina_, v. 57, “_Principes in Latio Saturnus et Ops_”; compare _id._, v. 64), but without expressly affirming them to be husband and wife. Professor G. Wissowa, however, argues that the male partner (he would not say husband) of Ops was not Saturn but Consus. See G. Wissowa, “_De feriis anni Romanorum vetustissimi observationes selectae_,” reprinted in his _Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur römischen Religions- und Stadtgeschichte_ (Munich, 1904), pp. 156 _sqq._ His view is accepted by Mr. W. Warde Fowler (_Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, p. 212; _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_, p. 482).

597 Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ iv. 3, “_Itaque et Jupiter a precantibus pater vocatur, et Saturnus, et Janus, et Liber, et ceteri deinceps, quod Lucilius in deorum consilio irridet_:

_Ut nemo sit nostrum, quin aut pater optimus divum_ _ Ut Neptunus pater, Liber, Saturnus pater, Mars,_ _ Janus, Quirinus pater nomen dicatur ad unum._”

Compare Aulus Gellius, v. 12. 5; Servius, on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 4. Roman goddesses who received the title of Mother were Vesta, Earth, Ops, Matuta, and Lua. As to Mother Vesta see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 229; as to Mother Earth see H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, Nos. 3950-3955, 3960; as to Mother Ops see Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 64; as to Mother Matuta see L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 322 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_,2 pp. 110 _sqq._; _id._, _s.v._ “Mater Matuta,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 2462 _sqq._ I cite these passages only to prove that the Romans commonly applied the titles “father” and “mother” to their deities. The inference that these titles implied paternity or maternity is my own, but in the text I have given some reasons for thinking that the Romans themselves accepted the implication. Mr. W. Warde Fowler, on the other hand, prefers to suppose that the titles were employed in a merely figurative sense to “imply the dependence of the human citizen upon his divine protector”; but he admits that what exactly the Romans understood by _pater_ and _mater_ applied to deities is not easy to determine (_The Religious Experience of the Roman People_, pp. 155-157). He makes at the same time the important observation that the Romans never, so far as he is aware, applied the terms Father and Mother to foreign gods, but “always to _di indigetes_, those on whom the original Roman stock looked as their fellow-citizens and guardians.” The limitation is significant and seems more naturally explicable on my hypothesis than on that of my learned friend.

598 See _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, xiv. Nos. 2862, 2863; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, Nos. 3684, 3685; R. Peter, _s.v._ “Fortuna,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie_, i. 1542; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_,2 p. 259. I have to thank my learned and candid friend Mr. W. Warde Fowler for referring me to this good evidence of Jupiter’s paternal character.

599 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 379.

600 The epithet _Inuus_ applied to Faunus was so understood by the ancients, and this suffices to prove the conception they had of the god’s virility, whether the etymology was right or wrong. See Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 775, “_Dicitur autem Inuus ab ineundo passim cum omnibus animalibus._” As to the title see G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_,2 p. 211, who, however, rejects the ancient etymology and the identification of Inuus with Faunus.

601 Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 21-24; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ i. 22; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 314; Plutarch, _Caesar_, 9; _id._, _Quaest. Roman._ 20. According to Varro, the goddess was the daughter of Faunus (Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 27); according to Sextus Clodius she was his wife (Lactantius, _l.c._; compare Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, v. 18).

602 Livy, i. 4. 2; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 4; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ i. 77.

603 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 195 _sq._

604 Plutarch, _Romulus_, 2. Plutarch’s authority was Promathion in his history of Italy. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 196.

605 Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 678.

_ 606 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 230 _sq._

M209 We must conclude that the Roman gods were thought to be married and to beget children.

607 Such, for example, as the loves of Vertumnus for Pomona (Ovid, _Metam._ xiv. 623 _sqq._), of Jupiter for Juturna (Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 585 _sqq._), and of Janus for Carna (Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 101 _sqq._) and for Camasene (Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 330). The water-nymph Juturna beloved by Jupiter is said to have been the daughter of the river Vulturnus, the wife of Janus, and the mother of Fontus (Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, iii. 29). Janus in

## particular would seem to have been the theme of many myths, and his

claim to be a genuine Italian god has never been disputed.

608 The marriage of the Roman gods has been denied by E. Aust (_Die Religion der Römer_, Münster i. W. 1899, pp. 19 _sq._) and Professor G. Wissowa (_Religion und Kultus der Römer_,2 pp. 26 _sq._), as well as by Mr. W. Warde Fowler. On the other hand, the evidence for it has been clearly and concisely stated by L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 55-57. It is with sincere diffidence that I venture to differ on a point of Roman religion from the eminent scholars I have named. But without for a moment pitting my superficial acquaintance with Roman religion against their deep learning, I cannot but think that the single positive testimony of Varro on a matter about which he could scarcely be ignorant ought to outweigh the opinion of any modern scholar, however learned and able.

M210 Rule of Greek and Roman ritual that certain offices could only be held by boys whose parents were both alive.

_ 609 The Hibbert Journal_, April 1907, p. 689. Such a boy was called a παῖς ἀμφιθαλής, “a boy blooming on both sides,” the metaphor being drawn from a tree which sends out branches on both sides. See Plato, _Laws_, xi. 8, p. 927 D; Julius Pollux, iii. 25; Hesychius and Suidas, _s.v._ ἀμφιθαλής.

610 Festus, p. 93, ed. C. O. Müller, _s.vv._ “Flaminius” and “Flaminia.” That certain Roman rites had to be performed by the children of living parents is mentioned in general terms by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (_Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 22).

M211 But the rule which excludes orphans from certain sacred offices cannot be based on a theory that they are ceremonially unclean through the death of their parents.

611 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 50.

M212 Examples of the exclusion of orphans from sacred offices. M213 Boys and girls of living parents employed in Greek rites at the vintage, harvest-home, and sowing.

612 Proclus, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 322 A, ed. I. Bekker (Berlin, 1824); Athenaeus, xi. 92, pp. 495 _sq._; Scholiast on Nicander, _Alexipharmaca_, 109. Only the last of these writers mentions that the boys had to be ἀμφιθαλεῖς. As to this and the following custom see A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 278 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, Antike _Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 214 _sqq._

613 Eustathius, on Homer, _Iliad_, xxii. 495, p. 1283; _Etymologicum Magnum_, p. 303. 18 _sqq._, _s.v._ Εἰρεσιώνη; Plutarch, _Theseus_, 22. According to a scholiast on Aristophanes (_Plutus_, 1054) the branch might be either of olive or laurel.

614 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 1054.

615 O. Kern, _Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Maeander_ (Berlin, 1900), No. 98; G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. pp. 246 _sqq._, No. 553. This inscription has been well expounded by Prof. M. P. Nilsson (_Griechische Feste_, Leipsic, 1906, pp. 23-27). I follow him and Dittenberger in regarding the month of Artemision, when the bull was sacrificed, as the harvest month corresponding to the Attic Thargelion.

616 J. H. Neumann, “Iets over den landbouw bij de Karo-Bataks,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) p. 381.

M214 Boys of living parents employed in the rites of the Arval Brothers.

617 G. Henzen, _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_ (Berlin, 1874), pp. vi. _sq._, cix. cx. cxix. cliii. clix. clxxxvii. 12, 13, 15. As to the evergreen oaks and laurels of the grove, see _ib._, pp. 137, 138; as to the wreaths of corn-ears, see _ib._, pp. 26, 28; Aulus Gellius, vii. 7. 8. That the rites performed by the Arval Brothers were intended to make the fields bear corn is expressly stated by Varro (_De lingua Latina_, v. 85, “_Fratres Arvales dicti sunt, qui sacra publica faciunt propterea ut fruges ferant arva_”). On the Arval Brothers and their rites see also L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 ii. 29 _sqq._; J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) pp. 447-462; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_,2 pp. 561 _sqq._; J. B. Carter, _s.v._ “Arval Brothers,” in J. Hastings’s _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, ii. (Edinburgh, 1909) pp. 7 _sqq._

M215 In fertility rites the employment of such children is intelligible on the principle of sympathetic magic. M216 Sons of living parents employed to cut the olive-wreath at Olympia and the laurel-wreath at Tempe.

618 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 60.

619 Pausanias, v. 15. 3.

620 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, 12; _id._, _De defectu oraculorum_, 15; Aelian, _Varia Historia_, iii. 1; Strabo, ix. 3. 12, p. 422. In a note on Pausanias (ii. 7. 7, vol. iii. pp. 53 _sqq._) I have described the festival more fully and adduced savage parallels. As to the Vale of Tempe see W. M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London, 1835), iii. 390 _sqq._ The rhetoric of Livy (xliv. 6. 8) has lashed the smooth and silent current of the Peneus into a roaring torrent.

M217 Sons of living parents acted as Laurel-bearers at Thebes.

621 Proclus, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, ed. I. Bekker, p. 321.

622 O. Crusius, _s.v._ “Kadmos,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 830, 838, 839. On an Etruscan mirror the scene of Cadmus’s combat with the dragon is surrounded with a wreath of laurel (O. Crusius, _op. cit._ ii. 862). My learned friend Mr. A. B. Cook was the first to call attention to these vase-paintings in confirmation of my view that the Festival of the Laurel-bearing celebrated the destruction of the dragon by Cadmus. See A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-God,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) p. 411, note 224; and my note on Pausanias, ix. 10. 4 (vol. v. pp. 41 _sqq._).

623 I have examined both festivals more closely in a former part of this work (_The Dying God_, pp. 78 _sqq._), and have shown grounds for holding that the old octennial cycle in Greece, based on an attempt to harmonize solar and lunar time, gave rise to an octennial festival at which the mythical marriage of the sun and moon was celebrated by the dramatic marriage of human actors, who appear sometimes to have been the king and queen. In the Laurel-bearing at Thebes a clear reference to the astronomical character of the festival is contained in the emblems of the sun, moon, stars, and days of the year which were carried in procession (Proclus, _l.c._); and another reference to it may be detected in the legendary marriage of Cadmus and Harmonia. Dr. L. R. Farnell supposes that the festival of the Laurel-bearing “belongs to the maypole processions, universal in the peasant-religion of Europe, of which the object is to quicken the vitalizing powers of the year in the middle of spring or at the beginning of summer” (_The Cults of the Greek States_, iv. 285). But this explanation appears to be inconsistent with the octennial period of the festival.

624 We may conjecture that the Olympic, like the Delphic and the Theban, festival was at first octennial, though in historical times it was quadrennial. Certainly it seems to have been based on an octennial cycle. See the Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 35 (20); Aug. Boeckh on Pindar, _Explicationes_ (Leipsic, 1821), p. 138; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 366 _sq._; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in Iwan Müller’s _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i. (Nördlingen, 1886) pp. 605 _sq._; K. O. Müller, _Die Dorier_2 (Breslau, 1844), ii. 483. The Pythian games, which appear to have been at first identical with the Delphic Festival of Crowning, were held originally at intervals of eight instead of four years. See the Scholiast on Pindar, _Pyth. Argum._ p. 298, ed. A. Boeckh (Leipsic, 1819); Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 6; compare Eustathius on Homer, _Od._ iii. 267, p. 1466. 29. As to the original identity of the Pythian games and the Festival of Crowning see Th. Schreiber, _Apollon Pythoktonos_ (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 37 _sq._; A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-God,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 404 _sq._

M218 If wreaths were originally amulets, we could understand why children of living parents were chosen to cut and wear them.

625 Antonin Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, 1908), p. 382.

626 R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 150-152.

627 On the use of crowns and wreaths in classical antiquity see W. Smith’s _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_,3 i. 545 _sqq._, _s.v._ “Corona”; E. Saglio, _s.v._ “Corona,” in Ch. Daremberg et E. Saglio’s _Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines_, iii. 1520 _sqq._ In time of mourning the ancients laid aside crowns (Athenaeus, xv. 16, p. 675 A); and so did the king at Athens when he tried a homicide (Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, 57). I mention these cases because they seem to conflict with the theory in the text, in accordance with which crowns might be regarded as amulets to protect the wearer against ghosts and the pollution of blood.

M219 Children of living parents acting as priest and priestess of Apollo and Artemis. At Rome the Vestals and the Salii must be the children of parents who were alive at the date of the election. Children of living parents employed in expiatory rites at Rome.

628 Heliodorus, _Aethiopica_, i. 22.

629 Aulus Gellius, i. 12. 2.

630 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 67; Plutarch, _Numa_, 10. We read of a Vestal who held office for fifty-seven years (Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 86). It is unlikely that the parents of this venerable lady were both alive at the date of her decease.

631 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 71.

632 Macrobius, _Sat._ iii. 14. 14. That the rule as to their parents being both alive applied to the Vestals and Salii only at the time of their entrance on office is recognized by Marquardt (_Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 228, note 1).

633 Cicero, _De haruspicum responso_, 11.

634 Livy, xxxvii. 3; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 6. 13 _sq._; Vopiscus, _Aurelianus_, 19 (where the words “_patrimis matrimisque pueris carmen indicite_” are omitted from the text by H. Peter).

635 Tacitus, _Histor._ iv. 53. For the sack and conflagration of the Capitol see _id._ iii. 71-75.

636 Flowing water in Hebrew is called “living water” (מים היים).

M220 Children of living parents employed at marriage ceremonies in Greece, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, and Africa.

637 Festus, _De verborum significatione_, ed. C. O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839), pp. 244, 245, _s.v._ “Patrimi et matrimi pueri.”

638 Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 129 _sq._, 165-168.

639 Zenobius, _Proverb._ iii. 98; Plutarch, _Proverb._ i. 16; Apostolius, _Proverb._ viii. 16 (_Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 82, 323 _sq._, ii. 429); Eustathius, on Homer, _Od._ xii. 357, p. 1726; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ ἔφυγον κακόν.

640 C. Wachsmuth, _Das alte Griechenland im neuen_ (Bonn, 1864), pp. 83-85, 86, 87, 100 _sq._

641 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 144, 146.

642 F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Süd-Slaven_ (Vienna, 1885), pp. 438, 441.

643 Captain J. S. King, “Notes on the Folk-lore and some Social Customs of the Western Somali Tribes,” _The Folk-lore Journal_, vi. (1888) p. 124. Compare Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1893), p. 200.

644 The _Grihya-Sûtras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) p. 50 (_The Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxx.).

M221 Children of living parents apparently supposed to impart life and longevity. Child of living parents employed in funeral rites.

645 Rev. William Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 151 _sq._

646 Rev. W. Ellis, _op. cit._ i. 180.

647 J. Pearse, “Customs connected with Death and Burial among the Sihanaka,” _The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, vol. ii. (a reprint of the second four numbers, 1881-1884) (Antananarivo, 1896) p. 152.

M222 The use of children of living parents in ritual may be explained by a notion that they are fuller of life and therefore luckier than orphans.

648 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 299.

649 Lucian, _Hermotimus_, 57.

650 A fragmentary list of these youths is preserved in an Athenian inscription of the year 91 or 90 B.C. See Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, Supplément, i. (Paris, 1912) p. 104, No. 1544.

651 Aelius Lampridius, _Antoninus Heliogabalus_, viii. 1 _sq._ The historian thinks that the monster chose these victims merely for the pleasure of rending the hearts of both the parents.

M223 The Bechuanas use the hide of a sacrificial ox at founding a new town.

652 See above, vol. i. p. 184.

653 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp. 303 _sq._

654 For more evidence of the sanctity of cattle among the Bechuanas see the Rev. W. C. Willoughby, _op. cit._ pp. 301 _sqq._

M224 The custom may explain the legend of the foundation of Carthage and similar tales.

655 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d’Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), p. 49.

656 Virgil, _Aen._ i. 367 _sq._, with the commentary of Servius; Justin, xviii. 5. 9. Thongs cut from the hide of the ox sacrificed to the four-handed Apollo were given as prizes. See Hesychius, _s.v._ κυνακίας; compare _id._, πυρώλοφοι. Whether the Greek custom was related to those discussed in the text seems doubtful. I have to thank my colleague and friend Professor R. C. Bosanquet for calling my attention to these passages of Hesychius.

657 Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, ix. vol. i. pp. 462 _sq._ ed. P. E. Müller (Copenhagen, 1839-1858) (where the hide employed is that of a horse); J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_3 (Göttingen, 1881), pp. 90 _sq._ Compare R. Köhler, “Sage von Landerwerbung durch zerschnittene Häute,” _Orient und Occident_, iii. 185-187.

658 Lieutenant-Colonel James Tod, _Annals and Antiquities of Rajast’han_, ii. (London, 1832) p. 235; W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens_, iv. (St. Petersburg, 1872) p. 179; A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_ (Berlin, 1884-1889), i. 25, iv. 367 _sq._; T. Stamford Raffles, _History of Java_ (London, 1817), ii. 153 _sq._; R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië_, Feb. 1880, p. 117. The substance of all these stories, except the first, was given by me in a note on “Hide-measured Lands,” _The Classical Review_, ii. (1888) p. 322.

659 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_, pp. 538 _sq._

M225 The ox whose hide is used is blinded in order that the new town may be invisible to its enemies.

660 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 304.

661 Rev. E. Gottschling, “The Bawenda, a Sketch of their History and Customs,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp. 368 _sq._

M226 This explanation of the use of a blinded ox is confirmed by a Caffre custom.

662 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Relation d’un Voyage d’Exploration_, pp. 561-565.

663 Above, pp. 204 _sqq._

M227 In the Pelew Islands a man who is inspired by a goddess wears female attire and is treated as a woman. This pretended change of sex under the inspiration of a female spirit may explain a widespread custom whereby men dress and live like women.

664 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 35.

665 C. A. L. M. Schwaner, _Borneo_ (Amsterdam, 1853), i. 186; M. T. H. Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks_ (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), pp. 32-35; Captain Rodney Mundy, _Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes from the Journals of James Brooke, Esq., Rajah of Sarawak_ (London, 1848), ii. 65 _sq._; Charles Brooke, _Ten Years in Sarawak_ (London, 1866), ii. 280; H. Low, _Sarawak_ (London, 1848), pp. 174-177; The Bishop of Labuan, “On the Wild Tribes of the North-West Coast of Borneo,” _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. ii. (1863) pp. 31 _sq._; Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London, 1863), i. 73. In Sarawak these men are called _manangs_, in Dutch Borneo they are called _bazirs_ or _bassirs_.

666 Captain R. Mundy, _op. cit._ i. 82 _sq._; B. F. Matthes, _Over de Bissoes of heidensche Priesters en Priesteressen der Boeginezen_ (Amsterdam, 1872), pp. 1 _sq._

667 Th. Falkner, _Description of Patagonia_ (Hereford, 1774), p. 117; J. Hutchinson, “The Tehuelche Indians of Patagonia,” _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. vii. (1869) p. 323. Among the Guaycurus of Southern Brazil there is a class of men who dress as women and do only women’s work, such as spinning, weaving, and making pottery. But so far as I know, they are not said to be sorcerers or priests. See C. F. Ph. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerikas zumal Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 74 _sq._

668 G. H. von Langsdorff, _Reise um die Welt_ (Frankfort, 1812), ii. 43; H. J. Holmberg, “Über die Völker des Russischen Amerika,” _Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 400 _sq._; W. H. Dall, _Alaska_ (London, 1870), pp. 402 _sq._; Ross Cox, _The Columbia River_2 (London, 1832), i. 327 _sqq._; Father G. Boscana, “Chinigchinich,” in [A. Robinson’s] _Life in California_ (New York, 1846), pp. 283 _sq._; S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 132 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876), i. 82, 92, 415, 585, 774; Hontan, _Mémoires de l’Amérique Septentrionale_ (Amsterdam, 1705), p. 144; J. F. Lafitau, _Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquains_ (Paris, 1724), i. 52-54; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 4 _sq._; W. H. Keating, _Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_ (London, 1825), i. 227 _sq._, 436; George Catlin, _North American Indians_4 (London, 1844), ii. 214 _sq._; Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_ (Coblentz, 1839-1841), ii. 132 _sq._; D. G. Brinton, _The Lenâpé and their Legends_ (Philadelphia, 1885), pp. 109 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_2 (Bâle, 167), pp. 44 _sq._, 418. Among the tribes which permitted the custom were the Illinois, Mandans, Dacotas (Sioux), Sauks, and Foxes, to the east of the Rocky Mountains, the Yukis, Pomos, and Pitt River Indians of California, and the Koniags of Alaska.

669 Lieut. W. Foley, “Journal of a Tour through the Island of Rambree,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, iv. (Calcutta, 1835) p. 199.

670 Monier Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_ (London, 1883), p. 136. Compare J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs, Institutions, et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), i. 439.

671 O. Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 467.

672 J. B. Labat, _Relation historique de l’Éthiopie Occidentale_ (Paris, 1732), ii. 195-199. Wherever men regularly dress as women, we may suspect that a superstitious motive underlies the custom even though our authorities do not mention it. The custom is thus reported among the Italmenes of Kamtschatka (G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774, pp. 350 _sq._), the Lhoosais of South-Eastern India (Capt. T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_, London, 1870, p. 255), and the Nogay or Mongutay of the Caucasus (J. Reinegg, _Beschreibung des Kaukasus_, St. Petersburg, Gotha, and Hildesheim, 1796-1797, i. 270). Among the Lhoosais or Lushais not only do men sometimes dress like women and consort and work with them (T. H. Lewin, _l.c._), but, on the other hand, women sometimes dress and live like men, adopting masculine habits in all respects. When one of these unsexed women was asked her reasons for adopting a masculine mode of life, she at first denied that she was a woman, but finally confessed “that her _khuavang_ was not good, and so she became a man.” See the extract from the _Pioneer Mail_ of May 1890, quoted in _The Indian Antiquary_, xxxii. (1903) p. 413. The permanent transformation of women into men seems to be much rarer than the converse change of men into women.

M228 Such transformations seem to have been often carried out in obedience to intimations received in dreams or in ecstasy. Transformed medicine-men among the Sea Dyaks and Chukchees.

673 Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_, ii. 133.

674 W. H. Keating, _Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_, i. 227 _sq._

675 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 378.

676 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ (London, 1911), p. 179; Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London, 1912), ii. 116.

677 Waldemar Bogoras, _The Chukchee_ (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), pp. 448-453 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vii.; _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).

678 Rev. A. L. Kitching, _On the Backwaters of the Nile_ (London, 1912), p. 239, with the plate.

M229 Women inspired by a god dress as men.

679 For this information I have to thank my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe. He tells me that according to tradition Mukasa used to give his oracles by the mouth of a man, not of a woman. To wear two bark cloths, one on each shoulder, is a privilege of royalty and of priests. The ordinary man wears a single bark cloth knotted on one shoulder only. With the single exception mentioned in the text, women in Uganda never wear bark cloths fastened over the shoulders.

680 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 297.

M230 The theory of inspiration by a female spirit perhaps explains the legends of the effeminate Sardanapalus and the effeminate Hercules, both of whom may have been thought to be possessed by the great Asiatic goddess Astarte or her equivalent.

_ 681 The Scapegoat_, pp. 387 _sqq._

682 Catullus, lxiii. This is in substance the explanation of the custom given by Dr. L. R. Farnell, who observes that “the mad worshipper endeavoured thus against nature to assimilate himself more closely to his goddess” (“Sociological hypotheses concerning the position of women in ancient religion,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, vii. (1904) p. 93). The theory is not necessarily inconsistent with my conjecture as to the magical use made of the severed parts. See above, vol. i. pp. 268 _sq._

683 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, 58.

684 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 6. 2 _sq._; Athenaeus, xii. 11, pp. 515 F-516 B; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 31; Joannes Lydus, _De magistratibus_, iii. 64; Lucian, _Dialogi deorum_, xiii. 2; Ovid, _Heroides_, ix. 55 _sqq._; Statius, _Theb._ x. 646-649.

685 On Semiramis in this character see above, vol. i. pp. 176 _sq._; _The Scapegoat_, pp. 369 _sqq._

686 Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 46, p. 81, ed. I. Bekker (Bonn, 1837). Yet at Rome, by an apparent contradiction, women might not be present at a sacrifice offered to Hercules (Propertius, v. 9. 67-70; see further above, vol. i. p. 113, note 1), and at Gades women might not enter the temple of Melcarth, the Tyrian Hercules (Silius Italicus, iii. 22). There was a Greek proverb, “A woman does not go to a temple of Hercules” (Macarius, _Cent._ iii. 11; _Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 392, ii. 154). Roman women did not swear by Hercules (Aulus Gellius, xi. 6).

687 Lucian, _Calumniae non temere credendum_, 16; Hesychius and Suidas, _s.v._ Ἰθύφαλλοι. At the Athenian vintage festival of the Oschophoria a chorus of singers was led in procession by two young men dressed exactly like girls; they carried branches of vines laden with ripe clusters. The procession was said to be in honour of Dionysus and Athena or Ariadne. See Proclus, quoted by Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 322_a_, ed. I. Bekker (Berlin, 1824); Plutarch, _Theseus_, 23.

688 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 34, pp. 29 _sq._, ed. Potter; Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 28; _Mythographi Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, 1843), p. 368; J. Tzetzes, _Scholia on Lycophron_, 212. As to the special association of the fig with Dionysus, see Athenaeus, iii. 14, p. 78. As to the artificial fertilization of the fig, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 314 _sq._ On the type of the effeminate Dionysus in art see E. Thraemer, _s.v._ “Dionysos,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, i. 1135 _sqq._

689 Tacitus, _Germania_, 43. Perhaps, as Professor Chadwick thinks, this priest may have succeeded to a priestess when the change from mother-kin to father-kin took place. See H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907), p. 339.

690 In Cyprus there was a bearded and masculine image of Venus (probably Astarte) in female attire: according to Philochorus, the deity thus represented was the moon, and sacrifices were offered to him or her by men clad as women, and by women clad as men. See Macrobius, _Saturn._ iii. 7. 2 _sq._; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 632. A similar exchange of garments took place between Argive men and women at the festival of the Hybristica, which fell in the month of Hermes, either at the new moon or on the fourth of the month. See Plutarch, _De mulierum virtutibus_, 4; Polyaenus, viii. 33. On the thirteenth of January flute-players paraded the streets of Rome in the garb of women (Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 55).

691 For traces of mother-kin in Lydia see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 281 _sq._ With regard to Cos we know from inscriptions that at Halasarna all who shared in the sacred rites of Apollo and Hercules had to register the names of their father, their mother, and of their mother’s father; from which it appears that maternal descent was counted more important than paternal descent. See H. Collitz und F. Bechtel, _Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii. 1 (Göttingen, 1899), pp. 382-393, Nos. 3705, 3706; G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarnum_,2 vol. ii. pp. 396 _sqq._, No. 614; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, pp. 796 _sq._, No. 1003; J. Toepffer, _Attische Genealogie_ (Berlin, 1889), pp. 192 _sq._ On traces of mother-kin in the legend and ritual of Hercules see A. B. Cook, “Who was the wife of Hercules?” _The Classical Review_, xx. (1906) pp. 376 _sq._ Mr. Cook conjectures that a Sacred Marriage of Hercules and Hera was celebrated in Cos. We know in fact from a Coan inscription that a bed was made and a marriage celebrated beside the image of Hercules, and it seems probable that the rite was that of a Sacred Marriage, though some scholars interpret it merely of an ordinary human wedding. See G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. pp. 577 _sqq._, No. 734; R. Dareste, B. Haussoulier, Th. Reinach, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Juridiques Grecques_, Deuxième Série (Paris, 1898), No. xxiv. B, pp. 94 _sqq._; Fr. Back, _De Graecorum caerimoniis in quibus homines deorum vice fungebantur_ (Berlin, 1883), pp. 14-24.

M231 But the exchange of costume between men and women has probably been practised also from other motives, for example, from a wish to avert the Evil Eye. This motive seems to explain the interchange of male and female costume between bride and bridegroom at marriage.

_ 692 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. (1884) §§ 219, 869, 1007, 1029; _id._ ii. (1885) §§ 344, 561, 570; _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, i. (1886) p. 123; _North Indian Notes and Queries_, iii. (1893) § 99. Compare my notes, “The Youth of Achilles,” _The Classical Review_, vii. (1893) pp. 292 _sq._; and on Pausanias, i. 22. 6 (vol. ii. p. 266).

693 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, 58.

694 Plutarch, _Lycurgus_, 15.

695 Plutarch, _De mulierum virtutibus_, 4.

696 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The Hague, 1875), p. 35. The marriage ceremonies here described are especially those of princes.

697 Sepp, _Altbayerischer Sagenschatz_ (Munich, 1876), p. 232, referring to Maimonides.

698 E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), p. 3. The pseudo-bridegroom is apparently the bride in masculine attire.

_ 699 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 31.

_ 700 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, i. _Draft Articles on Hindustani Castes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 48.

701 Elsewhere I have conjectured that the wearing of female attire by the bridegroom at marriage may mark a transition from mother-kin to father-kin, the intention of the custom being to transfer to the father those rights over the children which had previously been enjoyed by the mother alone. See _Totemism_ (Edinburgh, 1887), pp. 78 _sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 73. But I am now disposed to think that the other explanation suggested in the text is the more probable.

M232 The same explanation may account for the interchange of male and female costume between other persons at marriage.

_ 702 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 31.

_ 703 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 48.

_ 704 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, vi. _Draft Articles on Hindustani Castes_, Second Series (Allahabad, 1911), p. 50.

705 Compare W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 8, who proposes, with great probability, to explain on a similar principle, the European marriage custom known as the False Bride. For more instances of the interchange of male and female costume at marriage between persons other than the bridegroom see Capt. J. S. King, “Social Customs of the Western Somali Tribes,” _The Folk-lore Journal_, vi. (1888) p. 122; J. P. Farler, “The Usambara Country in East Africa,” _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. i. (1879) p. 92; Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880), pp. 78, 80; G. A. Grierson, _Bihar Peasant Life_ (Calcutta, 1885), p. 365; A. de Gubernatis, _Usi Nuziali in Italia_2 (Milan, 1878), p. 190; P. Sébillot, _Coutumes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), p. 438.

706 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 85.

707 J. Liorel, _Kabylie du Jurjura_ (Paris, N. D.), p. 406.

M233 Women’s dress assumed by men for the purpose of deceiving demons and ghosts.

708 Rev. J. H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 267. Compare _id._, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper Congo River,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) pp. 370 _sq._

709 Lieut.-Colonel J. Shakespear, “The Kuki-Lushai Clans,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) pp. 380 _sq._

M234 Exchange of costume between the sexes at circumcision.

710 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 298.

711 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 53-58. Mr. Hollis informs me that among the Akikuyu, another tribe of British East Africa, the custom of boys dressing as girls at or after circumcision is also observed.

M235 Other cases of the interchange of male and female costume.

712 Plutarch, _Consolatio ad Apollonium_, 22; Valerius Maximus, ii. 6. 13.

713 Plutarch, _l.c._

714 J. Kreemer, “De Loeboes in Mandailing,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, lxvi. (1912) p. 317.

M236 Conclusion. M237 The systematic prostitution of unmarried girls for hire in the Pelew Islands seems to be a form of sexual communism and of group-marriage.

715 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, pp. 50 _sq._

716 J. Kubary, _op. cit._ p. 51.

717 J. Kubary, _op. cit._ pp. 51-53, 91-98.

M238 The custom supports by analogy the derivation of the similar Asiatic custom from a similar state of society.

718 See above, vol. i. pp. 39 _sqq._

M239 Somewhat similar custom observed in Yap, one of the Caroline Islands.

719 F. W. Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899), pp. 290 _sq._ Compare W. H. Furness, _The Island of Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines_ (Philadelphia and London, 1910), pp. 46 _sqq._

720 W. H. Furness, _op. cit._ pp. 46 _sq._

721 W. H. Furness, _op. cit._ pp. 49 _sq._

M240 In the Pelew Islands the heir to the chieftainship of a clan has a formal right to slay his predecessor.

722 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 43. The writer does not translate the word _tobolbel_, but the context sufficiently explains its meaning.

M241 The plot of death and its execution. M242 Ceremonies observed before the assassin is recognized as chief in room of his victim. M243 But the formalities which a chief has to observe at his accession are much more complicated and tedious if he has not murdered his predecessor.

723 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, pp. 43-45, 75-78.

M244 The Pelew custom shows how regicide may be regarded as an ordinary incident of constitutional government.