Book i

.

See SEVEN SISTERS in Gloss. Mr. Arnold makes too many!

MYROBALAN, s. A name applied to certain dried fruits and kernels of astringent flavour, but of several species, and not even all belonging to the same Natural Order, which were from an early date exported from India, and had a high reputation in the medieval pharmacopoeia. This they appear (some of them) to retain in native Indian medicine; though they seem to have disappeared from English use and have no place in Hanbury and Flückiger's great work, the _Pharmacographia_. They are still, to some extent, imported into England, but for use in tanning and dyeing, not in pharmacy.

It is not quite clear how the term _myrobalan_, in this sense, came into use. For the people of India do not seem to have any single name denoting these fruits or drugs as a group; nor do the Arabic dictionaries afford one either (but see further on). Μυροβάλανος is spoken of by some ancient authors, _e.g._ Aristotle, Dioscorides and Pliny, but it was applied by them to one or more fruits[179] entirely unconnected with the subjects of this article. This name had probably been preserved in the laboratories, and was applied by some early translator of the Arabic writers on Materia Medica to these Indian products. Though we have said that (so far as we can discover) the dictionaries afford no word with the comprehensive sense of _Myrobalan_, it is probable that the physicians had such a word, and Garcia de Orta, who is trustworthy, says explicitly that the Arab practitioners whom he had consulted applied to the whole class the name _delegi_, a word which we cannot identify, unless it originated in a clerical error for _alelegi_, i.e. _ihlīlaj_. The last word may perhaps be taken as covering all myrobalans; for according to the Glossary to Rhazes at Leyden (quoted by Dozy, _Suppt._ i. 43) it applies to the _Kābulī_, the _yellow_, and the _black_ (or Indian), whilst the _Emblic_ is also called _Ihlīlaj amlaj_.

In the Kashmīr Customs Tariff (in _Punjab Trade Report_, ccxcvi.) we have entries of

"_Hulela_ (Myrobalan). _Bulela_ (Bellerick ditto). _Amla_ (Emblica Phyllanthus)."

The kinds recognised in the Medieval pharmacopoeia were five, viz.:—

(1) The _Emblic myrobalan_; which is the dried astringent fruit of the _Ānwulā_, _ānwlā_ of Hind., the _Emblica officinalis_ of Gaertner (_Phyllanthus Emblica_, L., N. O. _Euphorbiaceae_). The Persian name of this is _āmlah_, but, as the Arabic _amlaj_ suggests, probably in older Persian _amlag_, and hence no doubt _Emblica_. Garcia says it was called by the Arab physicians _embelgi_ (which we should write _ambaljī_).

(2) The _Belleric Myrobalan_; the fruit of _Terminalia Bellerica_, Roxb. (N.O. _Combretaceae_), consisting of a small nut enclosed in a thin exterior rind. The Arabic name given in Ibn Baithar is _balīlij_; in the old Latin version of Avicenna _belilegi_; and in Persian it is called _balīl_ and _balīla_. Garcia says the Arab physicians called it _beleregi_ (_balīrij_, and in old Persian probably _balīrig_) which accounts for _Bellerica_.

(3) The _Chebulic Myrobalan_; the fruit of _Terminalia Chebula_, Roxb. The derivation of this name which we have given under CHEBULI is confirmed by the Persian name, which is _Halīla-i-Kābulī_. It can hardly have been a product of Kabul, but may have been imported into Persia by that route, whence the name, as calicoes got their name from Calicut. Garcia says these myrobalans were called by his Arabs _quebulgi_. Ibn Baithar calls them _halīlaj_, and many of the authorities whom he quotes specify them as _Kābulī_.

(4) and (5). The _Black Myrobalan_, otherwise called '_Indian_,' and the _Yellow_ or _Citrine_. These, according to Royle (_Essay on Antiq. of Hindoo Medicine_, pp. 36-37), were both products of _T. Chebula_ in different states; but this does not seem quite certain. Further varieties were sometimes recognised, and _nine_ are said to be specified in a paper in an early vol. of the _Philos. Transactions_.[180] One kind called _Ṣīnī_ or Chinese, is mentioned by one of the authorities of Ibn Baithar, quoted below, and is referred to by Garcia.

The virtues of Myrobalans are said to be extolled by Charaka, the oldest of the Sanskrit writers on Medicine. Some of the Arabian and Medieval Greek authors, referred to by Royle, also speak of a combination of different kinds of Myrobalan called _Tryphera_ or _Tryphala_; a fact of great interest. For this is the _triphala_ ('Three-fruits') of Hindu medicine, which appears in _Amarakosha_ (c. A.D. 500), as well as in a prescription of Susruta, the disciple of Charaka, and which is still, it would seem, familiar to the native Indian practitioners. It is, according to Royle, a combination of the black, yellow and _Chebulic_; but Garcia, who calls it _tinepala_ (_tīn-phal_ in Hind. = 'Three-fruits'), seems to imply that it consisted of the three kinds known in Goa, viz. _citrine_ (or yellow), the _Indian_ (or black), and the _belleric_. [_Watt, Econ. Dict._ vi. pt. iv. 32 _seqq._] The _emblic_, he says, were not used in medicine there, only in tanning, like sumach. The Myrobalans imported in the Middle Ages seem often to have been preserved (in syrup?).

c. B.C. 340.—"διότι ἡ γέννησις τοῦ καρποῦ ἐν τῇ ἀρχῇ ἐστὶ χωρὶς γλυκύτητος. Τῶν μυραβαλάνων δὲ δένδρων ἐν τῇ ἀρχῇ, ὅταν φανῶσιν, οἱ καρποί εἰσι γλυκεῖς· κοινῶς δὲ εἰσι στρυφνοὶ καὶ ἐν τῇ κράσει αὐτῶν πικροὶ..."—_Aristoteles, De Plantis_, ii. 10.

c. A.D. 60.—"φοῖνιξ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ γίνεται· τρυγᾶται δε μετοπωρούσης τῆς κατὰ τὴν ὀπώραν ἀκμῆς, παρεμφέρων τῇ Ἀραβικῇ μυροβαλάνῳ, πόμα δὲ λέγεται."—_Dioscorides, de Mat. Medica_, i. cxlviii.

c. A.D. 70.—"MYROBALANUM Troglodytis et Thebaidi et Arabiae quae Iudaeam ab Aegypto disterminat commune est, nascens unguento, ut ipso nomine apparet, quo item indicatur et glandem esse. Arbor est heliotropio ... simili folio, fructus magnitudine abellanae nucis," &c.—_Pliny_, xii. 21 (46).

c. 540.—A prescription of Aëtius of Amida, which will be found transcribed under ZEDOARY, includes MYROBALAN among a large number of ingredients, chiefly of Oriental origin; and one doubts whether the word may not here be used in the later sense.

c. 1343.—"Preserved MIRABOLANS (_mirabolani conditi_) should be big and black, and the envelope over the nut tender to the tooth; and the bigger and blacker and tenderer to the tooth (like candied walnuts), the better they are.... Some people say that in India they are candied when unripe (_acerbe_), just as we candy[181] the unripe tender walnuts, and that when they are candied in this way they have no nut within, but are all through tender like our walnut-comfits. But if this is really done, anyhow none reach us except those with a nut inside, and often very hard nuts too. They should be kept in brown earthen pots glazed, in a syrop made of _cassia fistula_[182] and honey or sugar; and they should remain always in the syrop, for they form a moist preserve and are not fit to use dry."—_Pegolotti_, p. 377.

c. 1343.—(At Alexandria) "_are sold by the ten_ mans (_mene_, see MAUND), ... amomum, MIROBALANS of every kind, camphor, castor...."—_Ibid._ 57.

1487.—"... Vasi grandi di confectione, MIROBOLANI e gengiovo."—_Letter_ on presents sent by the Sultan to L. de' Medici, in _Roscoe's Lorenzo_, ed. 1825, ii. 372.

1505.—(In Calicut) "li nasce MIRABOLANI, emblici e chebali, li quali valeno ducati do' el _baar_ (see BAHAR.)"—_Lionardo Ca' Masser_, p. 27.

1552.—"La campagne de Iericho est entournée de mõtaignes de tous costez: poignant laquelle, et du costé de midy est la mer morte.... Les arbres qui portent le Licion, naissent en ceste plaine, et aussi les arbres qui portent les MYROBALANS _Citrins_, du noyau desquels les habitants font de l'huille."[183]—_P. Belon, Observations_, ed. 1554, f. 144.

1560.—"Mais pource que le Ben, que les Grecz appellent Balanus Myrepsica, m'a fait souvenir des MYRABOLANS des Arabes, dont y en a cinq especes: et que d'ailleurs, on en vse ordinairement en Medecine, encores que les anciens Grecz n'en ayent fait aucune mention: il m'a semblé bon d'en toucher mot: car i'eusse fait grand tort à ces Commentaires de les priuer d'vn fruict si requis en Medecine. Il y a donques cinq especes de MYRABOLANS."—_Matthioli, Com. on Dioscorides_, old Fr. Tr. p. 394.

1610.—

"_Kastril._ How know you?

_Subtle._ By inspection on her forehead; And subtlety of lips, which must be tasted Often, to make a judgment.

[_Kisses her again._]

'Slight, she melts Like a MYRABOLANE."—_The Alchemist_, iv. 1.

[c. 1665.—"Among other fruits, they preserve (in Bengal) large citrons ... small MIROBOLANS, which are excellent...."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 438.]

1672.—"Speaking of the _Glans Unguentaria_, otherwise call'd _Balanus Mirepsica_ or _Ben Arabum_, a very rare Tree, yielding a most fragrant and highly esteem'd Oyl; he is very particular in describing the extraordinary care he used in cultivating such as were sent to him in Holland."—_Notice of a Work by Abraham Munting, M.D._, in _Philosoph. Trans._ ix. 249.

MYSORE, n.p. Tam. _Maisūr_, Can. _Maisūru_. The city which was the capital of the Hindu kingdom, taking its name, and which last was founded in 1610 by a local chief on the decay of the Vijayanagar (see BISNAGAR, NARSINGA) dynasty. C. P. Brown gives the etym. as _Maisi-ūr_, _Maisi_ being the name of a local goddess like Pomona or Flora; _ūr_, 'town, village.' It is however usually said to be a corruption of _Mahish-āsura_, the buffalo demon slain by the goddess Durga or Kali. [Rice (_Mysore_, i. 1) gives Can. _Maisa_, from Skt. _Mahisha_, and _ūru_, 'town.']

[1696.—"Nabob Zulphecar Cawn is gone into the MIZORE country after the Mahratta army...."—Letter in _Wilks, Hist. Sketches_, Madras reprint, i. 60.]

MYSORE THORN. The _Caesalpinia sepiaria_, Roxb. It is armed with short, sharp, recurved prickles; and is much used as a fence in the Deccan. Hyder Ali planted it round his strongholds in Mysore, and hence it is often called "Hyder's Thorn," _Haidar kā jhār_.

[1857.—"What may be termed the underwood consisted of MILK BUSHES, PRICKLY PEARS, MYSORE THORN, intermingled in wild confusion...."—_Lady Falkland, Chow-chow_, 2nd ed. i. 300.]

N

NABÓB, s. Port. _Nabâbo_, and Fr. _Nabab_, from Hind. _Nawāb_, which is the Ar. pl. of sing. _Nāyab_ (see NAIB), 'a deputy,' and was applied in a singular sense[184] to a delegate of the supreme chief, viz. to a Viceroy or chief Governor under the Great Mogul, _e.g._ the _Nawāb_ of Surat, the _Nawāb_ of Oudh, the _Nawāb_ of Arcot, the _Nawāb Nāzim_ of Bengal. From this use it became a title of rank without necessarily having any office attached. It is now a title occasionally conferred, like a peerage, on Mahommedan gentlemen of distinction and good service, as _Rāī_ and _Rājā_ are upon Hindus.

_Nabob_ is used in two ways: (A) simply as a corruption and representative of _Nawāb_. We get it direct from the Port. _nabâbo_, see quotation from Bluteau below. (B) It began to be applied in the 18th century, when the transactions of Clive made the epithet familiar in England, to Anglo-Indians who returned with fortunes from the East; and Foote's play of 'The NABOB' (_Nábob_) (1768) aided in giving general currency to the word in this sense.

A.—

1604.—"... delante del NAUABO que es justicia mayor."—_Guerrero, Relacion_, 70.

1615.—"There was as NABABO in Surat a certain Persian Mahommedan (_Mouro Parsio_) called Mocarre Bethião, who had come to Goa in the time of the Viceroy Ruy Lourenço de Tavora, and who being treated with much familiarity and kindness by the Portuguese ... came to confess that it could not but be that truth was with their Law...."—_Bocarro_, p. 354.

1616.—"Catechumeni ergo parentes viros aliquot inducunt honestos et assessores NAUABI, id est, judicis supremi, cui consiliarii erant, uti et Proregi, ut libellum famosum adversus Pinnerum spargerent."—_Jarric, Thesaurus_, iii. 378.

1652.—"The NAHAB[185] was sitting, according to the custom of the Country, barefoot, like one of our Taylors, with a great number of Papers sticking between his Toes, and others between the Fingers of his left hand, which Papers he drew sometimes from between his Toes, sometimes from between his Fingers, and order'd what answers should be given to every one."—_Tavernier_, E. T. ii. 99; [ed. _Ball_, i. 291].

1653.—"... il prend la qualité de NABAB qui vault autant à dire que monseigneur."—_De la Boullaye-le-Gouz_ (ed. 1657), 142.

1666.—"The ill-dealing of the NAHAB proceeded from a scurvy trick that was play'd me by three Canary-birds at the Great Mogul's Court. The story whereof was thus in short ..."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 57; [ed. _Ball_, i. 134].

1673.—"Gaining by these steps a nearer intimacy with the NABOB, he cut the new Business out every day."—_Fryer_, 183.

1675.—"But when we were purposing next day to depart, there came letters out of the Moorish Camp from the NABAB, the field-marshal of the Great Mogul...."—_Heiden Vervaarlijke Schíp-Breuk_, 52.

1682.—"... Ray Nundelall ye NÁBABS _Duan_, who gave me a most courteous reception, rising up and taking of me by ye hands, and ye like at my departure, which I am informed is a greater favour than he has ever shown to any _Franke_...."—_Hedges, Diary_, Oct. 27; [Hak. Soc. i. 42]. Hedges writes _Nabob_, _Nabab_, _Navab_, _Navob_.

1716.—"NABÂBO. Termo do Mogol. He o Titolo do Ministro que he Cabeca."—_Bluteau_, s.v.

1727.—"A few years ago, the NABOB or Vice-Roy of _Chormondel_, who resides at _Chickakal_, and who superintends that Country for the Mogul, for some Disgust he had received from the Inhabitants of Diu Islands, would have made a Present of them to the Colony of Fort St. George."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 374; [ed. 1744].

1742.—"We have had a great man called the NABOB (who is the next person in dignity to the Great Mogul) to visit the Governor.... His lady, with all her women attendance, came the night before him. All the guns fired round the fort upon her arrival, as well as upon his; _he_ and _she_ are MOORS, whose women are never seen by any man upon earth except their husbands."—Letter from Madras in _Mrs. Delany's Life_, ii. 169.

1743.—"Every governor of a fort, and every commander of a district had assumed the title of NABOB ... one day after having received the homage of several of these little lords, Nizam ul muluck said that he had that day seen no less than eighteen NABOBS in the Carnatic."—_Orme_, Reprint, Bk. i. 51.

1752.—"Agreed ... that a present should be made the NOBAB that might prove satisfactory."—In _Long_, 33.

1773.—

"And though my years have passed in this hard duty, No Benefit acquired—no NABOB'S booty." Epilogue at Fort Marlborough, by _W. Marsden_, in _Mem._ 9.

1787.—

"Of armaments by flood and field; Of NABOBS you have made to yield." _Ritson_, in _Life and Letters_, i. 124.

1807.—"Some say that he is a Tailor who brought out a long bill against some of Lord Wellesley's staff, and was in consequence provided for; others say he was an adventurer, and sold knicknacks to the NABOB of Oude."—_Sir T. Munro_, in _Life_, i. 371.

1809.—"I was surprised that I had heard nothing from the NAWAUB of the Carnatic."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 381.

c. 1858.—

"Le vieux NABAB et la Begum d'Arkate." _Leconte de Lisle_, ed. 1872, p. 156.

B.—

[1764.—"Mogul Pitt and NABOB Bute."—_Horace Walpole, Letters_, ed. 1857, iv. 222 (_Stanf. Dict._).]

1773.—"I regretted the decay of respect for men of family, and that a NABOB would not carry an election from them.

"JOHNSON: Why, sir, the NABOB will carry it by means of his wealth, in a country where money is highly valued, as it must be where nothing can be had without money; but if it comes to personal preference, the man of family will always carry it."—_Boswell, Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides_, under Aug. 25.

1777.—"In such a revolution ... it was impossible but that a number of individuals should have acquired large property. They did acquire it; and with it they seem to have obtained the detestation of their countrymen, and the appellation of NABOBS as a term of reproach."—_Price's Tracts_, i. 13.

1780.—"The Intrigues of a NABOB, or Bengal the Fittest Soil for the Growth of Lust, Injustice, and Dishonesty. Dedicated to the Hon. the Court of Directors of the East India Company. By Henry Fred. Thompson. Printed for the Author." (A base book).

1783.—"The office given to a young man going to India is of trifling consequence. But he that goes out an insignificant boy, in a few years returns a great NABOB. Mr. Hastings says he has two hundred and fifty of that kind of raw material, who expect to be speedily manufactured into the merchantlike quality I mention."—_Burke, Speech on Fox's E.I. Bill_, in _Works and Corr._, ed. 1852, iii. 506.

1787.—"The speakers for him (Hastings) were Burgess, who has completely done for himself in one day; Nichols, a lawyer; Mr. Vansittart, a NABOB; Alderman Le Mesurier, a smuggler from Jersey; ... and Dempster, who is one of the good-natured candid men who connect themselves with every bad man they can find."—_Ld. Minto_, in _Life_, &c., i. 126.

1848.—"'Isn't he very rich?' said Rebecca.

"'They say all Indian NABOBS are enormously rich.'"—_Vanity Fair_, ed. 1867, i. 17.

1872.—"Ce train de vie facile ... suffit à me faire décerner ... le surnom de NABOB par les bourgeois et les visiteurs de la petite ville."—_Rev. des Deux Mondes_, xcviii. 938.

1874.—"At that time (c. 1830) the Royal Society was very differently composed from what it is now. Any wealthy or well-known person, any M.P. ... or East Indian NABOB, who wished to have F.R.S. added to his name, was sure to obtain admittance."—_Geikie, Life of Murchison_, i. 197.

1878.—"... A Tunis?—interrompit le duc.... Alors pourquoi ce nom de NABAB?—Bah! les Parisiens n'y regardent pas de si près. Pour eux tout riche étranger est un NABAB, n'importe d'où il vienne."—_Le_ NABAB, par _Alph. Daudet_, ch. i.

It is purism quite erroneously applied when we find NABOB in this sense miswritten _Nawab_; thus:

1878.—"These were days when India, little known still in the land that rules it, was less known than it had been in the previous generation, which had seen Warren Hastings impeached, and burghs[186] bought and sold by Anglo-Indian NAWABS."—_Smith's Life of Dr John Wilson_, 30.

But there is no question of purism in the following delicious passage:

1878.—"If ... the spirited proprietor of the Daily Telegraph had been informed that our aid of their friends the Turks would have taken the form of a tax upon paper, and a concession of the Levis to act as Commanders of Regiments of Bashi-Bozouks, with a request to the Generalissimo to place them in as forward a position as NABOB was given in the host of King David, the harp in Peterborough Court would not have twanged long to the tune of a crusade in behalf of the Sultan of Turkey."—_Truth_, April 11, p. 470. In this passage in which the wit is equalled only by the scriptural knowledge, observe that _Nabob_ = Naboth, and _Naboth_ = Uriah.

NACODA, NACODER, &c., s. Pers. _nā-khudā_ (_navis dominus_) 'a skipper'; the master of a native vessel. (Perhaps the original sense is rather the owner of the ship, going with it as his own supercargo.) It is hard to understand why Reinaud (_Relation_, ii. 42) calls this a "Malay word ... derived from the Persian," especially considering that he is dealing with a book of the 9th and 10th centuries. [Mr. Skeat notes that the word is sometimes, after the manner of _Hobson-Jobson_, corrupted by the Malays into _Anak kuda_, 'son of a horse.']

c. 916.—"Bientôt l'on ne garda pas même de ménagements pour les patrons de navires (_nawākhuda_, pl. of NĀKHUDĀ) Arabes, et les maîtres de batiments marchands furent en butte à des pretensions injustes."—_Relation_, &c., i. 68.

c. 1348.—"The second day after our arrival at the port of Kailūkarī, this princess invited the NĀKHODHA, or owner of the ship (_ṣāḥib-al-markab_), the _karānī_ (see CRANNY) or clerk, the merchants, the chief people, the _tandail_ (see TINDAL) or commander of the crew, the _sipasalār_ (see SIPAHSELAR) or commander of the fighting men."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 250.

1502.—"But having been seen by our fleet, the caravels made for them, and the Moors being laden could no longer escape. So they brought them to the Captain General, and all struck sail, and from six of the _Zambucos_ (see SAMBOOK) the NACODAS came to the Captain General."—_Correa_, i. 302.

1540.—"Whereupon he desired us that the three NECODAS of the Junks, so are the commanders of them called in that country...."—_Pinto_, (orig. cap. xxxv.) in _Cogan_, p. 42.

[c. 1590.—"In large ships there are twelve classes. 1. The NAKHUDA, or owner of the ship. This word is evidently a short form of _Nāvkhudā_. He fixes the course of the ship."—_Āīn_, ed. _Blochmann_, i. 280.]

1610.—"The sixth NOHUDA Melech Ambor, Captaine of a great ship of _Dabull_ (see DABUL), came ashore with a great many of Merchants with him, he with the rest were carried about the Towne in pompe."—_Sir H. Middleton_, in _Purchas_, i. 260.

[1616.—"NOHODY Chinhonne's voyage for Syam was given over."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 187.]

1623.—"The China NOCHEDA hath too long deluded you through your owne simplicitie to give creditt unto him."—_Council at Batavia, to Rich. Cocks_, in his _Diary_, ii. 341.

1625.—Purchas has the word in many forms; NOKAYDAY, NAHODA, NOHUDA, &c.

1638.—"Their NOCKADO or India Pilot was stab'd in the Groyne twice."—In _Hakl._ iv. 48.

1649.—"In addition to this a receipt must be exacted from the NACHODAS."—Secret Instructions in _Baldaeus_ (Germ.), p. 6.

1758.—"Our _Chocarda_[187] (?) assured us they were rogues; but our KNOCKATY or pilot told us he knew them."—_Ives_, 248. This word looks like confusion, in the manner of the poet of the "Snark," between _nākhuda_ and (Hind.) _arkātī_, "a pilot," [so called because many came from ARCOT.]

[1822.—"The KNOCKADA was very attentive to Thoughtless and his family...."—_Wallace, Fifteen Years in India_, 241.

[1831.—"The Roban (Ar. _rubbān_, 'the master of a ship') and NOCKADER being afraid to keep at sea all night ..."—_Life and Adventures of Nathaniel Pearce, written by himself_, ii. 303.]

1880.—"That a pamphlet should be printed, illustrated by diagrams, and widely circulated, commends itself to the Government of India ... copies being supplied to NAKHUDAS and tindals of native craft at small cost."—_Resn. of Govt. of India_ as to Lights for Shipping, 28 Jan.

NAGA, n.p. The name applied to an extensive group of uncivilised clans of warlike and vindictive character in the eastern part of the hill country which divides Assam Proper (or the valley of the Brahmaputra) from Kachār and the basin of the Surma. A part of these hills was formed into a British district, now under Assam, in 1867, but a great body of the Nāga clans is still independent. The etymology of the name is disputed; some identifying it with the _Nāga_ or Snake Aborigines, who are so prominent in the legends and sculptures of the Buddhists. But it is, perhaps, more probable that the word is used in the sense of 'naked' (Skt. _nagna_, Hind. _nangā_, Beng. _nengṭā_, &c.), which, curiously enough, is that which Ptolemy attributes to the name, and which the spelling of Shihābuddīn also indicates. [The word is also used for a class of ascetics of the Dādupanthī sect, whose head-quarters are at Jaypur.]

c. A.D. 50.—"Καὶ μέχρι τοῦ Μαιάνδρου, ... Ναγγα λόγαι ὃ σημαίνει γυμνῶν κόσμος."—_Ptol._ VII. ii. 18.

c. 1662.—"The Rájah had first intended to fly to the NÁGÁ Hills, but from fear of our army the NÁGÁS[188] would not afford him an asylum. 'The Nágás live in the southern mountains of Asám, have a light brown complexion, are well built, but treacherous. In number they equal the helpers of Yagog and Magog, and resemble in hardiness and physical strength the 'Ádis (an ancient Arabian tribe). They go about naked like beasts.... Some of their chiefs came to see the Nawáb. They wore dark hip-clothes (_lung_), ornamented with cowries, and round about their heads they wore a belt of boar's tusks, allowing their black hair to hang down their neck.'"—_Shihábuddín Tálísh_, tr. by _Prof. Blochmann_, in _J. As. Soc. Beng._, xli. Pt. i. p. 84. [See Plate xvi. of _Dalton's Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal; Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xxvi. 161 _seqq._]

1883.—A correspondent of the "Indian Agriculturist" (Calcutta), of Sept. 1, dates from the Naga Hills, which he calls "NOGA, from _Nok_, not _Naga_, ..." an assertion which one is not bound to accept. "One on the Spot" is not bound to know the etymology of a name several thousand years old.

[Of the ascetic class:

[1879.—"The NÁGÁS of Jaipur are a sect of militant devotees belonging to the Dádú Panthi sect, who are enrolled in regiments to serve the State; they are vowed to celibacy and to arms, and constitute a sort of military order in the sect."—_Rajputana Gazetteer_, ii. 147.]

NAGAREE, s. Hind. from Skt. _nāgarī_. The proper Sanskrit character, meaning literally 'of the city'; and often called _deva-nāgarī_, 'the divine city character.'

[1623.—"An antique character ... us'd by the Brachmans, who in distinction from other vulgar Characters ... call it NAGHERI."—_P. della Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 75.

[1781.—"The Shanskrit alphabet ... is now called DIEWNĀGAR, or the Language of Angels...."—_Halhed, Code_, Intro. xxiii.]

[c. 1805.—"As you sometimes see Mr. Wilkins, who was the inventor of printing with Bengal and NAGREE types...."—Letter of _Colebrooke_, in _Life_, 227.]

NAIB, s. Hind. from Ar. _nāyab_, a deputy; (see also under NABOB).

[c. 1610.—In the Maldives, "Of these are constituted thirteen provinces, over each of which is a chief called a NAYBE."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. i. 198.]

1682.—"Before the expiration of this time we were overtaken by ye _Caddie's_ NEIP, ye _Meerbar's_ (see MEARBAR) deputy, and ye Dutch Director's _Vakill_ (see VAKEEL) (by the way it is observable ye Dutch omit no opportunity to do us all the prejudice that lyes in their power)."—_Hedges, Diary_, Oct. 11; [Hak. Soc. i. 35].

1765.—"... this person was appointed NIAB, or deputy governor of Orissa."—_Holwell, Hist. Events_, i. 53.

[1856.—"The NAIB gave me letters to the chiefs of several encampments, charging them to provide me with horses."—_Ferrier, Caravan Journeys_, 237.]

NAIK, NAIQUE, &c. s. Hind. _nāyak_. A term which occurs in nearly all the vernacular languages; from Skt. _nāyaka_, 'a leader, chief, general.' The word is used in several applications among older writers (Portuguese) referring to the south and west of India, as meaning a native captain or headman of some sort (A). It is also a title of honour among Hindus in the Deccan (B). It is again the name of a Telugu caste, whence the general name of the Kings of Vijayanagara (A.D. 1325-1674), and of the Lords of Madura (1559-1741) and other places (C). But its common Anglo-Indian application is to the non-commissioned officer of Sepoys who corresponds to a corporal, and wears the double chevron of that rank (D).

(A)—

c. 1538.—"Mandou tambem hũ NAYQUE com vinti Abescins, que nos veio guardando dos ladrões."—_Pinto_, ch. iv.

1548.—"With these four captains there are 12 NAIQUES, who receive as follows—to wit, for 7 NAIQUES who have 37 pardaos and 1 tanga a year ... 11,160 reis. For Cidi NAIQUE, who has 30 pardaos, 4 tangas ... and Madguar NAIQUE the same ... and Salgy NAIQUE 24 pardaos a year, and two _nafares_ [Ar. _nafar_, 'servant'] who have 8 vintens a month, equal to 12 pardaos 4 tangas a year."—_S. Botelho, Tombo_, 215.

1553.—"To guard against these he established some people of the same island of the Canarese Gentoos with their NAIQUES, who are the captains of the footmen and of the horsemen."—_Barros_, Dec. II. Liv. v. cap. 4.

c. 1565.—"Occorse l'anno 1565, se mi ricordo bene, che il NAIC cioè il Signore della Città li mandi a domandami certi caualli Arabi."—_C. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 391.

c. 1610.—"Ie priay donc ce capitaine ... qu'il me fit bailler vne almadie ou basteau auec des mariniers et vn NAIQUE pour truchement."—_Mocquet_, 289.

1646.—"Il s'appelle NAÏQUE, qui signifie Capitaine, doutant que c'est vn Capitaine du Roy du Narzingue."—_Barretto, Rel. du Prov. de Malabar_, 255.

(B)—

1598.—"The Kings of _Decam_ also have a custome when they will honour a man or recompense [recompence] their service done, and rayse him to dignitie and honour. They give him the title of NAYGUE, which signifieth a Capitaine."—_Linschoten_, 51; [Hak. Soc. i. 173].

1673.—"The Prime Nobility have the title of NAIKS or NAIGS."—_Fryer_, 162.

c. 1704.—"Hydur Sáhib, the son of Muhammad Ilias, at the invitation of the Ministers of the Polygar of Mysore, proceeded to that country, and was entertained by them in their service ... he also received from them the honourable title of NAIK, a term which in the Hindu dialect signifies an officer or commander of foot soldiers."—_H. of Hydur Naik_, p. 7. This was the uncle of the famous Haidar Naik or Hyder Ali Khan.

(C)—

1604.—"Maduré; corte del NAYGUE Señor destas terras."—_Guerrero, Relacion_, 101.

1616.—"... and that orders should be given for issuing a proclamation at Negapatam that no one was to trade at Tevenapatam, Porto Novo, or other port belonging to the NAIQUE of Ginja or the King of Massulapatam."—_Bocarro_, 619.

1646.—"Le NAIQUE de Maduré, à qui appartient la coste de la pescherie, a la pesche d'vn jour par semaine pour son tribut."—_Barretto_, 248.

c. 1665.—"Il y a plusieurs NAIQUES au Sud de Saint-Thomé, qui sont Souverains: Le NAIQUE de Madure en est un."—_Thevenot_, v. 317.

1672.—"The greatest Lords and NAIKS of this kingdom (Carnataca) who are subject to the Crown of Velour ... namely Vitipa NAIK of Madura, the King's Cuspidore- (see CUSPADORE) bearer ... and Cristapa NAIK of Chengier, the King's Betel-holder ... the NAIK of Tanjower the King's Shield-bearer."—_Baldaeus_ (Germ.), p. 153.

1809.—"All I could learn was that it was built by a NAIG of the place."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 398.

(D)—

[c. 1610.—"These men are hired, whether Indians or Christians, and are called NAICLES."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. ii. 42.]

1787.—"A Troop of Native Cavalry on the present Establishment consists of 1 European subaltern, 1 European sergeant, 1 Subidar, 3 Jemidars, 4 Havildars, 4 NAIGUES, 1 Trumpeter, 1 Farrier, and 68 Privates."—_Regns. for H. Co.'s Troops on the Coast of Coromandel_, &c., 6.

1834.—"... they went gallantly on till every one was shot down except the one NAIK, who continued hacking at the gate with his axe ... at last a shot from above ... passed through his body. He fell, but in dying hurled his axe against the enemy."—_Mrs. Mackenzie, Storms and Sunshine of a Soldier's Life_, i. 37-38.

We may add as a special sense that in West India _Naik_ is applied to the head-man of a hamlet (_Kūrī_) or camp (_Tānda_) of BRINJARRIES (q.v.). [Bhangi and Jhangi Naiks, the famous Banjāra leaders, are said to have had 180,000 bullocks in their camp. See _Berar Gazetteer_, 196.]

NAIR, s. Malayal. _nāyar_; from the same Skt. origin as NAIK. Name of the ruling caste in Malabar. [The Greek νάουρα as a tract stood for the country of the Nairs. For their customs, see _Logan, Malabar_, i. 131.]

1510.—"The first class of Pagans in Calicut are called Brahmins. The second are NAERI, who are the same as the gentlefolks amongst us; and these are obliged to bear sword and shield or bows and lances."—_Varthema_, pp. 141-142.

1516.—"These kings do not marry ... only each has a mistress, a lady of great lineage and family, which is called NAYRE."—_Barbosa_, 165.

1553.—"And as ... the Gentiles of the place are very superstitious in dealing with people foreign to their blood, and chiefly those called Brammanes and NAIRES."—_Barros_, Dec. I. liv. iv. cap. 7.

1563.—"... The NAIRES who are the Knights."—_Garcia._

1582.—"The Men of Warre which the King of Calicut and the other Kings have, are NAYRES, which be all Gentlemen."—_Castañeda_ (by N. L.), f. 35b.

1644.—"We have much Christian people throughout his territory, not only the Christians of St. Thomas, who are the best soldiers that he (the King of Cochin) has, but also many other vassals who are converts to our Holy Catholic Faith, through the preaching of the Gospel, but none of these are NAYRES, who are his fighting men, and his nobles or gentlemen."—_Bocarro, MS._, f. 315.

1755.—"The king has disciplined a body of 10,000 NAIRES; the people of this denomination are by birth the Military tribe of the Malabar coast."—_Orme_, i. 400.

1781.—"The soldiers preceded the NAIRS or nobles of Malabar."—_Gibbon_, ch. xlvii.

It may be added that _Nāyar_ was also the term used in Malabar for the mahout of an elephant; and the fact that _Nāyar_ and _Nāyaka_ are of the same origin may be considered with the etymology which we have given of CORNAC (see _Garcia_, 85_v_).

NALKEE, s. Hind. _nālkī_. A kind of litter formerly used by natives of rank; the word and thing are now obsolete. [It is still the name of the bride's litter in Behar (_Grierson, Bihār Peasant Life_, 45).] The name was perhaps a factitious imitation of _pālkī_? [Platts suggests Skt. _nalika_, 'a tube.']

1789.—"A NALEKY is a _paleky_, either opened or covered, but it bears upon two bamboos, like a sedan in Europe, with this difference only, that the poles are carried by four or eight men, and upon the shoulders."—Note by Tr. of _Seir Mutaqherin_, iii. 269.

[1844.—"This litter is called a 'NALKI.' It is one of the three great insignia which the Mogul emperors of Delhi conferred upon independent princes of the first class, and could never be used by any person upon whom, or upon whose ancestors, they had not been so conferred. These were the NALKI, the order of the Fish, and the fan of peacock's feathers."—_Sleeman, Rambles_, ed. _V. A. Smith_, i. 165.]

NAMBEADARIM, s. Malayāl. _nambiyadiri_, _nambiyattiri_, a general, a prince. [See _Logan, Malabar_, i. 121.]

1503.—"Afterwards we were presented to the King called NAMBIADORA; who received us with no small gladness and kindness."—_Giov. da Empoli_, in _Ramusio_, i. f. 146.

1552.—"This advice of the NAMBEADARIM was disapproved by the kings and lords."—_Castanheda_; see also Transl. by N. L., 1582, f. 147.

1557.—"The NAMBEADARIM who is the principal governor."—_D'Alboquerque_, Hak. Soc. i. 9. The word is, by the translator, erroneously identified with _Nambūdiri_ (see NAMBOOREE), a Malabar Brahman.

1634.—

"Entra em Cochim no thalamo secreto Aonde NAMBEODERÁ dorme quieto." _Malaca Conquist._ i. 50.

NAMBOOREE, Malayāl. _nambūdiri_, Tam. _nambūri_; [_Logan_ (_Malabar_, ii. Gloss. ccxi.) gives _nambūtiri_, _nambūri_, from Drav. _nambuka_, 'to trust,' _tiri_, Skt. _śrī_, 'blessed.' The _Madras Gloss._ has Mal. _nambu_, 'the Veda,' _ōthu_, 'to teach,' _tiri_, 'holy.'] A Brahman of Malabar. (See _Logan_, i. 118 _seqq._].

1644.—"No more than any of his NAMBURES (among Christian converts) who are his _padres_, for you would hardly see any one of them become converted and baptized because of the punishment that the king has attached to that."—_Bocarro, MS._, f. 313.

1727.—"The NAMBOURIES are the first in both Capacities of Church and State, and some of them are Popes, being sovereign Princes in both."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 312; [ed. 1744].

[1800.—"The NAMBURIS eat no kind of animal food, and drink no spirituous liquors."—_Buchanan, Mysore_, ii. 426.]

NANKEEN, s. A cotton stuff of a brownish yellow tinge, which was originally imported from China, and derived its name from the city of Nanking. It was not dyed, but made from a cotton of that colour, the _Gossypium religiosum_ of Roxb., a variety of _G. herbaceum_. It was, however, imitated with dyed cotton in England, and before long exports of this imitation were made to China. Nankeen appears to be known in the Central Asia markets under the modified name of NANKA (see below).

1793-4.—"The land in this neighbourhood produces the cloth usually called NANKEENS in Europe ... in that growing in the province of Kiangnan, of which the city of Nan-kin is the capital, the down is of the same yellow tinge which it possesses when spun and woven into cloth."—_Staunton's Narr. of Ld. Macartney's Embassy_, ii. 425.

1794-5.—"The colour of NAM-KING is thus natural, and not subject to fade.... The opinion (that it was dyed) that I combat was the cause of an order being sent from Europe a few years ago to dye the pieces of NAM-KING of a deeper colour, because of late they had grown paler."—_Van Braam's Embassy_, E.T. ii. 141.

1797.—"_China Investment per Upton Castle._... Company's broad and narrow NANKEEN, brown NANKEEN."—In _Seton-Karr_, ii. 605.

c. 1809.—"Cotton in this district (_Puraniya_ or _Purneea_) is but a trifling article. There are several kinds mentioned.... The _Kukti_ is the most remarkable, its wool having the colour of NANKEEN cloth, and it seems in fact to be the same material which the Chinese use in that manufacture."—_F. Buchanan_, in _Eastern India_, iii. 244. [See _Watt, Econ. Dict._ iv. 16, 29.]

1838.—"NANKA is imported in the greatest quantity (to Kabul) from Russia, and is used for making the outer garments for the people, who have a great liking to it. It is similar to NANKEEN cloth that comes to India from China, and is of a strong durable texture."—_Report by Baines_, in _Punjab Trade Report_, App. p. ix. See also p. clxvii.

1848.—"'Don't be trying to deprecate the value of the lot, Mr. Moss,' Mr. Hammerdown said; 'let the company examine it as a work of art—the attitude of the gallant animal quite according to natur, the gentleman in a NANKEEN-jacket, his gun in hand, is going to the chase; in the distance a _banyhann_ tree (see BANYAN-TREE) and a PAGODY."—_Vanity Fair_, i. 178.

NANKING, n.p. The great Chinese city on the lower course of the Yangtse-kiang, which was adopted as capital of the Empire for a brief space (1368-1410) by the (native) Ming dynasty on the expulsion of the Mongol family of Chinghiz. The city, previously known as _Kin-ling-fu_, then got the style of _Nan-king_, or 'South Court.' Peking ('North Court') was however re-occupied as imperial residence by the Emperor Ching-su in 1410, and has remained such ever since. Nanking is mentioned as a great city called _Chilenfu_ (Kin-ling), whose walls had a circuit of 40 miles, by Friar Odoric (c. 1323). And the province bears the same name (_Chelim_) in the old notices of China translated by R. Willes in _Hakluyt_ (ii. 546).

It appears to be the city mentioned by Conti (c. 1430), as founded by the emperor: "Hinc prope XV. dierum itinere (_i.e._ from Cambalec or Peking), alia civitas _Nemptai_ nomine, ab imperatore condita, cujus ambitus patet triginta milliaribus, eaque est popolosissima omnium." This is evidently the same name that is coupled with Cambalec, in Petis de la Croix's translation of the _Life of Timour_ (iii. 218) under the form _Nemnai_. The form _Lankin_, &c., is common in old Portuguese narratives, probably, like LIAMPO (q.v.), a Fuhkien form.

c. 1520.—"After that follows Great China, the king of which is the greatest sovereign in the world.... The port of this kingdom is called Guantan, and among the many cities of this empire two are the most important, namely NANKIN and Comlaka (read _Combalak_), where the king usually resides."—_Pigafetta's Magellan_ (Hak. Soc.), p. 156.

c. 1540.—"Thereunto we answered that we were strangers, natives of the Kingdom of _Siam_, and that coming from the port of _Liampoo_ to go to the fishing of NANQUIN, we were cast away at sea ... that we purposed to go to the city of NANQUIN there to imbarque ourselves as rowers in the first _Lanteaa_ (see LANTEAS) that should put to sea, for to pass unto Cantan...."—_Pinto_, E.T. p. 99 (orig. cap. xxxi.).

1553.—"Further, according to the Cosmographies of China ... the maritime provinces of this kingdom, which run therefrom in a N.W. direction almost, are these three: NANQUIJ, Xanton (_Shantung_), and Quincij" (_Kingsze_ or capital, _i.e._ Pecheli).—_Barros_, I. ix. 1.

1556.—"Ogni anno va di Persia alla China vna grossa Carauana, che camina sei mesi prima ch'arriui alla Città de LANCHIN, Città nella quale risiede il Re con la sua Corte."—_Ces. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 391_v_.

[1615.—"678-1/5 Catties China of raw LANKINE silk."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 137.]

NARCONDAM, n.p. The name of a strange weird-looking volcanic cone, which rises, covered with forest, to a height of some 2,330 feet straight out of the deep sea, to the eastward of the Andamans. One of the present writers has observed (_Marco Polo_, Bk. III. ch. 13, note) that in the name of _Narkandam_ one cannot but recognise _Narak_, 'Hell'; perhaps _Naraka-kuṇḍam_, 'a pit of hell'; adding: "Can it be that in old times, but still contemporary with Hindu navigation, this volcano was active, and that some Brahmin St. Brandon recognised in it the mouth of Hell, congenial to the Rakshasas of the adjacent group" of the Andamans? We have recently received an interesting letter from Mr. F. R. Mallet of the Geological Survey of India, who has lately been on a survey of Narcondam and Barren Island. Mr. Mallet states that Narcondam is "without any crater, and has certainly been extinct for many thousand years. Barren Island, on the other hand, forms a complete amphitheatre, with high precipitous encircling walls, and the volcano has been in violent eruption within the last century. The term 'pit of hell,' therefore, while quite inapplicable to Narcondam, applies most aptly to Barren Island." Mr. Mallet suggests that there may have been some confusion between the two islands, and that the name _Narcondam_ may have been really applicable to Barren Island. [See the account of both islands in _Ball, Jungle Life_, 397 _seqq._] The name Barren Island is quite modern. We are told in Purdy's _Or. Navigator_ (350) that Barren Island was called by the Portuguese _Ilha alta_, a name which again would be much more apt for Narcondam, Barren Island being only some 800 feet high. Mr. Mallet mentions that in one of the charts of the _E.I. Pilot or Oriental Navigator_ (1781) he finds "Narcondam according to the Portuguese" in 13° 45′ N. lat. and 110° 35′ E. long. (from Ferro) and "Narcondam or _High Island_, according to the French," in 12° 50′ N. lat. and 110° 55′ E. long. This is valuable as showing both that there may have been some confusion between the islands, and that _Ilha alta_ or High Island has been connected with the name of Narcondam. The real positions by our charts are of _Narcondam_, N. lat. 13° 24′, E. long. 94° 12′. _Barren Island_, N. lat. 12° 16′, E. long. 93° 54′.

The difference of lat. (52 miles) agrees well with that between the Portuguese and French Narcondam, but the difference in long., though approximate in amount (18 or 20 miles), is in one case _plus_ and in the other _minus_; so that the discrepancies may be due merely to error in the French reckoning. In a chart in the _E.I. Pilot_ (1778) "Monday or Barren Island, called also High Island" and "Ayconda or Narcondam," are marked approximately in the positions of the present Barren Island and Narcondam. Still, we believe that Mr. Mallet's suggestion is likely to be well founded. The form _Ayconda_ is nearer that found in the following:

1598.—"... as you put off from the Ilandes of _Andeman_ towards the Coast ... there lyeth onely in the middle way an Ilande which the inhabitantes call VIACONDAM, which is a small Iland having faire ground round about it, but very little fresh water."—_Linschoten_, p. 328.

The discrepancy in the position of the islands is noticed in D'Anville:

1753.—"Je n'oublierai pas NARCONDAM, et d'autant moins que ce que j'en trouve dans les Portugais ne repond point à la position que nos cartes lui donnent. Le routier de Gaspar Pereira de los Reys indique l'île NARCODÃO ou Narcondam à 6 lieues des îles Cocos, 12 de la tête de l'Andaman; et le rhumb de vent à l'égard de ce point il le determine, _leste quarta da nordeste, meya quarta mais para les nordestes_, c'est à dire à peu-près 17 degrés de l'est au nord. Selon les cartes Françoises, NARCONDAM s'écarte environ 25 lieues marines de la tête d'Andaman; et au lieu de prendre plus du nord, cette île baisse vers le sud d'une fraction de degré plus ou moins considérable selon differéntes cartes."—_D'Anville, Eclairc._, 141-142.

I may add that I find in a French map of 1701 (_Carte Marine depuis Suratte jusqu'au Detroit de Malaca, par le Père_ P. P. Tachard) we have, in the (approximately) true position of Narcondam, _Isle Haute_, whilst an islet without name appears in the approximate position of Barren Island.

NARD, s. The rhizome of the plant _Nardostachys Jatamansi_, D.C., a native of the loftier Himālaya (allied to Valerian). This is apparently an Indian word originally, but, as we have it, it has come from the Skt. _nalada_ through Semitic media, whence the change of _l_ into _r_; and in this form it is found both in Hebrew and Greek. [Prof. Skeat gives: "F. _nard_, L. _nardus_. Greek νάρδος, Pers. _nard_ (whence Skt. _nalada_), spikenard. Skt. _nada_, a reed."] The plant was first identified in modern times by Sir W. Jones. See in Canticles, i. 12, and iv. 13, 14.

B.C. c. 25.—

"Cur non sub altâ vel platano, vel hac Pinu jacentes sic temere, et rosâ Canos odorati capillos, Dum licet, Assyriâque NARDO Potamus uncti?" _Horace, Odes_, II. xi.

A.D. 29.—"Καὶ ὄντος αὐτοῦ ἐν Βηθανίᾳ, ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ Σίμωνος ... ἦλθε γυνὴ ἔχουσα ἀλάβαστρον μύρον, νάρδου πιστικῆς πολυτελοῦς...."—_St. Mark_, xiv. 3.

c. A.D. 70.—"As touching the leafe of NARDUS, it were good that we discoursed thereof at large, seeing that it is one of the principal ingredients aromaticall that goe to the making of most costly and precious ointments.... The head of NARDUS spreadeth into certain spikes and ears, whereby it hath a twofold use both as spike and also as leafe."—_Pliny_ (Ph. Holland), xii. 12.

c. A.D. 90.—"Κατάγεται δὲ δι' αὐτῆς (Οζηνῆς) καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν ἄνω τόπων, ἡ διὰ Πωκλαΐδος καταφερομένη νάρδος, ἡ Κασπαπυρηνὴ, καὶ ἡ Παροπανισηνὴ, καὶ ἡ Καβολίτη, καὶ ἡ διά τῆς παρακειμένης Σκυθίας."—_Periplus_, § 48 (corrected by Fabricius).

c. A.D. 545.—"... also to Sindu, where you get the musk or castorin, and _androstachyn_" (for NARDOSTACHYS, _i.e._ spikenard).—_Cosmas_, in _Cathay_, p. clxxviii.

1563.—"I know no other spikenard (_espique_-NARDO) in this country, except what I have already told you, that which comes from Chitor and Mandou, regions on the confines of Deli, Bengala, and the Decan."—_Garcia_, f. 191.

1790.—"We may on the whole be assured that the NARDUS of Ptolemy, the _Indian Sumbul_ of the Persians and Arabs, the _Jatámánsì_ of the Hindus, and the _spikenard_ of our shops, are one and the same plant."—_Sir W. Jones_, in _As. Res._ ii. 410.

c. 1781.—

"My _first_ shuts out thieves from your house or your room, My _second_ expresses a Syrian perfume; My _whole_ is a man in whose converse is shared The strength of a _Bar_ and the sweetness of NARD."— _Charade_ on Bishop Barnard by _Dr. Johnson_.

NARGEELA, NARGILEH, s. Properly the coco-nut (Skt. _nārikera_, _-kela_, or _-keli_; Pers. _nārgīl_; Greek of Cosmas, Ἀργέλλιον); thence the HUBBLE-BUBBLE, or HOOKA in its simplest form, as made from a coco-nut shell; and thence again, in Persia, a HOOKA or water-pipe with a glass or metal vase.

[c. 545.—"ARGELL." See under SURA.

[1623.—"NARGHIL, like the palm in the leaves also, and is that which we call _Nux Indica_."—_P. della Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 40.

[1758.—"An ARGILE, or smoking tube, and coffee, were immediately brought us ..."—_Ives_, 271.

[1813.—"... the Persians smoked their culloons and NARGILLS...."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ 2nd ed. ii. 173.]

NARROWS, THE, n.p. A name applied by the Hoogly pilots for at least two centuries to the part of the river immediately below Hoogly Point, now known as 'Hoogly Bight.' See Mr. Barlow's note on _Hedges' Diary_, i. 64.

1684.—"About 11 o'clock we met with ye _Good-hope_, at an anchor in ye NARROWS, without Hugly River,[189] and ordered him upon ye first of ye flood to weigh, and make all haste he could to Hugly ..."—_Hedges, Diary_, Hak. Soc. i. 64.

1711.—"From the lower Point of the NARROWS on the Starboard-side ... the Eastern Shore is to be kept close aboard, until past the said Creek, afterwards allowing only a small Birth for the Point off the RIVER OF ROGUES, commonly called by the Country People, Adegom.... From the RIVER OF ROGUES, the Starboard Shore, with a great Ship, ought to be kept close aboard down to the Channel Trees, for in the Offing lies the Grand middle Ground...."—_English Pilot_, p. 57.

NARSINGA, n.p. This is the name most frequently applied in the 16th and 17th centuries to the kingdom in Southern India, otherwise termed Vijayanagara or BISNAGAR (q.v.), the latest powerful Hindu kingdom in the Peninsula. This kingdom was founded on the ruins of the Belāla dynasty reigning at Dwāra Samudra, about A.D. 1341 [see _Rice, Mysore_, i. 344 _seqq._]. The original dynasty of Vijayanagara became extinct about 1487, and was replaced by _Narasiṉha_, a prince of Telugu origin, who reigned till 1508. He was therefore reigning at the time of the first arrival of the Portuguese, and the name of Narsinga, which they learned to apply to the kingdom from his name, continued to be applied to it for nearly two centuries.

1505.—"Hasse notizia delli maggiori Re che hanno nell'India, che è el Re de NARSIN, indiano zentil; confina in Estremadura con el regno de Comj (qu. _regno Deconij_?), el qual Re si è Moro. El qual Re de NARSIN tien grande regno; sarà (harà?) ad ogni suo comando 10 mila elefanti, 30 mila cavalli, e infinito numero di genti."—_Lionardo Ca' Masser_, 35.

1510.—"The Governor ... learning of the embassy which the King of Bisnega was sending to Cananore to the Viceroy, to offer firm friendship, he was most desirous to make alliance and secure peace ... principally because the kingdom of NARSINGA extends in the interior from above Calecut and from the Balagate as far as Cambaya, and thus if we had any wars in those countries by sea, we might by land have the most valuable aid from the King of Bisnega."—_Correa_, ii. 30.

1513.—"Aderant tunc apud nostrũ praefectũ a NARSINGAE rege legati."—_Emanuel. Reg. Epist._ f. 3_v_.

1516.—"45 leagues from these mountains inland, there is a very large city which is called Bijanaguer, very populous.... The King of NARSINGA always resides there."—_Barbosa_, 85.

c. 1538.—"And she (the Queen of Onor) swore to him by the golden sandals of her pagod that she would rejoice as much should God give him the victory over them (the Turks) as if the King of NARSINGA, whose slave she was, should place her at table with his wife."—_F. Mendez Pinto_, ch. ix.; see also _Cogan_, p. 11.

1553.—"And they had learned besides from a Friar who had come from _Narsinga_ to stay at Cananor, how that the King of NARSINGA, who was as it were an Emperor of the Gentiles of India in state and riches, was appointing ambassadors to send him ..."—_Barros_, I. viii. 9.

1572.—

"... O Reyno NARSINGA poderoso Mais de ouro e de pedras, que de forte gente." _Camões_, vii. 21.

By Burton:

"Narsinga's Kingdom, with her rich display Of gold and gems, but poor in martial vein ..."

1580.—"In the Kingdom of NARSINGUA to this day, the wives of their priests are buried alive with the bodies of their husbands; all other wives are burnt at their husbands' funerals."—_Montaigne_, by _Cotton_, ch. xi. (What is here said about priests applies to LINGAITS, q.v.).

1611.—"... the Dutch President on the coast of _Choromandell_, shewed us a _Caul_ (see COWLE) from the King of NARSINGA, _Wencapati, Raia_, wherein was granted that it should not be lawfull for any one that came out of Europe to trade there, but such as brought Prince _Maurice_ his Patent, and therefore desired our departure."—_P. W. Floris_, in _Purchas_, i. 320.

1681.—"Coromandel. Ciudad muy grande, sugeta al Rey de NARSINGA, el qual Reyno e llamado por otre nombre _Bisnaga_."—_Martinez de la Puente, Compendio_, 16.

NASSICK, n.p. _Nāsik_; Νασίκα of _Ptolemy_ (vii. i. 63); an ancient city of Hindu sanctity on the upper course of the Godavery R., and the headquarter of a district of the same name in the Bombay Presidency. A curious discussion took place at the R. Geog. Society in 1867, arising out of a paper by Mr. (afterwards Sir) George Campbell, in which the selection of a capital for British India was determined on logical principles in favour of Nassick. But logic does not decide the site of capitals, though government by logic is quite likely to lose India. Certain highly elaborated magic squares and magic cubes, investigated by the Rev. A. H. Frost (_Cambridge Math. Jour._, 1857) have been called by him _Nasik_ squares, and Nasik cubes, from his residence in that ancient place (see _Encyc. Britan._ 9th ed. xv. 215).

NAT, s. Burmese _nāt_, [apparently from Skt. _nātha_, 'lord']; a term applied to all spiritual beings, angels, elfs, demons, or what not, including the gods of the Hindus.

[1878.—"Indeed, with the country population of Pegu the worship, or it should rather be said the propitiation of the 'NÁTS' or spirits, enters into every act of their ordinary life, and Buddha's doctrine seems kept for sacred days and their visits to the KYOUNG (monastery) or to the pagoda."—_Forbes, British Burma_, 222.]

NAUND, s. Hind. _nānd_. A coarse earthen vessel of large size, resembling in shape an inverted bee-hive, and useful for many economic and domestic purposes. The dictionary definition in Fallon, 'an earthen trough,' conveys an erroneous idea.

[1832.—"The ghurī (see GHURRY), or copper cup, floats usually in a vessel of coarse red pottery filled with water, called a NĀN."—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 250.

[1899.—"To prevent the crickets from wandering away when left, I had a large earthen pan placed over them upside down. These pans are termed NANDS. They are made of the coarsest earthenware, and are very capacious. Those I used were nearly a yard in diameter and about eighteen inches deep."—_Thornhill, Haunts and Hobbies of an Indian Official_, 79.]

NAUTCH, s. A kind of ballet-dance performed by women; also any kind of stage entertainment; an European ball. Hind. and Mahr. _nāch_, from Skt. _nṛitya_, dancing and stage-playing, through Prakrit _nachcha_. The word is in European use all over India. [A _poggly nautch_ (see POGGLE) is a fancy-dress ball. Also see POOTLY NAUTCH.] Browning seems fond of using this word, and persists in using it wrongly. In the first of the quotations below he calls Fifine the 'European _nautch_,' which is like calling some Hindu dancing-girl 'the Indian ballet.' He repeats the mistake in the second quotation.

[1809.—"You Europeans are apt to picture to yourselves a NACH as a most attractive spectacle, but once witnessed it generally dissolves the illusion."—_Broughton, Letters from a Mahratta Camp_, ed. 1892, p. 142.]

1823.—"I joined Lady Macnaghten and a large party this evening to go to a NÂCH given by a rich native, Rouplall Mullich, on the opening of his new house."—_Mrs. Heber_, in _Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 37.

[1829.—"... a dance by black people which they calls a NOTCH...."—_Oriental Sport. Mag._ ed. 1873, i. 129.]

c. 1831.—"Elle (Begum Sumrou) fit enterrer vivante une jeune esclave, dont elle était jalouse, et donna à son mari un NAUTCH (bal) sur cette horrible tombe."—_Jacquemont, Correspondance_, ii. 221.

1872.—

"... let be there was no worst Of degradation spared Fifine; ordained from first To last, in body and soul, for one life-long debauch, The Pariah of the North, the European NAUTCH!" _Fifine at the Fair_, 31.

1876.—

"... I locked in the swarth little lady—I swear, From the head to the foot of her,—well quite as bare! 'No NAUTCH shall cheat me,' said I, taking my stand At this bolt which I draw...." _Natural Magic_, in _Pacchiarotto_, &c.

NAUTCH-GIRL, s. (See BAYADÈRE, DANCING-GIRL.) The last quotation is a glorious jumble, after the manner of the compiler.

[1809.—"NACH GIRLS are exempted from all taxes, though they pay a kind of voluntary one monthly to a Fuqeer...."—_Broughton, Letters from a Mahratta Camp_, ed. 1892, p. 113-4.]

1825.—"The NÂCH WOMEN were, as usual, ugly, huddled up in huge bundles of red petticoats; and their exhibition as dull and insipid to an European taste, as could well be conceived."—_Heber_, ii. 102.

1836.—"In India and the East dancing-girls are trained called _Almeh_, and they give a fascinating entertainment called a NATCH, for which they are well paid."—In _R. Phillips, A Million of Facts_, 322.

NAVAIT, NAITEA, NEVOYAT, &c., n.p. A name given to Mahommedans of mixt race in the Konkan and S. Canara, corresponding more or less to MOPLAHS (q.v.) and LUBBYES of Malabar and the Coromandel coast. [The head-quarters of the Navayats are in N. Canara, and their traditions state that their ancestors fled from the Persian Gulf about the close of the 7th century, to escape the cruelty of a Governor of Irān. See _Sturrock, Man. of S. Canara_, i. 181.] It is apparently a Konkani word connected with Skt. _nava_, 'new,' and implying 'new convert.' [The _Madras Gloss._ derives the word from Pers. _nāīt̤ī_, from _Nāīt̤_, the name of an Arab clan.]

1552.—"Sons of Moors and of Gentile women, who are called NEITEAS...."—_Castanheda_, iii. 24.

1553.—"NAITEAS que são mestiços: quanto aos padres de geração dos Arabios ... e perparte das madres das Gentias."—_Barros_, I. ix. 3.

" "And because of this fertility of soil, and of the trade of these ports, there was here a great number of Moors, natives of the country, whom they call NAITEAS, who were accustomed to buy the horses and sell them to the Moors of the Decan...."—_Ibid._ I. viii. 9.

c. 1612.—"From this period the Mahomedans extended their religion and their influence in Malabar, and many of the princes and inhabitants, becoming converts to the true faith, gave over the management of some of the seaports to the strangers, whom they called NOWAYITS (literally the New Race)...."—_Firishta_, by _Briggs_, iv. 533.

1615.—"... et passim infiniti Mahometani reperiebantur, tum indigenae quos NAITEAS vocabant, tum externi...."—_Jarric_, i. 57.

1626.—"There are two sorts of Moors, one _Mesticos_ of mixed seed of Moore-fathers and Ethnike-mothers, called NAITEANI, Mungrels also in their religion, the other Forreiners...."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 554.

NAZIR, s. Hind. from Ar. _nāẓir_, 'inspector' (_naẓr_, 'sight'). The title of a native official in the Anglo-Indian Courts, sometimes improperly rendered 'sheriff,' because he serves processes, &c.

1670.—"The Khan ... ordered his NASSIR, or Master of the Court, to assign something to the servants...."—_Andriesz_, 41.

[1708.—"He especially, who is called NADER, that is the chief of the Mahal ..."—_Catrou, H. of the Mogul Dynasty_, E.T. 295.

[1826.—"The NAZIR is a perpetual sheriff, and executes writs and summonses to all the parties required to attend in civil and criminal cases."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, ii. 118.]

1878.—"The NAZIR had charge of the treasury, stamps, &c., and also the issue of summonses and processes."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. 204.

[In the following the word represents _naḳḳāra_, 'a kettle-drum.'

1763.—"His Excellency (Nawab Meer Cossim) had not eaten for three days, nor allowed his NAZIR to be beaten."—_Diary of a Prisoner at Patna_, in _Wheeler, Early Records_, 323.]

NEELÁM, LEELÁM, s. Hind. _nīlām_, from Port. _leilão_. An auction or public OUTCRY, as it used to be called in India (corresponding to Scotch _roup_; comp. Germ. _rufen_, and _outroop_ of Linschoten's translator below). The word is, however, Oriental in origin, for Mr. C. P. Brown (MS. notes) points out that the Portuguese word is from Ar. _i'lām_ (_al-i'lām_), 'proclamation, advertisement.' It is omitted by Dozy and Engelmann. How old the custom in India of prompt disposal by auction of the effects of a deceased European is, may be seen in the quotation from Linschoten.

1515.—"Pero d'Alpoym came full of sorrow to Cochin with all the apparel and servants of Afonso d'Alboquerque, all of which Dom Gracia took charge of; but the Governor (Lopo Soares) gave orders that there should be a LEILÃO (auction) of all the wardrobe, which indeed made a very poor show. Dom Gracia said to D. Aleixo in the church, where they met: The Governor your uncle orders a LEILÃO of all the old wardrobe of Afonso d'Alboquerque. I can't praise his intention, but what he has done only adds to my uncle's honour; for all the people will see that he gathered no rich Indian stuffs, and that he despised everything but to be foremost in honour."—_Correa_, ii. 469.

[1527.—"And should any man die, they at once make a LEYLAM of his property."—India Office MSS., _Corpo Chronologico_, vol. i. Letter of _Fernando Nunes_ to the King, Sept. 7.

[1554.—"All the spoil of Mombasa that came into the general stock was sold by LEILÃO."—_Castanheda_, Bk. ii. ch. 13.]

1598.—"In Goa there is holden a daylie assemblie ... which is like the meeting upõ the burse in Andwarpe ... and there are all kindes of Indian commodities to sell, so that in a manner it is like a Faire ... it beginneth in y^e morning at 7 of the clocke, and continueth till 9 ... in the principal streete of the citie ... and is called the LEYLON, which is as much as to say, as an _outroop_ ... and when any man dieth, all his goods are brought thether and sold to the last pennieworth, in the same outroop, whosoever they be, yea although they were the Viceroyes goodes...."—_Linschoten_, ch. xxix.; [Hak. Soc. i. 184; and compare _Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. ii. 52, who spells the word LAYLON].

c. 1610.—"... le mary vient frapper à la porte, dont la femme faisant fort l'estonnée, prie le Portugais de se cacher dans vne petite cuue à pourcelaine, et l'ayant fait entrer là dedans, et ferme très bien à clef, ouurit la porte a son mary, qui ... le laissa tremper là iusqu'au lendemain matin, qu'il fit porter ceste cuue au marché, ou LAILAN ainsi qu'ils appellent...."—_Mocquet_, 344.

Linschoten gives an engraving of the _Rua Direita_ in Goa, with many of these auctions going on, and the superscription: "_O_ LEILAO _que se faz cada dia pola menhã na Rua direita de Goa_." The Portuguese word has taken root at Canton Chinese in the form _yélang_; but more distinctly betrays its origin in the Amoy form _lé-lang_ and Swatow _loylang_ (see _Giles_; also _Dennys's Notes and Queries_, vol. i.).

NEELGYE, NILGHAU, &c., s. Hind. _nīlgāū_, _nīlgāī_, _līlgāī_, _i.e._ 'blue cow'; the popular name of the great antelope, called by Pallas _Antilope tragocamelus_ (_Portax pictus_ of Jerdon, [_Boselaphus tragocamelus_ of Blanford, _Mammalia_, 517]), given from the slaty blue which is its predominant colour. The proper Hind. name of the animal is _rojh_ (Skt. _ṛiśya_, or _ṛishya_).

1663.—"After these Elephants are brought divers tamed _Gazelles_, which are made to fight with one another; as also some NILGAUX, or grey oxen, which in my opinion are a kind of _Elands_, and _Rhinoceross_, and those great _Buffalos_ of _Bengala_ ... to combat with a Lion or Tiger."—_Bernier_, E.T. p. 84; [ed. _Constable_, 262; in 218 NILSGAUS; in 364, 377, NIL-GHAUX].

1773.—"Captain Hamilton has been so obliging as to take charge of two deer, a male and a female, of a species which is called NEELGOW, and is, I believe, unknown in Europe, which he will deliver to you in my name."—_Warren Hastings_ to _Sir G. Colebrooke_, in _Gleig_, i. 288.

1824.—"There are not only NEELGHAUS, and the common Indian deer, but some noble red-deer in the park" (at Lucknow).—_Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 214.

1882.—"All officers, we believe, who have served, like the present writers, on the canals of Upper India, look back on their peripatetic life there as a happy time ... occasionally on a winding part of the bank one intruded on the solitude of a huge NÍLGAI."—_Mem. of General Sir W. E. Baker_, p. 11.

NEEM, s. The tree (N. O. _Meliaceae_) _Azadirachta indica_, Jussieu; Hind. _nīm_ (and _nīb_, according to Playfair, _Taleef Shereef_, 170), Mahr. _nimb_, from Skt. _nimba_. It grows in almost all parts of India, and has a repute for various remedial uses. Thus poultices of the leaves are applied to boils, and their fresh juice given in various diseases; the bitter bark is given in fevers; the fruit is described as purgative and emollient, and as useful in worms, &c., whilst a medicinal oil is extracted from the seeds; and the gum also is reckoned medicinal. It is akin to the _bakain_ (see BUCKYNE), on which it grafts readily.

1563.—"_R._ I beg you to recall the tree by help of which you cured that valuable horse of yours, of which you told me, for I wish to remember it.

"_O._ You are quite right, for in sooth it is a tree that has a great repute as valuable and medicinal among nations that I am acquainted with, and the name among them all is NIMBO. I came to know its virtues in the Balaghat, because with it I there succeeded in curing sore backs of horses that were most difficult to clean and heal; and these sores were cleaned very quickly, and the horses very quickly cured. And this was done entirely with the leaves of this tree pounded and put over the sores, mixt with lemon-juice...."—_Garcia_, f. 153.

1578.—"There is another tree highly medicinal ... which is called NIMBO; and the Malabars call it _Bepole_ [Malayāl. _vēppu_]."—_Acosta_, 284.

[1813.—"... the principal square ... regularly planted with beautiful NYM or LYM-trees."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ 2nd ed. ii. 445.

[1856.—"Once on a time Guj Singh ... said to those around him, 'Is there any one who would leap down from that LIMB tree into the court?'"—_Forbes, Rās Mālā_, ed. 1878, p. 465.]

1877.—"The elders of the Clans sat every day on their platform, under the great NEEM tree in the town, and attended to all complaints."—_Meadows Taylor, Story_, &c., ii. 85.

NEGAPATAM, n.p. A seaport of Tanjore district in S. India, written _Nāgai-ppaṭṭanam_, which may mean 'Snake Town.' It is perhaps the Νίγαμα Μητρόπολις of Ptolemy; and see under COROMANDEL.

1534.—"From this he (Cunhall Marcar, a Mahommedan corsair) went plundering the coast as far as NEGAPATÃO, where there were always a number of Portuguese trading, and Moorish merchants. These latter, dreading that this pirate would come to the place and plunder them, to curry favour with him, sent him word that if he came he would make a famous haul, because the Portuguese had there a quantity of goods on the river bank, where he could come up...."—_Correa_, iii. 554.

[1598.—"The coast of Choramandel beginneth from the Cape of NEGAPATAN."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 82.

[1615.—"Two (ships) from NEGAPOTAN, one from Cullmat and Messepotan."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 6.]

NEGOMBO, n.p. A pleasant town and old Dutch fort nearly 20 miles north of Colombo in Ceylon; formerly famous for the growth of the best cinnamon. The etymology is given in very different ways. We read recently that the name is properly (Tamil) _Nīr-Kol̤umbu_, _i.e._ 'Columbo in the water.' But, according to Emerson Tennent, the ordinary derivation is _Mi-gamoa_, the 'Village of bees'; whilst Burnouf says it is properly _Nāga-bhu_, 'Land of Nagas,' or serpent worshippers (see _Tennent_, ii. 630).

1613.—"On this he cast anchor; but the wind blowing very strong by daybreak, the ships were obliged to weigh, as they could not stand at their moorings. The vessel of Andrea Coelho and that of Nuno Alvares Teixeira, after weighing, not being able to weather the reef of NEGUMBO, ran into the bay, where the storm compelled them to be beached: but as there were plenty of people there, the vessels were run up by hand and not wrecked."—_Bocarro_, 42.

NEGRAIS, CAPE, n.p. The name of the island and cape at the extreme south end of Arakan. In the charts the extreme south point of the mainland is called Pagoda Point, and the seaward promontory, N.W. of this, _Cape Negrais_. The name is a Portuguese corruption probably of the Arab or Malay form of the native name which the Burmese express as _Naga-rīt_, 'Dragon's whirlpool.' The set of the tide here is very apt to carry vessels ashore, and thus the locality is famous for wrecks. It is possible, however, that the Burmese name is only an effort at interpretation, and that the locality was called in old times by some name like _Nāgarāshtra_. Ibn Batuta touched at a continental coast occupied by uncivilised people having elephants, between Bengal and Sumatra, which he calls _Baranagār_. From the intervals given, the place must have been near Negrais, and it is just possible that the term _Barra de Negrais_, which frequently occurs in the old writers (_e.g._ see Balbi, Fitch, and Bocarro below) is a misinterpretation of the old name used by Ibn Batuta (iv. 224-228).

1553.—"Up to the Cape of NEGRAIS, which stands in 16 degrees, and where the Kingdom of Pegu commences, the distance may be 100 leagues."—_Barros_, I. ix. 1.

1583.—"Then the wind came from the S.W., and we made sail with our stern to the N.E., and running our course till morning we found ourselves close to the _Bar of_ NEGRAIS, as in their language they call the port which runs up into Pegu."—_Gasparo Balbi_, f. 92.

1586.—"We entered the _barre of_ NEGRAIS, which is a braue barre," &c. (see COSMIN).—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 390.

1613.—"Philip de Brito having sure intelligence of this great armament ... ordered the arming of seven ships and some _sanguicels_, and appointing as their commodore Paulo de Rego Pinheiro, gave him precise orders to engage the prince of Arracan at sea, before he should enter the _Bar_ and rivers of NEGRAIS, which form the mouth of all those of the kingdom of Pegù."—_Bocarro_, 137.

1727.—"The Sea Coast of Arackan reaches from Xatigam (see CHITTAGONG) to Cape NEGRAIS, about 400 Miles in length, but few places inhabited ... (after speaking of "the great Island of Negrais") ... he goes on.... "The other Island of Negrais, which makes the Point called the Cape ... is often called _Diamond_ Island, because its Shape is a Rhombus.... Three Leagues to the Southward of _Diamond_ Island lies a Reef of Rocks a League long ... conspicuous at all Times by the Sea breaking over them ... the Rocks are called the _Legarti_, or in English, the _Lizard_."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 29. This reef is the _Alguada_, on which a noble lighthouse was erected by Capt. (afterwards Lieut.-Gen.) Sir A. Fraser, C.B., of the Engineers, with great labour and skill. The statement of Hamilton suggests that the original name may have been _Lagarto_. But _Alagada_, "overflowed," is the real origin. It appears in the old French chart of d'Après as _Ile Noyée_. In Dunn it is _Negada_ or _Neijada_, or _Lequado_, or Sunken Island (_N. Dir._ 1780, 325).

1759.—"The Dutch by an Inscription in _Teutonic Characters_, lately found at NEGRAIS, on the Tomb of a _Dutch Colonel_, who died in 1607 (qu. if not 1627?), appear then to have had Possession of that Island."—Letter in _Dalrymple, Or. Rep._ i. 98.

1763.—"It gives us pleasure to observe that the King of the Burmahs, who caused our people at NEGRAIS to be so cruelly massacred, is since dead, and succeeded by his son, who seems to be of a more friendly and humane disposition."—_Fort William Consns._, Feb. 19. In _Long_, 288.

[1819.—"NEGRAGLIA." See under MUNNEEPORE.]

NELLY, NELE. s. Malayāl. _nel_, 'rice in the husk'; [Tel. and Tam. _nelli_, 'rice-like']. This is the Dravidian equivalent of PADDY (q.v.), and is often used by the French and Portuguese in South India, where Englishmen use the latter word.

1606.—"... when they sell NELE, after they have measured it out to the purchaser, for the seller to return and take out two grains for himself for luck (_com superstição_), things that are all heathen vanities, which the synod entirely prohibits, and orders that those who practise them shall be severely punished by the Bishop."—_Gouvea, Synodo_, f. 52_b_.

1651.—"NILI, that is unpounded rice, which is still in the husk."—_Rogerius_, p. 95.

1760.—"Champs de NELIS." See under JOWAUR.

[1796.—"75 parahs NELLY."—List of Export Duties, in _Logan, Malabar_, iii. 265.]

NELLORE, n.p. A town and district north of Madras. The name may be Tamil _Nall-ūr_, 'Good Town.' But the local interpretation is from _nel_ (see NELLY); and in the local records it is given in Skt. as _Dhānyapuram_, meaning 'rice-town' (_Seshagiri Sāstri_). [The _Madras Man._ (ii. 214) gives _Nall-ūr_, 'Good-town'; but the _Gloss._ (s.v.) has _nellu_, 'paddy,' _ūru_, 'village.' Mr. Boswell (_Nellore_, 687) suggests that it is derived from a _nelli chett_ tree under which a famous _lingam_ was placed.]

c. 1310.—"Ma'bar extends in length from Kulam to NILÁWAR, nearly 300 parasangs along the sea coast."—_Wassáf_, in _Elliot_, iii. 32.

NERBUDDA R., n.p. Skt. _Narmadā_, 'causing delight'; _Ptol._ Νάμαδος; _Peripl._ Λαμναιος (amended by Fabricius to Νάμμαδος). Dean Vincent's conjectured etymology of _Nahr-Budda_, 'River of Budda,' is a caution against such guesses.

c. 1020.—"From Dhár southwards to the R. NERBADDA nine (parasangs); thence to Mahrat-des ... eighteen ..."—_Al-Birūnī_, in _Elliot_, i. 60. The reading of Nerbadda is however doubtful.

c. 1310.—"There were means of crossing all the rivers, but the NERBÁDDA was such that you might say it was a remnant of the universal deluge."—_Amír Khusrú_, in _Elliot_, i. 79.

[1616.—"The King rode to the riuer of DARBADATH."—_Sir T. Roe_, Hak. Soc. ii. 413. In his list (ii. 539) he has NARBADAH.]

1727.—"The next Town of Note for Commerce is Baroach ... on the Banks of the River NERDABA."—_A. Hamilton_, ed. 1744, i. 145.]

NERCHA, s. Malayāl. _nerchcha_, 'a vow,' from verb _neruγa_, 'to agree or promise.'

1606.—"They all assemble on certain days in the porches of the churches and dine together ... and this they call NERCHA."—_Gouvea, Synodo_, f. 63. See also f. 11. This term also includes offerings to saints, or to temples, or particular forms of devotion. Among Hindus a common form is to feed a lamp before an idol with _ghee_ instead of oil.

NERRICK, NERRUCK, NIRK, &c., s. Hind. from Pers. _nirkh_, vulgarly _nirakh_, _nirikh_. A tariff, rate, or price-current, especially one established by authority. The system of publishing such rates of prices and wages by local authority prevailed generally in India a generation or two back, and is probably not quite extinct even in our own territories. [The provincial Gazettes still publish periodical lists of current prices, but no attempt is made to fix such by authority.] It is still in force in the French settlements, and with no apparent ill effects.

1799.—"I have written to Campbell a long letter about the NERRICK of exchange, in which I have endeavoured to explain the principles of the whole system of _shroffing_ (see SHROFF)...."—_Wellington_, i. 56.

1800.—"While I was absent with the army, Col. Sherbrooke had altered the NERRICK of artificers, and of all kinds of materials for building, at the instigation of Capt. Norris ... and on the examination of the subject a system of engineering came out, well worthy of the example set at Madras."—_Ibid._ i. 67.

[ " "Here is established a NIRUC, or regulation, by which all coins have a certain value affixed to them; and at this rate they are received in the payment of the revenue; but in dealings between private persons attention is not paid to this rule."—_F. Buchanan, Mysore_, ii. 279.]

1878.—"On expressing his surprise at this, the man assured him that it was really the case that the bazar 'NERIK' or market-rate, had so risen."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. p. 33.

NGAPEE, s. The Burmese name, _ngapi_, 'pressed fish,' of the odorous delicacy described under BALACHONG. [See _Forbes, British Burma_, 83.]

1855.—"Makertich, the Armenian, assured us that the jars of NGAPÉ at Amarapoora exhibited a flux and reflux of tide with the changes of the moon. I see this is an old belief. De la Loubère mentions it in 1688 as held by the Siamese."—_Yule, Mission to Ava_, p. 160.

NICOBAR ISLANDS, n.p. The name for centuries applied to a group of islands north of Sumatra. They appear to be the βάρουσσαι of Ptolemy, and the Lankha Bālus of the oldest Arab _Relation_. [Sir G. Birdwood identifies them with the Island of the Bell (_Nakūs_) to which Sindbad, the Seaman, is carried in his fifth voyage. (_Report on Old Records_, 108; _Burton, Arabian Nights_, iv. 368).] The Danes attempted to colonize the islands in the middle of the 18th century, and since, unsuccessfully. An account of the various attempts will be found in the _Voyage of the Novara_. Since 1869 they have been partially occupied by the British Government, as an appendage of the Andaman settlement. Comparing the old forms _Lankha_ and _Nakkavāram_, and the nakedness constantly attributed to the people, it seems possible that the name may have had reference to this (_nañgā_). [Mr. Man (_Journ. Anthrop. Institute_, xviii. 359) writes: "A possible derivation may be suggested by the following extract from a paper by A. de Candolle (1885) on 'The Origin of Cultivated Plants': 'The presence of the coconut in Asia three or four thousand years ago is proved by several Sanskrit names.... The Malays have a name widely diffused in the Archipelago, _kalapa_, _klapa_, _klopo_. At Sumatra and Nicobar we find the name _njior_, _nieor_, in the Philippines _niog_, at Bali, _nioh_, _njo_....' While the Nicobars have long been famed for the excellence of their coconuts, the only words which bear any resemblance to the forms above given are _ngoât_, 'a ripe nut,' and _ñi-nàu_, 'a half-ripe nut.'"]

c. 1050.—The name appears as NAKKAVĀRAM in the great Tanjore Inscription of the 11th century.

c. 1292.—"When you leave the island of Java (the Less) and the Kingdom of Lambri, you sail north about 150 miles, and then you come to two Islands, one of which is called NECUVERAN. In this island they have no king nor chief, but live like beasts...."—_Marco Polo_, Bk. III. ch. 12.

c. 1300.—"Opposite Lámúri is the island of Lákwáram (probably to read NÁKWÁRAM), which produces plenty of red amber. Men and women go naked, except that the latter cover the pudenda with cocoanut leaves. They are all subject to the Káán."—_Rashíduddín_, in _Elliot_, i. 71.

c. 1322.—"Departing from that country, and sailing towards the south over the Ocean Sea, I found many islands and countries, where among others was one called NICOVERAN ... both the men and women there have faces like dogs, etc...."—_Friar Odoric_, in _Cathay_, &c., 97.

1510.—"In front of the before named island of Samatra, across the Gulf of the Ganges, are 5 or 6 small islands, which have very good water and ports for ships. They are inhabited by Gentiles, poor people, and are called NICONVAR (_Nacabar_ in Lisbon ed.), and they find in them very good amber, which they carry thence to Malaca and other parts."—_Barbosa_, 195.

1514.—"Seeing the land, the pilot said it was the land of NICUBAR.... The pilot was at the top to look out, and coming down he said that this land was all cut up (_i.e._ in islands), and that it was possible to pass through the middle; and that now there was no help for it but to chance it or turn back to Cochin.... The natives of the country had sight of us and suddenly came forth in great boats full of people.... They were all _Caffres_, with fish-bones inserted in their lips and chin: big men and frightful to look on; having their boats full of bows and arrows poisoned with herbs."—_Giov. da Empoli_, in _Archiv. Stor._ pp. 71-72.

NIGGER, s. It is an old brutality of the Englishman in India to apply this title to the natives, as we may see from Ives quoted below. The use originated, however, doubtless in following the old Portuguese use of _negros_ for "the BLACKS" (q.v.), with no malice prepense, without any intended confusion between Africans and Asiatics.

1539.—See quot. from Pinto under COBRA DE CAPELLO, where NEGROES is used for natives of Sumatra.

1548.—"Moreover three blacks (NEGROS) in this territory occupy lands worth 3000 or 4000 pardaos of rent; they are related to one another, and are placed as guards in the outlying parts."—_S. Botelho, Cartas_, 111.

1582.—"A NIGROE of John _Cambrayes_, Pilot to _Paulo de la Gama_, was that day run away to the Moores."—_Castañeda_, by N. L., f. 19.

[1608.—"The King and people NIGGERS."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 10.]

1622.—Ed. Grant, purser of the Diamond, reports capture of vessels, including a junk "with some stoor of NEGERS, which was devided bytwick the Duch and the English."—_Sainsbury_, iii. p. 78.

c. 1755.—"You cannot affront them (the natives) more than to call them by the name of NEGROE, as they conceive it implies an idea of slavery."—_Ives, Voyage_, p. 23.

c. 1757.—"Gli Gesuiti sono missionarii e parocchi de' NEGRI detti Malabar."—_Della Tomba_, 3.

1760.—"The Dress of this Country is entirely linnen, save Hats and Shoes; the latter are made of tanned Hides as in England ... only that they are no thicker than coarse paper. These shoes are neatly made by NEGROES, and sold for about 10_d._ a Pr. each of which will last two months with care."—_MS. Letter of James Rennell_, Sept. 30.

1866.—"Now the political creed of the frequenters of dawk bungalows is too uniform ... it consists in the following tenets ... that Sir Mordaunt Wells is the greatest judge that ever sat on the English bench; and that when you hit a NIGGER he dies on purpose to spite you."—_The Dawk Bungalow_, p. 225.

NILGHERRY, NEILGHERRY, &c., n.p. The name of the Mountain Peninsula at the end of the Mysore table land (originally known as _Malaināḍu_, 'Hill country'), which is the chief site of hill sanataria in the Madras Presidency. Skt. _Nīlagiri_, 'Blue Mountain.' The name _Nīla_ or _Nīlādri_ (synonymous with _Nīlagiri_) belongs to one of the mythical or semi-mythical ranges of the Puranic Cosmography (see _Vishnu Purāna_, in _Wilson's Works_, by _Hall_, ii. 102, 111, &c.), and has been applied to several ranges of more assured locality, _e.g._ in Orissa as well as in S. India. The name seems to have been fancifully applied to the Ootacamund range about 1820, by some European. [The name was undoubtedly applied by natives to the range before the appearance of Europeans, as in the _Kongu-deśa Rajákal_, quoted by Grigg (_Nilagiri Man._ 363), and the name appears in a letter of Col. Mackenzie of about 1816 (_Ibid._ 278). Mr. T. M. Horsfall writes: "The name is in common use among all classes of natives in S. India, but when it may have become specific I cannot say. Possibly the solution may be that the Nilgiris being the first large mountain range to become familiar to the English, that name was by them caught hold of, but not _coined_, and stuck to them by mere priority. It is on the face of it improbable that the Englishmen who early in the last century discovered these Hills, that is, explored and shot over them, would call them by a long Skt. name."]

Probably the following quotation from Dampier refers to Orissa, as does that from Hedges:

"One of the English ships was called the _Nellegree_, the name taken from the NELLEGREE Hills in Bengal, as I have heard."—_Dampier_, ii. 145.

1683.—"In y^e morning early I went up the NILLIGREE Hill, where I had a view of a most pleasant fruitfull valley."—_Hedges, Diary_, March 2; [Hak. Soc. i. 67].

The following also refers to the Orissa Hills:

1752.—"Weavers of Balasore complain of the great scarcity of rice and provisions of all kinds occasioned by the devastations of the Mahrattas, who, 600 in number, after plundering Balasore, had gone to the NELLIGREE Hills."—In _Long_, 42.

NIPA, s. Malay _nīpah_.

A. The name of a stemless palm (_Nipa fruticans_, Thunb.), which abounds in estuaries from the Ganges delta eastwards, through Tenasserim and the Malay countries, to N. Australia, and the leaves of which afford the chief material used for thatch in the Archipelago. "In the Philippines," says Crawfurd, "but not that I am aware of anywhere else, the sap of the _Nipa_ ... is used as a beverage, and for the manufacture of vinegar, and the distillation of spirits. On this account it yields a considerable part of the revenue of the Spanish Government" (_Desc. Dict._ p. 301). But this fact is almost enough to show that the word is the same which is used in sense B; and the identity is placed beyond question by the quotations from Teixeira and Mason.

B. Arrack made from the sap of a palm tree, a manufacture by no means confined to the Philippines. The Portuguese, appropriating the word _Nipa_ to this spirit, called the tree itself _nipeira_.

A.—

1611.—"Other wine is of another kind of palm which is called NIPA (growing in watery places), and this is also extracted by distillation. It is very mild and sweet, and clear as pure water; and they say it is very wholesome. It is made in great quantities, with which ships are laden in Pegu and Tanasarim, Malaca, and the Philippines or Manila; but that of Tanasarim exceeds all in goodness."—_Teixeira, Relaciones_, i. 17.

1613.—"And then on from the marsh to the NYPEIRAS or wild-palms of the rivulet of Paret China."—_Godinho de Eredia_, 6.

" "And the wild palms called NYPEIRAS ... from those flowers is drawn the liquor which is distilled into wine by an alembic, which is the best wine of India."—_Ibid._ 16_v_.

[1817.—"In the maritime districts, _atap_, or thatch, is made almost exclusively from the leaves of the NÍPA or _búyu_."—_Raffles, H. of Java_, 2nd ed. i. 185.]

1848.—"Steaming amongst the low swampy islands of the Sunderbunds ... the paddles of the steamer tossed up the large fruits of the NIPA _fruticans_, a low stemless palm that grows in the tidal waters of the Indian ocean, and bears a large head of nuts. It is a plant of no interest to the common observer, but of much to the geologist, from the nuts of a similar plant abounding in the tertiary formations at the mouth of the Thames, having floated about there in as great profusion as here, till buried deep in the silt and mud that now form the island of Sheppey."—_Hooker, Himalayan Journals_, i. 1-2.

1860.—"The NIPA is very extensively cultivated in the Province of Tavoy. From incisions in the stem of the fruit, toddy is extracted, which has very much the flavour of mead, and this extract, when boiled down, becomes sugar."—_Mason's Burmah_, p. 506.

1874.—"It (sugar) is also got from NIPA _fruticans_, Thunb., a tree of the low coast-regions, extensively cultivated in Tavoy."—_Hanbury and Flückiger_, 655.

These last quotations confirm the old travellers who represent Tenasserim as the great source of the NIPA spirit.

B.—

c. 1567.—"Euery yeere is there lade (at Tenasserim) some ships with Verzino, NIPA, and Benjamin."—_Ces. Federici_ (E.T. in _Hakl._), ii. 359.

1568.—"NIPA, qual'è vn Vino eccellentissimo che nasce nel fior d'vn arbore chiamato NIPER, il cui liquor si distilla, e se ne fa vna beuanda eccellentissima."—_Ces. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 392v.

1583.—"I Portoghesi e noi altri di queste bande di quà non mangiamo nel Regno di Pegù pane di grano ... ne si beve vino; ma una certa acqua lambiccata da vn albero detto ANNIPPA, ch'è alla bocca assai gustevole; ma al corpo giova e nuoce, secondo le complessioni de gli huomini."—_G. Balbi_, f. 127.

1591.—"Those of Tanaseri are chiefly freighted with Rice and NIPAR wine, which is very strong."—_Barker's Account of Lancaster's Voyage_, in _Hakl._ ii. 592.

In the next two quotations _nipe_ is confounded with coco-nut spirit.

1598.—"Likewise there is much wine brought thether, which is made of Cocus or Indian Nuttes, and is called NYPE _de Tanassaria_, that is _Aqua-Composita of Tanassaria_."—_Linschoten_, 30; [Hak. Soc. i. 103].

" "The Sura, being distilled, is called _Fula_ (see FOOL'S RACK) or NIPE, and is an excellent _Aqua Vitae_ as any is made in Dort."—_Ibid._ 101; [Hak. Soc. ii. 49].

[1616.—"One jar of NEEPE."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 162].

1623.—"In the daytime they did nothing but talk a little with one another, and some of them get drunk upon a certain wine they have of raisins, or on a kind of aqua vitæ with other things mixt in it, in India called NIPPA, which had been given them."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 669; [Hak. Soc. ii. 272].

We think there can be little doubt that the slang word NIP, for a small dram of spirits, is adopted from NIPA. [But compare Dutch _nippen_, 'to take a dram.' The old word _nippitatum_ was used for 'strong drink'; see _Stanf. Dict._]

NIRVÁNA, s. Skt. _nirvāṇa_. The literal meaning of this word is simply 'blown out,' like a candle. It is the technical term in the philosophy of the Buddhists for the condition to which they aspire as the crown and goal of virtue, viz. the cessation of sentient existence. On the exact meaning of the term see Childer's _Pali Dictionary_, s.v. _nibbāna_, an article from which we quote a few sentences below, but which covers ten double-column pages. The word has become common in Europe along with the growing interest in Buddhism, and partly from its use by Schopenhauer. But it is often employed very inaccurately, of which an instance occurs in the quotation below from Dr. Draper. The oldest European occurrence of which we are aware is in _Purchas_, who had met with it in the Pali form common in Burma, &c., _nibban_.

1626.—"After death they (the Talapoys) beleeve three Places, one of Pleasure _Scuum_ (perhaps _sukham_) like the Mahumitane Paradise; another of Torment _Naxac_ (read _Narac_); the third of Annihilation which they call NIBA."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 506.

c. 1815.—"... the state of NIBAN, which is the most perfect of all states. This consists in an almost perpetual extacy, in which those who attain it are not only free from troubles and miseries of life, from death, illness and old age, but are abstracted from all sensation; they have no longer either a thought or a desire."—_Sangermano, Burmese Empire_, p. 6.

1858.—"... Transience, Pain, and Unreality ... these are the characters of all existence, and the only true good is exemption from these in the attainment of NIRWĀNA, whether that be, as in the view of the Brahmin or the theistic Buddhist, absorption into the supreme essence; or whether it be, as many have thought, absolute nothingness; or whether it be, as Mr. Hodgson quaintly phrases it, the _ubi_ or the _modus_ in which the infinitely attenuated elements of all things exist, in this last and highest state of abstraction from all particular modifications such as our senses and understandings are cognisant of."—_Yule, Mission to Ava_, 236.

" "When from between the sál trees at Kusinára he passed into NIRWÁNA, he (Buddha) ceased, as the extinguished fire ceases."—_Ibid._ 239.

1869.—"What Bishop Bigandet and others represent as the popular view of the NIRVÂNA, in contradistinction to that of the Buddhist divines, was, in my opinion, the conception of Buddha and his disciples. It represented the entrance of the soul into rest, a subduing of all wishes and desires, indifference to joy and pain, to good and evil, an absorption of the soul into itself, and a freedom from the circle of existences from birth to death, and from death to a new birth. This is still the meaning which educated people attach to it, whilst NIRVÂNA suggests rather a kind of Mohammedan Paradise or of blissful Elysian fields to the minds of the larger masses."—_Prof. Max Müller, Lecture on Buddhistic Nihilism_, in _Trübner's Or. Record_, Oct. 16.

1875.—"NIBBĀNAM. Extinction; destruction; annihilation; annihilation of being, NIRVĀṆA; annihilation of human passion, Arhatship or final sanctification.... In Trübner's Record for July, 1870, I first propounded a theory which meets all the difficulties of the question, namely, that the word NIRVĀṆA is used to designate two different things, the state of blissful sanctification called Arhatship, and the annihilation of existence in which Arhatship ends."—_Childers, Pali Dictionary_, pp. 265-266.

" "But at length reunion with the universal intellect takes place; NIRWANA is reached, oblivion is attained ... the state in which we were before we were born."—_Draper, Conflict_, &c., 122.

1879.—

"And how—in fulness of the times—it fell That Buddha died ... And how a thousand thousand crores since then Have trod the Path which leads whither he went Unto NIRVÂNA where the Silence lives." _Sir E. Arnold, Light of Asia_, 237.

NIZAM, THE, n.p. The hereditary style of the reigning prince of the Hyderabad Territories; 'His Highness the Nizám,' in English official phraseology. This in its full form, _Niz̤ām-ul-Mulk_, was the title of Aṣaf Jāh, the founder of the dynasty, a very able soldier and minister of the Court of Aurangzīb, who became Sūbadār (see SOUBADAR) of the Deccan in 1713. The title is therefore the same that had pertained to the founder of the Ahmednagar dynasty more than two centuries earlier, which the Portuguese called that of NIZAMALUCO. And the circumstances originating the Hyderabad dynasty were parallel. At the death of Aṣaf Jāh (in 1748) he was independent sovereign of a large territory in the Deccan, with his residence at Hyderabad, and with dominions in a general way corresponding to those still held by his descendant.

NIZAMALUCO, n.p. IZAM MALUCO is the form often found in Correa. One of the names which constantly occur in the early Portuguese writers on India. It represents _Niz̤ām-ul-Mulk_ (see NIZAM). This was the title of one of the chiefs at the court of the Bāhmani king of the Deccan, who had been originally a Brahman and a slave. His son Ahmed set up a dynasty at Ahmednagar (A.D. 1490), which lasted for more than a century. The sovereigns of this dynasty were originally called by the Portuguese _Nizamaluco_. Their own title was _Niz̤ām Shāh_, and this also occurs as _Nizamoxa_. [Linschoten's etymology given below is an incorrect guess.]

1521.—"Meanwhile (the Governor Diego Lopes de Sequeira) ... sent Fernão Camello as ambassador to the NIZAMALUCO, Lord of the lands of Choul, with the object of making a fort at that place, and arranging for an expedition against the King of Cambaya, which the Governor thought the NIZAMALUCO would gladly join in, because he was in a quarrel with that King. To this he made the reply that I shall relate hereafter."—_Correa_, ii. 623.

c. 1539.—"_Trelado do Contrato que o Viso Rey_ Dom Garcia de Noronha _fez com hu_ NIZA MUXAA, _que d'antes se chamava Hu_ NIZA MALUQUO."—_Tombo_, in _Subsidios_, 115.

1543.—"IZAM MALUCO." See under COTAMALUCO.

1553.—"This city of Chaul ... is in population and greatness of trade one of the chief ports of that coast; it was subject to the NIZAMALUCO, one of the twelve Captains of the Kingdom of Decan (which we corruptly call _Daquem_).... The NIZAMALUCO being a man of great estate, although he possessed this maritime city, and other ports of great revenue, generally, in order to be closer to the Kingdom of the Decan, held his residence in the interior in other cities of his dominion; instructing his governors in the coast districts to aid our fleets in all ways and content their captains, and this was not merely out of dread of them, but with a view to the great revenue that he had from the ships of Malabar...."—_Barros_, II. ii. 7.

1563.—"... This King of Dely conquered the Decam (see DECCAN) and the Cuncam (see CONCAM); and retained the dominion a while; but he could not rule territory at so great a distance, and so placed in it a nephew crowned as king. This king was a great favourer of foreign people, such as Turks, Rumis, Coraçonis, and Arabs, and he divided his kingdom into captaincies, bestowing upon _Adelham_ (whom we call _Idalcam_—see IDALCAN) the coast from Angediva to Cifardam ... and to NIZAMOLUCO the coast from Cifardam to Negotana...."—_Garcia_, f. 34_v_.

" "_R._ Let us mount and ride in the country; and by the way you shall tell me who is meant by NIZAMOXA, as you often use that term to me.

"_O._ At once I tell you he is a king in the Balaghat (see BALAGHAUT) (_Bagalate_ for _Balagate_), whose father I have often attended, and sometimes also the son...."—_Ibid._ f. 33_v_.

[1594-5.—"NIZÁM-UL-MULKHIYA." See under IDALCAN.

[1598.—"_Maluco_ is a Kingdome, and _Nisa_ a Lance or Speare, so that _Nisa Maluco_ is as much as to say as the Lance or Speare of the Kingdom."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 172. As if _Neza-ul-mulk_, 'spear of the kingdom.']

NOKAR, s. A servant, either domestic, military, or civil, also pl. _Nokar-logue_, 'the servants.' Hind. _naukar_, from Pers. and _naukar-lōg_. Also _naukar-chākar_, 'the servants,' one of those jingling double-barrelled phrases in which Orientals delight even more than Englishmen (see LOOTY). As regards Englishmen, compare hugger-mugger, hurdy-gurdy, tip-top, highty-tighty, higgledy-piggledy, hocus-pocus, tit for tat, topsy-turvy, harum-scarum, roly-poly, fiddle-faddle, rump and stump, slip-slop. In this case _chākar_ (see CHACKUR) is also Persian. _Naukar_ would seem to be a Mongol word introduced into Persia by the hosts of Chinghiz. According to I. J. Schmidt, _Forschungen im Gebiete der Volker Mittel Asiens_, p. 96, NÜKUR is in Mongol, 'a comrade, dependent, or friend.'

c. 1407.—"L'Emir Khodaidad fit partir avec ce député son serviteur (NAUKAR) et celui de Mirza Djihanghir. Ces trois personnages joignent la cour auguste...."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _Notices et Extraits_, XIV. i. 146.

c. 1660.—"Mahmúd Sultán ... understood accounts, and could reckon very well by memory the sums which he had to receive from his subjects, and those which he had to pay to his 'NAUKARS' (apparently armed followers)."—_Abulghāzi_, by _Desmaisons_, 271.

[1810.—"NOKER." See under CHACKUR.

[1834.—"Its (Balkh) present population does not amount to 2000 souls; who are chiefly ... the remnant of the Kara NOUKUR, a description of the militia established here by the Afgans."—_Burnes, Travels into Bokhara_, i. 238.]

1840.—"NOKER, 'the servant'; this title was borne by Tuli the fourth son of Chenghiz Khan, because he was charged with the details of the army and the administration."—_Hammer, Golden Horde_, 460.

NOL-KOLE, s. This is the usual Anglo-Indian name of a vegetable a good deal grown in India, perhaps less valued in England than it deserves, and known here (though rarely seen) as _Kol-rabi_, _kohl-rabi_, 'cabbage-turnip.' It is the _Brassica oleracea_, var. _caulorapa_. The stalk at one point expands into a globular mass resembling a turnip, and this is the edible part. I see my friend Sir G. Birdwood in his _Bombay Products_ spells it _Knolkhol_. It is apparently Dutch, '_Knollkool_' 'Turnip-cabbage; _Chouxrave_ of the French.'

NON-REGULATION, adj. The style of certain Provinces of British India (administered for the most part under the more direct authority of the Central Government in its Foreign Department), in which the ordinary Laws (or REGULATIONS, as they were formerly called) are not in force, or are in force only so far as they are specially declared by the Government of India to be applicable. The original theory of administration in such Provinces was the union of authority in all departments under one district chief, and a kind of paternal despotism in the hands of that chief. But by the gradual restriction of personal rule, and the multiplication of positive laws and rules of administration, and the division of duties, much the same might now be said of the difference between _Regulation_ and _Non-regulation_ Provinces that a witty Frenchman said of Intervention and Non-intervention:—"La _Non-intervention_ est une phrase politique et technique qui veut dire enfin à-peu-près la même chose que _l'Intervention_."

Our friend Gen. F. C. Cotton, R.E., tells us that on Lord Dalhousie's visit to the Neilgherry Hills, near the close of his government, he was riding with the Governor-General to visit some new building. Lord Dalhousie said to him: "It is not a thing that one must say in public, but I would give a great deal that the whole of India should be _Non-regulation_."

The Punjab was for many years the greatest example of a Non-regulation Province. The chief survival of that state of things is that there, as in Burma and a few other provinces, military men are still eligible to hold office in the civil administration.

1860.—"... Nowe what ye ffolke of Bengala worschyppen Sir Jhone discourseth lityl. This moche wee gadere. Some worschyppin ane Idole yclept REGULACIOUN and some worschyppen NON-REGULACION (_veluti_ GOG ET MAGOG)...."—Ext. from a MS. of _The Travels of Sir John Mandevill in the E. Indies_, lately discovered.

1867.—"... We believe we should indicate the sort of government that Sicily wants, tolerably well to Englishmen who know anything of India, by saying that it should be treated in great measure as a 'NON-REGULATION' province."—_Quarterly Review_, Jan. 1867, p. 135.

1883.—"The Delhi district, happily for all, was a NON-REGULATION province."—_Life of Ld. Lawrence_, i. 44.

NORIMON, s. Japanese word. A sort of portable chair used in Japan.

[1615.—"He kept himselfe close in a NEREMON."—_Cocks's Diary_, i. 164.]

1618.—"As we were going out of the towne, the street being full of hackneymen and horses, they would not make me way to passe, but fell a quarreling with my NEREMONERS, and offred me great abuse...."—_Cocks's Diary_, ii. 99; [NEREMONNEARS in ii. 23].

1768-71.—"Sedan-chairs are not in use here (in Batavia). The ladies, however, sometimes employ a conveyance that is somewhat like them, and is called a NORIMON."—_Stavorinus_, E.T. i. 324.

NOR'-WESTER, s. A sudden and violent storm, such as often occurs in the hot weather, bringing probably a 'dust-storm' at first, and culminating in hail or torrents of rain. (See TYPHOON.)

1810.—"... those violent squalls called 'NORTH-WESTERS,' in consequence of their usually either commencing in, or veering round to that quarter.... The force of these NORTH-WESTERS is next to incredible."—_Williamson, V. M._ ii. 35.

[1827.—"A most frightful NOR' WESTER had come on in the night, every door had burst open, the peals of thunder and torrents of rain were so awful...."—_Mrs. Fenton, Diary_, 98.]

NOWBEHAR, n.p. This is a name which occurs in various places far apart, a monument of the former extension of Buddhism. Thus, in the early history of the Mahommedans in Sind, we find repeated mention of a temple called _Nauvihār_ (_Nava-vihāra_, 'New Monastery'). And the same name occurs at Balkh, near the Oxus. (See VIHARA).

NOWROZE, s. Pers. _nau-rōz_, 'New (Year's) Day'; _i.e._ the first day of the Solar Year. In W. India this is observed by the Parsees. [For instances of such celebrations at the vernal equinox, see _Frazer, Pausanias_, iv. 75.]

c. 1590.—"This was also the cause why the NAURÚZ _i Jaláli_ was observed, on which day, since his Majesty's accession, a great feast was given.... The NEW YEAR'S DAY _feast_ ... commences on the day when the Sun in his splendour moves to Aries, and lasts till the 19th day of the month (Farwardīn)."—_Āīn_, ed. _Blochmann_, i. 183, 276.

[1614.—"Their NOROOSE, which is an annual feast of 20 days continuance kept by the Moors with great solemnity."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 65.

[1615.—"The King and Prince went a hunting ... that his house might be fitted against the NOROSE, which began the first Newe Moon in March."—_Sir T. Roe_, Hak. Soc. i. 138; also see 142.]

1638.—"There are two Festivals which are celebrated in this place with extraordinary ceremonies; one whereof is that of the first day of the year, which, with the Persians, they call NAURUS, NAUROS, or NOROSE, which signifies _nine dayes_, though now it lasts _eighteen_ at least, and it falls at the moment that the Sun enters Aries."—_Mandelslo_, 41.

1673.—"On the day of the Vernal _Equinox_, we returned to _Gombroon_, when the _Moores_ introduced their New-Year _Æde_ (see EED) or NOE ROSE, with Banqueting and great Solemnity."—_Fryer_, 306.

1712.—"Restat NAURUUS, _i.e._ vertentis anni initium, incidens in diem aequinoctii verni. Non legalis est, sed ab antiquis Persis haereditate accepta festivitas, omnium caeterarum maxima et solennissima."—_Kaempfer, Am. Exot._ 162.

1815.—"Jemsheed also introduced the solar year; and ordered the first day of it, when the sun entered Aries, to be celebrated by a splendid festival. It is called NAUROZE, or new year's day, and is still the great festival in Persia."—_Malcolm, H. of Persia_, i. 17.

1832.—"NOW-ROZ (new year's day) is a festival or EED of no mean importance in the estimation of Mussulman society.... The trays of presents prepared by the ladies for their friends are tastefully set out, and the work of many days' previous arrangement. Eggs are boiled hard, some of these are stained in colours resembling our mottled papers; others are neatly painted in figures and devices; many are ornamented with gilding; every lady evincing her own peculiar taste in the prepared eggs for NOW-ROZ."—_Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Obsns. on the Mussulmans of India_, 283-4.

NOWSHADDER, s. Pers. _naushādar_ (Skt. _narasāra_, but recent), Sal-ammoniac, _i.e._ chloride of ammonium.

c. 1300.—We find this word in a medieval list of articles of trade contained in Capmany's _Memorias de Barcelona_ (ii. App. 74) under the form NOXADRE.

1343.—"Salarmoniaco, cioè LISCIADRO, e non si dà nè sacco ne cassa con essa."—_Pegolotti_, p. 17; also see 57, &c.

[1834.—"Sal ammoniac (NOUCHADUR) is found in its native state among the hills near Juzzak."—_Burnes, Travels into Bokhara_, ii. 166.]

NUDDEEA RIVERS, n.p. See under HOOGLY RIVER, of which these are branches, intersecting the _Nadiya_ District. In order to keep open navigation by the directest course from the Ganges to Calcutta, much labour is, or was, annually expended, under a special officer, in endeavouring during the dry season to maintain sufficient depth in these channels.

NUGGURKOTE, n.p. _Nagarkoṭ_. This is the form used in olden times, and even now not obsolete, for the name of the ancient fortress in the Punjab Himālaya which we now usually know by the name of _Koṭ-kāngra_, both being substantially the same name, _Nagarkoṭ_, 'the fortress town,' or _Koṭ-kā-nagara_, 'the town of the fortress.' [If it be implied that _Kāngra_ is a corruption of _Koṭ-kā-nagara_, the idea may be dismissed as a piece of folk-etymology. What the real derivation of _Kāngra_ is is unknown. One explanation is that it represents the Hind. _khankhaṛa_, 'dried up, shrivelled.'] In yet older times, and in the history of Mahmūd of Ghazni, it is styled Bhīm-nagar. The name _Nagarkoṭ_ is sometimes used by older European writers to designate the Himalayan mountains.

1008.—"The Sultan himself (Mahmūd) joined in the pursuit, and went after them as far as the fort called _Bhím-nagar_, which is very strong, situated on the promontory of a lofty hill, in the midst of impassable waters."—_Al-'Utbi_, in _Elliot_, i. 34.

1337.—"When the sun was in Cancer, the King of the time (Mahommed Tughlak) took the stone fort of NAGARKOT in the year 738.... It is placed between rivers like the pupil of an eye ... and is so impregnable that neither Sikandar nor Dara were able to take it."—_Badr-i-chach_, _ibid._ iii. 570.

c. 1370.—"Sultan Firoz ... marched with his army towards NAGARKOT, and passing by the valleys of Nákhach-nuhgarhí, he arrived with his army at NAGARKOT, which he found to be very strong and secure. The idol Jwálámukhi (see JOWAULLA MOOKHEE), much worshiped by the infidels, was situated in the road to Nagarkot...."—_Shams-i-Siráj_, _ibid._ iii. 317-318.

1398.—"When I entered the valley on that side of the Siwálik, information was brought to me about the town of NAGARKOT, which is a large and important town of Hindustán, and situated in these mountains. The distance was 30 _kos_, but the road lay through jungles, and over lofty and rugged hills."—_Autobiog. of Timur_, _ibid._ 465.

1553.—"But the sources of these rivers (Indus and Ganges) though they burst forth separately in the mountains which Ptolemy calls Imaus, and which the natives call _Dalanguer_ and NANGRACOT, yet are these mountains so closely joined that it seems as if they sought to hide these springs."—_Barros_, I. iv. 7.

c. 1590.—"NAGERKOTE is a city situated upon a mountain, with a fort called Kangerah. In the vicinity of this city, upon a lofty mountain, is a place called Mahamaey (_Mahāmāyā_), which they consider as one of the works of the Divinity, and come in pilgrimage to it from great distances, thereby obtaining the accomplishment of their wishes. It is most wonderful that in order to effect this, they cut out their tongues, which grow again in the course of two or three days...."—_Ayeen_, ed. _Gladwin_, ii. 119; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 312].

1609.—"Bordering to him is another great _Raiaw_ called _Tulluck Chand_, whose chiefe City is NEGERCOAT, 80 c. from _Lahor_, and as much from _Syrinan_, in which City is a famous Pagod, called _Ie_ or _Durga_, vnto which worlds of People resort out of all parts of _India_.... Diuers _Moores_ also resorte to this Peer...."—_W. Finch_, in _Purchas_, i. 438.

1616.—"27. NAGRA CUTT, the chiefe Citie so called...."—_Terry_, in _Purchas_, ii.; [ed. 1777, p. 82].

[c. 1617.—"NAKARKUTT."—_Sir T. Roe_, Hak. Soc. ii. 534.]

c. 1676.—"The caravan being arriv'd at the foot of the Mountains which are call'd at this day by the name of NAUGROCOT, abundance of people come from all parts of the Mountain, the greatest part whereof are women and maids, who agree with the Merchants to carry them, their Goods and provisions cross the Mountains...."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 183; [ed. _Ball_, ii. 263].

1788.—"Kote Kangrah, the fortress belonging to the famous temple of NAGORCOTE, is given at 49 royal cosses, equal to 99 G. miles, from Sirhind (northward)."—_Rennell, Memoir_, ed. 1793, p. 107.

1809.—"At Patancote, where the Padshah (so the Sikhs call Runjeet) is at present engaged in preparations and negotiations for the purpose of obtaining possession of COTE CAUNGRAH (or NAGAR COTE), which place is besieged by the Raja of Nepaul...."—_Elphinstone_, in _Life_, i. 217.

NUJEEB, s. Hind. from Ar. _najīb_, 'noble.' A kind of half-disciplined infantry soldiers under some of the native Governments; also at one time a kind of militia under the British; receiving this honorary title as being gentlemen volunteers.

[c. 1790.—"There were 1000 men, NUDJEEVES, sword men...." Evidence of Sheikh Mohammed, quoted by Mr. Plumer, in Trial of W. Hastings, in _Bond_, iii. 393.

[1796.—"The NEZIBS are Matchlock men."—_W. A. Tone, A Letter on the Mahratta People_, Bombay, 1798, p. 50.]

1813.—"There are some corps (Mahratta) styled NUJEEB or men of good family.... These are foot soldiers invariably armed with a sabre and matchlock, and having adopted some semblance of European discipline are much respected."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ ii. 46; [2nd ed. i. 343].

[ " "A corps of NUJEEBS, or infantry with matchlocks...."—_Broughton, Letters from a Mahratta Camp_, ed. 1892, p. 11.

[1817.—"In some instances they are called NUJEEB (literally, Noble) and would not deign to stand sentry or perform any fatiguing duty."—_V. Blacker, Mem. of the Operations in India_ in 1817-19, p. 22.]

NULLAH, s. Hind. _nālā_. A watercourse; not necessarily a dry watercourse, though this is perhaps more frequently indicated in the Anglo-Indian use.

1776.—"When the water falls in all the NULLAHS...."—_Halhed's Code_, 52.

c. 1785.—"Major Adams had sent on the 11th Captain Hebbert ... to throw a bridge over Shinga NULLAH."—_Carraccioli, Life of Clive_, i. 93.

1789.—"The ground which the enemy had occupied was entirely composed of sandhills and deep NULLAHS...."—_Munro, Narrative_, 224.

1799.—"I think I can show you a situation where two embrasures might be opened in the bank of the NULLAH with advantage."—_Wellington, Despatches_, i. 26.

1817.—"On the same evening, as soon as dark, the party which was destined to open the trenches marched to the chosen spot, and before daylight formed a NULLAH ... into a large parallel."—_Mill's Hist._ v. 377.

1843.—"Our march tardy because of the NULLAHS. Watercourses is the right name, but we get here a slip-slop way of writing quite contemptible."—_Life of Sir C. Napier_, ii. 310.

1860.—"The real obstacle to movement is the depth of the NULLAHS hollowed out by the numerous rivulets, when swollen by the rains."—_Tennent's Ceylon_, ii. 574.

NUMDA, NUMNA, s. Hind. _namda_, _namdā_, from Pers. _namad_, [Skt. _namata_]. Felt; sometimes a woollen saddle-cloth, properly made of felt. The word is perhaps the same as Ar. _namaṭ_, 'a coverlet,' spread on the seat of a sovereign, &c.

[1774.—"The apartment was full of people seated on NÆMETS (felts of camel hair) spread round the sides of the room...."—_Hanway, Hist. Account of British Trade_, i. 226.]

1815.—"That chief (Temugin or Chingiz), we are informed, after addressing the Khans in an eloquent harangue, was seated upon a black felt or NUMMUD, and reminded of the importance of the duties to which he was called."—_Malcolm, H. of Persia_, i. 410.

[1819.—"A Kattie throws a NUNDA on his mare."—_Trans. Lit. Soc. Bo._ i. 279.]

1828.—"In a two-poled tent of a great size, and lined with yellow woollen stuff of Europe, sat Nader Koolee Khan, upon a coarse NUMUD...."—_The Kuzzilbash_, i. 254.

[1850.—"The natives use (for their tents) a sort of woollen stuff, about half an inch thick, called 'NUMBDA.'... By the bye, this word 'NUMBDA' is said to be the origin of the word _nomade_, because the nomade tribes used the same material for their tents" (!)—Letter in _Notes and Queries_, 1st ser. i. 342.]

NUMERICAL AFFIXES, CO-EFFICIENTS, or DETERMINATIVES.[190] What is meant by these expressions can perhaps be best elucidated by an extract from the _Malay Grammar_ of the late venerable John Crawfurd:

"In the enumeration of certain objects, the Malay has a peculiar idiom which, as far as I know, does not exist in any other language of the Archipelago. It is of the same nature as the word 'head,' as we use it in the tale of cattle, or 'sail' in the enumeration of ships; but in Malay it extends to many familiar objects. _Alai_, of which the original meaning has not been ascertained, is applied to such tenuous objects as leaves, grasses, &c.; _Batang_, meaning 'stem,' or 'trunk,' to trees, logs, spears, and javelins; _Bantak_, of which the meaning has not been ascertained, to such objects as rings; _Bidang_, which means 'spreading' or 'spacious,' to mats, carpets, thatch, sails, skins, and hides; _Biji_, 'seeds,' to corn, seeds, stones, pebbles, gems, eggs, the eyes of animals, lamps, and candlesticks," and so on. Crawfurd names 8 or 9 other terms, one or other of which is always used in company with the numeral, in ennumerating different classes of objects, as if, in English, idiom should compel us to say 'two _stems_ of spears,' 'four _spreads_ of carpets,' 'six _corns_ of diamonds.' As a matter of fact we do speak of 20 _head_ of cattle, 10 _file_ of soldiers, 100 _sail_ of ships, 20 _pieces_ of cannon, a dozen _stand_ of rifles. But still the practice is in none of these cases obligatory, it is technical and exceptional; insomuch that I remember, when a boy, in old Reform-Bill days, and when disturbances were expected in a provincial town, hearing it stated by a well-informed lady that a great proprietress in the neighbourhood was so alarmed that she had ordered from town a _whole stand of muskets_!

To some small extent the idiom occurs also in other European languages, including French and German. Of French I don't remember any example now except _tête_ (de betail), nor of German except _Stück_, which is, however, almost as universal as the Chinese _piecey_. A quaint example dwells in my memory of a German courier, who, when asked whether he had any employer at the moment, replied: '_Ja freilich! dreizehn_ Stück _Amerikaner_!'

The same peculiar idiom that has been described in the extract from Crawfurd as existing in Malay, is found also in Burmese. The Burmese affixes seem to be more numerous, and their classification to be somewhat more arbitrary and sophisticated. Thus _oos_, a root implying 'chief' or 'first,' is applied to kings, divinities, priests, &c.; _Yauk_, 'a male,' to rational beings not divine; _Gaung_, 'a brute beast,' to irrational beings; _Pya_ implying superficial extent, to dollars, countries, dishes, blankets, &c.; _Lun_, implying rotundity, to eggs, loaves, bottles, cups, toes, fingers, candles, bamboos, hands, feet, &c.; _Tseng_ and _Gyaung_, 'extension in a straight line,' to rods, lines, spears, roads, &c.

The same idiom exists in Siamese, and traces of it appear in some of the vocabularies that have been collected of tribes on the frontier of China and Tibet, indicated by the fact that the numerals in such vocabularies in various instances show identity of origin in the essential part of the numeral, whilst a different aspect is given to the whole word by a variation in what appears to be the numeral-affix[191] (or what Mr. Brian Hodgson calls the 'servile affix'). The idiom exists in the principal vernaculars of China itself, and it is a transfer of this idiom from Chinese dialects to Pigeon-English which has produced the _piecey_, which in that quaint jargon seems to be used as the universal numerical affix ("Two _piecey_ cooly," "three _piecey_ dollar," &c.).

This one PIGEON phrase represents scores that are used in the vernaculars. For in some languages the system has taken what seems an extravagant development, which must form a great difficulty in the acquisition of colloquial use by foreigners. Some approximate statistics on this subject will be given below.

The idiom is found in Japanese and Corean, but it is in these cases possibly not indigenous, but an adoption from the Chinese.

It is found in several languages of C. America, _i.e._ the Quiché of Guatemala, the Nahault of Mexico Proper; and in at least two other languages (Tep and Pirinda) of the same region. The following are given as the co-efficients or determinatives chiefly used in the (Nahualt or) Mexican. Compare them with the examples of Malay and Burmese usage already given:

_Tetl_ (a stone) used for roundish or cylindrical objects; _e.g._ eggs, beans, cacao beans, cherries, prickly-pears, Spanish loaves, &c., also for books, and fowls:

_Pantli_ (?) for long rows of persons and things; also for walls and furrows:

_Tlamantli_ (from _mana_, to spread on the ground), for shoes, dishes, basins, paper, &c., also for speeches and sermons:

_Olotl_ (maize-grains) for ears of maize, cacao-pods, bananas: also for flint arrow-heads (see _W. v. Humboldt, Kawi-Sprache_, ii. 265).

I have, by the kind aid of my friend Professor Terrien de la Couperie, compiled a list of nearly fifty languages in which this curious idiom exists. But it takes up too much space to be inserted here. I may, however, give his statistics of the number of such determinatives, as assigned in the grammars of some of these languages. In Chinese vernaculars, from 33 in the Shanghai vernacular to 110 in that of Fuchau. In Corean, 12; in Japanese, 16; in Annamite, 106; in Siamese, 24; in Shan, 42; in Burmese, 40; in Malay and Javanese, 19.

If I am not mistaken, the propensity to give certain technical and appropriated titles to couples of certain beasts and birds, which had such an extensive development in old English sporting phraseology, and still

## partly survives, had its root in the same state of mind, viz. difficulty in

grasping the idea of abstract numbers, and a dislike to their use. Some light to me was, many years ago, thrown upon this feeling, and on the origin of the idiom of which we have been speaking, by a passage in a modern book, which is the more noteworthy as the author does not make any reference to the existence of this idiom in any language, and possibly was not aware of it:

"On entering into conversation with the (Red) Indian, it becomes speedily apparent that he is unable to comprehend the idea of abstract numbers. They exist in his mind only as associated ideas. He has a distinct conception of five dogs or five deer, but he is so unaccustomed to the idea of number as a thing apart from specific objects, that I have tried in vain to get an Indian to admit that the idea of the number five, as associated in his mind with five dogs, is identical, as far as number is concerned, with that of five fingers."—(_Wilson's Prehistoric Man_, 1st ed. ii. 470.) [Also see _Tylor, Primitive Culture_, 2nd ed. i. 252 _seqq._].

Thus it seems probable that the use of the _numeral_ co-efficient, whether in the Malay idiom or in our old sporting phraseology, is a kind of _survival_ of the effort to bridge the difficulty felt, in identifying abstract numbers as applied to different objects, by the introduction of a common concrete term.

Traces of a like tendency, though probably grown into a mere fashion and artificially developed, are common in Hindustani and Persian, especially in the official written style of _munshīs_, who delight in what seemed to me, before my attention was called to the Indo-Chinese idiom, the wilful surplusage (_e.g._) of two 'sheets' (_fard_) of letters, also used with quilts, carpets, &c.; three 'persons' (_nafar_) of barḳandāzes; five 'rope' (_rās_) of buffaloes; ten 'chains' (_zanjīr_) of elephants; twenty 'grips' (_ḳabẓa_) of swords, &c. But I was not aware of the extent of the idiom in the _munshī's_ repertory till I found it displayed in Mr. Carnegy's _Kachahri Technicalities_, under the head of _Muḥāwara_ (Idioms or Phrases). Besides those just quoted, we there find _'adad_ ('number') used with coins, utensils, and sleeveless garments; _dāna_ ('grain') with pearls and coral beads; _dast_ ('hand') with falcons, &c., shields, and robes of honour; _jild_ (volume, lit. 'skin') with books; _muhār_ ('nose-bit') with camels; _ḳiṭa_ ('portion,' _piecey!_) with precious stones, gardens, tanks, fields, letters; _manzil_ ('a stage on a journey, an alighting place') with tents, boats, houses, carriages, beds, howdas, &c.; _sāz_ ('an instrument') with guitars, &c.; _silk_ ('thread') with necklaces of all sorts, &c. Several of these, with others purely Turkish, are used also in Osmanli Turkish.[192]

NUNCATIES, s. Rich cakes made by the Mahommedans in W. India chiefly imported into Bombay from Surat. [There is a Pers. word, _nānḵhat̤āi_, 'bread of Cathay or China,' with which this word has been connected. But Mr. Weir, Collector of Surat, writes that it is really _nankhaṭāī_, Pers. _nān_, 'bread,' and Mahr. _khaṭ_, _shaṭ_, 'six'; meaning a special kind of cake composed of six ingredients—wheat-flour, eggs, sugar, butter or ghee, leaven produced from toddy or grain, and almonds.]

[NUT, s. Hind. _nath_, Skt. _nastā_, 'the nose.' The nose-ring worn by Indian women.

[1819.—"An old fashioned NUTH or nose-ring, stuck full of precious or false stones."—_Trans. Lit. Soc. Bo._ i. 284.

[1832.—"The NUT (nose-ring) of gold wire, on which is strung a ruby between two pearls, worn only by married women."—_Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Obsns._ i. 45.]

NUT PROMOTION, s. From its supposed indigestible character, the kernel of the CASHEW-nut is so called in S. India, where, roasted and hot, it is a favourite dessert dish. [See _Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. ii. 28.]

NUZZER, s. Hind. from Ar. _naẓr_ or _nazar_ (prop. _nadhr_), primarily 'a vow or votive offering'; but, in ordinary use, a ceremonial present, properly an offering from an inferior to a superior, the converse of _in'ām_. The root is the same as that of _Nazarite_ (Numbers, vi. 2).

[1765.—"The congratulatory NAZIRS, &c., shall be set opposite my ordinary expenses; and if ought remains, it shall go to Poplar, or some other hospital."—Letter of _Ld. Clive_, Sept. 30, in _Verelst, View of Bengal_, 127.

[c. 1775.—"The Governor lays before the board two bags ... which were presented to him in NIZZERS...."—Progs. of Council, quoted by Fox in speech against W. Hastings, in _Bond_, iv. 201.]

1782.—"Col. Monson was a man of high and hospitable household expenses; and so determined against receiving of presents, that he would not only not touch a NAZIER (a few silver rupees, or perhaps a gold mohor) always presented by COUNTRY gentlemen, according to their rank...."—_Price's Tracts_, ii. 61.

1785.—"Presents of ceremony, called NUZZERS, were to many a great portion of their subsistence...."—Letter in _Life of Colebrooke_, 16.

1786.—Tippoo, even in writing to the French Governor of Pondichery, whom it was his interest to conciliate, and in acknowledging a present of 500 muskets, cannot restrain his insolence, but calls them "sent by way of NUZR."—_Select Letters of Tippoo_, 377.

1809.—"The Aumil himself offered the NAZUR of fruit."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 453.

[1832.—"I ... looked to the Meer for explanation; he told me to accept Muckabeg's 'NUZZA.'"—_Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Observns._ i. 193.]

1876.—"The Standard has the following curious piece of news in its Court Circular of a few days ago:—

'Sir Salar Jung was presented to the Queen by the Marquis of Salisbury, and offered his MUGGUR as a token of allegiance, which her Majesty touched and returned.'"—_Punch_, July 15.

For the true sense of the word so deliciously introduced instead of NUZZER, see MUGGUR.

O

OART, s. A coco-nut garden. The word is peculiar to Western India, and is a corruption of Port. _orta_ (now more usually _horta_). "Any man's

## particular allotment of coco-nut trees in the groves at Mahim or Girgaum is

spoken of as his OART." (_Sir G. Birdwood_).

1564.—"... e me praz de fazer merce a dita cidade emfatiota para sempre que a ortaliça des ORTAS dos moradores Portuguezes o christãos que nesta cidade de Goa e ilha tẽ ... possão vender...." &c.—_Proclamation of Dom Sebastian_, in _Archiv. Port. Orient._ fasc. 2, 157.

c. 1610.—"Il y a vn grand nombre de _Palmero_ ou ORTA, comme vous diriez ici de nos vergers, pleins d'arbres de Cocos, plantez bien pres à pres; mais ils ne viennent qu'ès lieux aquatiques et bas...."—_Pyrard de Laval_, ii. 17-18; [Hak. Soc. ii. 28].

1613.—"E os naturaes habitão ao longo do ryo de Malaca, em seus pomares e ORTHAS."—_Godinho de Eredia_, 11.

1673.—"Old Goa ... her Soil is luxurious and Campaign, and abounds with Rich Inhabitants, whose Rural Palaces are immured with Groves and HORTOS."—_Fryer_, 154.

[1749.—"... as well _Vargems_ (Port. _vargem_, 'a field') lands as HORTAS."—Letter in _Logan, Malabar_, iii. 48.]

c. 1760.—"As to the OARTS, or Coco-nut groves, they make the most considerable part of the landed property."—_Grose_, i. 47.

1793.—"For sale.... That neat and commodious Dwelling House built by Mr. William Beal; it is situated in a most lovely OART...."—_Bombay Courier_, Jan. 12.

OBANG, s. Jap. _Oh'o-ban_, lit. 'greater division.' The name of a large oblong Japanese gold piece, similar to the KOBANG (q.v.), but of 10 times the value; 5 to 6 inches in length and 3 to 4 inches in width, with an average weight of 2564 grs. troy. First issued in 1580, and last in 1860. Tavernier has a representation of one.

[1662.—"A thousand OEBANS of gold, which amount to forty seven thousand _Thayls_, or Crowns."—_Mandelslo_, E.T. Bk. ii. 147 (_Stanf. Dict._).

[1859.—"The largest gold coin known is the OBANG, a most inconvenient circulating medium, as it is nearly six inches in length, and three inches and a half in breadth."—_Oliphant, Narrative of Mission_, ii. 232.]

OLD STRAIT, n.p. This is an old name of the narrow strait between the island of Singapore and the mainland, which was the old passage followed by ships passing towards China, but has long been abandoned for the wider strait south of Singapore and north of Bintang. It is called by the Malays _Salāt Tambrau_, from an edible fish called by the last name. It is the Strait of Singapura of some of the old navigators; whilst the wider southern strait was known as New Strait or GOVERNOR'S STRAITS (q.v.).

1727.—"... _Johore Lami_, which is sometimes the Place of that King's Residence, and has the Benefit of a fine deep large River, which admits of two Entrances into it. The smallest is from the Westward, called by _Europeans_ the Streights of _Sincapore_, but by the Natives _Salleta de Brew_" (_i.e._ _Salāt Tambrau_, as above).—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 92; [ed. 1744].

1860.—"The OLD STRAITS, through which formerly our Indiamen passed on their way to China, are from 1 to 2 miles in width, and except where a few clearings have been made ... with the shores on both sides covered with dense jungle ... doubtless, in old times, an isolated vessel ... must have kept a good look out against attack from piratical _prahus_ darting out from one of the numerous creeks."—_Cavenagh, Rem. of an Indian Official_, 285-6.

OLLAH, s. Tam. _ōlai_, Mal. _ōla_. A palm-leaf; but especially the leaf of the PALMYRA (_Borassus flabelliformis_) as prepared for writing on, often, but incorrectly, termed CADJAN (q.v.). In older books the term _ola_ generally means a native letter; often, as in some cases below, a written order. A very good account of the royal scribes at Calicut, and their mode of writing, is given by Barbosa as follows:—

1516.—"The King of Calecut keeps many clerks constantly in his palace; they are all in one room, separate and far from the king, sitting on benches, and there they write all the affairs of the king's revenue, and his alms, and the pay which is given to all, and the complaints which are presented to the king, and, at the same time, the accounts of the collectors of taxes. All this is on broad stiff leaves of the palm-tree, without ink, with pens of iron; they write their letters in lines drawn like ours, and write in the same direction as we do. Each of these clerks has great bundles of these written leaves, and wherever they go they carry them under their arms, and the iron pen in their hands ... and amongst these are 7 or 8 who are great confidants of the king, and men held in great honour, who always stand before him with their pens in their hand and a bundle of paper under their arm; and each of them has always several of these leaves in blank but signed at the top by the king, and when he commands them to despatch any business they write it on these leaves."—Pp. 110-111, Hak. Soc., but translation modified.

1553.—"All the Gentiles of India ... when they wish to commit anything to written record, do it on certain palm-leaves which they call OLLA, of the breadth of two fingers."—_Barros_, I. ix. 3.

" "All the rest of the town was of wood, thatched with a kind of palm-leaf, which they call OLA."—_Ibid._ I. iv. vii.

1561.—"All this was written by the king's writer, whose business it is to prepare his OLAS, which are palm-leaves, which they use for writing-paper, scratching it with an iron point."—_Correa_, i. 212-213. Correa uses the word in three applications: (_a_) for a palm-leaf as just quoted; (_b_) for a palm-leaf letter; and (_c_) for (Coco) palm-leaf thatch.

1563.—"... in the Maldiva Islands they make a kind of vessel which with its nails, its sails, and its cordage is all made of palm; with the fronds (which we call OLLA in Malavar) they cover houses and vessels."—_Garcia_, f. 67.

1586.—"I answered that I was from Venice, that my name was Gasparo Balbi ... and that I brought the emeralds from Venice expressly to present to his majesty, whose fame for goodness, courtesy, and greatness flew through all the world ... and all this was written down on an OLLA, and read by the aforesaid 'Master of the Word' to his Majesty."—_G. Balbi_, f. 104.

" "But to show that he did this as a matter of justice, he sent a further order that nothing should be done till they received an OLLA, or letter of his sign manual written in letters of gold; and so he (the King of Pegù) ordered all the families of those nobles to be kept prisoners, even to the women big with child, and the infants in bands, and so he caused the whole of them to be led upon the said scaffolding; and then the king sent the OLLA, ordering them to be burnt; and the Decagini executed the order, and burned the whole of them."—_Ibid._ f. 112-113.

[1598.—"Sayles which they make of the leaves, which leaves are called OLAS."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. ii. 45.

[1611.—"Two OLLAHS, one to Gimpa Raya...."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 154.]

1626.—"The writing was on leaves of Palme, which they call OLLA."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 554.

1673.—"The houses are low, and thatched with OLLAS of the Cocoe-Trees."—_Fryer_, 66.

c. 1690.—"... OLA peculiariter Malabaris dicta, et inter alia Papyri loco adhibetur."—_Rumphius_, i. 2.

1718.—"... Damulian Leaves, commonly called OLES."—_Prop. of the Gospel_, &c., iii. 37.

1760.—"He (King Alompra) said he would give orders for OLIOS to be made out for delivering of what Englishmen were in his _Kingdom_ to me."—_Capt. Alves, in Dalrymple, Or. Rep._ i. 377.

1806.—"Many persons had their OLLAHS in their hands, writing the sermon in Tamil shorthand."—_Buchanan, Christian Res._ 2nd ed. 70.

1860.—"The books of the Singhalese are formed to-day, as they have been for ages past, of OLAS, or strips taken from the young leaves of the Talipot or the Palmyra palm."—_Tennent, Ceylon_, i. 512.

1870.—"... Un manuscrit sur OLLES...."—_Revue Critique_, June 11, 374.

OMEDWAUR, s. Hind. from Pers. _ummedwār_ (_ummed_, _umed_, 'hope'); literally, therefore, 'a hopeful one'; _i.e._ "an expectant, a candidate for employment, one who awaits a favourable answer to some representation or request." (_Wilson._)

1816.—"The thoughts of being three or four years an OMEEDWAR, and of staying out here till fifty deterred me."—_M. Elphinstone_, in _Life_, i. 344.

OMLAH, s. This is properly the Ar. pl. _'amalat_, _'amalā_, of _'āmil_ (see AUMIL). It is applied on the Bengal side of India to the native officers, clerks, and other staff of a civil court or CUTCHERRY (q.v.) collectively.

c. 1778.—"I was at this place met by the OMLAH or officers belonging to the establishment, who hailed my arrival in a variety of boats dressed out for the occasion."—_Hon. R. Lindsay_, in _Lives of the Lindsays_, iii. 167.

1866.—"At the worst we will hint to the OMLAHS to discover a fast which it is necessary they shall keep with great solemnity."—_Trevelyan, The Dawk Bungalow_, in _Fraser_, lxxiii. 390.

The use of an English plural, _omlahs_, here is incorrect and unusual; though _omrahs_ is used (see next word).

1878.—"... the subordinate managers, young, inexperienced, and altogether in the hands of the OMLAH."—_Life in the Mofussil_, ii. 6.

OMRAH, s. This is properly, like the last word, an Ar. pl. (_Umarā_, pl. of _Amīr_—see AMEER), and should be applied collectively to the higher officials at a Mahommedan Court, especially that of the Great Mogul. But in old European narratives it is used as a singular for a lord or grandee of that Court; and indeed in Hindustani the word was similarly used, for we have a Hind. plural _umarāyān_, 'omrahs.' From the remarks and quotations of Blochmann, it would seem that _Manṣabdārs_ (see MUNSUBDAR), from the commandant of 1000 upwards, were styled _umarā-i-kabār_, or _umara-i-'izām_, 'Great Amīrs'; and these would be the _Omrahs_ properly. Certain very high officials were styled _Amīr-ul-Umarā_ (_Āīn_, i. 239-240), a title used first at the Court of the Caliphs.

1616.—"Two OMRAHS who are great Commanders."—_Sir T. Roe._

[ " "The King lately sent out two VMBRAS with horse to fetch him in."—_Ibid._ Hak. Soc. ii. 417; in the same page he writes _Vmreis_, and in ii. 445, _Vmraes_.]

c. 1630.—"Howbeit, out of this prodigious rent, goes yearely many great payments: to his Leiftenants of Provinces, and VMBRAYES of Townes and Forts."—_Sir T. Herbert_, p. 55.

1638.—"Et sous le commandement de plusieurs autres seigneurs de ceux qu'ils appellent OMMERAUDES."—_Mandelslo_, Paris, 1659, p. 174.

1653.—"Il y a quantité d'elephans dans les Indes ... les OMARAS s'en seruent par grandeur."—_De la Boullaye-le-Gouz_, ed. 1657, p. 250.

c. 1664.—"It is not to be thought that the OMRAHS, or Lords of the Mogul's Court, are sons of great Families, as in _France_ ... these OMRAHS then are commonly but Adventurers and Strangers of all sorts of Nations, some of them slaves; most of them without instruction, which the Mogul thus raiseth to Dignities as he thinks good, and degrades them again, as he pleaseth."—_Bernier_, E.T. 66; [ed. _Constable_, 211].

c. 1666.—"Les OMRAS sont les grand seigneurs du Roiaume, qui sont pour la plupart Persans ou fils de Persans."—_Thevenot_, v. 307.

1673.—"The President ... has a Noise of Trumpets ... an Horse of State led before him, a _Mirchal_ (see MORCHAL) (a Fan of Ostrich Feathers) to keep off the Sun, as the OMBRAHS or Great Men have."—_Fryer_, 86.

1676.—

"Their standard, planted on the battlement, Despair and death among the soldiers sent; You the bold OMRAH tumbled from the wall, And shouts of victory pursued the fall." _Dryden, Aurengzebe_, ii. 1.

1710.—"Donna Juliana ... let the Heer Ambassador know ... that the Emperor had ordered the AMMARAWS Enay Ullah Chan (&c.) to take care of our interests."—_Valentijn_, iv. _Suratte_, 284.

1727.—"You made several complaints against former Governors, all of which I have here from several of my UMBRAS."—_Firmān of Aurangzīb_, in _A. Hamilton_, ii. 227; [ed. 1744, i. 231].

1791.—"... les OMRAHS ou grands seigneurs Indiens...."—_B. de St. Pierre, La Chaumière Indienne_, 32.

OMUM WATER, s. A common domestic medicine in S. India, made from the strong-smelling carminative seeds of an umbelliferous plant, _Carum copticum_, Benth. (_Ptychotis coptica_, and _Ptych. Ajowan_ of Decand.), called in Tamil _omam_, [which comes from the Skt. _yamāni_, _yavāni_, in Hind. _ajwān_.] See _Hanbury and Flückiger_, 269.

OOJYNE, n.p. _Ujjayanī_, or, in the modern vernacular, _Ujjain_, one of the most ancient of Indian cities, and one of their seven sacred cities. It was the capital of King Vikramaditya, and was the first meridian of Hindu astronomers, from which they calculated their longitudes.

The name of Ujjain long led to a curious imbroglio in the interpretation of the Arabian geographers. Its meridian, as we have just mentioned, was the zero of longitude among the Hindus. The Arab writers borrowing from the Hindus wrote the name apparently _Azīn_, but this by the mere omission of a diacritical point became _Arīn_, and from the Arabs passed to medieval Christian geographers as the name of an imaginary point on the equator, the intersection of the central meridian with that circle. Further, this point, or transposed city, had probably been represented on maps, as we often see cities on medieval maps, by a cupola or the like. And hence the "Cupola of _Arin_ or _Arym_," or the "Cupola of the Earth" (_Al-ḳubba al-arḍh_) became an established commonplace for centuries in geographical tables or statements. The idea was that just 180° of the earth's circumference was habitable, or at any rate cognizable as such, and this meridian of _Arin_ bisected this habitable hemisphere. But as the western limit extended to the Fortunate Isles, it became manifest to the Arabs that the central meridian could not be so far east as the Hindu meridian of _Arin_ (or of _Lanka_, _i.e._ Ceylon). (See quotation from the _Aryabhatta_, under JAVA.) They therefore shifted it westward, but shifted the mystic _Arin_ along the equator westward also. We find also among medieval European students (as with Roger Bacon, below), a confusion between Arin and Syene. This Reinaud supposes to have arisen from the Ἐσσινὰ ἐμπόριον of Ptolemy, a place which he locates on the Zanzibar coast, and approximating to the shifted position of Arin. But it is perhaps more likely that the confusion arose from some survival of the real name _Azīn_. Many conjectures were vainly made as to the origin of _Arym_, and M. Sedillot was very positive that nothing more could be learned of it than he had been able to learn. But the late M. Reinaud completely solved the mystery by pointing out that _Arin_ was simply a corruption of _Ujjain_. Even in Arabic the mistake had been thoroughly ingrained, insomuch that the word _Arīn_ had been adopted as a generic name for a place of medium temperature or qualities (see _Jorjānī_, quoted below).

c. A.D. 150.—"Ὀζηνὴ Βασίλειον Τιαστανοῦ."—_Ptol._ VII. i. 63.

c. 930.—"The Equator passes between east and west through an island situated between Hind and Habash (Abyssinia), and a little south of these two countries. This point, half way between north and south is cut by the point (meridian?) half way between the Eternal Islands and the extremity of China; it is what is called _The Cupola of the Earth_."—_Maṣ'ūdī_, i. 180-181.

c. 1020.—"Les Astronomes ... ont fait correspondre la ville d'ODJEIN avec le lieu qui dans le tableau des villes inséré dans les tables astronomiques a reçu le nom d'ARIN, et qui est supposé situé sur les bords de la mer. Mais entre ODJEIN et la mer, il y a près de cent _yodjanas_."—_Al-Birūnī_, quoted by _Reinaud, Intro. to Abulfeda_, p. ccxlv.

c. 1267.—"Meridianum vero latus Indiae descendit a tropico Capricorni, et secat aequinoctialem circulum apud Montem Maleum et regiones ei conterminos et transit per _Syenem_, quae nunc ARYM vocatur. Nam in libro cursuum planetarum dicitur quod duplex est _Syene_; una sub solstitio ... alia sub aequinoctiali circulo, de quâ nunc est sermo, distans per xc gradus ab occidente, sed magis ab oriente elongatur propter hoc, quod longitudo habitabilis major est quam medietas coeli vel terrae, et hoc versus orientem."—_Roger Bacon, Opus Majus_, ed. London, 1633, p. 195.

c. 1300.—"Sous la ligne équinoxiale, au milieu du monde, là où il n'y a pas de latitude, se trouve le point de la corrélation servant de centre aux parties que se coupent entre elles.... Dans cet endroit et sur ce point se trouve le lieu nommé _Coupole de_ AZIN ou _Coupole de_ ARIN. Là est un château grand, élevé et d'un accès difficile. Suivant Ibn-Alaraby, c'est le séjour des démons et la trône d'Eblis.... Les Indiens parlent également de ce lieu, et débitent des fables à son sujet."—_Arabic Cosmography_, quoted by _Reinaud_, p. ccxliii.

c. 1400.—"ARIN (_al-arīn_). Le lieu d'une proportion moyenne dans les choses ... un point sur la terre à une hauteur égale des deux poles, en sorte que la nuit n'y empiète point sur la durée du jour, ni le jour sur la durée de la nuit. Ce mot a passé dans l'usage ordinaire, pour signifier d'une manière générale un lieu d'une temperature moyenne."—Livre de _Definitions_ du _Seïd Scherif Zeineddin_ ... fils de _Mohammed Djordjani_, trad. de _Silv. de Sacy, Not. et Extr._ x. 39.

1498.—"Ptolemy and the other philosophers, who have written upon the globe, thought that it was spherical, believing that this hemisphere was round as well as that in which they themselves dwelt, the centre of which was in the island of ARIN, which is under the equinoctial line, between the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Persia."—_Letter of Columbus_, on his Third Voyage, to the King and Queen. _Major's Transl._, Hak. Soc. 2nd ed. 135.

[c. 1583.—"From thence we went to VGINI and Serringe...."—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 385.

[1616.—"VGEN, the Cheefe Citty of Malwa."—_Sir T. Roe_, Hak. Soc. ii. 379.]

c. 1659.—"Dara having understood what had passed at EUGENES, fell into that choler against _Kasem Kan_, that it was thought he would have cut off his head."—_Bernier_, E.T. p. 13; [ed. _Constable_, 41].

1785.—"The _City_ of UGEN is very ancient, and said to have been the _Residence_ of the Prince BICKER MAJIT, whose Æra is now Current among the Hindus."—_Sir C. Malet_, in _Dalrymple, Or. Rep._ i. 268.

OOOLOOBALLONG, s. Malay, _Ulubalang_, a chosen warrior, a champion. [Mr. Skeat notes: "_hulu_ or _ulu_ certainly means 'head,' especially the head of a Raja, and _balang_ probably means 'people'; hence _ulu-balang_, 'men of the head,' or 'bodyguard.']

c. 1546.—"Four of twelve gates that were in the Town were opened, thorough each of the which sallied forth one of the four Captaines with his company, having first sent out for Spies into the Camp six OROBALONS of the most valiant that were about the King...."—_Pinto_ (in _Cogan_), p. 260.

1688.—"The 500 gentlemen OROBALANG were either slain or drowned, with all the Janizaries."—_Dryden, Life of Xavier_, 211.

1784.—(At Acheen) "there are five great officers of state who are named Maha Rajah, Laxamana (see LAXIMANA), Raja Oolah, OOLOO BALLANG, and Parkah Rajah."—_Forrest, V. to Mergui_, 41.

1811.—"The ULU BALANG are military officers, forming the body-guard of the Sultan, and prepared on all occasions to execute his orders."—_Marsden, H. of Sumatra_, 3rd ed. 351.

OOPLAH, s. Cow dung patted into cakes, and dried and stacked for fuel. Hind. _uplā_. It is in S. India called BRATTY (q.v.).

1672.—"The allowance of cowdunge and wood was—for every basket of cowdunge, 2 cakes for the Gentu Pagoda; for Peddinagg the watchman, of every baskett of cowdunge, 5 cakes."—_Orders at Ft. St. Geo., Notes and Exts._ i. 56.

[Another name for the fuel is _kaṇḍā_.

[1809.—"... small flat cakes of cow-dung, mixed with a little chopped straw and water, and dried in the sun, are used for fuel; they are called KUNDHAS...."—_Broughton, Letters from a Mahratta Camp_, ed. 1892, p. 158.]

This fuel which is also common in Egypt and Western Asia, appears to have been not unknown even in England a century ago, thus:—

1789.—"We rode about 20 miles that day (near Woburn), the country ... is very open, with little or no wood. They have even less fuel than we (_i.e._ in Scotland), and the poor burn _cow-dung_, which they scrape off the ground, and set up to burn as we do _divots_ (_i.e._ turf)."—_Lord Minto_, in _Life_, i. 301.

1863.—A passage in Mr. Marsh's _Man and Nature_, p. 242, contains a similar fact in reference to the practice, in consequence of the absence of wood, in France between Grenoble and Briançon.

[For the use of this fuel, in Tartary under the name of ARGOLS, see _Huc, Travels_, 2nd ed. i. 23. Numerous examples of its use are collected in 8 ser. _Notes and Queries_, iv. 226, 277, 377, 417.

[c. 1590.—"The plates (in refining gold) having been washed in clean water, are ... covered with cowdung, which in Hindi is called UPLAH."—_Āīn_, ed. _Blochmann_, i. 21.

1828.—"We next proceeded to the OOPLEE Wallee's Bastion, as it is most erroneously termed by the Mussulmans, being literally in English a 'BRATTEE,' or 'dried cowdung—Woman's Tower.'..." (This is the _Upri_ Burj, or 'Lofty Tower' of Bijapur, for which see _Bombay Gazetteer_, xxiii. 638).—_Welsh, Military Reminiscences_, ii. 318 _seq._]

[OORD, OORUD, s. Hind. _uṛad_. A variety of _dāl_ (see DHALL) or pulse, the produce of Phaseolus radiatus. "_Urd_ is the most highly prized of all the pulses of the genus _Phaseolus_, and is largely cultivated in all parts of India" (_Watt, Econ. Dict._ vi. pt. i. 102, _seqq._).

[1792.—"The stalks of the OORD are hispid in a lesser degree than those of MOONG."—_Asiat. Res._ vi. 47.

[1814.—"OORD." See under POPPER.

[1857.—"The OORDH Dal is in more common use than any other throughout the country."—_Chevers, Man. of Medical Jurisprudence_, 309.]

OORDOO, s. The Hindustani language. The (Turki) word _urdū_ means properly the camp of a Tartar Khān, and is, in another direction, the original of our word _horde_ (Russian _orda_), [which, according to Schuyler (_Turkistan_, i. 30, note), "is now commonly used by the Russian soldiers and Cossacks in a very amusing manner as a contemptuous term for an Asiatic"]. The 'Golden Horde' upon the Volga was not properly (_pace_ Littré) the name of a tribe of Tartars, as is often supposed, but was the style of the Royal Camp, eventually Palace, of the Khāns of the House of Batu at Sarai. _Horde_ is said by Pihan, quoted by Dozy (_Oosterl._ 43) to have been introduced into French by Voltaire in his _Orphelin de la Chine_. But Littré quotes it as used in the 16th century. _Urda_ is now used in Turkistan, _e.g._ at Tashkend, Khokhand, &c., for a 'citadel' (_Schuyler_, _loc. cit._ i. 30). The word _urdū_, in the sense of a royal camp, came into India probably with Baber, and the royal residence at Delhi was styled _urdū-i-mu'allā_, 'the Sublime Camp.' The mixt language which grew up in the court and camp was called _zabān-i-urdū_, 'the Camp Language,' and hence we have elliptically _Urdū_. On the Peshawar frontier the word _urdū_ is still in frequent use as applied to the camp of a field-force.

1247.—"Post haec venimus ad primam ORDAM Imperatoris, in quâ erat una de uxoribus suis; et quia nondum videramus Imperatorem, noluerint nos vocare nec intromittere ad ORDAM ipsius."—_Plano Carpini_, p. 752.

1254.—"Et sicut populus Israel sciebat, unusquisque ad quam regionem tabernaculi deberet figere tentoria, ita ipsi sciunt ad quod latus curie debeant se collocare.... Unde dicitur curia ORDA lingua eorum, quod sonat medium, quia semper est in medio hominum suorum...."—_William of Rubruk_, p. 267.

1404.—"And the Lord (Timour) was very wroth with his Mirassaes (Mirzas), because he did not see the Ambassador at this feast, and because the _Truximan_ (Interpreter) had not been with them ... and he sent for the _Truximan_ and said to him: 'How is it that you have enraged and vexed the Lord? Now since you were not with the Frank ambassadors, and to punish you, and ensure your always being ready, we order your nostrils to be bored, and a cord put through them, and that you be led through the whole ORDO as a punishment.'"—_Clavijo_, § cxi.

c. 1440.—"What shall I saie of the great and innumerable moltitude of beastes that are in this LORDO? ... if you were disposed in one daie to bie a thousande or ij.^{ml} horses you shulde finde them to sell in this LORDO, for they go in heardes like sheepe...."—_Josafa Barbaro_, old E.T. Hak. Soc. 20.

c. 1540.—"Sono diuisi i Tartari in HORDE, e HORDA nella lor lingua significa ragunãza di popolo vnito e concorde a similitudine d'vna città."—_P. Jovio, delle Cose della Moscovia_, in _Ramusio_, ii. f. 133.

1545.—"The Tartars are divided into certain groups or congregations, which they call HORDES. Among which the Savola HORDE or group is the first in rank."—_Herberstein_, in _Ramusio_, ii. 171.

[1560.—"They call this place (or camp) ORDU bazaar."—_Tenreiro_, ed. 1829, ch. xvii. p. 45.]

1673.—"L'OURDY sortit d'Andrinople pour aller au camp. Le mot _ourdy_ signifie camp, et sous ce nom sont compris les mestiers que sont necessaires pour la commodité du voyage."—_Journal d'Ant. Galland_, i. 117.

[1753.—"That part of the camp called in Turkish the ORDUBAZAR or camp-market, begins at the end of the square fronting the guard-rooms...."—_Hanway, Hist. Account_, i. 247.]

OORIAL, Panj. _ūrīal_, _Ovis cycloceros_, Hutton, [_Ovis vignei_, Blanford (_Mammalia_, 497), also called the _Shā_;] the wild sheep of the Salt Range and Sulimānī Mountains.

OORIYA, n.p. The adjective 'pertaining to ORISSA' (native, language, what not); Hind. _Uṛiya_. The proper name of the country is _Odṛa-deśa_, and _Oṛ-deśa_, whence _Oṛ-iya_ and _Uṛ-iya_. ["The Ooryah bearers were an old institution in Calcutta, as in former days palankeens were chiefly used. From a computation made in 1776, it is stated that they were in the habit of carrying to their homes every year sums of money sometimes as much as three lakhs made by their business" (_Carey, Good Old Days of Honble. John Company_, ii. 148).]

OOTACAMUND, n.p. The chief station in the Neilgherry Hills, and the summer residence of the Governor of Madras. The word is a corruption of the Badaga name of the site of 'Stone-house,' the first European house erected in those hills, properly _Hottaga-mand_ (see _Metz, Tribes of the Neilgherries_, 6). [Mr. Grigg (_Man. of the Nilagiris_, 6, 189), followed by the _Madras Gloss._, gives Tam. _Ottagaimandu_, from Can. _ottai_, 'dwarf bamboo,' Tam. _kay_, 'fruit,' _mandu_, 'a Toda village.']

OPAL, s. This word is certainly of Indian origin: Lat. _opalus_, Greek, ὀπάλλιος, Skt. _upala_, 'a stone.' The European word seems first to occur in Pliny. We do not know how the Skt. word received this specific meaning, but there are many analogous cases.

OPIUM, s. This word is in origin Greek, not Oriental. [The etymology accepted by Platts, Skt. _ahiphena_, 'snake venom' is not probable.] But from the Greek ὄπιον the Arabs took _afyūn_ which has sometimes reacted on old spellings of the word. The collection of the ὀπὸς, or juice of the poppy-capsules, is mentioned by Dioscorides (c. A.D. 77), and Pliny gives a pretty full account of the drug as _opion_ (see _Hanbury and Flückiger_, 40). The Opium-poppy was introduced into China, from Arabia, at the beginning of the 9th century, and its earliest Chinese name is A-FU-YUNG, a representation of the Arabic name. The Arab. _afyūn_ is sometimes corruptly called _afīn_, of which _afīn_, 'imbecile,' is a popular etymology. Similarly the Bengalees derive it from _afi-heno_, 'serpent-home.' [A number of early references to opium smoking have been collected by Burnell, _Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. ii. 113.]

c. A.D. 70.—"... which juice thus drawne, and thus prepared, hath power not onely to provoke sleepe, but if it be taken in any great quantitie, to make men die in their sleepe: and this our Physicians call OPION. Certes I have knowne many come to their death by this meanes; and namely, the father of Licinius Cecinna late deceased, a man by calling a Pretour, who not being able to endure the intollerable pains and torments of a certaine disease, and being wearie of his life, at Bilbil in Spaine, shortened his owne daies by taking OPIUM."—_Pliny_, in _Holland's_ transl. ii. 68.

(_Medieval_).—

"Quod venit a Thebis, _opio_ laudem perhibebis; Naribus horrendum, rufum laus dictat emendum." _Otho Cremonensis._

1511.—"Next day the General (Alboquerque) sent to call me to go ashore to speak to the King; and that I should say on his part ... that he had got 8 Guzzarate ships that he had taken on the way because they were enemies of the King of Portugal; and that these had many rich stuffs and much merchandize, and ARFIUN (for so they call _opio tebaico_) which they eat to cool themselves; all which he would sell to the King for 300,000 ducats worth of goods, cheaper than they could buy it from the Moors, and more such matter."—Letter of _Giovanni da Empoli_, in _Archivio Storico Italiano_, 55.

[1513.—"Opium (OAFYAM) is nothing else than the milk of poppies."—_Alboquerque, Cartas_, p. 174.]

1516.—"For the return voyage (to China) they ship there (at Malacca) Sumatra and Malabar pepper, of which they use a great deal in China, and drugs of Cambay, much _anfiam_, which we call OPIUM...."—_Barbosa_, 206.

1563.—"_R._ I desire to know for certain about AMFIAO, what it is, which is used by the people of this country; if it is what we call OPIUM, and whence comes such a quantity as is expended, and how much may be eaten every day?

* * * * *

"_O._ ... that which I call of Cambaia come for the most part from one territory which is called Malvi (_Mālwā_).... I knew a secretary of Nizamoxa (see NIZAMALUCO), a native of Coraçon, who every day eat three _tóllas_ (see TOLA), or a weight of 10½ cruzados ... though he was a well educated man, and a great scribe and notary, he was always dozing or sleeping; yet if you put him to business he would speak like a man of letters and discretion; from this you may see what habit will do."—_Garcia_, 153_v_ to 155_v_.

1568.—"I went then to Cambaya ... and there I bought 60 parcels of OPIUM, which cost me two thousand and a hundreth duckets, every ducket at foure shillings two pence."—_Master C. Frederike_, in _Hakl._ ii. 371. The original runs thus, showing the looseness of the translation: "... comprai sessanta _man_ D'ANFION, che mi costò 2100 ducati serafini (see XERAFINE), che a nostro conto possono valere 5 lire l'vno."—In _Ramusio_, iii. 396_v_.

1598.—"AMFION, so called by the Portingales, is by Arabians, Mores, and Indians called AFFION, in latine OPIO or OPIUM.... The Indians use much to eat _Amfion_.... Hee that useth to eate it, must eate it daylie, otherwise he dieth and consumeth himselfe ... likewise hee that hath never eaten it, and will venture at the first to eate as much as those that dayly use it, it will surely kill him...."—_Linschoten_, 124; [Hak. Soc. ii. 112].

[c. 1610.—"Opium, or as they (in the Maldives) call it, APHION."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. i. 195.

[1614.—"The waster washer who to get AFFANAN hires them (the cloths) out a month."—_Foster, Letters_, ii. 127.

[1615.—"... Coarse chintz, and OPHYAN."—_Ibid._ iv. 107].

1638.—"Turcae OPIUM experiuntur, etiam in bona quantitate, innoxium et confortativum; adeo ut etiam ante praelia ad fortitudinem illud sumant; nobis vero, nisi in parvâ quantitate, et cum bonis correctivis lethale est."—_Bacon, H. Vitae et Mortis_ (ed. Montague) x. 188.

1644.—"The principal cause that this monarch, or rather say, this tyrant, is so powerful, is that he holds in his territories, and especially in the kingdom of Cambaya, those three plants of which are made the ANFIAM, and the anil (see ANILE), and that which gives the _Algodam_" (Cotton).—_Bocarro_, MS.

1694.—"This people, that with _amphioen_ or OPIUM, mixed with tobacco, drink themselves not merely drunk but mad, are wont to fall furiously upon any one whom they meet, with a naked _kris_ or dagger in the hand, and to stab him, though it be but a child, in their mad passion, with the cry of _Amock_ (see A MUCK), that is 'strike dead,' or 'fall on him.'..."—_Valentijn_, iv. (_China_, &c.) 124.

1726.—"It will hardly be believed ... that Java alone consumes monthly 350 packs of OPIUM, each being of 136 _catis_ (see CATTY), though the E. I. Company make 145 catis out of it...."—_Valentijn_, iv. 61.

1727.—"The Chiefs of Calecut, for many years had vended between 500 and 1000 chests of _Bengal_ OPHIUM yearly up in the inland Countries, where it is very much used."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 315; [ed. 1744, i. 317 seq.].

1770.—"Patna ... is the most celebrated place in the world for the cultivation of OPIUM. Besides what is carried into the inland parts, there are annually 3 or 4000 chests exported, each weighing 300 lbs..... An excessive fondness for opium prevails in all the countries to the east of India. The Chinese emperors have suppressed it in their dominions, by condemning to the flames every vessel that imports this species of poison."—_Raynal_ (tr. 1777), i. 424.

ORANGE, s. A good example of plausible but entirely incorrect etymology is that of orange from Lat. _aurantium_. The latter word is in fact an ingenious medieval fabrication. The word doubtless came from the Arab. _nāranj_, which is again a form of Pers. _nārang_, or _nārangī_, the latter being still a common term for the orange in Hindustan. The Persian indeed may be traced to Skt. _nāgarañga_, and _nārañga_, but of these words no satisfactory etymological explanation has been given, and they have perhaps been Sanscritized from some southern term. Sir W. Jones, in his article on the Spikenard of the Ancients, quotes from Dr. Anderson of Madras, "a very curious philological remark, that in the Tamul dictionary, most words beginning with _nar_ have some relation to fragrance; as _narukeradu_, to yield an odour; _nártum pillei_, lemon-grass; _nártei_, citron; _nárta manum_ (read _mārum_), the wild orange-tree; _nárum panei_, the Indian jasmine; _nárum alleri_, a strong smelling flower; and _nártu_, which is put for _nard_ in the Tamul version of our scriptures." (See _As. Res._ vol. ii. 414). We have not been able to verify many of these Tamil terms. But it is true that in both Tamil and Malayalam _naṛu_ is 'fragrant.' See, also, on the subject of this article, _A. E. Pott_, in Lassen's _Zeitschrift f. d. Kunde des Morgenlandes_, vii. 114 _seqq._

The native country of the orange is believed to be somewhere on the northern border of India. A wild orange, the supposed parent of the cultivated species, both sweet and bitter, occurs in Garhwāl and Sikkim, as well as in the Kāsia (see COSSYA) country, the valleys of which last are still abundantly productive of excellent oranges. [See _Watt, Econ. Dict._ ii. 336 _seqq._] It is believed that the orange first known and cultivated in Europe was the bitter or Seville orange (see _Hanbury and Flückiger_, 111-112).

From the Arabic, Byzantine Greek got νεράντζιον, the Spaniards _naranja_, old Italian _narancia_, the Portuguese _laranja_, from which last, or some similar form, by the easy detachment of the _l_ (taken probably, as in many other instances, for an article), we have the Ital. _arancio_, L. Latin _aurantium_, French _orange_, the modification of these two being shaped by _aurum_ and _or_. Indeed, the quotation from Jacques de Vitry possibly indicates that some form like _al-arangi_ may have been current in Syria. Perhaps, however, his phrase _ab indigenis nuncupantur_ may refer only to the Frank or quasi-Frank settlers, in which case we should have among them the birthplace of our word in its present form. The reference to this passage we derived in the first place from Hehn, who gives a most interesting history of the introduction of the various species of _citrus_ into Europe. But we can hardly think he is right in supposing that the Portuguese first brought the sweet orange (_Citrus aurantium dulce_) into Europe from China, c. 1548. No doubt there may have been a re-introduction of some fine varieties at that time.[193] But as early as the beginning of the 14th century we find Abulfeda extolling the fruit of Cintra. His words, as rendered by M. Reinaud, run: "Au nombre des dependances de Lisbonne est la ville de Schintara; à Schintara on recueille des pommes admirables pour la grosseur et le gout" (244[194]). That these _pommes_ were the famous Cintra oranges can hardly be doubted. For Baber (_Autobiog._ 328) describes an orange under the name of _Sangtarah_, which is, indeed, a recognised Persian and Hind. word for a species of the fruit. And this early propagation of the sweet orange in Portugal would account not only for such wide diffusion of the name of _Cintra_, but for the persistence with which the alternative name of _Portugals_ has adhered to the fruit in question. The familiar name of the large sweet orange in Sicily and Italy is _portogallo_, and nothing else; in Greece πορτογαλέα, in Albanian _protokale_, among the Kurds _portoghāl_; whilst even colloquial Arabic has _burtuḳān_. The testimony of Maṣ'ūdī as to the introduction of the orange into Syria before his time (c. A.D. 930), even if that were (as it would seem) the Seville orange, renders it quite possible that better qualities should have reached Lisbon or been developed there during the Saracenic occupation. It was indeed suggested in our hearing by the late Sir Henry M. Elliot that _sangtarah_ might be interpreted as _sang-tar_, 'green stones' (or in fact 'moist pips'); but we hardly think he would have started this had the passage in Abulfeda been brought to his notice. [In the _Āīn_ (ed. _Gladwin_, 1800, ii. 20) we read: "Sircar Silhet.... Here grows a delicious fruit called _Soontara_, in colour like an orange, but of an oblong form." This passage reads in Col. Jarrett's translation (ii. 124): "There is a fruit called _Súntarah_ in colour like an orange but large and very sweet." Col. Jarrett disputes the derivation of _Sangtarah_ from _Cintra_, and he is followed by Mr. H. Beveridge, who remarks that Humayun calls the fruit _Sanat̤ra_. Mr. Beveridge is inclined to think that _Santra_ is the _Indian_ hill name of the fruit, of which _Sangtarah_ is a corruption, and refers to a village at the foot of the Bhutan Hills called _Santrabārī_, because it had orange groves.]

A.D. c. 930.—"The same may be said of the orange-tree (_Shajr-ul_-NĀRANJ) and of the round citron, which were brought from India after the year (A.H.) 300, and first sown in 'Oman. Thence they were transplanted to Basra, to 'Irāk, and to Syria ... but they lost the sweet and penetrating odour and beauty that they had in India, having no longer the benefits of the climate, soil, and water peculiar to that country."—_Maṣ'ūdī_, ii. 438-9.

c. 1220.—"In parvis autem arboribus quaedam crescunt alia poma citrina, minoris quantitatis frigida et acidi seu pontici (_bitter_) saporis, quae poma ORENGES ab indigenis nuncupantur."—_Jacobus Vitriacus_, in _Bongars_. These were apparently our Seville oranges.

c. 1290.—"In the 18th of Edward the first a large Spanish Ship came to Portsmouth; out of the cargo of which the Queen bought one frail (see FRAZALA) of Seville figs, one frail of raisins or grapes, one bale of dates, two hundred and thirty pomegranates, fifteen citrons, and seven oranges (_Poma de_ ORENGE)."—_Manners and Household Expenses of England in the 13th and 15th Centuries_, Roxb. Club, 1841, p. xlviii. The Editor deigns only to say that 'the MS. is in the Tower.' [Prof. Skeat writes (9 ser. _Notes and Queries_, v. 321): "The only known allusion to oranges, previously to 1400, in any piece of English literature (I omit household documents) is in the '_Alliterative Poems_,' edited by Dr. Morris, ii. 1044. The next reference, soon after 1400, is in Lydgate's '_Minor Poems_,' ed. Halliwell, p. 15. In 1440 we find ORONGE in the '_Promptorium Parvulorum_,' and in 1470 we find ORENGES in the '_Paston Letters_,' ed. Gairdner, ii. 394."]

1481.—"Item to the galeman (galley man) brought the lampreis and ORANGES ... iiij_d._"—_Household Book_ of John D. of Norfolk, Roxb. Club, 1844, p. 38.

c. 1526.—"They have besides (in India) the NÂRANJ [or Seville orange, Tr.] and the various fruits of the orange species.... It always struck me that the word NÂRANJ was accented in the Arab fashion; and I found that it really was so; the men of Bajour and Siwâd call _nâranj nârank_" (or perhaps rather NÂRANG).—_Baber_, 328. In this passage Baber means apparently to say that the right name was _nārang_, which had been changed by the usual influence of Arabic pronunciation into _nāranj_.

1883.—"Sometimes the foreign products thus cast up (on Shetland) at their doors were a new revelation to the islanders, as when a cargo of ORANGES was washed ashore on the coast of Delting, the natives boiled them as a new kind of potatoes."—_Saty. Review_, July 14, p. 57.

ORANG-OTANG, ORANG-OUTAN, &c. s. The great man-like ape of Sumatra and Borneo; _Simia Satyrus_, L. This name was first used by Bontius (see below). It is Malay, _ōrăng-ūtăn_, 'homo sylvaticus.' The proper name of the animal in Borneo is _mias_. Crawfurd says that it is never called _orang-utan_ by 'the natives.' But that excellent writer is often too positive—especially in his negatives! Even if it be not (as is probable) anywhere a recognised specific name, it is hardly possible that the name should not be sometimes applied popularly. We remember a tame HOOLUCK belonging to a gentleman in E. Bengal, which was habitually known to the natives as _janglī ādmī_, literally = _orang-utan_. [There seems reason to believe that Crawfurd was right after all. Mr. Scott (_Malayan Words in English_, p. 87) writes: "But this particular application of _ōrang ūtan_ to the ape does not appear to be, or ever to have been, familiar to the Malays generally; Crawfurd (1852) and Swettenham (1889) omit it, Pijnappel says it is 'Low Malay,' and Klinkert (1893) denies the use entirely. This uncertainty is explained by the limited area in which the animal exists within even native observation. Mr. Wallace could find no natives in Sumatra who 'had ever heard of such an animal,' and no 'Dutch officials who knew anything about it.' Then the name came to European knowledge more than 260 years ago; in which time probably more than one Malay name has faded out of general use or wholly disappeared, and many other things have happened." Mr. Skeat writes: "I believe Crawfurd is absolutely right in saying that it is never called _ōrang-ūtan_ by the natives. It is much more likely to have been a sailor's mistake or joke than an error on the part of the Malays who know better. Throughout the Peninsula _ōrang-ūtan_ is the name applied to the wild tribes, and though the _mawas_ or _mias_ is known to the Malays only by tradition, yet in tradition the two are never confused, and in those islands where the _mawas_ does exist he is never called _ōrang-ūtan_, the word _ōrang_ being reserved exclusively to describe the human species."]

1631.—"Loqui vero eos easque posse Iavani aiunt, sed non velle, ne ad labores cogantur; ridicule mehercules. Nomen ei induunt OURANG OUTANG, quod 'hominem silvae' significat, eosque nasci affirmant e libidine mulierum Indarum, quae se Simiis et Cercopithecis detestanda libidine uniunt."—_Bontii, Hist. Nat._ v. cap. 32, p. 85.

1668.—"Erat autem hic satyrus quadrupes: sed ab humanâ specie quam prae se fert, vocatur Indis OURANG-OUTANG: sive homo silvestris."—_Licetus de Monstris_, 338.

[1701.—"ORANG-OUTANG sive Homo Sylvestris: or the Anatomy of a Pygmie compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man...."—Title of work by _E. Tyson_ (_Scott_).]

1727.—"As there are many species of wild Animals in the Woods (of Java) there is one in particular called the OURAN-OUTANG."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 131; [ed. 1744, ii. 136].

1783.—"Were we to be driven out of India this day, nothing would remain to tell that it had been possessed, during the inglorious period of our dominion, by any thing better than the OURANG-OUTANG or the tiger."—_Burke, Sp. on Fox's E. India Bill, Works_, ed. 1852, iii. 468.

1802.—"Man, therefore, in a state of nature, was, if not the OURANG-OUTANG of the forests and mountains of Asia and Africa at the present day, at least an animal of the same family, and very nearly resembling it."—_Ritson, Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food_, pp. 13-14.

1811.—"I have one slave more, who was given me in a present by the Sultan of Pontiana.... This gentleman is Lord Monboddo's genuine ORANG-OUTANG, which in the Malay language signifies literally _wild man_.... Some people think seriously that the ORAN-OUTANG was the original patriarch and progenitor of the whole Malay race."—_Lord Minto, Diary in India_, 268-9.

1868.—"One of my chief objects ... was to see the ORANG-UTAN ... in his native haunts."—_Wallace, Malay Archip._ 39.

In the following passage the term is applied to a tribe of men:

1884.—"The Jacoons belong to one of the wild aboriginal tribes ... they are often styled ORANG UTAN, or men of the forest."—_Cavenagh, Rem. of an Indian Official_, 293.

ORANKAY, ARANGKAIO, &c. s. Malay _Orang kāya_. In the Archipelago, a person of distinction, a chief or noble, corresponding to the Indian OMRAH; literally 'a rich man,' analogous therefore to the use of _riche-homme_ by Joinville and other old French authors. [Mr. Skeat notes that the terminal o in ARANGKAIO represents a dialectical form used in Sumatra and Java. The Malay leader of the Pahang rising in 1891-2, who was supposed to bear a charmed life, was called by the title of _Orang Kāya Pahlawan_ (see PULWAUN).]

c. 1612.—"The Malay officers of state are classified as 1. _Bandahara_; 2. _Ferdana Mantri_; 3. _Punghulu Bandari_; 4. the chief _Hulubalang_ or champion (see OOLOOBALLONG); 5. the _Paramantris_; 6. ORANG KAYAS; 7. _Chatriyas_ (Kshatriyas); 8. _Seda Sidahs_; 9. _Bentaras_ or heralds; 10. _Hulubalangs_."—_Sijara Malayu_, in _J. Ind. Arch._ v. 246.

1613.—"The nobler ORANCAYAS spend their time in pastimes and recreations, in music and in cock fighting, a royal sport...."—_Godinho de Eredia_, f. 31_v_.

1613.—"An ORAN CAYA came aboord, and told me that a _Curra Curra_ (see CARACOA) of the Flemmings had searched three or foure Praws or Canoas comming aboord vs with Cloues, and had taken them from them, threatening death to them for the next offence."—_Saris_, in _Purchas_, i. 348.

[ " "... gave him the title of ORANCAYA PUTE, which is white or clear hearted lord."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 270.]

1615.—"Another conference with all the ARRANKAYOS of Lugho and Cambello in the hills among the bushes: their reverence for the King and the honourable Company."—_Sainsbury_, i. 420.

[ " "Presented by Mr. Oxwicke to the WRANKIAW."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 96.

[ " "... a nobleman called ARON CAIE Hettam."—_Ibid._ iii. 128.]

1620.—"Premierement sur vn fort grand Elephant il y auoit vne chaire couuerte, dans laquelle s'est assis vn des principaux ORANGCAYES ou Seigneurs."—_Beaulieu_, in _Thevenot's Collection_, i. 49.

1711.—"Two Pieces of Callico or Silk to the _Shabander_ (see SHABUNDER), and head ORONKOY or Minister of State."—_Lockyer_, 36.

1727.—"As he was entering at the Door, the ORANKAY past a long Lance through his Heart, and so made an end of the Beast."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 97; [ed. 1744, ii. 96].

" "However, the reigning King not expecting that his Customs would meet with such Opposition, sent an ORANGKAYA aboard of my Ship, with the Linguist, to know why we made War on him."—_Ibid._ 106; [ed. 1744].

1784.—"Three or four days before my departure, Posally signified to me the King meant to confer on me the honour of being made Knight of the Golden Sword, ORANG KAYO _derry piddang mas_" (_orang kaya dări pădang mas_).—_Forrest, V. to Mergui_, 54.

1811.—"From amongst the ORANG KAYAS the Sultan appoints the officers of state, who as members of Council are called _mantri_ (see MUNTREE, MANDARIN)."—_Marsden, H. of Sumatra_, 350.

[ORGAN, s. An Oriental form of mitrailleuse. Steingass (_Dict._ 38) has Pers. _arghan_, _arghon_, from the Greek ὄργανον, 'an organ.'

1790.—"A weapon called an ORGAN, which is composed of about thirty-six gun barrels so joined as to fire at once."—Letter from De Boigne's Camp at Mairtha, dated Sept. 13, in _H. Compton, A particular Account of the European Military Adventurers of Hindustan, from_ 1784 to 1803, p. 61.]

ORISSA, n.p. [Skt. _Oḍrāshtra_, 'the land of the Oḍras' (see OORIYA). The word is said to be the Prakrit form of _uttara_, 'north,' as applied to the N. part of Kalinga.] The name of the ancient kingdom and modern province which lies between Bengal and the Coromandel Coast.

1516.—"_Kingdom of_ ORISA. Further on towards the interior there is another kingdom which is conterminous with that of Narsynga, and on another side with Bengala, and on another with the great Kingdom of Dely...."—_Barbosa_, in Lisbon ed. 306.

c. 1568.—"ORISA fu già vn Regno molto bello e securo ... sina che regnò il suo Rè legitimo, qual era Gentile."—_Ces. Federici, Ramusio_, iii. 392.

[c. 1616.—"VDEZA, the Chiefe Citty called Iekanat (JUGGURNAUT)."—_Sir T. Roe_, Hak. Soc. ii. 538.]

ORMESINE, s. A kind of silk texture, which we are unable to define. The name suggests derivation from Ormus. [The _Draper's Dict._ defines "ARMOZEEN, a stout silk, almost invariably black. It is used for hat-bands and scarfs at funerals by those not family mourners. Sometimes sold for making clergymen's gowns." The _N.E.D._ s.v. ARMOZEEN, leaves the etymology doubtful. The _Stanf. Dict._ gives ORMUZINE, "a fabric exported from _Ormuz_."]

c. 1566.—"... a little Island called Tana, a place very populous with Portugals, Moores and Gentiles: these have nothing but Rice; they are makers of ARMESIE and weavers of girdles of wooll and bumbast."—_Caes. Fredericke_, in _Hakl._ ii. 344.

1726.—"Velvet, Damasks, ARMOSYN, Sattyn."—_Valentijn_, v. 183.

ORMUS, ORMUZ, n.p. Properly _Hurmuz_ or _Hurmūz_, a famous maritime city and minor kingdom near the mouth of the Persian Gulf. The original place of the city was on the northern shore of the Gulf, some 30 miles east of the site of Bandar Abbās or GOMBROON (q.v.); but about A.D. 1300, apparently to escape from Tartar raids, it was transferred to the small island of Gerūn or Jerūn, which may be identified with the _Organa_ of Nearchus, about 12 m. westward, and five miles from the shore, and this was the seat of the kingdom when first visited and attacked by the Portuguese under Alboquerque in 1506. It was taken by them about 1515, and occupied permanently (though the nominal reign of the native kings was maintained), until wrested from them by Shāh 'Abbās, with the assistance of an English squadron from Surat, in 1622. The place was destroyed by the Persians, and the island has since remained desolate, and all but uninhabited, though the Portuguese citadel and water-tanks remain. The islands of Hormuz, Kishm, &c., as well as Bandar 'Abbās and other ports on the coast of Kerman, had been held by the Sultans of Omān as fiefs of Persia, for upwards of a century, when in 1854 the latter State asserted its dominion, and occupied those places in force (see _Badger's Imams of Omān_, &c., p. xciv.).

B.C. c. 325.—"They weighed next day at dawn, and after a course of 100 stadia anchored at the mouth of the river Anamis, in a country called HARMOZEIA."—_Arrian, Voyage of Nearchus_, ch. xxxiii., tr. by _M‘Crindle_, p. 202.

c. A.D. 150.—(on the coast of Carmania)

"Ἅρμουζα πόλις. Ἅρμοζον ἄκρον." _Ptol._ VI. viii. 5.

c. 540.—At this time one Gabriel is mentioned as (Nestorian) Bishop of HORMUZ (see _Assemani_, iii. 147-8).

c. 655.—"Nobis ... visum est nihilominus velut ad sepulchra mortuorum, quales vos esse video, geminos hosce Dei Sacerdotes ad vos allegare; Theodorum videlicet Episcopum HORMUZDADSCHIR et Georgium Episcopum Susatrae."—Syriac Letter of the _Patriarch Jesujabus_, _ibid._ 133.

1298.—"When you have ridden these two days you come to the Ocean Sea, and on the shore you find a City with a harbour, which is called _Hormos_."—_Marco Polo_, Bk. i. ch. xix.

c. 1330.—"... I came to the Ocean Sea. And the first city on it that I reached is called ORMES, a city strongly fenced and abounding in costly wares. The city is on an island some five miles distant from the main; and on it there grows no tree, and there is no fresh water."—_Friar Odoric_, in _Cathay_, &c., 56.

c. 1331.—"I departed from 'Omān for the country of HORMUZ. The city of Hormuz stands on the shore of the sea. The name is also called Moghistān. The new city of HORMUZ rises in face of the first in the middle of the sea, separated from it only by a channel 3 parasangs in width. We arrived at New HORMUZ, which forms an island of which the capital is called Jaraun.... It is a mart for Hind and Sind."—_Ibn Batuta_, ii. 230.

1442.—"ORMUS (qu. _Hurmūz_?), which is now called Djerun, is a port situated in the middle of the sea, and which has not its equal on the face of the globe."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _India in XV. Cent._ p. 5.

c. 1470.—"HORMUZ is 4 miles across the water, and stands on an Island."—_Athan. Nikitin_, _ibid._ p. 8.

1503.—"Habitant autem ex eorum (Francorum) gente homines fere viginti in urbe Cananoro: ad quos profecti, postquam ex HORMIZDA urbe ad eam Indorum civitatem Cananorum venimus, significavimus illis nos esse Christianos, nostramque conditionem et gradum indicavimus; et ab illis magno cum gaudio suscepti sumus.... Eorundem autem Francorum regio Portugallus vocatur, una ex Francorum regionibus; eorumque Rex Emanuel appellatur; Emmanuelem oramus ut illum custodiat."—Letter from _Nestorian Bishops_ on Mission to India, in _Assemani_, iii. 591.

1505.—"In la bocha di questo mare (di Persia) è vn altra insula chiamata AGRAMUZO doue sono perle infinite: (e) caualli che per tutte quelle parti sono in gran precio."—Letter of _K. Emanuel_, p. 14.

1572.—

"Mas vê a illa Gerum, como discobre O que fazem do tempo os intervallos; Que da cidade ARMUZA, que alli esteve Ella o nome despois, e gloria teve." _Camões_, x. 103.

By Burton:

"But see yon Gerum's isle the tale unfold of mighty things which Time can make or mar; for of ARMUZA-town yon shore upon the name and glory this her rival won."

1575.—"Touchant le mot ORMUZ, il est moderne, et luy a esté imposé par les Portugais, le nom venant de l'accident de ce qu'ils cherchoient que c'estoit que l'Or; tellement qu'estant arrivez là, et voyans le trafic de tous biens, auquel le pais abonde, ils dirent _Vssi esta Or mucho_, c'est à dire, Il y a force d'Or; et pource ils donnerẽt le nom d'ORMUCHO à la dite isle."—_A. Thevet, Cosmographie Univ._, liv. x. i. 329.

1623.—"Non volli lasciar di andare con gl'Inglesi in HORMUZ a veder la forteza, la città, e ciò che vi era in fine di notabile in quell'isola."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 463. Also see ii. 61.

1667.—

"High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of ORMUS and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold." _Paradise Lost_, ii. 1-4.

OROMBARROS, s. This odd word seems to have been used as GRIFFIN (q.v.) now is. It is evidently the Malay _orang-baharu_, or _orang bharu_, 'a new man, a novice.' This is interesting as showing an unquestionable instance of an expression imported from the Malay factories to Continental India. [Mr. Skeat remarks that the form of the word shows that it came from the Malay under Portuguese influence.]

1711.—At Madras ... "refreshments for the Men, which they are presently supply'ed with from Country Boats and Cattamarans, who make a good Peny at the first coming of OROMBARROS, as they call those who have not been there before."—_Lockyer_, 28.

ORTOLAN, s. This name is applied by Europeans in India to a small lark, _Calandrella brachydactyla_, Temm., in Hind. _bargel_ and _bageri_, [Skt. _varga_, 'a troop']. Also sometimes in S. India to the finch-lark, _Pyrrhalauda grisea_, Scopoli.

OTTA, OTTER, s. Corruption of _āṭā_, 'flour,' a Hindi word having no Skt. original; [but Platts gives Skt. _ārdra_, 'soft']. Popular rhyme:

"Aī terī Shekhāwati Ādhā ĀṬĀ ādhā matī!"

"Confound this Shekhawati land, My bread's half wheat-meal and half sand." _Boileau, Tour through Rajwara_, 1837, p. 274.

[1853.—"After travelling three days, one of the prisoners bought some OTTAH. They prepared bread, some of which was given him; after eating it he became insensible...."—_Law Report_, in _Chevers, Ind. Med. Jurispr._ 166.]

OTTO, OTTER, s. Or usually 'Otto of Roses,' or by imperfect purists '_Attar_ of Roses,' an essential oil obtained in India from the petals of the flower, a manufacture of which the chief seat is at Ghāzipur on the Ganges. The word is the Arab. _'iṭr_, 'perfume.' From this word are derived _'aṭṭār_, a 'perfumer or druggist,' _'aṭṭārī_, adj., 'pertaining to a perfumer.' And a relic of Saracen rule in Palermo is the _Via Latterini_, 'the street of the perfumers' shops.' We find the same in an old Spanish account of Fez:

1573.—"Issuing thence to the Cayzerie by a gate which faces the north there is a handsome street which is called _of the_ ATARIN, which is the Spicery."—_Marmol, Affrica_, ii. f. 88.

[_'Itr_ of roses is said to have been discovered by the Empress Nūr-jahān on her marriage with Jahāngīr. A canal in the palace garden was filled with rose-water in honour of the event, and the princess, observing a scum on the surface, caused it to be collected, and found it to be of admirable fragrance, whence it was called _'iṭr-i-Jahāngīrī_.]

1712.—Kaempfer enumerating the departments of the Royal Household in Persia names: "_Pharmacopoeia_ ... ATTHAAR _choneh_, in quâ medicamenta, et praesertim variae virtutis opiata, pro Majestate et aulicis praeparantur...."—_Am. Exot._ 124.

1759.—

"To presents given, &c. * * * * * "1 OTTER box set with diamonds "_Sicca Rs._ 3000 3222 3 6." _Accts. of Entertainment to Jugget Set_, in _Long_, 89.

c. 1790.—"Elles ont encore une prédilection particulière pour les huiles oderiferantes, surtout pour celle de rose, appelée OTTA."—_Haafner_, ii. 122.

1824.—"The ATTAR is obtained after the rose-water is made, by setting it out during the night and till sunrise in the morning in large open vessels exposed to the air, and then skimming off the essential oil which floats at the top."—_Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 154.

OUDH, OUDE, n.p. _Awadh_; properly the ancient and holy city of _Ayodhyā_ (Skt. 'not to be warred against'), the capital of Rāma, on the right bank of the river Sarayu, now commonly called the Gogra. Also the province in which Ayodhya was situated, but of which LUCKNOW for about 170 years (from c. 1732) has been the capital, as that of the dynasty of the Nawābs, and from 1814 kings, of Oudh. Oudh was annexed to the British Empire in 1856 as a Chief Commissionership. This was re-established after the Mutiny was subdued and the country reconquered, in 1858. In 1877 the Chief Commissionership was united to the Lieut.-Governorship of the N.W. Provinces. (See JUDEA.)

B. C. _x._—"The noble city of AYODHYĀ crowned with a royal highway had already cleaned and besprinkled all its streets, and spread its broad banners. Women, children, and all the dwellers in the city eagerly looking for the consecration of _Rāma_, waited with impatience the rising of the morrow's sun."—_Rāmāyaṇa_, Bk. iii. (_Ayodhya Kanda_), ch. 3.

636.—"Departing from this Kingdom (_Kanyākubja_ or Kanauj) he (Hwen T'sang) travelled about 600 _li_ to the S.E., crossed the Ganges, and then taking his course southerly he arrived at the Kingdom of 'OYUT'O (Ayōdhyā)."—_Pèlerins Bouddh._ ii. 267.

1255.—"A peremptory command had been issued that Malik Kutlugh Khān ... should leave the province of AWADH, and proceed to the fief of Bharā'ij, and he had not obeyed...."—_Tabaḳāt-i-Nāsirī_, E.T. by _Raverty_, 107.

1289.—"Mu'izzu-d dín Kai-Kubád, on his arrival from Dehli, pitched his camp at OUDH (Ajudhya) on the bank of the Ghagra. Nasiru-d dín, from the opposite side, sent his chamberlain to deliver a message to Kai-Kubád, who by way of intimidation himself discharged an arrow at him...."—_Amīr Khusrū_, in _Elliot_, iii. 530.

c. 1335.—"The territories to the west of the Ganges, and where the Sultan himself lived, were afflicted by famine, whilst those to the east of it enjoyed great plenty. These latter were then governed by 'Ain-ul-Mulk ... and among their chief towns we may name the city of AWADH, and the city of Z̤afarābād and the city of _Laknau_, et cetera."—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 342.

c. 1340.—The 23 principal provinces of India under Mahommed Tughlak are thus stated, on the authority of Sirājuddīn Abu'l-fatah Omah, a native of 'AWADH: "(1) _Aḳlīm Dihlī_, (2) _Multān_, (3) _Kahrān_ (Guhrām), and (4) _Samān_ (both about Sirhind), (5) _Siwastān_ (Sehwān in Sind), (6) _Waja_ (Ūja, _i.e._ Ūch), (7) _Hāsī_ (Hānsī), (8) _Sarsati_ (Sirsa), (9) _Ma'bar_ (Coromandel), (10) _Tiling_ (Kalinga), (11) _Gujrāt_, (12) _Badāūn_, (13) 'AWAḌH, (14) _Kanauj_, (15) _Laknautī_ (N. Bengal), (16) _Bahār_, (17) _Karra_ (Lower Doāb), (18) _Malāwa_ (Malwa), (19) _Lahāwar_ (Lahore), (20) _Kalanūr_ (E. Punjab), (21) _Jajnagar_ (Orissa), (22) _Tilinj_ (?), (23) _Dursamand_ (Mysore)."—_Shihābuddīn_, in _Notices et Exts._ xiii. 167-171.

OUTCRY, s. Auction. This term seems to have survived a good deal longer in India than in England. (See NEELAM). The old Italian expression for auction seems to be identical in sense, viz. _gridaggio_, and the auctioneer _gridatore_, thus:

c. 1343.—"For jewels and plate; and (other) merchandize that is sold by OUTCRY (_gridaggio_), _i.e._ by auction (_oncanto_) in Cyprus, the buyer pays the crier (_gridatore_) one quarter _carat_ per bezant on the price bid for the thing bought through the crier, and the seller pays nothing except," &c.—_Pegolotti_, 74.

1627.—"OUT-CRIE _of goods to be sold_. G(allicè) Encánt. Incánt. I(talicè).—Incánto.... H(ispanicè). Almoneda, _ab_ Al. _articulus, et Arab._ NEDEYE, _clamare_, _vocare_.... B(atavicè). UT-ROEP."—_Minsheu_, s.v.

[1700.—"The last week Mr. Proby made a OUTCRY of lace."—In _Yule, Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. cclix.]

1782.—"On Monday next will be sold by Public OUTCRY ... large and small China silk Kittisals (KITTYSOL)...."—_India Gazette_, March 31.

1787.—"Having put up the Madrass Galley at OUTCRY and nobody offering more for her than 2300 Rupees, we think it more for the Company's Int. to make a Sloop of Her than let Her go at so low a price."—_Ft. William MS. Reports_, March.

[1841.—"When a man dies in India, we make short work with him; ... an 'OUTCRY' is held, his goods and chattels are brought to the hammer...."—_Society in India_, ii. 227.]

OVERLAND. Specifically applied to the Mediterranean route to India, which in former days involved usually the land journey from Antioch or thereabouts to the Persian Gulf; and still in vogue, though any land journey may now be entirely dispensed with, thanks to M. Lesseps.

1612.—"His Catholic Majesty the King Philip III. of Spain and II. of Portugal, our King and Lord, having appointed Dom Hieronymo de Azevedo to succeed Ruy Lourenço de Tavira ... in January 1612 ordered that a courier should be despatched OVERLAND (_por terra_) to this Government to carry these orders and he, arriving at Ormuz at the end of May following...."—_Bocarro, Decada_, p. 7.

1629.—"The news of his Exploits and Death being brought together to King _Philip_ the Fourth, he writ with his own hand as follows. _Considering the two Pinks that were fitting for_ India _may be gone without an account of my Concern for the Death of_ Nunno Alvarez Botello, _an Express shall immediately be sent_ BY LAND with advice."—_Faria y Sousa_ (Stevens), iii. 373.

1673.—"French and Dutch Jewellers coming OVERLAND ... have made good Purchase by buying Jewels here, and carrying them to Europe to Cut and Set, and returning thence sell them here to the Ombrahs (see OMRAH), among whom were Monsieur Tavernier...."—_Fryer_, 89.

1675.—"Our last to you was dated the 17th August past, OVERLAND, transcripts of which we herewith send you."—_Letter from Court to Ft. St. Geo._ In _Notes and Exts._ No. i. p. 5.

1676.—"Docket Copy of the Company's General OVERLAND.

"'Our Agent and Councel Fort St. George.

* * * * *

"'The foregoing is copy of our letter of 28th June OVERLAND, which we sent by three several conveyances for Aleppo.'"—_Ibid._ p. 12.

1684.—"That all endeavors would be used to prevent my going home the way I intended, by Persia, and so OVERLAND."—_Hedges, Diary_, Aug. 19; [Hak. Soc. i. 155].

c. 1686.—"Those Gentlemen's Friends in the Committee of the Company in _England_, acquainted them by Letters OVER LAND, of the Danger they were in, and gave them Warning to be on their guard."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 196; [ed. 1744, i. 195].

1737.—"Though so far apart that we can only receive letters from Europe once a year, while it takes 18 months to get an answer, we Europeans get news almost every year OVER LAND by Constantinople, through Arabia or Persia.... A few days ago we received the news of the Peace in Europe; of the death of Prince Eugene; of the marriage of the P. of Wales with the Princess of Saxe-Gotha...."—Letter of the _Germ. Missionary Sartorius_, from Madras, Feb. 16. In _Notices of Madras and Cuddalore_, &c. 1858, p. 159.

1763.—"We have received OVERLAND the news of the taking of Havannah and the Spanish Fleet, as well as the defeat of the Spaniards in Portugall. We must surely make an advantageous Peace, however I'm no Politician."—_MS. Letter of James Rennell_, June 1, fr. Madras.

1774.—"Les Marchands à Bengale envoyèrent un Vaisseau à _Suès_ en 1772, mais il fut endommagé dans le Golfe de Bengale, et obligé de retourner; en 1773 le Sr. _Holford_ entreprit encore ce voyage, réussit cette fois, et fut ainsi le premier Anglois qui eut conduit un vaisseau à _Suès_.... On s'est déjà servi plusieurs fois de cette route comme d'un chemin de poste; car le Gouvernement des Indes envoye actuellement dans des cas d'importance ses Couriers par _Suès_ en Angleterre, et peut presqu'avoir plutôt reponse de _Londres_ que leurs lettres ne peuvent venir en Europe par le Chemin ordinaire du tour du Cap de bonne esperance."—_Niebuhr, Voyage_, ii. 10.

1776.—"We had advices long ago from England, as late as the end of May, by way of Suez. This is a new Route opened by Govr. Hastings, and the Letters which left Marseilles the 3rd June arrived here the 20th August. This, you'll allow, is a ready communication with Europe, and may be kept open at all times, if we chuse to take a little pains."—_MS. Letter from James Rennell_, Oct. 16, "from Islamabad, capital of Chittigong."

1781.—"On Monday last was Married Mr. George Greenley to Mrs. Anne Barrington, relict of the late Capt. William B——, who unfortunately perished on the Desart, in the attack that was made on the Carravan of Bengal Goods under his and the other Gentlemen's care between Suez and Grand Cairo."—_India Gazette_, March 7.

1782.—"When you left England with an intention to pass OVERLAND and by the route of the Red Sea into India, did you not know that no subject of these kingdoms can lawfully reside in India ... without the permission of the United Company of Merchants?..."—_Price, Tracts_, i. 130.

1783.—"... Mr. Paul Benfield, a gentleman whose means of intelligence were known to be both extensive and expeditious, publicly declared, from motives the most benevolent, that he had just received OVER-LAND from England certain information that Great Britain had finally concluded a peace with all the belligerent powers in Europe."—_Munro's Narrative_, 317.

1786.—"The packet that was coming to us OVERLAND, and that left England in July, was cut off by the wild Arabs between Aleppo and Bussora."—_Lord Cornwallis_, Dec. 28, in _Correspondence_, &c., i. 247.

1793.—"Ext. of a letter from Poonamalee, dated 7th June.

'The dispatch by way of Suez has put us all in a commotion.'"—_Bombay Courier_, June 29.

1803.—"From the Governor General to the Secret Committee, dated 24th Decr. 1802. Recd. OVERLAND, 9th May 1803."—_Mahratta War Papers_ (Parliamentary).

OVIDORE, s. Port. _Ouvidor_, _i.e._ 'auditor,' an official constantly mentioned in the histories of Portuguese India. But the term is also applied in an English quotation below to certain Burmese officials, an application which must have been adopted from the Portuguese. It is in this case probably the translation of a Burmese designation, perhaps of _Nekhan-dau_, 'Royal Ear,' which is the title of certain Court officers.

1500.—"The Captain-Major (at Melinde) sent on board all the ships to beg that no one when ashore would in any way misbehave or produce a scandal; any such offence would be severely punished. And he ordered the mariners of the ships to land, and his own Provost of the force, with an OUVIDOR that he had on board, that they might keep an eye on our people to prevent mischief."—_Correa_, i. 165.

1507.—"And the Viceroy ordered the OUVIDOR GENERAL to hold an inquiry on this matter, on which the truth came out clearly that the Holy Apostle (Sanctiago) showed himself to the Moors when they were fighting with our people, and of this he sent word to the King, telling him that such martyrs were the men who were serving in these parts that our Lord took thought of them and sent them a Helper from Heaven."—_Ibid._ i. 717.

1698.—(At Syriam) "OVIDORES (Persons appointed to take notice of all passages in the _Runday_ (office of administration) and advise them to Ava.... Three OVIDORES that always attend the _Runday_, and are sent to the King, upon errands, as occasion obliges."—_Fleetwood's Diary_, in _Dalrymple, Or. Rep._ i. 355, 360.

[OWL, s. Hind. _aul_, 'any great calamity, as a plague, cholera,' &c.

[1787.—"At the foot of the hills the country is called Teriani (see TERAI) ... and people in their passage catch a disorder, called in the language of that country AUL, which is a putrid fever, and of which the generality of persons who are attacked with it die in a few days...."—_Asiat. Res._ ii. 307.

1816.—"... rain brings alone with it the local malady called the OWL, so much dreaded in the woods and valleys of Nepaul."—_Asiatic Journal_, ii. 405.

1858.—"I have known European officers, who were never conscious of having drunk either of the waters above described, take the fever (OWL) in the month of May in the Tarae."—_Sleeman, Journey in Oudh_, ii. 103.]

P

PADDY, s. Rice in the husk; but the word is also, at least in composition, applied to growing rice. The word appears to have in some measure, a double origin.

There is a word _batty_ (see BATTA) used by some writers on the west coast of India, which has probably helped to propagate our uses of _paddy_. This seems to be the Canarese _batta_ or _bhatta_, 'rice in the husk,' which is also found in Mahr. as _bhāt_ with the same sense, a word again which in Hind. is applied to 'cooked rice.' The last meaning is that of Skt. _bhaktā_, which is perhaps the original of all these forms.

But in Malay _pādī_ [according to Mr. Skeat, usually pronounced _pădi_] Javan. _pārī_, is 'rice in the straw.' And the direct parentage of the word in India is thus apparently due to the Archipelago; arising probably out of the old importance of the export trade of rice from Java (see _Raffles, Java_, i. 239-240, and _Crawfurd's Hist._ iii. 345, and _Descript. Dict._, 368). Crawfurd, (_Journ. Ind. Arch._, iv. 187) seems to think that the Malayo-Javanese word may have come from India with the Portuguese. But this is impossible, for as he himself has shown (_Desc. Dict._, u.s.), the word _pārī_, more or less modified, exists in all the chief tongues of the Archipelago, and even in Madagascar, the connection of which last with the Malay regions certainly was long prior to the arrival of the Portuguese.

1580.—"Certaine Wordes of the naturall language of Jaua ... PAREE, ryce in the huske."—_Sir F. Drake's Voyage_, in _Hakl._ iv. 246.

1598.—"There are also divers other kinds of Rice, of a lesse price, and slighter than the other Ryce, and is called BATTE...."—_Linschoten_, 70; [Hak. Soc. i. 246].

1600.—"In the fields is such a quantity of rice, which they call BATE, that it gives its name to the kingdom of Calou, which is called on that account _Batecalou_."—_Lucena, Vida do Padre F. Xavier_, 121.

1615.—"... oryzae quoque agri feraces quam BATUM incolae dicunt."—_Jarric, Thesaurus_, i. 461.

1673.—"The Ground between this and the great Breach is well ploughed, and bears good BATTY."—_Fryer_, 67, see also 125. But in the Index he has PADDY.

1798.—"The PADDIE which is the name given to the rice, whilst in the husk, does not grow ... in compact ears, but like oats, in loose spikes."—_Stavorinus_, tr. i. 231.

1837.—"Parrots brought 900,000 loads of hill-PADDY daily, from the marshes of Chandata,—mice husking the hill-PADDY, without breaking it, converted it into rice."—_Turnour's Mahawanso_, 22.

1871.—"In Ireland Paddy makes riots, in Bengal raiyats make PADDY; and in this lies the difference between the PADDY of green Bengal, and the Paddy of the Emerald Isle."—_Govinda Samanta_, ii. 25.

1878.—"Il est établi un droit sur les riz et les PADDYS exportés de la Colonie, excepté pour le Cambodge par la voie du fleuve."—_Courrier de Saigon_, Sept. 20.

PADDY-BIRD, s. The name commonly given by Europeans to certain baser species of the family _Ardeidae_ or Herons, which are common in the rice-fields, close in the wake of grazing cattle. Jerdon gives it as the European's name for the _Ardeola leucoptera_, Boddaert, _andhā baglā_ ('blind heron') of the Hindus, a bird which is more or less coloured. But in Bengal, if we are not mistaken, it is more commonly applied to the pure white bird—_Herodias alba_, L., or _Ardea Torra_, Buch. Ham., and _Herodias egrettoides_, Temminck, or _Ardea putea_, Buch. Ham.

1727.—"They have also Store of wild Fowl; but who have a Mind to eat them must shoot them. Flamingoes are large and good Meat. The PADDY-BIRD is also good in their season."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 161; [ed. 1744, i. 162-3].

1868.—"The most common bird (in Formosa) was undoubtedly the PADI BIRD, a species of heron (_Ardea prasinosceles_), which was constantly flying across the padi, or rice-fields."—_Collingwood, Rambles of a Naturalist_, 44.

PADDY-FIELD, s. A rice-field, generally in its flooded state.

1759.—"They marched onward in the plain towards Preston's force, who, seeing them coming, halted on the other side of a long morass formed by PADDY-FIELDS."—_Orme_, ed. 1803, iii. 430.

1800.—"There is not a single PADDY-FIELD in the whole county, but plenty of cotton ground (see REGUR) swamps, which in this wet weather are delightful."—_Wellington_ to _Munro_, in _Despatches_, July 3.

1809.—"The whole country was in high cultivation, consequently the PADDY-FIELDS were nearly impassable."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 350.

PADRE, s. A priest, clergyman, or minister, of the Christian Religion; when applied by natives to their own priests, as it sometimes is when they speak to Europeans, this is only by way of accommodation, as 'church' is also sometimes so used by them.

The word has been taken up from the Portuguese, and was of course applied originally to Roman Catholic priests only. But even in that respect there was a peculiarity in its Indian use among the Portuguese. For P. della Valle (see below) notices it as a singularity of their practice at Goa that they gave the title of _Padre_ to secular priests, whereas in Italy this was reserved to the _religiosi_ or regulars. In Portugal itself, as Bluteau's explanation shows, the use is, or was formerly, the same as in Italy; but, as the first ecclesiastics who went to India were monks, the name apparently became general among the Portuguese there for all priests.

It is a curious example of the vitality of words that this one which had thus already in the 16th century in India a kind of abnormally wide application, has now in that country a still wider, embracing all Christian ministers. It is applied to the Protestant clergy at Madras early in the 18th century. A bishop is known as LORD (see LAT) PADRE. See LAT _Sahib_.

According to Leland the word is used in China in the form _pa-ti-li_.

1541.—"Chegando á Porta da Igreja, o sahirão a receber oito PADRES."—_Pinto_, ch. lxix. (see _Cogan_, p. 85).

1584.—"It was the will of God that we found there two PADRES, the one an Englishman, and the other a Flemming."—_Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 381.

" "... had it not pleased God to put it into the minds of the archbishop and other two PADRES of Jesuits of S. Paul's Colledge to stand our friends, we might have rotted in prison."—_Newberrie_, _ibid._ ii. 380.

c. 1590.—"Learned monks also come from Europe, who go by the name of PÁDRE. They have an infallible head called _Pápá_. He can change any religious ordinances as he may think advisable, and kings have to submit to his authority."—_Badāonī_, in _Blochmann's Āīn_, i. 182.

c. 1606.—"Et ut adesse PATRES comperiunt, minor exclamat PADRIGI, PADRIGI, id est Domine Pater, Christianus sum."—_Jarric_, iii. 155.

1614.—"The PADRES make a church of one of their Chambers, where they say Masse twice a day."—_W. Whittington_, in _Purchas_, i. 486.

1616.—"So seeing Master Terry whom I brought with me, he (the King) called to him, PADRE you are very welcome, and this house is yours."—_Sir T. Roe_, in _Purchas_, i. 564; [Hak. Soc. ii. 385].

1623.—"I Portoghesi chiamano anche i preti secolari PADRI, come noi i religiosi...."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 586; [Hak. Soc. i. 142].

1665.—"They (Hindu Jogis) are impertinent enough to compare themselves with our Religious Men they meet with in the _Indies_. I have often taken pleasure to catch them, using much ceremony with them, and giving them great respect; but I soon heard them say to one another, This _Franguis_ knows who we are, he hath been a great while in the _Indies_, he knows that we are the PADRYS of the _Indians_. A fine comparison, said I, within myself, made by an impertinent and idolatrous rabble of Men!"—_Bernier_, E.T. 104; [ed. _Constable_, 323].

1675.—"The PADRE (or Minister) complains to me that he hath not that respect and place of preference at Table and elsewhere that is due unto him.... At his request I promised to move it at ye next meeting of ye Councell. What this little Sparke may enkindle, especially should it break out in ye Pulpit, I cannot foresee further than the inflaming of ye dyning Roome w^{ch} sometimes is made almost intollerable hot upon other Acc^{ts}."—_Mr. Puckle's Diary at Metchlapatam_, MS. in India Office.

1676.—"And whiles the French have no settlement near hand, the keeping French PADRYS here instead of Portugueses, destroys the encroaching growth of the Portugall interest, who used to entail Portugalism as well as Christianity on all their converts."—_Madras Consns._, Feb. 29, in _Notes and Exts._ i. p. 46.

1680.—"... where as at the Dedication of a New Church by the French PADRYS and Portugez in 1675 guns had been fired from the Fort in honour thereof, neither PADRY nor Portugez appeared at the Dedication of our Church, nor as much as gave the Governor a visit afterwards to give him joy of it."—_Ibid._ Oct. 28. No. III. p. 37.

c. 1692.—"But their greatest act of tyranny (at Goa) is this. If a subject of these misbelievers dies, leaving young children, and no grown-up son, the children are considered wards of the State. They take them to their places of worship, their churches ... and the PADRIS, that is to say the priests, instruct the children in the Christian religion, and bring them up in their own faith, whether the child be a Mussulman _saiyid_ or a Hindú _bráhman_."—_Kháfi Khán_, in _Elliot_, vii. 345.

1711.—"The Danish PADRE Bartholomew Ziegenbalgh, requests leave to go to Europe in the first ship, and in consideration that he is head of a Protestant Mission, espoused by the Right Reverend the Lord Archbishop of Canterbury ... we have presumed to grant him his passage."—In _Wheeler_, ii. 177.

1726.—"May 14. Mr. Leeke went with me to St. Thomas's Mount.... We conversed with an old PADRE from Silesia, who had been 27 years in India...."—_Diary of the Missionary Schultze_ (in _Notices of Madras_, &c., 1858), p. 14.

" "May 17. The minister of the King of Pegu called on me. From him I learned, through an interpreter, that Christians of all nations and professions have perfect freedom at Pegu; that even in the Capital two French, two Armenian, and two Portuguese PATRES, have their churches...."—_Ibid._ p. 15.

1803.—"Lord Lake was not a little pleased at the Begum's loyalty, and being a little elevated by the wine ... he gallantly advanced, and to the utter dismay of her attendants, took her in his arms, and kissed her.... Receiving courteously the proffered attention, she turned calmly round to her astonished attendants—'It is,' said she, 'the salute of a PADRE (or priest) to his daughter.'"—_Skinner's Mil. Mem._ i. 293.

1809.—"The PADRE, who is a half cast Portuguese, informed me that he had three districts under him."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 329.

1830.—"Two fat naked Brahmins, bedaubed with paint, had been importuning me for money ... upon the ground that they were PADRES."—_Mem. of Col. Mountain_, iii.

1876.—"There is PADRE Blunt for example,—we always call them PADRES in India, you know,—makes a point of never going beyond ten minutes, at any rate during the hot weather."—_The Dilemma_, ch. xliii.

PADSHAW, PODSHAW, s. Pers.—Hind. _pādishāh_ (Pers. _pād_, _pāt_ 'throne,' _shāh_, 'prince'), an emperor; the Great MOGUL (q.v.); a king.

[1553.—"PATXIAH." See under POORUB.

[1612.—"He acknowledges no PADENSHAWE or King in Christendom but the Portugals' King."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 175.]

c. 1630.—"... round all the roome were placed tacite Mirzoes, Chauns, Sultans, and Beglerbegs, above threescore; who like so many inanimate Statues sat crosse-legg'd ... their backs to the wall, their eyes to a constant object; not daring to speak to one another, sneeze, cough, spet, or the like, it being held in the POTSHAW'S presence a sinne of too great presumption."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1638, p. 169. At p. 171 of the same we have POTSHAUGH; and in the edition of 1677, in a vocabulary of the language spoken in Hindustan, we have "King, PATCHAW." And again: "Is the King at Agra?... PUNSHAW _Agrameha_?" (_Pādishāh Agrā meṅ hai?_)—99-100.

1673.—"They took upon them without controul the Regal Dignity and Title of PEDESHAW."—_Fryer_, 166.

1727.—"Aureng-zeb, who is now saluted PAUTSHAW, or Emperor, by the Army, notwithstanding his Father was then alive."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 175, [ed. 1744].

PAGAR, s.

A. This word, the Malay for a 'fence, enclosure,' occurs in the sense of 'factory' in the following passage:

1702.—"Some other out-PAGARS or Factories, depending upon the Factory of Bencoolen."—_Charters of the E.I. Co._ p. 324.

In some degree analogous to this use is the application, common among Hindustani-speaking natives, of the Hind.—Arab. word _iḥāṭa_, 'a fence, enclosure,' in the sense of _Presidency_: _Bombay kī_ [_kā_] _iḥāṭa_, _Bangāl kī_ [_kā_] _iḥāta_, a sense not given in Shakespear or Forbes; [it is given in Fallon and Platts. Mr. Skeat points out that the Malay word is _pāgar_, 'a fence,' but that it is not used in the sense of a 'factory' in the Malay Peninsula. In the following passage it seems to mean 'factory stock':

[1615.—"The King says that at her arrival he will send them their house and PAGARR upon rafts to them."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 151.]

B. (_pagār_). This word is in general use in the Bombay domestic dialect for wages, Mahr. _pagār_. It is obviously the Port. verb _pagar_, 'to pay,' used as a substantive.

[1875.—"... the heavy-browed sultana of some Gangetic station, whose stern look palpably interrogates the amount of your monthly PAGGAR."—_Wilson, Abode of Snow_, 46.]

PAGODA, s. This obscure and remarkable word is used in three different senses.

A. An idol temple; and also specifically, in China, a particular form of religious edifice, of which the famous "Porcelain tower" of Nanking, now destroyed, may be recalled as typical. In the 17th century we find the word sometimes misapplied to places of Mahommedan worship, as by Faria-y-Sousa, who speaks of the "PAGODA of Mecca."

B. An idol.

C. A coin long current in S. India. The coins so called were both gold and silver, but generally gold. The gold _pagoda_ was the _varāha_ or _hūn_ of the natives (see HOON); the former name (fr. Skt. for 'boar') being taken from the Boar avatār of Vishnu, which was figured on a variety of ancient coins of the South; and the latter signifying 'gold,' no doubt identical with _sonā_, and an instance of the exchange of _h_ and _s_. (See also PARDAO.)

Accounts at Madras down to 1818 were kept in _pagodas_, _fanams_, and _kās_ (see CASH); 8 _kās_ = 1 _fanam_, 42 _fanams_ = 1 _pagoda_. In the year named the rupee was made the standard coin.[195] The pagoda was then reckoned as equivalent to 3½ rupees.

In the suggestions of etymologies for this word, the first and most prominent meaning alone has almost always been regarded, and doubtless justly; for the other uses are deduceable from it. Such suggestions have been many.

Thus Chinese origins have been propounded in more than one form; _e.g._ _Pao-t'ah_, 'precious pile,' and _Poh-kuh-t'ah_ ('white-bones-pile').[196] Anything can be made out of Chinese monosyllables in the way of etymology; though no doubt it is curious that the first at least of these phrases is actually applied by the Chinese to the polygonal towers which in China foreigners specially call _pagodas_. Whether it be possible that this phrase may have been in any measure formed in imitation of _pagoda_, so constantly in the mouth of foreigners, we cannot say (though it would not be a solitary example of such borrowing—see NEELAM); but we can say with confidence that it is impossible _pagoda_ should have been taken from the Chinese. The quotations from Corsali and Barbosa set that suggestion at rest.

Another derivation is given (and adopted by so learned an etymologist as H. Wedgwood) from the Portuguese _pagão_, 'a pagan.' It is possible that this word may have helped to facilitate the Portuguese adoption of _pagoda_; it is not possible that it should have given rise to the word. A third theory makes _pagoda_ a transposition of DAGOBA. The latter is a genuine word, used in Ceylon, but known in Continental India, since the extinction of Buddhism, only in the most rare and exceptional way.

A fourth suggestion connects it with the Skt. _bhagavat_, 'holy, divine,' or _Bhagavatī_, applied to Durgā and other goddesses; and a fifth makes it a corruption of the Pers. _but-kadah_, 'idol-temple'; a derivation given below by Ovington. There can be little doubt that the origin really lies between these two.

The two contributors to this book are somewhat divided on this subject:—

(1) Against the derivation from _bhagavat_, 'holy,' or the Mahr. form _bhagavant_, is the objection that the word _pagode_ from the earliest date has the final _e_, which was necessarily pronounced. Nor is _bhagavant_ a name for a temple in any language of India. On the other hand _but-kadah_ is a phrase which the Portuguese would constantly hear from the Mahommedans with whom they chiefly had to deal on their first arrival in India. This is the view confidently asserted by Reinaud (_Mémoires sur l'Inde_, 90), and is the etymology given by Littré.

As regards the coins, it has been supposed, naturally enough, that they were called _pagoda_, because of the figure of a temple which some of them bear; and which indeed was borne by the _pagodas_ of the Madras Mint, as may be seen in Thomas's _Prinsep_, pl. xlv. But in fact coins with this impress were first struck at Ikkeri at a date _after_ the word _pagode_ was already in use among the Portuguese. However, nearly all bore on one side a rude representation of a Hindu deity (see _e.g._ Kṛishṇarāja's pagoda, c. 1520), and sometimes two such images. Some of these figures are specified by Prinsep (_Useful Tables_, p. 41), and Varthema speaks of them: "These _pardai_ ... have two devils stamped upon one side of them, and certain letters on the other" (115-116). Here the name may have been appropriately taken from _bhagavat_ (A. B.).

On the other hand, it may be urged that the resemblance between _but-kadah_ and _pagode_ is hardly close enough, and that the derivation from _but-kadah_ does not easily account for all the uses of the word. Indeed, it seems admitted in the preceding paragraph that _bhagavat_ may have had to do with the origin of the word in one of its meanings.

Now it is not possible that the word in all its applications may have had its origin from _bhagavat_, or some current modification of that word? We see from Marco Polo that such a term was currently known to foreign visitors of S. India in his day—a term almost identical in sound with _pagoda_, and bearing in his statement a religious application, though not to a temple.[197] We thus have four separate applications of the word _pacauta_, or _pagoda_, picked up by foreigners on the shores of India from the 13th century downwards, viz. to a Hindu ejaculatory formula, to a place of Hindu worship, to a Hindu idol, to a Hindu coin with idols represented on it. Is it not possible that _all_ are to be traced to _bhagavat_, 'sacred,' or to _Bhagavat_ and _Bhagavatī_, used as names of divinities—of Buddha in Buddhist times or places, of Kṛishṇa and Durgā in Brahminical times and places? (uses which are _fact_). How common was the use of _Bhagavatī_ as the name of an object of worship in Malabar, may be seen from an example. Turning to Wilson's work on the Mackenzie MSS., we find in the list of local MS. tracts belonging to Malabar, the repeated occurrence of _Bhagavati_ in this way. Thus in this section of the book we have at p. xcvi. (vol. ii.) note of an account "of a temple of _Bhagavati_"; at p. ciii. "Temple of Mannadi _Bhagavati_ goddess ..."; at p. civ. "Temple of Mangombu _Bhagavati_ ..."; "Temple of Paddeparkave _Bhagavati_ ..."; "Temple of the goddess Pannáyennar Kave _Bhagavati_ ..."; "Temple of the goddess Patáli _Bhagavati_ ..."; "Temple of _Bhagavati_ ..."; p. cvii., "Account of the goddess _Bhagavati_ at, &c. ..."; p. cviii., "Acc. of the goddess Yalanga _Bhagavati_," "Acc. of the goddess Vallur _Bhagavati_." The term _Bhagavati_ seems thus to have been very commonly attached to objects of worship in Malabar temples (see also _Fra Paolino_, p. 79 and p. 57, quoted under C. below). And it is very interesting to observe that, in a paper on "Coorg Superstitions," Mr. Kittel notices parenthetically that Bhadrā Kālī (_i.e._ Durgā) is "also called POGŎDI, _Pavodi_, a _tadbhava_ of BAGAVATI" (_Ind. Antiq._ ii. 170)—an incidental remark that seems to bring us very near the possible origin of _pagode_. It is most probable that some form like _pogodi_ or _pagode_ was current in the mouths of foreign visitors before the arrival of the Portuguese; but if the word was of Portuguese origin there may easily have been some confusion in their ears between _Bagavati_ and _but-kadah_ which shaped the new word. It is no sufficient objection to say that _bhagavati_ is not a term applied by the natives to a temple; the question is rather what misunderstanding and mispronunciation by foreigners of a native term may probably have given rise to the term?—(H. Y.)

Since the above was written, Sir Walter Elliot has kindly furnished a note, of which the following is an extract:—

"I took some pains to get at the origin of the word when at Madras, and the conclusion I came to was that it arose from the term used generally for the object of their worship, viz., _Bhagavat_, 'god'; _bhagavati_, 'goddess.'

"Thus, the Hindu temple with its lofty _gopuram_ or propylon at once attracts attention, and a stranger enquiring what it was, would be told, 'the house or place of _Bhagavat_.' The village divinity throughout the south is always a form of _Durga_, or, as she is commonly called, simply '_Devi_' (or _Bhagavati_, 'the goddess').... In like manner a figure of _Durga_ is found on most of the gold _Huns_ (_i.e._ _pagoda_ coins) current in the Dakhan, and a foreigner inquiring what such a coin was, or rather what was the form stamped upon it, would be told it was 'the goddess,' _i.e._, it was '_Bhagavati_.'"

As my friend, Dr. Burnell, can no longer represent his own view, it seems right here to print the latest remarks of his on the subject that I can find. They are in a letter from Tanjore, dated March 10, 1880:—

"I think I overlooked a remark of yours regarding my observation that the _e_ in _Pagode_ was pronounced, and that this was a difficulty in deriving it from _Bhagavat_. In modern Portuguese _e_ is _not_ sounded, but verses show that it was in the 16th century. Now, if there is a final vowel in _Pagoda_, it must come from _Bhagavati_; but though the goddess is and was worshipped to a certain extent in S. India, it is by other names (_Amma_, &c.). Gundert and Kittel give '_Pogodi_' as a name of a Durga temple, but assuredly this is no corruption of _Bhagavati_, but _Pagoda_! Malayālam and Tamil are full of such adopted words. _Bhagavati_ is little used, and the goddess is too insignificant to give rise to _pagoda_ as a general name for a temple.

"_Bhagavat_ can only appear in the S. Indian languages in its (Skt.) nominative form _bhagavān_ (Tamil _paγuvān_). As such, in Tamil and Malayālam it equals Vishnu or Siva, which would suit. But _pagoda_ can't be got out of _bhagavān_; and if we look to the N. Indian forms, _bhagavant_, &c., there is the difficulty about the _e_, to say nothing about the _nt_."

The use of the word by Barbosa at so early a date as 1516, and its application to a particular class of temples must not be overlooked.

A.—

1516.—"There is another sect of people among the Indians of Malabar, which is called _Cujaven_ [_Kushavan_, _Logan_, _Malabar_, i. 115].... Their business is to work at baked clay, and tiles for covering houses, with which the temples and Royal buildings are roofed.... Their idolatry and their idols are different from those of the others; and in their houses of prayer they perform a thousand acts of witchcraft and necromancy; they call their temples PAGODES, and they are separate from the others."—_Barbosa_, 135. This is from Lord Stanley of Alderley's translation from a Spanish MS. The Italian of Ramusio reads: "nelle loro orationi fanno molte strigherie e necromãtie, le quali chiamano PAGODES, differenti assai dall' altre" (_Ramusio_, i. f. 308_v_.). In the Portuguese MS. published by the Lisbon Academy in 1812, the words are altogether absent; and in interpolating them from Ramusio the editor has given the same sense as in Lord Stanley's English.

1516.—"In this city of Goa, and all over India, there are an infinity of ancient buildings of the Gentiles, and in a small island near this, called Dinari, the Portuguese, in order to build the city, have destroyed an ancient temple called PAGODE, which was built with marvellous art, and with ancient figures wrought to the greatest perfection in a certain black stone, some of which remain standing, ruined and shattered, because these Portuguese care nothing about them. If I can come by one of these shattered images I will send it to your Lordship, that you may perceive how much in old times sculpture was esteemed in every part of the world."—Letter of _Andrea Corsali_ to _Giuliano de'Medici_, in _Ramusio_, i. f. 177.

1543.—"And with this fleet he anchored at Coulão (see QUILON) and landed there with all his people. And the Governor (Martim Afonso de Sousa) went thither because of information he had of a PAGODE which was quite near in the interior, and which, they said, contained much treasure.... And the people of the country seeing that the Governor was going to the PAGODE, they sent to offer him 50,000 pardaos not to go."—_Correa_, iv. 325-326.

1554.—"And for the monastery of Santa Fee 845,000 _reis_ yearly, besides the revenue of the PAGUODES which His Highness bestowed upon the said House, which gives 600,000 reis a year...."—_Botelho, Tombo_, in _Subsidios_, 70.

1563.—"They have (at Baçaim) in one part a certain island called Salsete, where there are two PAGODES or houses of idolatry."—_Garcia_, f. 211_v_.

1582.—"... PAGODE, which is the house of praiers to their Idolls."—_Castañeda_ (by N. L.), f. 34.

1594.—"And as to what you have written to me, viz., that although you understand how necessary it was for the increase of the Christianity of those parts to destroy all the PAGODAS and mosques (_pagodes e mesquitas_), which the Gentiles and the Moors possess in the fortified places of this State...." (The King goes on to enjoin the Viceroy to treat this matter carefully with some theologians and canonists of those parts, but not to act till he shall have reported to the King).—Letter from the _K. of Portugal_ to the _Viceroy_, in _Arch. Port. Orient._, Fasc. 3, p. 417.

1598.—"... houses of Diuels [Divels] which they call PAGODES."—_Linschoten_, 22; [Hak. Soc. i. 70].

1606.—Gouvea uses PAGODE both for a temple and for an idol, _e.g._, see f. 46_v_, f. 47.

1630.—"That he should erect PAGODS for God's worship, and adore images under green trees."—_Lord, Display_, &c.

1638.—"There did meet us at a great POGODO or PAGOD, which is a famous and sumptuous Temple (or Church)."—_W. Bruton_, in _Hakl._ v. 49.

1674.—"Thus they were carried, many flocking about them, to a PAGOD or Temple" (_pagode_ in the orig.).—_Steven's Faria y Sousa_, i. 45.

1674.—"PAGOD (quasi Pagan-God), an Idol or false god among the Indians; also a kind of gold coin among them equivalent to our Angel."—_Glossographia_, &c., by T. S.

1689.—"A PAGODA ... borrows its Name from the _Persian_ word _Pout_, which signifies Idol; thence _Pout-Gheda_, a Temple of False Gods, and from thence PAGODE."—_Ovington_, 159.

1696.—"... qui eussent élévé des PAGODES au milieu des villes."—_La Bruyère, Caractères_, ed. _Jouast_, 1881, ii. 306.

[1710.—"In India we use this word pagoda (PAGODES) indiscriminately for idols or temples of the Gentiles."—_Oriente Conquistado_, vol. i. Conq. i. Div. i. 53.]

1717.—"... the PAGODS, or Churches."—_Phillip's Account_, 12.

1727.—"There are many ancient PAGODS or Temples in this country, but there is one very particular which stands upon a little Mountain near _Vizagapatam_, where they worship living Monkies."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 380 [ed. 1744].

1736.—"PÁGOD [incert. etym.], an idol's temple in China."—_Bailey's Dict._ 2nd ed.

1763.—"These divinities are worshipped in temples called PAGODAS in every part of Indostan."—_Orme, Hist._ i. 2.

1781.—"During this conflict (at Chillumbrum), all the Indian females belonging to the garrison were collected at the summit of the highest PAGODA, singing in a loud and melodious chorus hallelujahs, or songs of exhortation, to their people below, which inspired the enemy with a kind of frantic enthusiasm. This, even in the heat of the attack, had a romantic and pleasing effect, the musical sounds being distinctly heard at a considerable distance by the assailants."—_Munro's Narrative_, 222.

1809.—

"In front, with far stretch'd walls, and many a tower, Turret, and dome, and pinnacle elate, The huge PAGODA seemed to load the land." _Kehama_, viii. 4.

[1830.—"... PAGODAS, which are so termed from _paug_, an idol, and _ghoda_, a temple (!)...."—_Mrs. Elwood, Narrative of a Journey Overland from England_, ii. 27.]

1855.—"... Among a dense cluster of palm-trees and small PAGODAS, rises a colossal Gaudama, towering above both, and, Memnon-like, glowering before him with a placid and eternal smile."—_Letters from the Banks of the Irawadee, Blackwood's Mag._, May, 1856.

B.—

1498.—"And the King gave the letter with his own hand, again repeating the words of the oath he had made, and swearing besides by his PAGODES, which are their idols, that they adore for gods...."—_Correa, Lendas_, i. 119.

1582.—"The Divell is oftentimes in them, but they say it is one of their Gods or PAGODES."—_Castañeda_ (tr. by N. L.), f. 37.

[In the following passage from the same author, as Mr. Whiteway points out, the word is used in both senses, a temple and an idol:

"In Goa I have seen this festival in a PAGODA, that stands in the island of Divar, which is called Çapatu, where people collect from a long distance; they bathe in the arm of the sea between the two islands, and they believe ... that on that day the idol (PAGODE) comes to that water, and they cast in for him much betel and many plantains and sugar-canes; and they believe that the idol (PAGODE) eats those things."—_Castanheda_, ii. ch. 34. In the orig., PAGODE when meaning a temple has a small, and when the idol, a capital, _P_.]

1584.—"La religione di queste genti non si intende per esser differenti sette fra loro; hanno certi lor PAGODI che son gli idoli...."—Letter of _Sassetti_, in _De Gubernatis_, 155.

1587.—"The house in which his PAGODE or idol standeth is covered with tiles of silver."—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 391.

1598.—"... The PAGODES, their false and divelish idols."—_Linschoten_, 26; [Hak. Soc. i. 86].

1630.—"... so that the Bramanes under each green tree erect temples to PAGODS...."—_Lord, Display_, &c.

c. 1630.—"Many deformed PAGOTHAS are here worshipped; having this ordinary evasion that they adore not Idols, but the _Deumos_ which they represent."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1665, p. 375.

1664.—

"Their classic model proved a maggot, Their Directory an Indian PAGOD." _Hudibras_, Pt. II. Canto i.

1693.—"... For, say they, what is the PAGODA? it is an image or stone...."—In _Wheeler_, i. 269.

1727.—"... the Girl with the Pot of Fire on her Head, walking all the Way before. When they came to the End of their journey ... where was placed another black stone PAGOD, the Girl set her Fire before it, and run stark mad for a Minute or so."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 274 [ed. 1744].

c. 1737.—

"See thronging millions to the PAGOD run, And offer country, Parent, wife or son." _Pope, Epilogue to Sat._ I.

1814.—"Out of town six days. On my return, find my poor little PAGOD, Napoleon, pushed off his pedestal;—the thieves are in Paris."—Letter of _Byron's_, April 8, in _Moore's Life_, ed. 1832, iii. 21.

C.—

c. 1566.—"Nell' vscir poi li caualli Arabi di Goa, si paga di datio quaranta due PAGODI per cauallo, et ogni PAGODO val otto lire alia nostra moneta; e sono monete d'oro; de modo che li caualli Arabi sono in gran prezzo in que' paesi, come sarebbe trecento quattro cento, cinque cento, e fina mille ducati l'vno."—_C. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 388.

1597.—"I think well to order and decree that the PAGODES which come from without shall not be current unless they be of forty and three points (assay?) conformable to the first issue, which is called of _Agra_, and which is of the same value as that of the _San Tomes_, which were issued in its likeness."—_Edict of the King_, in _Archiv. Port. Orient._ iii. 782.

1598.—"There are yet other sorts of money called PAGODES.... They are Indian and Heathenish money with the picture of a Diuell vpon them, and therefore are called PAGODES...."—_Linschoten_, 54 and 69; [Hak. Soc. i. 187, 242].

1602.—"And he caused to be sent out for the Kings of the Decan and Canara two thousand horses from those that were in Goa, and this brought the King 80,000 PAGODES, for every one had to pay forty as duty. These were imported by the Moors and other merchants from the ports of Arabia and Persia; in entering Goa they are free and uncharged, but on leaving that place they have to pay these duties."—_Couto_, IV. vi. 6.

[ " "... with a sum of gold PAGODES, a coin of the upper country (Balagate), each of which is worth 500 _reis_ (say 11s. 3d.; the usual value was 360 _reis_)."—_Ibid._ VII. i. 11.]

1623.—"... An Indian Gentile Lord called Rama Rau, who has no more in all than 2000 PAGOD [PAYGODS] of annual revenue, of which again he pays about 800 to Venktapà Naieka, whose tributary he is...."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 692; [Hak. Soc. ii. 306].

1673.—"About this time the Rajah ... was weighed in Gold, and poised about 16,000 PAGODS."—_Fryer_, 80.

1676.—"For in regard these PAGODS are very thick, and cannot be clipt, those that are Masters of the trade, take a Piercer, and pierce the PAGOD through the side, halfway or more, taking out of one piece as much Gold as comes to two or three Sous."—_Tavernier_, E.T. 1684, ii. 4; [_Ball_, ii. 92].

1780.—"Sir Thomas Rumbold, Bart., resigned the Government of Fort St. George on the Mg. of the 9th inst., and immediately went on board the General Barker. It is confidently reported that he has not been able to accumulate a very large Fortune, considering the long time he has been at Madrass; indeed people say it amounts to only 17 Lacks and a half of PAGODAS, or a little more than £600,000 sterling."—_Hicky's Bengal Gazette_, April 15.

1785.—"Your servants have no Trade in this country, neither do you pay them high wages, yet in a few years they return to England with many lacs of PAGODAS."—_Nabob of Arcot_, in _Burke's Speech on the Nabob's Debts, Works_, ed. 1852, iv. 18.

1796.—"La Bhagavadi, moneta d'oro, che ha l'immagine della dea Bhagavadi, nome corrotto in PAGODI O PAGODE dagli Europei, è moneta rotonda, convessa in una parte...."—_Fra Paolino,_ 57.

1803.—"It frequently happens that in the bazaar, the star PAGODA exchanges for 4 rupees, and at other times for not more than 3."—_Wellington, Desp._, ed. 1837, ii. 375.

PAGODA-TREE. A slang phrase once current, rather in England than in India, to express the openings to rapid fortune which at one time existed in India. [For the original meaning, see the quotation from Ryklof Van Goens under BO TREE. Mr. Skeat writes: "It seems possible that the idea of a coin tree may have arisen from the practice, among some Oriental nations at least, of making CASH in moulds, the design of which is based on the plan of a tree. On the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula the name _cash-tree_ (_poko' pitis_) is applied to cash cast in this form. Gold and silver tributary trees are sent to Siam by the tributary States: in these the leaves are in the shape of ordinary tree leaves."]

1877.—"India has been transferred from the regions of romance to the realms of fact ... the mines of Golconda no longer pay the cost of working, and the PAGODA-TREE has been stripped of all its golden fruit."—_Blackwood's Magazine_, 575.

1881.—"It might be mistaken ... for the work of some modern architect, built for the Nabob of a couple of generations back, who had enriched himself when the PAGODA-TREE was worth the shaking."—_Sat. Review_, Sept. 3, p. 307.

PAHLAVI, PEHLVI. The name applied to the ancient Persian language in that phase which prevailed from the beginning of the Sassanian monarchy to the time when it became corrupted by the influence of Arabic, and the adoption of numerous Arabic words and phrases. The name _Pahlavi_ was adopted by Europeans from the Parsi use. The language of Western Persia in the time of the Achaemenian kings, as preserved in the cuneiform inscriptions of Persepolis, Behistun, and elsewhere, is nearly akin to the dialects of the ZEND-AVESTA, and is characterised by a number of inflections agreeing with those of the Avesta and of Sanskrit. The dissolution of inflectional terminations is already indicated as beginning in the later Achaemenian inscriptions, and in many parts of the Zend-Avesta, but its course cannot be traced, as there are no inscriptions in Persian language during the time of the Arsacidae; and it is in the inscriptions on rocks and coins of Ardakhshīr-i-Pāpaḳān (A.D. 226-240)—the Ardashīr Babagān of later Persian—that the language emerges in a form of that which is known as Pahlavi. "But, strictly speaking, the medieval Persian language is called Pahlavi when it is written in one of the characters used before the invention of the modern Persian alphabet, and in the peculiarly enigmatical mode adopted in Pahlavi writings.... Like the Assyrians of old, the Persians of Parthian times appear to have borrowed their writing from a foreign race. But, whereas the Semitic Assyrians adopted a Turanian syllabary, these later Aryan Persians accepted a Semitic alphabet. Besides the alphabet, however, which they could use for spelling their own words, they transferred a certain number of complete Semitic words to their writings as representatives of the corresponding words in their own language.... The use of such Semitic words, scattered about in Persian sentences, gives Pahlavi the motley appearance of a compound language.... But there are good reasons for supposing that the language was never spoken as it was written. The spoken language appears to have been pure Persian; the Semitic words being merely used as written representatives, or _logograms_, of the Persian words which were spoken. Thus, the Persians would write _malkân malkâ_, 'King of Kings,' but they would read _shâhân shâh_.... As the Semitic words were merely a Pahlavi mode of writing their Persian equivalents (just as 'viz.' is a mode of writing 'namely' in English[198]), they disappeared with the Pahlavi writing, and the Persians began at once to write all their words with their new alphabet, just as they pronounced them" (_E. W. West, Introd. to Pahlavi Texts_, p. xiii.; _Sacred Books of the East_, vol. v.).[199]

Extant Pahlavi writings are confined to those of the Parsis, translations from the Avesta, and others almost entirely of a religious character. Where the language is transcribed, either in the Avesta characters, or in those of the modern Persian alphabet, and freed from the singular system indicated above, it is called Pazand (see PAZEND); a term supposed to be derived from the language of the Avesta, _paitizanti_, with the meaning 're-explanation.'

Various explanations of the term _Pahlavi_ have been suggested. It seems now generally accepted as a changed form of the _Parthva_ of the cuneiform inscriptions, the Parthia of Greek and Roman writers. The Parthians, though not a Persian race, were rulers of Persia for five centuries, and it is probable that everything ancient, and connected with the period of their rule, came to be called by this name. It is apparently the same word that in the form _pahlav_ and _pahlavān_, &c., has become the appellation of a warrior or champion in both Persian and Armenian, originally derived from that most warlike people the Parthians. (See PULWAUN.) Whether there was any identity between the name thus used, and that of _Pahlava_, which is applied to a people mentioned often in Sanskrit books, is a point still unsettled.

The meaning attached to the term _Pahlavi_ by Orientals themselves, writing in Arabic or Persian (exclusive of Parsis), appears to have been 'Old Persian' in general, without restriction to any particular period or dialect. It is thus found applied to the cuneiform inscriptions at Persepolis. (Derived from _West_ as quoted above, and from _Haug's Essays_, ed. London, 1878.)

c. 930.—"Quant au mot _dirafeh_, en PEHLVI (_al-fahlviya_) c'est à dire dans la langue primitive de la Perse, il signifie drapeau, pique et étendard."—_Maṣ'ūdī_, iii. 252.

c. A.D. 1000.—"Gayômarth, who was called _Girshâh_, because _Gir_ means in PAHLAVÎ _a mountain_...."—_Albîrûnî, Chronology_, 108.

PAILOO, s. The so-called 'triumphal arches,' or gateways, which form so prominent a feature in Chinese landscape, really monumental erections in honour of deceased persons of eminent virtue. Chin. _pai_, 'a tablet,' and _lo_, 'a stage or erection.' Mr. Fergusson has shown the construction to have been derived from India with Buddhism (see _Indian and Eastern Architecture_, pp. 700-702). [So the _Torii_ of Japan seem to represent Skt. _toraṇa_, 'an archway' (see _Chamberlain, Things Japanese_, 3rd ed. 407 _seq._).]

PÁLAGILÁSS, s. This is domestic Hind. for 'Asparagus' (_Panjab N. & Q._ ii. 189).

PALANKEEN, PALANQUIN, s. A box-litter for travelling in, with a pole projecting before and behind, which is borne on the shoulders of 4 or 6 men—4 always in Bengal, 6 sometimes in the Telugu country.

The origin of the word is not doubtful, though it is by no means clear how the Portuguese got the exact form which they have handed over to us. The nasal termination may be dismissed as a usual Portuguese addition, such as occurs in _mandarin_, _Baçaim_ (_Wasai_), and many other words and names as used by them. The basis of all the forms is Skt. _paryañka_, or _palyañka_, 'a bed,' from which we have Hind. and Mahr. _palang_, 'a bed,' Hind. _pālkī_, 'a palankin,' [Telugu _pallakī_, which is perhaps the origin of the Port. word], Pali _pallanko_, 'a couch, bed, litter, or palankin' (_Childers_), and in Javanese and Malay _palañgki_, 'a litter or sedan' (_Crawfurd_).[200]

It is curious that there is a Spanish word _palanca_ (L. Lat. _phalanga_) for a pole used to carry loads on the shoulders of two bearers (called in Sp. _palanquinos_); a method of transport more common in the south than in England, though even in old English the thing has a name, viz. 'a cowle-staff' (see _N.E.D._). It is just possible that this word (though we do not find it in the Portuguese dictionaries) may have influenced the form in which the early Portuguese visitors to India took up the word.

The _thing_ appears already in the _Rāmāyana_. It is spoken of by Ibn Batuta and John Marignolli (both c. 1350), but neither uses this Indian name; and we have not found evidence of _pālkī_ older than Akbar (see _Elliot_, iv. 515, and _Āīn_, i. 254).

As drawn by Linschoten (1597), and as described by Grose at Bombay (c. 1760), the palankin was hung from a bamboo which bent in an arch over the vehicle; a form perhaps not yet entirely obsolete in native use. Williamson (_V. M._, i. 316 _seqq._) gives an account of the different changes in the fashion of palankins, from which it would appear that the present form must have come into use about the end of the 18th century. Up to 1840-50 most people in Calcutta kept a palankin and a set of bearers (usually natives of Orissa—see OORIYA), but the practice and the vehicle are now almost, if not entirely, obsolete among the better class of Europeans. Till the same period the palankin, carried by relays of bearers, laid out by the post-office, or by private CHOWDRIES (q.v.), formed the chief means of accomplishing extensive journeys in India, and the elder of the present writers has undergone hardly less than 8000 or 9000 miles of travelling in going considerable distances (excluding minor journeys) after this fashion. But in the decade named, the palankin began, on certain great roads, to be superseded by the _dawk_-GARRY (a PALKEE-GARRY or palankin-carriage, horsed by ponies posted along the road, under the post-office), and in the next decade to a large extent by railway, supplemented by other wheel-carriage, so that the palankin is now used rarely, and only in out-of-the-way localities.

c. 1340.—"Some time afterwards the pages of the Mistress of the Universe came to me with a _dūla_.... It is like a bed of state ... with a pole of wood above ... this is curved, and made of the Indian cane, solid and compact. Eight men, divided into two relays, are employed in turn to carry one of these; four carry the palankin whilst four rest. These vehicles serve in India the same purpose as donkeys in Egypt; most people use them habitually in going and coming. If a man has his own slaves, he is carried by them; if not he hires men to carry him. There are also a few found for hire in the city, which stand in the bazars, at the Sultan's gate, and also at the gates of private citizens."—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 386.

c. 1350.—"Et eciam homines et mulieres portant super scapulas in lecticis de quibus in Canticis: _ferculum fecit sibi Salomon de lignis Libani_, id est lectulum portatilem sicut portabar ego in Zayton et in India."—_Marignolli_ (see _Cathay_, &c., p. 331).

1515.—"And so assembling all the people made great lamentation, and so did throughout all the streets the women, married and single, in a marvellous way. The captains lifted him (the dead Alboquerque), seated as he was in a chair, and placed him on a PALANQUIM, so that he was seen by all the people; and João Mendes Botelho, a knight of Afonso d'Alboquerque's making (who was) his Ancient, bore the banner before the body."—_Correa, Lendas_, II. i. 460.

1563.—"... and the branches are for the most part straight except some ... which they twist and bend to form the canes for PALENQUINS and portable chairs, such as are used in India."—_Garcia_, f. 194.

1567.—"... with eight Falchines (_fachini_), which are hired to carry the PALANCHINES, eight for a PALANCHINE (_palanchino_), foure at a time."—_C. Frederike_, in _Hakl._ ii. 348.

1598.—"... after them followeth the bryde between two _Commeres_, each in their PALLAMKIN, which is most costly made."—_Linschoten_, 56; [Hak. Soc. i. 196].

1606.—"The PALANQUINS covered with curtains, in the way that is usual in this Province, are occasion of very great offences against God our Lord" ... (the Synod therefore urges the Viceroy to prohibit them altogether, and) ... "enjoins on all ecclesiastical persons, on penalty of sentence of excommunication, and of forfeiting 100 _pardaos_ to the church court[201] not to use the said PALANQUINS, made in the fashion above described."—4th Act of 5th Council of Goa, in _Archiv. Port. Orient._, fasc. 4. (See also under BOY.)

The following is the remonstrance of the city of Goa against the ecclesiastical action in this matter, addressed to the King:

1606.—"Last year this City gave your Majesty an account of how the Archbishop Primate proposed the issue of orders that the women should go with their PALANQUINS uncovered, or at least half uncovered, and how on this matter were made to him all the needful representations and remonstrances on the part of the whole community, giving the reasons against such a proceeding, which were also sent to Your Majesty. Nevertheless in a Council that was held this last summer, they dealt with this subject, and they agreed to petition Your Majesty to order that the said PALANQUINS should travel in such a fashion that it could be seen who was in them.

"The matter is of so odious a nature, and of such a description that Your Majesty should grant their desire in no shape whatever, nor give any order of the kind, seeing this place is a frontier fortress. The reasons for this have been written to Your Majesty; let us beg Your Majesty graciously to make no new rule; and this is the petition of the whole community to Your Majesty."—_Carta, que a Cidade de Goa escrevea a Sua Magestade, o anno de 1606._ In _Archiv. Port. Orient._, fasc. i^o. 2^a. Edição, 2^a. Parte, 186.

1608-9.—"If comming forth of his Pallace, hee (Jahāngīr) get vp on a Horse, it is a signe that he goeth for the Warres; but if he be vp vpon an Elephant or PALANKINE, it will bee but an hunting Voyage."—_Hawkins_, in _Purchas_, i. 219.

1616.—"... _Abdala Chan_, the great governour of _Amadauas_, being sent for to Court in disgrace, comming in Pilgrim's Clothes with fortie servants on foote, about sixtie miles in counterfeit humiliation, finished the rest in his PALLANKEE."—_Sir T. Roe_, in _Purchas_, i. 552; [Hak. Soc. ii. 278, which reads PALANCKEE, with other minor variances].

In Terry's account, in _Purchas_, ii. 1475, we have a PALLANKEE, and (p. 1481) PALANKA; in a letter of Tom Coryate's (1615) PALANKEEN.

1623.—"In the territories of the Portuguese in India it is forbidden to men to travel in PALANKIN (_Palanchino_) as in good sooth too effeminate a proceeding; nevertheless as the Portuguese pay very little attention to their laws, as soon as the rains begin to fall they commence getting permission to use the PALANKIN, either by favour or by bribery; and so, gradually, the thing is relaxed, until at last nearly everybody travels in that way, and at all seasons."—_P. della Valle_, i. 611; [comp. Hak. Soc. i. 31].

1659.—"The designing rascal (Sivají) ... conciliated Afzal Khán, who fell into the snare.... Without arms he mounted the PÁLKÍ, and proceeded to the place appointed under the fortress. He left all his attendants at the distance of a long arrow-shot.... Sivají had a weapon, called in the language of the Dakhin _bichúá_ (_i.e._ 'scorpion') on the fingers of his hand, hidden under his sleeve...."—_Kháfi Khán_, in _Elliot_, vii. 259. See also p. 509.

c. 1660.—"... From _Golconda_ to _Maslipatan_ there is no travelling by waggons.... But instead of Coaches they have the convenience of PALLEKIES, wherein you are carried with more speed and more ease than in any part of India."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 70; [ed. _Ball_, i. 175]. This was quite true up to our own time. In 1840 the present writer was carried on that road, a stage of 25 miles in little more than 5 hours, by 12 bearers, relieving each other by sixes.

1672. The word occurs several times in Baldaeus as PALLINKIJN. Tavernier writes PALLEKI and sometimes PALLANQUIN [_Ball_, i. 45, 175, 390, 392]; Bernier has PALEKY [ed. _Constable_, 214, 283, 372].

1673.—"... ambling after these a great pace, the PALANKEEN-Boys support them, four of them, two at each end of a _Bambo_, which is a long hollow Cane ... arched in the middle ... where hangs the PALENKEEN, as big as an ordinary Couch, broad enough to tumble in...."—_Fryer_, 34.

1678.—"The permission you are pleased to give us to buy a PALLAKEE on the Company's Acct. Shall make use off as Soone as can possiblie meet w^{th} one y^t may be fitt for y^e purpose...."—MS. Letter from _Factory_ at _Ballasore_ to the _Council_ (of Fort St. George), March 9, in India Office.

1682.—Joan Nieuhof has PALAKIJN. _Zee en Lant-Reize_, ii. 78.

[ " "The Agent and Council ... allowed him (Mr. Clarke) 2 pag^{os} p. mensem more towards the defraying his PALLANQUIN charges, he being very crazy and much weaken'd by his sicknesse."—_Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo._ 1st ser. i. 34.]

1720.—"I desire that all the free Merchants of my acquaintance do attend me in their PALENKEENS to the place of burial."—Will of _Charles Davers_, Merchant, in _Wheeler_, ii. 340.

1726.—"... PALANGKYN dragers" (palankin-bearers).—_Valentijn, Ceylon_, 45.

1736.—"PALANQUIN, a kind of chaise or chair, borne by men on their shoulders, much used by the Chinese and other Eastern peoples for travelling from place to place."—_Bailey's Dict._ 2nd ed.

1750-52.—"The greater nobility are carried in a PALEKEE, which looks very like a hammock fastened to a pole."—_Toreen's Voyage to Suratte, China_, &c., ii. 201.

1754-58.—In the former year the Court of Directors ordered that Writers in their Service should "lay aside the expense of either horse, chair, or PALANKEEN, during their Writership." The Writers of Fort William (4th Nov. 1756) remonstrated, begging "to be indulged in keeping a PALANKEEN for such months of the year as the excessive heats and violent rains make it impossible to go on foot without the utmost hazard of their health." The Court, however, replied (11 Feb. 1756): "We very well know that the indulging Writers with PALANKEENS has not a little contributed to the neglect of business we complain of, by affording them opportunities of rambling"; and again, with an obduracy and fervour too great for grammar (March 3, 1758): "We do most positively order and direct (and will admit of no representation for postponing the execution of) that no Writer whatsoever be permitted to keep either PALANKEEN, horse, or chaise, during his Writership, on pain of being immediately dismissed from our service."—In _Long_, pp. 54, 71, 130.

1780.—"The Nawaub, on seeing his condition, was struck with grief and compassion; but ... did not even bend his eyebrow at the sight, but lifting up the curtain of the PALKEE with his own hand, he saw that the eagle of his (Ali Ruza's) soul, at one flight had winged its way to the gardens of Paradise."—_H. of Hydur_, p. 429.

1784.—

"The Sun in gaudy PALANQUEEN Curtain'd with purple, fring'd with gold, Firing no more heav'n's vault serene, Retir'd to sup with Ganges old." _Plassy Plain_, a ballad by _Sir W. Jones_; in _Life and Works_, ed. 1807, ii. 503.

1804.—"Give orders that a PALANQUIN may be made for me; let it be very light, with the pannels made of canvas instead of wood, and the poles fixed as for a dooley. Your Bengally PALANQUINS are so heavy that they cannot be used out of Calcutta."—_Wellington_ (to Major Shaw), June 20.

The following measures a change in ideas. A palankin is now hardly ever used by a European, even of humble position, much less by the opulent:

1808.—"PALKEE. A litter well known in India, called by the English PALANKEEN. A Guzerat punster (aware of no other) hazards the Etymology _Pa-lakhee_ [_pāo-lākhī_] a thing requiring an annual income of a quarter Lack to support it and corresponding luxuries."—_R. Drummond, Illustrations_, &c.

" "The conveyances of the island (Madeira) are of three kinds, viz.: horses, mules, and a litter, ycleped a PALANQUIN, being a chair in the shape of a bathing-tub, with a pole across, carried by two men, as doolees are in the east."—_Welsh, Reminiscences_, i. 282.

1809.—

"Woe! Woe! around their PALANKEEN, As on a bridal day With symphony and dance and song, Their kindred and their friends come on, The dance of sacrifice! The funeral song!" _Kehama_, i. 6.

c. 1830.—"Un curieux indiscret reçut un galet dans la tête; on l'emporta baigné de sang, couché dans un PALANQUIN."—_V. Jacquemont, Corr._ i. 67.

1880.—"It will amaze readers in these days to learn that the Governor-General sometimes condescended to be carried in a PALANQUIN—a mode of conveyance which, except for long journeys away from railroads, has long been abandoned to portly Baboos, and Eurasian clerks."—_Sat. Rev._, Feb. 14.

1881.—"In the great procession on Corpus Christi Day, when the Pope is carried in a PALANQUIN round the Piazza of St. Peter, it is generally believed that the cushions and furniture of the PALANQUIN are so arranged as to enable him to bear the fatigue of the ceremony by sitting whilst to the spectator he appears to be kneeling."—_Dean Stanley, Christian Institutions_, 231.

PALAVERAM, n.p. A town and cantonment 11 miles S.W. from Madras. The name is _Pallāvaram_, probably _Palla-puram_, _Pallavapura_, the 'town of the Pallas'; the latter a caste claiming descent from the Pallavas who reigned at Conjeveram (_Seshagiri Śāstrī_). [The _Madras Gloss._ derives their name from Tam. _pallam_, 'low land,' as they are commonly employed in the cultivation of wet lands.]

PALE ALE. The name formerly given to the beer brewed for Indian use. (See BEER.)

1784.—"London Porter and PALE ALE, light and excellent, Sicca Rupees 150 per hhd."—Advt. in _Seton-Karr_, i. 39.

1793.—"For sale ... PALE ALE (per hhd.) ... Rs. 80."—_Bombay Courier_, Jan. 19.

[1801.—"1. PALE ALE; 2. strong ale; 3. small beer; 4. brilliant beer; 5. strong porter; 6. light porter; 7. brown stout."—Advt. in _Carey, Good Old Days_, i. 147.]

1848.—"Constant dinners, tiffins, PALE ALE, and claret, the prodigious labour of cutchery, and the refreshment of brandy pawnee, which he was forced to take there, had this effect upon Waterloo Sedley."—_Vanity Fair_, ed. 1867, ii. 258.

1853.—"Parmi les cafés, les cabarets, les gargotes, l'on rencontre çà et là une taverne anglaise placardée de sa pancarte de porter simple et double, d'old Scotch ale, d'_East India_ PALE BEER."—_Th. Gautier, Constantinople_, 22.

1867.—

"Pain bis, galette ou panaton, Fromage à la pie ou Stilton, Cidre ou PALE-ALE de Burton, Vin de brie, ou branne-mouton." _Th. Gautier à Ch. Garnier._

PALEMPORE, s. A kind of chintz bed-cover, sometimes made of beautiful patterns, formerly made at various places in India, especially at Sadras and Masulipatam, the importation of which into Europe has become quite obsolete, but under the greater appreciation of Indian manufactures has recently shown some tendency to revive. The etymology is not quite certain,—we know no place of the name likely to have been the eponymic,—and possibly it is a corruption of a hybrid (Hind. and Pers.) _palang-posh_, 'a bed-cover,' which occurs below, and which may have been perverted through the existence of SALEMPORE as a kind of stuff. The probability that the word originated in a perversion of _palang-posh_, is strengthened by the following entry in Bluteau's _Dict._ (_Suppt._ 1727.)

"CHAUDUS or CHAUDEUS são huns panos grandes, que servem para cobrir camas e outras cousas. São pintados de cores muy vistosas, e alguns mais finos, a que chamão PALANGAPUZES. Fabricão-se de algodão em Bengala e Choromandel,"—_i.e._ "_Chaudus_ ou _Chaudeus_" (this I cannot identify, perhaps the same as _Choutar_ among PIECE-GOODS) "are a kind of large cloths serving to cover beds and other things. They are painted with gay colours, and there are some of a finer description which are called PALANGPOSHES," &c.

[For the mode of manufacture at Masulipatam, see _Journ. Ind. Art._ iii. 14. Mr. Pringle (_Madras Selections_, 4th ser. p. 71, and _Diary Ft. St. Geo._ 1st ser. iii. 173) has questioned this derivation. The word may have been taken from the State and town of _Pālanpur_ in Guzerat, which seems to have been an emporium for the manufactures of N. India, which was long noted for chintz of this kind.]

1648.—"Int Governe van _Raga mandraga_ ... werden veel ... SALAMPORIJ ... gemaeckt."—_Van den Broecke_, 87.

1673.—"Staple commodities (at Masulipatam) are calicuts white and painted, PALEMPORES, Carpets."—_Fryer_, 34.

1813.—

"A stain on every bush that bore A fragment of his PALAMPORE, His breast with wounds unnumber'd riven, His back to earth, his face to heaven...." _Byron, The Giaour._

1814.—"A variety of tortures were inflicted to extort a confession; one was a sofa, with a platform of tight cordage in network, covered with a PALAMPORE, which concealed a bed of thorns placed under it: the collector, a corpulent Banian, was then stripped of his _jama_ (see JAMMA), or muslin robe, and ordered to lie down."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ ii. 429; [2nd ed. ii. 54].

1817.—"... these cloths ... serve as coverlids, and are employed as a substitute for the Indian PALEMPORE."—_Raffles, Java_, 171; [2nd ed. i. 191].

[1855.—

"The jewelled amaun of thy zemzem is bare, And the folds of thy PALAMPORE wave in the air." _Bon Gaultier, Eastern Serenade._]

1862.—"Bala posh, or PALANG POSH, quilt or coverlet, 300 to 1000 rupees."—_Punjab Trade Report_, App. p. xxxviii.

1880.—"... and third, the celebrated PALAMPORES, or 'bed-covers,' of Masulipatam, Fatehgarh, Shikarpur, Hazara, and other places, which in point of art decoration are simply incomparable."—_Birdwood, The Industrial Arts of India_, 260.

PALI, s. The name of the sacred language of the Southern Buddhists, in fact, according to their apparently well-founded tradition _Magadhī_, the dialect of what we now call South Bahar, in which Sakya Muni discoursed. It is one of the Prākrits (see PRACRIT) or Aryan vernaculars of India, and has probably been a dead language for nearly 2000 years. _Pāli_ in Skt. means 'a line, row, series'; and by the Buddhists is used for the series of their Sacred Texts. _Pālī-bhāshā_ is then 'the language of the Sacred Texts,' _i.e._ _Magadhī_; and this is called elliptically by the Singhalese PĀLĪ, which we have adopted in like use. It has been carried, as the sacred language, to all the Indo-Chinese countries which have derived their religion from India through Ceylon. _Pālī_ is "a sort of Tuscan among the Prākrits" from its inherent grace and strength (_Childers_). But the analogy to Tuscan is closer still in the parallelism of the modification of Sanskrit words, used in Pālī, to that of Latin words used in Italian.

Robert Knox does not apparently know by that name the Pālī language in Ceylon. He only speaks of the Books of Religion as "being in an eloquent style which the Vulgar people do not understand" (p. 75); and in another passage says: "They have a language something differing from the vulgar tongue (like _Latin_ to us) which their books are writ in" (p. 109).

1689.—"Les uns font valoir le style de leur Alcoran, les autres de leur BÁLI."—_Lettres Edif._ xxv. 61.

1690.—"... this Doubt proceeds from the _Siameses_ understanding two Languages, _viz._, the Vulgar, which is a simple Tongue, consisting almost wholly of Monosyllables, without Conjugation or Declension; and another Language, which I have already spoken of, which to them is a dead Tongue, known only by the Learned, which is called the BALIE Tongue, and which is enricht with the inflexions of words, like the Languages we have in Europe. The terms of Religion and Justice, the names of Offices, and all the Ornaments of the Vulgar Tongue are borrow'd from the BALIE."—_De la Loubère's Siam_, E.T. 1693, p. 9.

1795.—"Of the ancient PÁLLIS, whose language constitutes at the present day the sacred text of Ava, Pegue, and Siam, as well as of several other countries eastward of the Ganges: and of their migration from India to the banks of the Cali, the Nile of Ethiopia, we have but very imperfect information.[202] ... It has been the opinion of some of the most enlightened writers on the languages of the East, that the PALI, the sacred language of the priests of Boodh, is nearly allied to the Shanscrit of the Bramins: and there certainly is much of that holy idiom engrafted on the vulgar language of Ava, by the introduction of the Hindoo religion."—_Symes_, 337-8.

1818.—"The TALAPOINS ... do apply themselves in some degree to study, since according to their rules they are obliged to learn the Sadà, which is the grammar of the PALÌ language or Magatà, to read the Vini, the Padimot ... and the sermons of Godama.... All these books are written in the PALÌ tongue, but the text is accompanied by a Burmese translation. They were all brought into the kingdom by a certain Brahmin from the island of Ceylon."—_Sangermano's Burmese Empire_, p. 141.

[1822.—"... the sacred books of the Buddhists are composed in the BALLI tongue...."—_Wallace, Fifteen Years in India_, 187.]

1837.—"Buddhists are impressed with the conviction that their sacred and classical language, the Mágadhi or PÁLI, is of greater antiquity than the Sanscrit; and that it had attained also a higher state of refinement than its rival tongue had acquired. In support of this belief they adduce various arguments, which, in their judgment, are quite conclusive. They observe that the very word PÁLI signifies original, text, regularity; and there is scarcely a Buddhist scholar in Ceylon, who, in the discussion of this question, will not quote, with an air of triumph, their favourite verse,—

_Sá Mágadhi; múla bhásá_ (&c.).

'There is a language which is the root; ... men and bráhmans at the commencement of the creation, who never before heard nor uttered a human accent, and even the Supreme Buddhos, spoke it: it is Mágadhi.'

"This verse is a quotation from Kachcháyanó's grammar, the oldest referred to in the Páli literature of Ceylon.... Let me ... at once avow, that, exclusive of all philological considerations, I am inclined, on primâ facie evidence—external as well as internal—to entertain an opinion adverse to the claims of the Buddhists on this particular point."—_George Turnour, Introd. to Maháwanso_, p. xxii.

1874.—"The spoken language of Italy was to be found in a number of provincial dialects, each with its own characteristics, the Piedmontese harsh, the Neapolitan nasal, the Tuscan soft and flowing. These dialects had been rising in importance as Latin declined; the birth-time of a new literary language was imminent. Then came Dante, and choosing for his immortal Commedia the finest and most cultivated of the vernaculars, raised it at once to the position of dignity which it still retains. Read Sanskrit for Latin, Magadhese for Tuscan, and the Three Baskets for the Divina Commedia, and the parallel is complete.... Like Italian PALI is at once flowing and sonorous; it is a characteristic of both languages that nearly every word ends in a vowel, and that all harsh conjunctions are softened down by assimilation, elision, or crasis, while on the other hand both lend themselves easily to the expression of sublime and vigorous thought."—_Childers, Preface to Pali Dict._ pp. xiii-xiv.

PALKEE-GARRY, s. A 'palankin-coach,' as it is termed in India; _i.e._ a carriage shaped somewhat like a palankin on wheels; Hind. _pālkī-gāṛī_. The word is however one formed under European influences. ["The system of conveying passengers by palkee carriages and trucks was first established between Cawnpore and Allahabad in May 1843, and extended to Allyghur in November of the same year; Delhi was included in June 1845, Agra and Meerut about the same time; the now-going line not being, however, ready till January 1846" (_Carey, Good Old Days_, ii. 91).]

1878.—"The Governor-General's carriage ... may be jostled by the hired 'PALKI-GHARRY,' with its two wretched ponies, rope harness, nearly naked driver, and wheels whose sinuous motions impress one with the idea that they must come off at the next revolution."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. 38.

This description applies rather to the CRANCHEE (q.v.) than to the palkee-garry, which is (or used to be) seldom so sordidly equipt. [Mr. Kipling's account of the Calcutta _palki gari_ (_Beast and Man_, 192) is equally uncomplimentary.]

PALMYRA, s. The fan-palm (_Borassus flabelliformis_), which is very commonly cultivated in S. India and Ceylon (as it is also indeed in the Ganges valley from Farrukhābād down to the head of the Delta), and hence was called by the Portuguese _par excellence_, _palmeira_ or 'the palm-tree.' Sir J. Hooker writes: "I believe this palm is nowhere wild in India; and have always suspected that it, like the tamarind, was introduced from Africa." [So _Watt, Econ. Dict._ i. 504.] It is an important tree in the economy of S. India, Ceylon, and parts of the Archipelago as producing JAGGERY (q.v.) or 'palm-sugar'; whilst the wood affords rafters and laths, and the leaf gives a material for thatch, mats, umbrellas, fans, and a substitute for paper. Its minor uses are many: indeed it is supposed to supply nearly all the wants of man, and a Tamil proverb ascribes to it 801 uses (see Ferguson's _Palmyra-Palm of Ceylon_, and _Tennent's Ceylon_, i. 111, ii. 519 _seqq._; also see BRAB).

1563.—"... A ilha de Ceilão ... ha muitas PALMEIRAS."—_Garcia_, ff. 65_v_-66.

1673.—"Their Buildings suit with the Country and State of the inhabitants, being mostly contrived for Conveniency: the Poorer are made of Boughs and _ollas_ of the PALMEROES."—_Fryer_, 199.

1718.—"... Leaves of a Tree called PALMEIRA."—_Prop. of the Gospel in the East_, iii. 85.

1756.—"The interval was planted with rows of PALMIRA, and coco-nut trees."—_Orme_, ii. 90, ed. 1803.

1860.—"Here, too, the beautiful PALMYRA palm, which abounds over the north of the Island, begins to appear."—_Tennent's Ceylon_, ii. 54.

PALMYRA POINT, n.p. Otherwise called Pt. Pedro, [a corruption of the Port. _Punta das Pedras_, 'the rocky cape,' a name descriptive of the natural features of the coast (_Tennent_, ii. 535)]. This is the N.E. point of Ceylon, the high palmyra trees on which are conspicuous.

PALMYRAS, POINT, n.p. This is a headland on the Orissa coast, quite low, but from its prominence at the most projecting part of the combined Mahānadī and Brāhmaṇī delta an important landmark, especially in former days, for ships bound from the south for the mouth of the Hoogly, all the more for the dangerous shoal off it. A point of the Mahānadī delta, 24 miles to the south-west, is called _False Point_, from its liability to be mistaken for P. Palmyras.

1553.—"... o CABO Segógora, a que os nossos chamam DAS PALMEIRAS por humas que alli estam, as quaes os navigantes notam por lhes dar conhecimento da terra. E deste cabo ... fazemos fim do Reyno Orixá."—_Barros_, I. ix. 1.

1598.—"... 2 miles (Dutch) before you come to the POINT OF PALMERIAS, you shall see certaine blacke houels standing vppon a land that is higher than all the land thereabouts, and from thence to the Point it beginneth againe to be low ground and ... you shall see some small (but not ouer white) sandie Downes ... you shall finde being right against the POINT DE PALMERIAS ... that vpon the point there is neyther tree nor bush, and although it hath the name of the Point of Palm-trees, it hath notwithstanding right forth, but one Palme tree."—_Linschoten_, 3d Book, ch. 12.

[c. 1665.—"Even the _Portuguese_ of _Ogouli_ (see HOOGLY), in _Bengale_, purchased without scruple these wretched captives, and the horrid traffic was transacted in the vicinity of the island of _Galles_, near CAPE DAS PALMAS."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 176.]

1823.—"It is a large delta, formed by the mouths of the Maha-Nuddee and other rivers, the northernmost of which insulates CAPE PALMIRAS."—_Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 88.

[PAMBRE, s. An article of dress which seems to have been used for various purposes, as a scarf, and perhaps as a turban. Mr. Yusuf Ali (_Monograph on Silk Fabrics_, 81) classes it among 'fabrics which are simply wrapped over the head and shoulders by men and women'; and he adds: "The PAMRI is used by women and children, generally amongst Hindus." His specimens are some 3 yards long by 1 broad, and are made of pure silk or silk and cotton, with an ornamental border. The word does not appear in the Hind. dictionaries, but Molesworth has Mahr. _pāmarī_, 'a sort of silk cloth.'

[1616.—"He covered my head with his PAMBRE."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 344.]

For some of the following quotations and notes I am indebted to Mr. W. Foster.

[1617.—"Antelopes and ramshelles,[203] which bear the finest wool in the world, with which they make very delicate mantles, called PAWMMERYS."—_Joseph Salbank to the E. India Co._, Agra, Nov. 22, 1617; India Office Records, O. C., No. 568.

[1627.—"L'on y [Kashmír] travaille aussi plusieurs VOMERIS [misprint for POMERIS, which he elsewhere mentions as a stuff from Kashmir and Lahore], qui sont des pieces d'estoffes longues de trois aulnes, et largers de deux, faite de laine de moutons, qui croit au derriere de ces bestes, et qui est aussi fine que de la soye: on tient ces estoffes exposées au froid pendant l'hyver: elles ont un beau lustre, semblables aux tabis de nos cartiers."—_François Pelsart_, in _Thevenot's Rélations de divers Voyages_, vol. i. pt. 2.

[1634.—A letter in the India Office of Dec. 29 mentions that the Governor of Surat presented to the two chief Factors a horse and "a coat and PAMORINE" apiece.

[ " O. C., No. 1543A (I. O. Records) mentions the presentation to the President of Surat of a "coat and PAMORINE."

[1673.—"A couple of PAMERINS, which are fine mantles."—_Fryer's New Account_, p. 79; also see 177; in 112 RAMERIN.

[1766.—"... a lungee (see LOONGHEE) or clout, barely to cover their nakedness, and a PAMREE or loose mantle to throw over their shoulders, or to lye on upon the ground."—_Grose_, 2nd ed. ii. 81.]

PANCHĀÑGAM, s. Skt. = 'quinque-partite.' A native almanac in S. India is called so, because it contains information on five subjects, viz. Solar Days, Lunar Days, Asterisms, Yogas, and _karaṇas_ (certain astrological divisions of the days of a month). _Panchanga_ is used also, at least by Buchanan below, for the Brahman who keeps and interprets the almanac for the villagers. [This should be Skt. _pañchāngī_.]

1612.—"Every year they make new almanacs for the eclipses of the Sun and of the Moon, and they have a perpetual one which serves to pronounce their auguries, and this they call PANCHAGÃO."—_Couto_, V. vi. 4.

1651.—"The Bramins, in order to know the good and bad days, have made certain writings after the fashion of our Almanacks, and these they call PANJANGAM."—_Rogerius_, 55. This author gives a specimen (pp. 63-69).

1800.—"No one without consulting the PANCHANGA, or almanac-keeper, knows when he is to perform the ceremonies of religion."—_Buchanan's Mysore_, &c., i. 234.

PANDAL, PENDAUL, s. A shed. Tamil _pandal_, [Skt. _bandh_, 'to bind'].

1651.—"... it is the custom in this country when there is a Bride in the house to set up before the door certain stakes somewhat taller than a man, and these are covered with lighter sticks on which foliage is put to make a shade.... This arrangement is called a PANDAEL in the country speech."—_Rogerius_, 12.

1717.—"Water-BANDELS, which are little sheds for the Conveniency of drinking Water."—_Phillips's Account_, 19.

1745.—"Je suivis la procession d'un peu loin, et arrivé aux sepultures, j'y vis un PANDEL ou tente dressée, sur la fosse du defunt; elle était ornée de branches de figuier, de toiles peintes, &c. L'intérieur était garnie de petites lampes allumées."—_Norbert, Mémoires_, iii. 32.

1781.—"Les gens riches font construir devant leur porte un autre PENDAL."—_Sonnerat_, ed. 1782, i. 134.

1800.—"I told the farmer that, as I meant to make him pay his full rent, I could not take his fowl and milk without paying for them; and that I would not enter his PUNDULL, because he had not paid the labourers who made it."—Letter of _Sir T. Munro_, in _Life_, i. 283.

1814.—"There I beheld, assembled in the same PANDAUL, or reposing under the friendly banian-tree, the _Gosannee_ (see GOSAIN) in a state of nudity, the _Yogee_ (see JOGEE) with a lark or paroquet his sole companion for a thousand miles."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ ii. 465; [2nd ed. ii. 72. In ii. 109 he writes PENDALL].

1815.—"PANDAULS were erected opposite the two principal fords on the river, where under my medical superintendence skilful natives provided with eau-de-luce and other remedies were constantly stationed."—_Dr. M‘Kenzie_, in _Asiatic Researches_, xiii. 329.

PANDÁRAM, s. A Hindu ascetic mendicant of the (so-called) Śūdra, or even of a lower caste. A priest of the lower Hindu castes of S. India and Ceylon. Tamil, _paṇḍāram_. C. P. Brown says the _Paṇḍāram_ is properly a Vaishnava, but other authors apply the name to Śaiva priests. [The _Madras Gloss._ derives the word from Skt. _pāṇḍu-ranga_, 'white-coloured.' Messrs. Cox and Stuart (_Man. of N. Arcot._ i. 199) derive it from Skt. _bhāṇḍagāra_, 'a temple-treasury,' wherein were employed those who had renounced the world. "The Pandārams seem to receive numerous recruits from the Śaivite Śúdra castes, who choose to make a profession of piety and wander about begging. They are, in reality, very lax in their modes of life, often drinking liquor and eating animal food furnished by any respectable Śúdra. They often serve in Śiva temples, where they make up garlands of flowers to decorate the lingam, and blow brass trumpets when offerings are made or processions take place" (_ibid._).]

1711.—"... But the destruction of 50 or 60,000 pagodas worth of grain ... and killing the PANDARRUM; these are things which make his demands really carry too much justice with them."—Letter in _Wheeler_, ii. 163.

1717.—"... Bramans, PANTARONGAL, and other holy men."—_Phillips's Account_, 18. The word is here in the Tamil plural.

1718.—"Abundance of Bramanes, PANTARES, and Poets ... flocked together."—_Propn. of the Gospel_, ii. 18.

1745.—"On voit ici quelquefois les PANDARAMS ou Penitens qui ont été en pélérinage à Bengale; quand ils retournent ils apportent ici avec grand soin de l'eau du _Gange_ dans des pots ou vases bien formés."—_Norbert, Mém._ iii. 28.

c. 1760.—"The PANDARAMS, the Mahometan priests, and the Bramins thomselves yield to the force of truth."—_Grose_, i. 252.

1781.—"Les PANDARONS ne sont pas moins révérés que les _Saniasis_. Ils sont de la secte de Chiven, se barbouillent toute la figure, la poitrine, et les bras avec des cendres de bouze de vache," &c.—_Sonnerat_, 8vo. ed., ii. 113-114.

1798.—"The other figure is of a PANDARAM or Senassey, of the class of pilgrims to the various pagodas."—_Pennant's View of Hindostan_, preface.

1800.—"In Chera the _Pújáris_ (see POOJAREE) or priests in these temples are all PANDARUMS, who are the _Súdras_ dedicated to the service of Siva's temples...."—_Buchanan's Mysore_, &c., ii. 338.

1809.—"The chief of the pagoda (Rameswaram), or PANDARAM, waiting on the beach."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 338.

1860.—"In the island of Nainativoe, to the south-west of Jafna, there was till recently a little temple, dedicated to the goddess Naga Tambiran, in which consecrated serpents were tenderly reared by the PANDARAMS, and daily fed at the expense of the worshippers."—_Tennent's Ceylon_, i. 373.

PANDARĀNI, n.p. The name of a port of Malabar of great reputation in the Middle Ages, a name which has gone through many curious corruptions. Its position is clear enough from Varthema's statement that an uninhabited island stood opposite at three leagues distance, which must be the "Sacrifice Rock" of our charts. [The _Madras Gloss._ identifies it with Collam.] The name appears upon no modern map, but it still attaches to a miserable fishing village on the site, in the form PANTALĀNĪ (approx. lat. 11° 26′), a little way north of Koilandi. It is seen below in Ibn Batuta's notice that Pandarāni afforded an exceptional shelter to shipping during the S.W. monsoon. This is referred to in an interesting letter to one of the present writers from his friend Col. (now Lt.-Gen.) R. H. Sankey, C.B., R.E., dated Madras, 13th Feby., 1881: "One very extraordinary feature on the coast is the occurrence of mud-banks in from 1 to 6 fathoms of water, which have the effect of breaking both surf and swell to such an extent that ships can run into the patches of water so sheltered at the very height of the monsoon, when the elements are raging, and not only find a perfectly still sea, but are able to land their cargoes.... Possibly the snugness of some of the harbours frequented by the Chinese junks, such as PANDARANI, may have been mostly due to banks of this kind? By the way, I suspect your 'Pandarani' was nothing but the roadstead of Coulete (Coulandi or Quelande of our Atlas). The Master Attendant who accompanied me, appears to have a good opinion of it as an anchorage, and as well sheltered." [See _Logan, Malabar_, i. 72.]

c. 1150.—"FANDARINA is a town built at the mouth of a river which comes from _Manibár_ (see MALABAR), where vessels from India and Sind cast anchor. The inhabitants are rich, the markets well supplied, and trade flourishing."—_Edrisi_, in _Elliot_, i. 90.

1296.—"In the year (1296) it was prohibited to merchants who traded in fine or costly products with Maparh (Ma'bar or Coromandel), Peï-nan (?) and FANTALAINA, three foreign kingdoms, to export any one of them more than the value of 50,000 _ting_ in paper money."—_Chinese Annals of the Mongol Dynasty_, quoted by _Pauthier, Marc Pol_, 532.

c. 1300.—"Of the cities on the shore the first is Sindábúr, then Faknúr, then the country of Manjarúr, then the country of Hílí, then the country of (FANDARAINA[204])."—_Rashíduddín_, in _Elliot_, i. 68.

c. 1321.—"And the forest in which the pepper groweth extendeth for a good 18 days' journey, and in that forest there be two cities, the one whereof is called FLANDRINA, and the other _Cyngilin_" (see SHINKALI).—_Friar Odoric_, in _Cathay_, &c., 75.

c. 1343.—"From Boddfattan we proceeded to FANDARAINA, a great and fine town with gardens and bazars. The Musulmans there occupy three quarters, each having its mosque.... It is at this town that the ships of China pass the winter" (_i.e._ the S.W. monsoon).—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 88. (Compare _Roteiro_ below.)

c. 1442.—"The humble author of this narrative having received his order of dismissal departed from Calicut by sea, after having passed the port of BENDINANEH (read BANDARĀNAH, and see MANGALORE, A) situated on the coast of Melabar, (he) reached the port of Mangalor...."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _India in XVth Cent._, 20.

1498.—"... hum lugar que se chama PANDARANY ... por que alii estava bom porto, e que alii nos amarassemos ... e que era costume que os navios que vinham a esta terra pousasem alii por estarem seguros...."—_Roteiro de Vasco da Gama_, 53.

1503.—"Da poi feceno vela et in vn porto de dicto Re chiamato FUNDARANE amazorno molta gẽte cõ artelaria et deliberorno andare verso il regno de Cuchin...."—_Letter of King Emanuel_, p. 5.

c. 1506.—"Questo capitanio si trovò nave 17 de mercadanti Mori in uno porto se chima PANIDARAMI, e combattè con queste le quali se messeno in terra; per modo che questo capitanio mandò tutti li soi copani ben armadi con un baril de polvere per cadaun copano, e mise fuoco dentro dette navi de Mori; e tutte quelle brasolle, con tutte quelle spezierie che erano carghe per la Mecha, e s'intende ch'erano molto ricche...."—_Leonardo Ca' Masser_, 20-21.

1510.—"Here we remained two days, and then departed, and went to a place which is called PANDARANI, distant from this one day's journey, and which is subject to the King of Calicut. This place is a wretched affair, and has no port."—_Varthema_, 153.

1516.—"Further on, south south-east, is another Moorish place which is called PANDARANI, in which also there are many ships."—_Barbosa_, 152.

In Rowlandson's Translation of the _Tohfat-ul-Majāhidīn_ (_Or. Transl. Fund_, 1833), the name is habitually misread _Fundreeah_ for FUNDARAINA.

1536.—"Martim Afonso ... ran along the coast in search of the _paraos_, the galleys and caravels keeping the sea, and the foists hugging the shore. And one morning they came suddenly on Cunhalemarcar with 25 _paraos_, which the others had sent to collect rice; and on catching sight of them as they came along the coast towards the Isles of PANDARANE, Diogo de Reynoso, who was in advance of our foists, he and his brother ... and Diogo Corvo ... set off to engage the Moors, who were numerous and well armed. And Cunhale, when he knew it was Martim Afonso, laid all pressure on his oars to double the Point of Tiracole...."—_Correa_, iii. 775.

PANDY, s. The most current colloquial name for the Sepoy mutineer during 1857-58. The surname _Pāṇḍē_ [Skt. _Paṇḍita_] was a very common one among the high-caste Sepoys of the Bengal army, being the title of a _Jōt_ [_got_, _gotra_] or subdivisional branch of the Brahmins of the Upper Provinces, which furnished many men to the ranks. "The first two men hung" (for mutiny) "at Barrackpore were PANDIES by caste, hence all sepoys were PANDIES, and ever will be so called" (_Bourchier_, as below). "In the Bengal army before the Mutiny, there was a person employed in the quarter-guard to strike the gong, who was known as the _gunta_ PANDY" (_M.-G. Keatinge_). _Ghanṭā_, 'a gong or bell.'

1857.—"As long as I feel the entire confidence I do, that we shall triumph over this iniquitous combination, I cannot feel gloom. I leave this feeling to the PANDIES, who have sacrificed honour and existence to the ghost of a delusion."—_H. Greathed, Letters during the Siege of Delhi_, 99.

" "We had not long to wait before the line of guns, howitzers, and mortar carts, chiefly drawn by elephants, soon hove in sight.... Poor PANDY, what a pounding was in store for you!..."—_Bourchier, Eight Months' Campaign against the Bengal Sepoy Army_, 47.

PANGARA, PANGAIA, s. From the quotations, a kind of boat used on the E. coast of Africa. [Pyrard de Laval (i. 53, Hak. Soc.) speaks of a "kind of raft called a PANGUAYE," on which Mr. Gray comments: "As Rivara points out, Pyrard mistakes the use of the word _panguaye_, or, as the Portuguese write it, _pangaio_, which was a small sailing canoe.... Rivara says the word is still used in Portuguese India and Africa for a two-masted barge with lateen sails. It is mentioned in Lancaster's _Voyages_ (Hak. Soc. pp. 5, 6, and 26), where it is described as being like a barge with one mat sail of coco-nut leaves. 'The barge is sowed together with the rindes of trees and pinned with wooden pinnes.' See also _Alb. Comm._ Hak. Soc. iii. p. 60, note; and Dr. Burnell's note to Linschoten, Hak. Soc. i. p. 32, where it appears that the word is used as early as 1505, in Dom Manoel's letter."]

[1513.—PANDEJADA and PANGUAGADA are used for a sort of boat near Malacca in D'Andrade's Letter to Alboquerque of 22 Feby.; and we have "a PANDEJADA laden with supplies and arms" in India Office MS., _Corpo Chronologico_, vol. i.]

1591.—"... divers PANGARAS or boates, which are pinned with wooden pinnes, and sowed together with Palmito cordes."—_Barker_, in _Hakluyt_, ii. 588.

1598.—"In this fortresse of Sofala the Captaine of _Mossambique_ hath a Factor, and twice or thrice every yere he sendeth certaine boats called PANGAIOS, which saile along the shore to fetch gold, and bring it to _Mossambique_. These PANGAIOS are made of light planks, and sowed together with cords, without any nailes."—_Linschoten_, ch. 4; [Hak. Soc. i. 32].

1616.—"Each of these bars, of Quilimane, Cumama, and Luabo, allows of the entrance of vessels of 100 tons, viz., galeots and PANGAIOS, loaded with cloth and provisions; and when they enter the river they discharge cargo into other light and very long boats called ALMADIAS...."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 534.

[1766.—"Their larger boats, called PANGUAYS, are raised some feet from the sides with reeds and branches of trees, well bound together with small-cord, and afterwards made water-proof, with a kind of bitumen, or resinous substance."—_Grose_, 2nd ed. ii. 13.]

PANGOLIN, s. This book-name for the _Manis_ is Malay _Pangūlang_, 'the creature that rolls itself up.' [Scott says: "The Malay word is _peng-goling_, transcribed also _peng-guling_; Katingan _pengiling_. It means 'roller,' or, more literally, 'roll up.' The word is formed from _goling_, 'roll, wrap,' with the denominative prefix _pe-_, which takes before _g_ the form _peng_." Mr. Skeat remarks that the modern Malay form is _teng-giling_ or _senggiling_, but the latter seems to be used, not for the _Manis_, but for a kind of centipede which rolls itself up. "The word PANGOLIN, to judge by its form, should be derived from _guling_, which means to 'roll over and over.' The word _pangguling_ or _pengguling_ in the required sense of _Manis_, does not exist in standard Malay. The word was either derived from some out-of-the-way dialect, or was due to some misunderstanding on the part of the Europeans who first adopted it." Its use in English begins with Pennant (_Synopsis of Quadrupeds_, 1771, p. 329). Adam Burt gives a dissection of the animal in _Asiat. Res._ ii. 353 _seqq._] It is the _Manis pentedactyla_ of Linn.; called in Hind. _bajrkīt_ (_i.e._ Skt. _vajra-kiṭa_ 'adamant reptile'). We have sometimes thought that the Manis might have been the creature which was shown as a gold-digging ant (see _Busbeck_ below); was not this also the creature that Bertrandon de la Brocquière met with in the desert of Gaza? When pursued, "it began to cry like a cat at the approach of a dog. Pierre de la Vaudrei struck it on the back with the point of his sword, but it did no harm, from being covered with scales like a sturgeon." A.D. 1432. (_T. Wright's Early Travels in Palestine_, p. 290) (Bohn). It is remarkable to find the statement that these ants were found in the possession of the King of Persia recurring in Herodotus and in Busbeck, with an interval of nearly 2000 years! We see that the suggestion of the Manis being the gold-digging ant has been anticipated by Mr. Blakesley in his _Herodotus_. ["It is now understood that the gold-digging ants were neither, as ancients supposed, an extraordinary kind of real ants, nor, as many learned men have since supposed, large animals mistaken for ants, but Tibetan miners who, like their descendants of the present day, preferred working their mines in winter when the frozen soil stands well and is not likely to trouble them by falling in. The Sanskrit word _pipilika_ denotes both an ant and a

## particular kind of gold" (_McCrindle, Ancient India, its Invasion by

Alexander the Great_, p. 341 _seq._]

c. B.C. 445.—"Here in this desert, there live amid the sand great ants, in size somewhat less than dogs, but bigger than foxes. The Persian King has a number of them, which have been caught by the hunters in the land whereof we are speaking...."—_Herod._ iii. 102 (_Rawlinson's_ tr.).

1562.—Among presents to the G. Turk from the King of Persia: "in his inusitati generis animantes, qualem memini dictum fuisse allatam _formicam Indicam_ mediocris canis magnitudine, mordacem admodum et saevam."—_Busbequii Opera, Elzev._, 1633, p. 343.

PANICALE, s. This is mentioned by Bluteau (vi. 223) as an Indian disease, a swelling of the feet. _Câle_ is here probably the Tamil _kāl_, 'leg.' [_Ānaikkāl_ is the Tamil name for what is commonly called COCHIN LEG.]

PANIKAR, PANYCA, &c., s. Malayāl. _paṇikan_, 'a fencing-master, a teacher' [Mal. _paṇi_, 'work,' _karan_, 'doer']; but at present it more usually means 'an astrologer.'

1518.—"And there are very skilful men who teach this art (fencing), and they are called PANICARS."—_Barbosa_, 128.

1553.—"And when (the Naire) comes to the age of 7 years he is obliged to go to the fencing-school, the master of which (whom they call PANICAL) they regard as a father, on account of the instruction he gives them."—_Barros_, I. ix. 3.

1554.—"To the PANICAL (in the Factory at Cochin) 300 _reis_ a month, which are for the year 3600 _reis_."—_S. Botelho, Tombo_, 24.

1556.—"... aho Rei arma caualleiro ho PANICA q̃ ho ensinou."—_D. de Goes, Chron._ 51.

1583.—"The maisters which teach them, be graduats in the weapons which they teach, and they bee called in their language PANYCAES."—_Castañeda_ (by N. L.), f. 36_v_.

1599.—"L'Archidiacre pour assurer sa personne fit appeller quelques-uns des principaux Maitres d'Armes de sa Nation. On appelle ces Gens-là PANICALS.... Ils sont extremement redoutez."—_La Croze_, 101.

1604.—"The deceased PANICAL had engaged in his pay many Nayres, with obligation to die for him."—_Guerrero, Relacion_, 90.

1606.—"PANIQUAIS is the name by which the same Malauares call their masters of fence."—_Gouvea_, f. 28.

1644.—"To the cost of a PENICAL and 4 Nayres who serve the factory in the conveyance of the pepper on rafts for the year 12,960 res."—_Bocarro, MS._ 316.

PANTHAY, PANTHÉ, s. This is the name applied of late years in Burma, and in intelligence coming from the side of Burma, to the Mahommedans of Yunnan, who established a brief independence at Talifu, between 1867 and 1873. The origin of the name is exceedingly obscure. It is not, as Mr. Baber assures us, used or known in Yunnan itself (_i.e._ by the _Chinese_). It must be remarked that the usual Burmese name for a Mahommedan is _Pathí_, and one would have been inclined to suppose _Panthé_ to be a form of the same; as indeed we see that Gen. Fytche has stated it to be (_Burma, Past and Present_, ii. 297-8). But Sir Arthur Phayre, a high authority, in a note with which he has favoured us, observes: "PANTHÉ, I believe, comes from a Chinese word signifying 'native or indigenous.' It is quite a modern name in Burma, and is applied exclusively to the Chinese Mahommedans who come with caravans from Yunnan. I am not aware that they can be distinguished from other Chinese caravan traders, except that they _do not bring hams for sale_ as the others do. In dress and appearance, as well as in drinking samshu (see SAMSHOO) and gambling, they are like the others. The word _Pa-thi_ again is the old Burmese word for 'Mahommedan.' It is applied to all Mahommedans other than the Chinese _Panthé_. It is in no way connected with the latter word, but is, I believe, a corruption of _Pārsī_ or _Fārsī_, _i.e._ Persian." He adds:—"The Burmese call their own indigenous Mahommedans '_Pathi-Kulà_,' and Hindus '_Hindu-Kulà_,' when they wish to distinguish between the two" (see KULA). The last suggestion is highly probable, and greatly to be preferred to that of M. Jacquet, who supposed that the word might be taken from _Pasei_ in Sumatra, which was during part of the later Middle Ages a kind of metropolis of Islam, in the Eastern Seas.[205]

We may mention two possible origins for _Panthé_, as indicating lines for enquiry:—

A. The title _Pathí_ (or _Passí_, for the former is only the Burmese lisping utterance) is very old. In the remarkable Chinese Account of Camboja, dating from the year 1296, which has been translated by Abel-Rémusat, there is a notice of a sect in Camboja called _Pa-sse_. The author identifies them in a passing way, with the _Tao-sse_, but that is a term which Fah-hian also in India uses in a vague way, apparently quite inapplicable to the Chinese sect properly so called. These _Pa-sse_, the Chinese writer says, "wear a red or white cloth on their heads, like the head-dress of Tartar women, but not so high. They have edifices or towers, monasteries, and temples, but not to be compared for magnitude with those of the Buddhists.... In their temples there are no images ... they are allowed to cover their towers and their buildings with tiles. The _Pa-sse_ never eat with a stranger to their sect, and do not allow themselves to be seen eating; they drink no wine," &c. (_Rémusat, Nouv. Mél. As._, i. 112). We cannot be quite sure that this applies to Mahommedans, but it is on the whole probable that the name is the same as the _Pathi_ of the Burmese, and has the same application. Now the people from whom the Burmese were likely to adopt a name for the Yunnan Mahommedans are the Shans, belonging to the great Siamese race, who occupy the intermediate country. The question occurs:—Is _Panthé_ a _Shan_ term for Mahommedan? If so, is it not probably only a dialectic variation of the _Passe_ of Camboja, the _Pathí_ of Burma, but entering Burma from a new quarter, and with its identity thus disguised? (Cushing, in his _Shan Dict._ gives _Pasī_ for Mahommedan. We do not find _Panthé_). There would be many analogies to such a course of things.

["The name Panthay is a purely Burmese word, and has been adopted by us from them. The Shan word Pang-hse is identical, and gives us no help to the origin of the term. Among themselves and to the Chinese they are known as Hui-hui or Hui-tzu (Mahomedans)."—_J. G. Scott, Gazetteer Upper Burma_, I. i. 606.]

B. We find it stated in Lieut. Garnier's narrative of his great expedition to Yunnan that there is a hybrid Chinese race occupying part of the plain of Tali-fu, who are called _Pen-ti_ (see _Garnier, Voy. d'Expl._ i. 518). This name again, it has been suggested, may possibly have to do with _Panthé_. But we find that _Pen-ti_ ('root-soil') is a generic expression used in various parts of S. China for 'aborigines'; it could hardly then have been applied to the Mahommedans.

PANWELL, n.p. This town on the mainland opposite Bombay was in pre-railway times a usual landing-place on the way to Poona, and the English form of the name must have struck many besides ourselves. [Hamilton (_Descr._ ii. 151) says it stands on the river _Pan_, whence perhaps the name]. We do not know the correct form; but this one has substantially come down to us from the Portuguese: _e.g._

1644.—"This Island of Caranja is quite near, almost frontier-place, to six cities of the Moors of the Kingdom of the Melique, viz. _Carnallî_, _Drugo_, _Pene_, _Sabayo_, _Abitta_, and PANOEL."—_Bocarro, MS._ f. 227.

1804.—"_P.S._ Tell Mrs. Waring that notwithstanding the debate at dinner, and her recommendation, we propose to go to Bombay, by PANWELL, and in the balloon!"—_Wellington_, from "Candolla," March 8.

PAPAYA, PAPAW, s. This word seems to be from America like the insipid, not to say nasty, fruit which it denotes (_Carica papaya_, L.). A quotation below indicates that it came by way of the Philippines and Malacca. [The Malay name, according to Mr. Skeat, is _betik_, which comes from the same Ar. form as PATECA, though _papaya_ and _kapaya_ have been introduced by Europeans.] Though of little esteem, and though the tree's peculiar quality of rendering fresh meat tender which is familiar in the W. Indies, is little known or taken advantage of, the tree is found in gardens and compounds all over India, as far north as Delhi. In the N.W. Provinces it is called by the native gardeners _aranḍ-kharbūza_, 'castor-oil-tree-melon,' no doubt from the superficial resemblance of its foliage to that of the _Palma Christi_. According to Moodeen Sheriff it has a Perso-Arabic name _'anbah-i-Hindī_; in Canarese it is called _P'arangi-haṇṇu_ or _-mara_ ('Frank or Portuguese fruit, tree'). The name _papaya_ according to Oviedo as quoted by Littré ("_Oviedo_, t. l. p. 333, Madrid, 1851,"—we cannot find it in _Ramusio_) was that used in Cuba, whilst the Carib name was _ababai_.[206] [Mr. J. Platt, referring to his article in 9th Ser. _Notes & Queries_, iv. 515, writes: "Malay _papaya_, like the Accra term _kpakpa_, is a European loan word. The evidence for Carib origin is, firstly, Oviedo's _Historia_, 1535 (in the ed. of 1851, vol. i. 323): 'Del arbol que en esta isla Española llaman _papaya_, y en la tierra firme los llaman los Españoles los higos del mastuerço, y en la provincia de Nicaragua llaman a tal arbol _olocoton_.' Secondly, Breton, _Dictionnaire Caraibe_, has: '_Ababai_, papayer.' Gilij, _Saggio_, 1782, iii. 146 (quoted in _N. & Q._, _u.s._), says the Otamic word is _pappai_."] Strange liberties are taken with the spelling. Mr. Robinson (below) calls it _popeya_; Sir L. Pelly (_J.R.G.S._ xxxv. 232), _poppoi_ (ὦ πόποι!). PAPAYA is applied in the Philippines to Europeans who, by long residence, have fallen into native ways and ideas.

c. 1550.—"There is also a sort of fruit resembling figs, called by the natives PAPAIE ... peculiar to this kingdom" (Peru).—_Girol. Benzoni_, 242.

1598.—"There is also a fruite that came out of the Spanish Indies, brought from beyond ye _Philipinas_ or _Lusons_ to _Malacca_, and frõ thence to _India_, it is called PAPAIOS, and is very like a _Mellon_ ... and will not grow, but alwaies two together, that is male and female ... and when they are diuided and set apart one from the other, then they yield no fruite at all.... This fruite at the first for the strangeness thereof was much esteemed, but now they account not of it."—_Linschoten_, 97; [Hak. Soc. ii. 35].

c. 1630.—"... PAPPAES, Cocoes, and Plantains, all sweet and delicious...."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1665, p. 350.

c. 1635.—

"The Palma Christi and the fair PAPAW Now but a seed (preventing Nature's Law) In half the circle of the hasty year, Project a shade, and lovely fruits do wear." _Waller, Battle of the Summer Islands._

1658.—"Utraque Pinoguaçu (mas. et fœmina), Mamoeira Lusitanis dicta, vulgò PAPAY, cujus fructum _Mamam_ vocant a figura, quia mammae instar pendet in arbore ... carne lutea instar melonum, sed sapore ignobiliori...."—_Gul. Pisonis ... de Indiae utriusque Re Naturali et Medicâ_, Libri xiv. 159-160.

1673.—"Here the flourishing PAPAW (in Taste like our Melons, and as big, but growing on a Tree leaf'd like our Fig-tree...."—_Fryer_, 19.

1705.—"Il y a aussi des ananas, des PAPÉES...."—_Luillier_, 33.

1764.—

"Thy temples shaded by the tremulous palm, Or quick PAPAW, whose top is necklaced round With numerous rows of particoloured fruit." _Grainger, Sugar Cane_, iv.

[1773.—"PAW PAW. This tree rises to 20 feet, sometimes single, at other times it is divided into several bodies."—_Ives_, 480.]

1878.—"... the rank POPEYAS clustering beneath their coronal of stately leaves."—_Ph. Robinson, In My Indian Garden_, 50.

PAPUA, n.p. This name, which is now applied generically to the chief race of the island of New Guinea and resembling tribes, and sometimes (improperly) to the great island itself, is a Malay word _papuwah_, or sometimes _puwah-puwah_, meaning 'frizzle-haired,' and was applied by the Malays to the people in question.

1528.—"And as the wind fell at night the vessel was carried in among the islands, where there are strong currents, and got into the Sea of the Strait of Magalhães,[207] where he encountered a great storm, so that but for God's mercy they had all been lost, and so they were driven on till they made the land of the PAPUAS, and then the east winds began to blow so that they could not sail to the Moluccas till May 1527. And with their stay in these lands much people got ill and many died, so that they came to Molucca much shattered."—_Correa_, iii. 173-174.

1553.—(Referring to the same history.) "Thence he went off to make the islands of a certain people called PAPUAS, whom many on account of this visit of Don Jorge (de Menezes) call the Islands of Don Jorge, which lie east of the Moluccas some 200 leagues...."—_Barros_, IV. i. 6.

PARABYKE, s. Burmese _pārabeik_; the name given to a species of writing book which is commonly used in Burma. It consists of paper made from the bark of a spec. of _daphne_, which is agglutinated into a kind of pasteboard and blackened with a paste of charcoal. It is then folded, screen-fashion, into a note-book and written on with a steatite pencil. The same mode of writing has long been used in Canara; and from La Loubère we see that it is or was used also in Siam. The Canara books are called _kaḍatam_, and are described by Col. Wilks under the name of _cudduttum_, _carruttum_, or _currut_ (_Hist. Sketches_, Pref. I. xii.). They appear exactly to resemble the Burmese _para-beik_, except that the substance blackened is cotton cloth instead of paper. "The writing is similar to that on a slate, and may be in like manner rubbed out and renewed. It is performed by a pencil of the _balapum_ [Can. _balapa_] or _lapis ollaris_; and this mode of writing was not only in ancient use for records and public documents, but is still universally employed in Mysoor by merchants and shopkeepers, I have even seen a bond, regularly witnessed, entered in the _cudduttum_ of a merchant, produced and received in evidence.

"This is the word _kirret_, translated 'palm-leaf' (of course conjecturally) in Mr. Crisp's translation of Tippoo's regulations. The Sultan prohibited its use in recording the public accounts; but altho' liable to be expunged, and affording facility to permanent entries, it is a much more durable material and record than the best writing on the best paper.... It is probable that this is the linen or cotton cloth described by Arrian, from Nearchus, on which the Indians wrote." (_Strabo_, XV. i. 67.)

1688.—"The Siamese make Paper of old Cotton rags, and likewise of the bark of a Tree named _Ton coi_ ... but these Papers have a great deal less Equality, Body and Whiteness than ours. The Siameses cease not to write thereon with China Ink. Yet most frequently they black them, which renders them smoother, and gives them a greater body; and then they write thereon with a kind of _Crayon_, which is made only of a clayish earth dry'd in the Sun. Their Books are not bound, and consist only in a very long Leaf ... which they fold in and out like a Fan, and the way which the Lines are wrote, is according to the length of the folds...."—_De la Loubère, Siam_, E.T. p. 12.

1855.—"Booths for similar goods are arrayed against the corner of the palace palisades, and at the very gate of the Palace is the principal mart for the stationers who deal in the PARA-BEIKS (or black books) and steatite pencils, which form the only ordinary writing materials of the Burmese in their transactions."—_Yule, Mission to Ava_, 139.

PARANGHEE, s. An obstinate chronic disease endemic in Ceylon. It has a superficial resemblance to syphilis; the whole body being covered with ulcers, while the sufferer rapidly declines in strength. It seems to arise from insufficient diet, and to be analogous to the _pellagra_ which causes havoc among the peasants of S. Europe. The word is apparently FIRINGHEE, 'European,' or (in S. India) 'Portuguese'; and this would point perhaps to association with syphilis.

PARBUTTY, s. This is a name in parts of the Madras Presidency for a subordinate village officer, a writer under the PATEL, sometimes the village-crier, &c., also in some places a superintendent or manager. It is a corruption of Telug. and Canarese _pārapatti_, _pārupatti_, Mahr. and Konkani, _pārpatya_, from Skt. _pravṛitti_, 'employment.' The term frequently occurs in old Port. documents in such forms as _perpotim_, &c. We presume that the Great Duke (audax omnia _perpeti_!) has used it in the Anglicised form at the head of this article; for though we cannot find it in his Despatches, Gurwood's _Explanation of Indian Terms_ gives "PARBUTTY, writer to the Patell." [See below.]

1567.—"... That no unbeliever shall serve as scrivener, SHROFF (_xarrafo_), MOCUDDUM, NAIQUE (see NAIK), PEON, PARPATRIM, collector (_saccador_), constable (? _corrector_), interpreter, procurator, or solicitor in court, nor in any other office or charge by which they may in any way whatever exercise authority over Christians...."—_Decree 27 of the Sacred Council of Goa_, in _Arch. Port. Orient._ fasc. 4.

1800.—"In case of failure in the payment of these instalments, the crops are seized, and sold by the PARPUTTY or accomptant of the division."—_Buchanan's Mysore_, ii. 151-2. The word is elsewhere explained by Buchanan, as "the head person of a _Hobly_ in Mysore." A _Hobly_ [Canarese and Malayāl. _hobali_] is a sub-division of a TALOOK (i. 270).

[1803.—"Neither has any one a right to compel any of the inhabitants, much less the particular servants of the government, to attend him about the country, as the soubahdar (see SOUBADAR) obliged the PARBUTTY and pateel (see PATEL) to do, running before his horse."—_Wellington, Desp._ i. 323. (_Stanf. Dict._).]

1878.—"The staff of the village officials ... in most places comprises the following members ... the crier (PARPOTI)...."—_Fonseca, Sketch of Goa_, 21-22.

PARDAO, s. This was the popular name among the Portuguese of a gold coin from the native mints of Western India, which entered largely into the early currency of Goa, and the name of which afterwards attached to a silver money of their own coinage, of constantly degenerating value.

There could hardly be a better word with which to associate some connected account of the coinage of Portuguese India, as the _pardao_ runs through its whole history, and I give some space to the subject, not with any idea of weaving such a history, but in order to furnish a few connected notes on the subject, and to correct some flagrant errors of writers to whose works I naturally turned for help in such a special matter, with little result except that of being puzzled and misled, and having time occupied in satisfying myself regarding the errors alluded to. The subject is in itself a very difficult one, perplexed as it is by the rarity or inaccessibility of books dealing with it, by the excessive rarity (it would seem) of specimens, by the large use in the Portuguese settlements of a variety of native coins in addition to those from the Goa mint,[208] by the frequent shifting of nomenclature in the higher coins and constant degeneration of value in the coins that retained old names. I welcomed as a hopeful aid the appearance of Dr. Gerson D'Acunha's _Contributions to the Study of Indo-Chinese Numismatics_. But though these contributions afford some useful facts and references, on the whole, from the rarity with which they give data for the intrinsic value of the gold and silver coins, and from other defects, they seem to me to leave the subject in utter chaos. Nor are the notes which Mr. W. de G. Birch appends, in regard to monetary values, to his translation of Alboquerque, more to be commended. Indeed Dr. D'Acunha, when he goes astray, seems sometimes to have followed Mr. Birch.

The word _pardao_ is a Portuguese (or perhaps an indigenous) corruption of Skt. _pratāpa_, 'splendour, majesty,' &c., and was no doubt taken, as Dr. D'Acunha says, from the legend on some of the coins to which the name was applied, _e.g._ that of the Raja of Ikkeri in Canara: _Sri_ PRATĀPA _krishṇa-rāya_.

A little doubt arises at first in determining to what coin the name _pardao_ was originally attached. For in the two earliest occurrences of the word that we can quote—on the one hand Abdurrazzāk, the Envoy of Shāh Rukh, makes the _partāb_ (or _pardāo_) half of the _Varāha_ ('boar,' so called from the Boar of Vishnu figured on some issues), _hūn_, or what we call PAGODA;—whilst on the other hand, Ludovico Varthema's account seems to identify the _pardao_ with the pagoda itself. And there can be no doubt that it was to the pagoda that the Portuguese, from the beginning of the 16th century, applied the name of _pardao d'ouro_. The money-tables which can be directly formed from the statements of Abdurrazzāk and Varthema respectively are as follows:[209]

ABDURRAZZAK (A.D. 1443).

3 Jitals (copper) = 1 Tar (silver). 6 Tars = 1 Fanam (gold). 10 Fanams = 1 PARTĀB. 2 PARTĀBS = 1 Varāha.

And the _Varāha_ weighed about 1 _Mithḳāl_ (see MISCALL), equivalent to 2 _dīnārs Kopekī_.

VARTHEMA (A.D. 1504-5).

16 Cas (see CASH) = 1 Tare (silver). 16 Tare = 1 Fanam (gold). 20 Fanams = 1 PARDAO.

And the PARDAO was a gold ducat, smaller than the seraphim (see XERAFINE) of Cairo (gold dīnār), but thicker.

The question arises whether the _varāha_ of Abdurrazzāk was the double pagoda, of which there are some examples in the S. Indian coinage, and his _partāb_ therefore the same as Varthema's, _i.e._ the pagoda itself; or whether his _varāha_ was the pagoda, and his _partāb_ a half-pagoda. The weight which he assigns to the _varāha_, "about one _mithḳāl_," a weight which may be taken at 73 grs., does not well suit either one or the other. I find the mean weight of 27 different issues of the (single) _hūn_ or pagoda, given in Prinsep's _Tables_, to be 43 grs., the maximum being 45 grs. And the fact that both the Envoy's _varāha_ and the Italian traveller's _pardao_ contain 20 fanams is a strong argument for their identity.[210]

In further illustration that the PARDAO was recognised as a half _hūn_ or pagoda, we quote in a foot-note "the old arithmetical tables in which accounts are still kept" in the south, which Sir Walter Elliot contributed to Mr. E. Thomas's excellent _Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Delhi, illustrated_, &c.[211]

Moreover, Dr. D'Acunha states that in the "New Conquests," or provinces annexed to Goa only about 100 years ago, "the accounts were kept until lately in _sanvoy_ and _nixane_ pagodas, each of them being divided into 2 PRATÁPS...." &c. (p. 46, _note_).

As regards the value of the _pardao d'ouro_, when adopted into the Goa currency by Alboquerque, Dr. D'Acunha tells us that it "was equivalent to 370 _reis_, or 1_s._ 6½_d._[212] English." Yet he accepts the identity of this _pardao d'ouro_ with the _hūn_ current in Western India, of which the Madras pagoda was till 1818 a living and unchanged representative, a coin which was, at the time of its abolition, the recognised equivalent of 3½ rupees, or 7 shillings. And doubtless this, or a few pence more, was the intrinsic value of the _pardao_. Dr. D'Acunha in fact has made his calculation from the _present_ value of the (imaginary) _rei_. Seeing that a _milrei_ is now reckoned equal to a dollar, or 50_d._, we have a single _rei_ = 1/20_d._, and 370 _reis_ = 1_s._ 6½_d._ It seems not to have occurred to the author that the _rei_ might have degenerated in value as well as every other denomination of money with which he has to do, every other in fact of which we can at this moment remember anything, except the pagoda, the Venetian sequin, and the dollar.[213] Yet the fact of this degeneration everywhere stares him in the face. Correa tells us that the _cruzado_ which Alboquerque struck in 1510 was the just equivalent of 420 _reis_. It was indubitably the same as the _cruzado_ of the mother country, and indeed A. Nunez (1554) gives the same 420 _reis_ as the equivalent of the _cruzado d'ouro de Portugal_, and that amount also for the Venetian sequin, and for the _sultani_ or Egyptian gold dīnār. Nunez adds that a gold coin of Cambaya, which he calls MADRAFAXAO (q.v.), was worth 1260 to 1440 _reis_, according to variations in weight and exchange. We have seen that this must have been the gold-mohr of Muzaffar-Shāh II. of Guzerat (1511-1526), the weight of which we learn from E. Thomas's book.

From the Venetian sequin (content of pure gold 52.27 grs. value 111_d._[214]) the value of the _rei_ at 111/420_d._ will be 0.264_d._

From the Muzaffar Shāhi mohr (weight 185 grs. value, if pure gold, 392.52_d._) value of _rei_ at 1440 0.272_d._

Mean value of _rei_ in 1513 0.268_d._ _i.e._ more than five times its present value.

Dr. D'Acunha himself informs us (p. 56) that at the beginning of the 17th century the Venetian was worth 690 to 720 _reis_ (mean 705 _reis_), whilst the pagoda was worth 570 to 600 _reis_ (mean 585 _reis_).

These statements, as we know the intrinsic value of the sequin, and the approximate value of the pagoda, enable us to calculate the value of the _rei_ of about 1600 at ... 0.16_d._ Values of the _milrei_ given in Milburn's _Oriental Commerce_, and in Kelly's _Cambist_, enable us to estimate it for the early years of the last century. We have then the progressive deterioration as follows:

Value of _rei_ in the beginning of the 16th century 0.268_d._ Value of _rei_ in the beginning of the 17th century 0.16_d._ Value of _rei_ in the beginning of the 19th century 0.06 to 0.066_d._ Value of _rei_ at present 0.06_d._

Yet Dr. D'Acunha has valued the coins of 1510, estimated in _reis_, at the rate of 1880. And Mr. Birch has done the same.[215]

The Portuguese themselves do not seem ever to have struck gold _pardaos_ or pagodas. The gold coin of Alboquerque's coinage (1510) was, we have seen, a _cruzado_ (or _manuel_), and the next coinage in gold was by Garcia de Sá in 1548-9, who issued coins called _San Thomé_, worth 1000 _reis_, say about £1, 2_s._ 4_d._; with halves and quarters of the same. Neither, according to D'Acunha, was there silver money of any importance coined at Goa from 1510 to 1550, and the coins then issued were silver San Thomés, called also _patacões_ (see PATACA). Nunez in his _Tables_ (1554) does not mention these by either name, but mentions repeatedly _pardaos_, which represented 5 silver _tangas_, or 300 _reis_, and these D'Acunha speaks of as silver _coins_. Nunez, as far as I can make out, does not speak of them as coins, but rather implies that in account so many tangas of silver were reckoned as a _pardao_. Later in the century, however, we learn from Balbi (1580), Barrett[216] (1584), and Linschoten (1583-89), the principal currency of Goa consisted of a silver coin called _xerafin_ (see XERAFINE) and _pardao-xerafin_, which was worth 5 _tangas_, each of 60 _reis_. (So these had been from the beginning, and so they continued, as is usual in such cases. The scale of sub-multiples remains the same, whilst the value of the divisible coin diminishes. Eventually the lower denominations become infinitesimal, like the _maravedis_ and the _reis_, and either vanish from memory, or survive only as denominations of account). The data, such as they are, allow us to calculate the _pardao_ or _xerafin_ at this time as worth 4_s._ 2_d._ to 4_s._ 6_d._

A century later, Fryer's statement of equivalents (1676) enables us to use the stability of the Venetian sequin as a gauge; we then find the _tanga_ gone down to 6_d._ and the _pardao_ or _xerafin_ to 2_s._ 6_d._ Thirty years later Lockyer (1711) tells us that one rupee was reckoned equal to 1½ _perdo_. Calculating the Surat Rupee, which may have been probably his standard, still by help of the Venetian (p. 262) at about 2_s._ 3_d._, the _pardao_ would at this time be worth 1_s._ 6_d._ It must have depreciated still further by 1728, when the Goa mint began to strike rupees, with the effigy of Dom João V., and the half-rupee appropriated the denomination of _pardao_. And the half-rupee, till our own time, has continued to be so styled. I have found no later valuation of the Goa Rupee than that in _Prinsep's Tables_ (Thomas's ed. p. 55), the indications of which, taking the Company's Rupee at 2_s._, would make it 21_d._ The _pardao_ therefore would represent a value of 10½_d._, and there we leave it.

[On this Mr. Whiteway writes: "Should it be intended to add a note to this, I would suggest that the remarks on coinage commencing at page 67 of my _Rise of the Portuguese Power in India_ be examined, as although I have gone to Sir H. Yule for much, some papers are now accessible which he does not appear to have seen. There were two _pardaos_, the _pardao d'ouro_ and the _pardao de tanga_, the former of 360 _reals_, the latter of 300. This is clear from the _Foral_ of Goa of Dec. 18, 1758 (India Office MSS. _Conselho Ultramarino_), which passage is again quoted in a note to Fasc. 5 of the _Archiv. Port. Orient._ p. 326. Apparently _patecoons_ were originally coined in value equal to the _pardao d'ouro_, though I say (p. 71) their value is not recorded. The _patecoon_ was a silver coin, and when it was tampered with, it still remained of the nominal value of the _pardao d'ouro_, and this was the cause of the outcry and of the injury the people of Goa suffered. There were monies in Goa which I have not shown on p. 69. There was the _tanga branca_ used in revenue accounts (see _Nunez_, p. 31), nearly but not quite double the ordinary _tanga_. This money of account was of 4 _barganims_ (see BARGANY) each of 24 _bazarucos_ (see BUDGROOK), that is rather over 111 reals. The whole question of coinage is difficult, because the coins were continually being tampered with. Every ruler, and they were numerous in those days, stamped a piece of metal at his pleasure, and the trader had to calculate its value, unless as a subject of the ruler he was under compulsion."]

1444.—"In this country (Vijayanagar) they have three kinds of money, made of gold mixed with alloys: one called _varahah_ weighs about one _mithkal_, equivalent to two dinars _kopeki_; the second, which is called PERTAB, is the half of the first; the third, called _fanom_, is equivalent in value to the tenth part of the last-mentioned coin. Of these different coins the _fanom_ is the most useful...."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _India in the XVth Cent._ p. 26.

c. 1504-5; pubd. 1510.—"I departed from the city of Dabuli aforesaid, and went to another island, which ... is called Goga (Goa) and which pays annually to the King of Decan 19,000 gold ducats, called by them PARDAI. These pardai are smaller than the seraphim of Cairo, but thicker, and have two devils stamped on one side, and certain letters on the other."—_Varthema_, pp. 115-116.

" "... his money consists of a PARDAO, as I have said. He also coins a silver money called tare (see TARA), and others of gold, twenty of which go to a _pardao_, and are called fanom. And of these small ones of silver, there go sixteen to a fanom...."—_Ibid._ p. 130.

1510.—"Meanwhile the Governor (Alboquerque) talked with certain of our people who were goldsmiths, and understood the alligation of gold and silver, and also with goldsmiths and money-changers of the country who were well acquainted with that business. There were in the country PARDAOS of gold, worth in gold 360 _reys_, and also a money of good silver which they call _barganym_ (see BARGANY) of the value of 2 _vintems_, and a money of copper which they call _bazaruqos_ (see BUDGROOK), of the value of 2 _reis_. Now all these the Governor sent to have weighed and assayed. And he caused to be made _cruzados_ of their proper weight of 420 _reis_, on which he figured on one side the cross of Christ, and on the other a sphere, which was the device of the King Dom Manuel; and he ordered that this _cruzado_ should pass in the place (Goa) for 480 _reis_, to prevent their being exported ... and he ordered silver money to be struck which was of the value of a BARGANY; on this money he caused to be figured on one side a Greek Α, and on the other side a sphere, and gave the coin the name of _Espera_; it was worth 2 _vintems_; also there were half _esperas_ worth one _vintem_ and he made _bazarucos_ of copper of the weight belonging to that coin, with the A and the sphere; and each _bazaruco_ he divided into 4 coins which they called _cepayquas_ (see SAPECA), and gave the _bazarucos_ the name of _leaes_. And in changing the cruzado into these smaller coins it was reckoned at 480 _reis_."—_Correa_, ii. 76-77.

1516.—"There are current here (in Baticala—see BATCUL) the PARDAOS, which are a gold coin of the kingdom, and it is worth here 360 _reis_, and there is another coin of silver, called _dama_, which is worth 20 _reis_...."—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. p. 293.

1516.—"There is used in this city (Bisnagar) and throughout the rest of the Kingdom much pepper, which is carried hither from Malabar on oxen and asses; and it is all bought and sold for PARDAOS, which are made in some places of this Kingdom, and especially in a city called Hora (?), whence they are called _horãos_."—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. p. 297.

1552.—"Hic Sinam mercatorem indies exspecto, quo cum, propter atroces poenas propositas iis qui advenam sine fide publica introduxerint, PIRDAIS ducentis transegi, ut me in Cantonem trajiciat."—_Scti. Franc. Xaverii Epistt._, Pragae, 1667, IV. xiv.

1553.—

"_R._ Let us mount our horses and take a ride in the country, and as we ride you shall tell me what is the meaning of _Nizamoxa_ (see NIZAMALUCO), as you have frequently mentioned such a person.

"_O._ I can tell you that at once; it is the name of a King in the Bagalat (read Balagat, BALAGHAUT), whose father I often attended, and the son also not so often. I received from him from time to time more than 12,000 PARDAOS; and he offered me an income of 40,000 _pardaos_ if I would pay him a visit of several months every year, but this I did not accept."—_Garcia_, f. 33_v_.

1584.—"For the money of Goa there is a kind of money made of lead and tin mingled, being thicke and round, and stamped on the one side with the spheare or globe of the world, and on the other side two arrows and five rounds;[217] and this kind of money is called _Basaruchi_, and 15 of them make a vinton of naughty money, and 5 _vintons_ make a tanga, and 4 _vintenas_ make a tanga of base money ... and 5 _tangas_ make a seraphine of gold[218] (read 'of silver'), which in marchandize is worth 5 tangas good money: but if one would change them into _basaruchies_, he may have 5 tangas, and 16 basaruchies, which matter they call _cerafaggio_, and when the bargain of the PARDAW is gold, each _pardaw_ is meant to be 6 tangas good money,[219] but in murchandize, the vse is not to demaund _pardawes_ of gold in Goa, except it be for jewels and horses, for all the rest they take of seraphins of silver, per aduiso.... The ducat of gold is worth 9 _tangas_ and a halfe good money, and yet not stable in price, for that when the ships depart from Goa to Cochin, they pay them at 9 _tangas_ and 3 fourth partes, and 10 _tangas_, and that is the most that they are worth...."—_W. Barret_, in _Hakl._ ii. 410. I retain this for the old English, but I am sorry to say that I find it is a mere translation of the notes of Gasparo Balbi, who was at Goa in 1580. We learn from Balbi that there were at Goa _tangas_ not only of good money worth 75 _basarucchi_, and of bad money worth 60 _basarucchi_, but also of another kind of bad money used in buying wood, worth only 50 _basarucchi_!

1598.—"The principall and commonest money is called PARDAUS XERAPHIINS, and is silver, but very brasse (read 'base'), and is coyned in Goa. They have Saint Sebastian on the one side, and three or four arrows in a bundle on the other side, which is as much as three Testones, or three hundred _Reijs_ Portingall money, and riseth or falleth little lesse or more, according to the exchange. There is also a kind of money which is called TANGAS, not that there is any such coined, but are so named onely in telling, five Tangas is one PARDAW or XERAPHIN, badde money, for you must understande that in telling they have two kinds of money, good and badde.... Wherefore when they buy and sell, they bargain for good or badde money," &c.—_Linschoten_, ch. 35; [Hak. Soc. i. 241, and for another version see XERAPHINE].

" "They have a kind of money called PAGODES which is of Gold, of two or three sortes, and are above 8 TANGAS in value. They are Indian and Heathenish money, with the feature of a Devill upon them, and therefore they are called Pagodes. There is another kind of gold money, which is called _Venetianders_; some of Venice, and some of Turkish coine, and are commonly (worth) 2 PARDAWE XERAPHINS. There is yet another kind of golde called S. Thomas, because Saint Thomas is figured thereon and is worth about 7 and 8 _Tangas_: There are likewise Rialles of 8 which are brought from Portingall, and are _Pardawes de Reales_.... They are worth at their first coming out 436 Reyes of Portingall; and after are raysed by exchaunge, as they are sought for when men travell for China.... They use in Goa in their buying and selling a certaine maner of reckoning or telling. There are _Pardawes Xeraphins_, and these are silver. They name likewise _Pardawes_ of Gold, and those are not in kinde or in coyne, but onely so named in telling and reckoning: for when they buy and sell Pearles, stones, golde, silver and horses, they name but so many _Pardawes_, and then you must understand that one _Pardaw_ is sixe _Tangas_: but in other ware, when you make not your bargaine before hand, but plainely name Pardawes, they are _Pardawes Xeraphins_ of 5 _Tangas_ the peece. They use also to say a _Pardaw_ of _Lariins_ (see LARIN), and are five Lariins for every Pardaw...."—_Ibid._; [Hak. Soc. i. 187].

This extract is long, but it is the completest picture we know of the Goa currency. We gather from the passage (including a part that we have omitted) that in the latter part of the 16th century there were really no national _coins_ there used intermediate between the _basaruccho_, worth at this time 0.133_d._, and the PARDAO XERAFIN worth 50_d._[220] The _vintens_ and _tangas_ that were nominally interposed were mere names for certain quantities of basaruccos, or rather of _reis_ represented by basaruccos. And our interpretation of the statement about pardaos of gold in a note above is here expressly confirmed.

[1599.—"PERDAW." See under TAEL.]

c. 1620.—"The gold coin, struck by the rāīs of Bijanagar and Tiling, is called _hūn_ and PARTĀB."—_Firishta_, quoted by _Quatremère_, in _Notices et Exts._ xiv. 509.

1643.—"... estant convenu de prix auec luy à sept PERDOS et demy par mois tant pour mon viure que pour le logis...."—_Mocquet_, 284.

PARELL, n.p. The name of a northern suburb of Bombay where stands the residence of the Governor. The statement in the _Imperial Gazetteer_ that Mr. W. Hornby (1776) was the first Governor who took up his residence at Parell requires examination, as it appears to have been so occupied in Grose's time. The 2nd edition of Grose, which we use, is dated 1772, but he appears to have left India about 1760. It seems probable that in the following passage Niebuhr speaks of 1763-4, the date of his stay at Bombay, but as the book was not published till 1774, this is not absolutely certain. Evidently Parell was occupied by the Governor long before 1776.

"Les Jesuites avoient autrefois un beau couvent aupres du Village de PARELL au milieu de l'Isle, mais il y a déjà plusieurs années, qu'elle est devenue la maison de campagne du Gouverneur, et l'Eglise est actuellement une magnifique salle à manger et de danse, qu'on n'en trouve point de pareille en toutes les Indes."—_Niebuhr, Voyage_, ii. 12.

[Mr. Douglas (_Bombay and W. India_, ii. 7, note) writes: "High up and outside the dining-room, and which was the chapel when Parel belonged to the Jesuits, is a plaque on which is printed:—'Built by Honourable Hornby, 1771.'"]

1554.—_Parell_ is mentioned as one of 4 aldeas, "PARELL, Varella, Varell, and Siva, attached to the _Kasbah_ (_Caçabe_—see CUSBAH) of Maim."—_Botelho, Tombo_, 157, in _Subsidios_.

c. 1750-60.—"A place called PARELL, where the Governor has a very agreeable country-house, which was originally a Romish chapel belonging to the Jesuits, but confiscated about the year 1719, for some foul practices against the English interest."—_Grose_, i. 46; [1st ed. 1757, p. 72].

PARIAH, PARRIAR, &c., s.

A. The name of a low caste of Hindus in Southern India, constituting one of the most numerous castes, if not _the_ most numerous, in the Tamil country. The word in its present shape means properly 'a drummer.' Tamil _pa_R_ai_ is the large drum, beaten at certain festivals, and the hereditary beaters of it are called (sing.) _pa_R_aiyan_, (pl.) _pa_R_aiyar_. [Dr. Oppert's theory (_Orig. Inhabitants_, 32 _seq._) that the word is a form of _Pahaṛiyā_, 'a mountaineer' is not probable.] In the city of Madras this caste forms one fifth of the whole population, and from it come (unfortunately) most of the domestics in European service in that part of India. As with other castes low in caste-rank they are also low in habits, frequently eating carrion and other objectionable food, and addicted to drink. From their coming into contact with and under observation of Europeans, more habitually than any similar caste, the name _Pariah_ has come to be regarded as applicable to the whole body of the lowest castes, or even to denote out-castes or people without any caste. But this is hardly a correct use. There are several castes in the Tamil country considered to be lower than the _Pariahs_, _e.g._ the caste of shoemakers, and the lowest caste of washermen. And the _Pariah_ deals out the same disparaging treatment to these that he himself receives from higher castes. The Pariahs "constitute a well-defined, distinct, ancient caste, which has 'subdivisions' of its own, its own peculiar usages, its own traditions, and its own jealousy of the encroachments of the castes which are above it and below it. They constitute, perhaps, the most numerous caste in the Tamil country. In the city of Madras they number 21 per cent. of the Hindu people."—_Bp. Caldwell, u. i._, p. 545. Sir Walter Elliot, however, in the paper referred to further on includes under the term _Paraiya_ all the servile class not recognised by Hindus of caste as belonging to their community.

A very interesting, though not conclusive, discussion of the ethnological position of this class will be found in Bp. Caldwell's _Dravidian Grammar_ (pp. 540-554). That scholar's deduction is, on the whole, that they are probably Dravidians, but he states, and recognises force in, arguments for believing that they may have descended from a race older in the country than the proper Dravidian, and reduced to slavery by the first Dravidians. This last is the view of Sir Walter Elliot, who adduces a variety of interesting facts in its favour, in his paper on the _Characteristics of the Population of South India_.[221]

Thus, in the celebration of the Festival of the Village Goddess, prevalent all over Southern India, and of which a remarkable account is given in that paper, there occurs a sort of Saturnalia in which the Pariahs are the officiating priests, and there are several other customs which are most easily intelligible on the supposition that the Pariahs are the representatives of the earliest inhabitants and original masters of the soil. In a recent communication from this venerable man he writes: 'My brother (Col. C. Elliot, C.B.) found them at Raipur, to be an important and respectable class of cultivators. The Pariahs have a sacerdotal order amongst themselves.' [The view taken in the _Madras Gloss._ is that "they are distinctly Dravidian without fusion, as the Hinduized castes are Dravidian with fusion."]

The mistaken use of _pariah_, as synonymous with out-caste, has spread in English parlance over all India. Thus the lamented Prof. Blochmann, in his _School Geography of India_: "Outcasts are called PARIAHS." The name first became generally known in Europe through Sonnerat's _Travels_ (pub. in 1782, and soon after translated into English). In this work the PARIAS figure as the lowest of castes. The common use of the term is however probably due, in both France and England, to the appearance in the Abbé Raynal's famous _Hist. Philosophique des Établissements dans les Indes_, formerly read very widely in both countries, and yet more perhaps to its use in Bernardin de St. Pierre's preposterous though once popular tale, _La Chaumière Indienne_, whence too the misplaced halo of sentiment which reached its acme in the drama of Casimir Delavigne, and which still in some degree adheres to the name. It should be added that Mr. C. P. Brown says expressly: "The word _Paria_ is unknown" (in _our_ sense?) "to all natives, unless as learned from us."

B. See PARIAH-DOG.

1516.—"There is another low sort of Gentiles, who live in desert places, called PAREAS. These likewise have no dealings with anybody, and are reckoned worse than the devil, and avoided by everybody; a man becomes contaminated by only looking at them, and is excommunicated.... They live on the _imane_ (_iname_, _i.e._ YAMS), which are like the root of _iucca_ or _batate_ found in the West Indies, and on other roots and wild fruits."—_Barbosa_, in _Ramusio_, i. f. 310. The word in the Spanish version transl. by Lord Stanley of Alderley is _Pareni_, in the Portuguese of the Lisbon Academy, _Parcens_. So we are not quite sure that _Pareas_ is the proper reading, though this is probable.

1626.—"... The PAREAS are of worse esteeme."—(_W. Methold_, in) _Purchas, Pilgrimage_ 553.

" "... the worst whereof are the abhorred PIRIAWES ... they are in publike Justice the hateful executioners, and are the basest, most stinking, ill-favored people that I have seene."—_Ibid._ 998-9.

1648.—"... the servants of the factory even will not touch it (beef) when they put it on the table, nevertheless there is a caste called PAREYAES (they are the most contemned of all, so that if another Gentoo touches them, he is compelled to be dipt in the water) who eat it freely."—_Van de Broecke_, 82.

1672.—"The PARREAS are the basest and vilest race (accustomed to remove dung and all uncleanness, and to eat mice and rats), in a word a contemned and stinking vile people."—_Baldaeus_ (Germ. ed.), 410.

1711.—"The Company allow two or three Peons to attend the Gate, and a PARREAR Fellow to keep all clean."—_Lockyer_, 20.

" "And there ... is such a resort of basket-makers, Scavengers, people that look after the buffaloes, and other PARRIARS, to drink Toddy, that all the Punch-houses in Madras have not half the noise in them."—_Wheeler_, ii. 125.

1716.—"A young lad of the Left-hand Caste having done hurt to a PARIAH woman of the Right-Hand Caste (big with child), the whole caste got together, and came in a tumultuous manner to demand justice."—_Ibid._ 230.

1717.—"... BARRIER, or a sort of poor people that eat all sort of Flesh and other things, which others deem unclean."—_Phillips, Account_, &c., 127.

1726.—"As for the separate generations and sorts of people who embrace this religion, there are, according to what some folks say, only 4; but in our opinion they are 5 in number, viz.:

α. The Bramins.

β. The Settreas.

γ. The Weynyas or Veynsyas.

δ. The Sudras.

ε. The PERRIAS, whom the High-Dutch and Danes call BARRIARS."—_Valentijn, Chorom._ 73.

1745.—"Les PARREAS ... sont regardés comme gens de la plus vile condition, exclus de tous les honneurs et prérogatives. Jusques-là qu'on ne sçauroit les souffrir, ni dans les Pagodes des Gentils, ni dans les Eglises des Jesuites."—_Norbert_, i. 71.

1750.—"_K._ Es ist der Mist von einer Kuh, denselben nehmen die PARREYER-Weiber, machen runde Kuchen daraus, und wenn sie in der Sonne genug getrocken sind, so verkauffen sie dieselbigen (see OOPLAH). _Fr._ O Wunder! Ist das das Feuerwerk, das ihr hier halt?"—_Madras_, &c., _Halle_, p. 14.

1770.—"The fate of these unhappy wretches who are known on the coast of Coromandel by the name of PARIAS, is the same even in those countries where a foreign dominion has contributed to produce some little change in the ideas of the people."—_Raynal, Hist._ &c., see ed. 1783, i. 63.

" "The idol is placed in the centre of the building, so that the PARIAS who are not admitted into the temple may have a sight of it through the gates."—_Raynal_ (tr. 1777), i. p. 57.

1780.—"If you should ask a common _cooly_, or porter, what cast he is of, he will answer, 'the same as master, PARIAR-_cast_.'"—_Munro's Narrative_, 28-9.

1787.—"... I cannot persuade myself that it is judicious to admit PARIAS into battalions with men of respectable casts...."—_Col. Fullarton's View of English Interests in India_, 222.

1791.—"Le _masalchi_ y courut pour allumer un flambeau; mais il revient un peu après, pris d'haleine, criant: 'N'approchez pas d'ici; il y a un PARIA!' Aussitôt la troupe effrayée cria: 'Un PARIA! Un PARIA!' Le docteur, croyant que c'était quelque animal féroce, mit la main sur ses pistolets. 'Qu'est ce que qu'un PARIA?' demanda-t-il à son porte-flambeau."—_B. de St. Pierre, La Chaumière Indienne_, 48.

1800.—"The PARRIAR, and other impure tribes, comprising what are called the _Punchum Bundum_, would be beaten, were they to attempt joining in a Procession of any of the gods of the Brahmins, or entering any of their temples."—_Buchanan's Mysore_, i. 20.

c. 1805-6.—"The Dubashes, then all powerful at Madras, threatened loss of cast and absolute destruction to any Brahmin who should dare to unveil the mysteries of their language to a PARIAR _Frengi_. This reproach of _Pariar_ is what we have tamely and strangely submitted to for a long time, when we might with a great facility have assumed the respectable character of _Chatriya_."—_Letter of Leyden_, in _Morton's Memoir_, ed. 1819, p. lxvi.

1809.—"Another great obstacle to the reception of Christianity by the Hindoos, is the admission of the PARIAS in our Churches...."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 246.

1821.—

"Il est sur ce rivage une race flêtrie, Une race étrangère au sein de sa patrie. Sans abri protecteur, sans temple hospitalier, Abominable, impie, horrible au peuple entier. Les PARIAS; le jour à regret les éclaire, La terre sur son sein les porte avec colère. * * * * * Eh bien! mais je frémis; tu vas me fuir peut-être; Je suis un PARIA...." _Casimir Delavigne, Le Paria_, Acte 1. Sc. 1.

1843.—"The Christian PARIAH, whom both sects curse, Does all the good he can and loves his brother."—_Forster's Life of Dickens_, ii. 31.

1873.—"The Tamilas hire a PARIYA (_i.e._ drummer) to perform the decapitation at their Badra Kâli sacrifices."—_Kittel_, in _Ind. Ant._ ii. 170.

1878.—"L'hypothèse la plus vraisemblable, en tout cas la plus heureuse, est celle qui suppose que le nom propre et spécial de cette race [i.e. of the original race inhabiting the Deccan before contact with northern invaders] était le mot 'PARIA'; ce mot dont l'orthographe correcte est PAREIYA, derivé de _par'ei_, 'bruit, tambour,' et à très-bien pu avoir le sens de 'parleur, doué de la parole'"(?)—_Hovelacque et Vinson, Études de Linguistique_, &c., Paris, 67.

1872.—

"Fifine, ordained from first to last, In body and in soul For one life-long debauch, The PARIAH of the north, The European _nautch._" _Browning, Fifine at the Fair._

Very good rhyme, but no reason. See under NAUTCH.

The word seems also to have been adopted in Java, _e.g._:

1860.—"We Europeans ... often ... stand far behind compared with the poor PARIAHS."—_Max Havelaar_, ch. vii.

PARIAH-ARRACK, s. In the 17th and 18th centuries this was a name commonly given to the poisonous native spirit commonly sold to European soldiers and sailors. [See FOOL'S RACK.]

1671-72.—"The unwholesome liquor called PARRIER-ARRACK...."—_Sir W. Langhorne_, in _Wheeler_, iii. 422.

1711.—"The Tobacco, Beetle, and PARIAR ARACK, on which such great profit arises, are all expended by the Inhabitants."—_Lockyer_, 13.

1754.—"I should be very glad to have your order to bring the ship up to Calcutta ... as ... the people cannot here have the opportunity of intoxicating and killing themselves with PARIAR ARRACK."—In _Long_, 51.

PARIAH-DOG, s. The common ownerless yellow dog, that frequents all inhabited places in the East, is universally so called by Europeans, no doubt from being a low-bred casteless animal; often elliptically 'PARIAH' only.

1789.—"... A species of the common cur, called a PARIAR-DOG."—_Munro, Narr._ p. 36.

1810.—"The nuisance may be kept circling for days, until forcibly removed, or until the PARIAH DOGS swim in, and draw the carcase to the shore."—_Williamson, V. M._ ii. 261.

1824.—"The other beggar was a PARIAH DOG, who sneaked down in much bodily fear to our bivouac."—_Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 79.

1875.—"Le Musulman qui va prier à la mosquée, maudit les PARIAS honnis."—_Rev. des Deux Mondes_, April, 539.

[1883.—"PARAYA DOGS are found in every street."—_T. V. Row, Man. of Tanjore Dist._ 104.]

PARIAH-KITE, s. The commonest Indian kite, _Milvus Govinda_, Sykes, notable for its great numbers, and its impudence. "They are excessively bold and fearless, often snatching morsels off a dish _en route_ from kitchen to hall, and even, according to Adams, seizing a fragment from a man's very mouth" (_Jerdon_). Compare quotation under BRAHMINY KITE.

[1880.—"I had often supposed that the scavenger or PARIAH KITES (_Milvus govinda_), which though generally to be seen about the tents, are not common in the jungles, must follow the camp for long distances, and to-day I had evidence that such was the case...."—_Ball, Jungle Life_, 655.]

PARSEE, n.p. This name, which distinguishes the descendants of those emigrants of the old Persian stock, who left their native country, and, retaining their Zoroastrian religion, settled in India to avoid Mahommedan persecution, is only the old form of the word for a Persian, viz., _Pārsī_, which Arabic influences have in more modern times converted into _Fārsī_. The Portuguese have used both _Parseo_ and _Perseo_. From the latter some of our old travellers have taken the form _Persee_; from the former doubtless we got _Parsee_. It is a curious example of the way in which different accidental mouldings of the same word come to denote entirely different ideas, that Persian, in this form, in Western India, means a Zoroastrian fire-worshipper, whilst _Pathi_ (see PANTHAY), a Burmese corruption of the same word, in Burma means a Mahommedan.

c. 1328.—"There be also other pagan-folk in this India who worship fire; they bury not their dead, neither do they burn them, but cast them into the midst of a certain roofless tower, and there expose them totally uncovered to the fowls of heaven. These believe in two First Principles, to wit, of Evil and of Good, of Darkness and of Light."—_Friar Jordanus_, 21.

1552.—"In any case he dismissed them with favour and hospitality, showing himself glad of the coming of such personages, and granting them protection for their ships as being (PARSEOS) Persians of the Kingdom of Ormuz."—_Barros_, I. viii. 9.

" "... especially after these were induced by the Persian and Guzerati Moors (_Mouros_, PARSEOS _e Guzarates_) to be converted from heathen (_Gentios_) to the sect of Mahamed."—_Ibid._ II. vi. i.

[1563.—"There are other herb-sellers (_mercadores de boticas_) called Coaris, and in the Kingdom of Cambay they call them ESPARCIS, and we Portuguese call them Jews, but they are not, only Hindus who came from Persia and have their own writing."—_Garcia_, p. 213.]

1616.—"There is one sect among the Gentiles, which neither burne nor interre their dead (they are called PARCEES) who incircle pieces of ground with high stone walls, remote from houses or Road-wayes, and therein lay their Carcasses, wrapped in Sheetes, thus having no other Tombes but the gorges of rauenous Fowles."—_Terry_, in _Purchas_, ii. 1479.

1630.—"Whilst my observation was bestowed on such inquiry, I observed in the town of Surrat, the place where I resided, another Sect called the PERSEES...."—_Lord, Two Forraigne Sects_.

1638.—"Outre les Benjans il y a encore vne autre sorte de Payens dans le royaume de _Gusuratte_, qu'ils appellent PARSIS. Ce sont des Perses de Fars, et de Chorasan."—_Mandelslo_ (Paris, 1659), 213.

1648.—"They (the PERSIANS of India, _i.e._ _Parsees_) are in general a fast-gripping and avaricious nation (not unlike the Benyans and the Chinese), and very fraudulent in buying and selling."—_Van Twist_, 48.

1653.—"Les Ottomans appellent _gueuure_ vne secte de Payens, que nous connaissons sous le nom d'adorateurs du feu, les Persans sous celuy d'_Atechperés_, et les Indous sous celuy de PARSI, terme dont ils se nomment eux-mesmes."—_De la Boullaye-le-Gouz_, ed. 1657, p. 200.

1672.—"Non tutti ancora de' Gentili sono d'vna medesima fede. Alcuni descendono dalli PERSIANI, li quali si conoscono dal colore, ed adorano il fuoco.... In Suratte ne trouai molti...."—_P. F. Vincenzo Maria, Viaggio_, 234.

1673.—"On this side of the Water are people of another Offspring than those we have yet mentioned, these be called PARSEYS ... these are somewhat white, and I think nastier than the Gentues...."—_Fryer_, 117.

" "The PARSIES, as they are called, are of the old Stock of the Persians, worship the Sun and Adore the Elements; are known only about Surat."—_Ibid._ p. 197.

1689.—"... the PERSIES are a Sect very considerable in India...."—_Ovington_, 370.

1726.—"... to say a word of a certain other sort of Heathen who have spread in the City of Suratte and in its whole territory, and who also maintain themselves in Agra, and in various places of Persia, especially in the Province of Kerman, at Yezd, and in Ispahan. They are commonly called by the Indians PERSEES or PARSIS, but by the Persians _Gaurs_ or _Gebbers_, and also _Atech Peres_ or adorers of Fire."—_Valentijn_, iv. (_Suratte_) 153.

1727.—"The PARSEES are numerous about Surat and the adjacent Countries. They are a remnant of the ancient Persians."—_A. Hamilton_, ch. xiv; [ed. 1744, i. 159].

1877.—"... en se levant, le PARSI, après s'être lavé les mains et la figure avec l'urine du taureau, met sa ceinture en disant: Souverain soit Ormuzd, abattu soit Ahrimān."—_Darmesteter, Ormuzd et Ahriman_, p. 2.

PARVOE, PURVO, s. The popular name of the writer-caste in Western India, _Prabhū_ or _Parbhū_, 'lord or chief' (Skt. _prabhu_), being an honorific title assumed by the caste of _Kāyath_ or _Kāyastha_, one of the mixt castes which commonly furnished writers. A Bombay term only.

1548.—"And to the PARVU of the _Tenadar Mor_ 1800 reis a year, being 3 _pardaos_ a month...."—_S. Botelho, Tombo_, 211.

[1567.—See _Paibus_ under CASIS.

[1676-7.—"... the same guards the PURVOS y^t look after y^e Customes for the same charge can receive y^e passage boats rent...."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters, Home Series_, i. 125.

[1773.—"_Conucopola_ (see CONICOPOLY).... At Bombay he is stiled PURVO, and is of the Gentoo religion."—_Ives_, 49 _seq._]

1809.—"The Bramins of this village speak and write English; the young men are mostly PARVOES, or writers."—_Maria Graham_, 11.

1813.—"These writers at Bombay are generally called PURVOES; a faithful diligent class."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ i. 156-157; [2nd ed. i. 100].

1833.—"Every native of India on the Bombay Establishment, who can write English, and is employed in any office, whether he be a Brahman, Goldsmith, Parwary, Portuguese, or of English descent, is styled a PURVOE, from several persons of a caste of Hindoos termed _Prubhoe_ having been among the first employed as English writers at Bombay."—_Mackintosh on the Tribe of Ramoosies_, p. 77.

PASADOR, s. A marlin-spike. Sea-Hind., from Port. _passador_.—_Roebuck._

PASEI, PACEM, n.p. The name of a Malay State near the N.E. point of Sumatra, at one time predominant in those regions, and reckoned, with Malacca and Majapahit (the capital of the Empire of Java), the three greatest cities of the Archipelago. It is apparently the _Basma_ of Marco Polo, who visited the coast before Islam had gained a footing.

c. 1292.—"When you quit the kingdom of Ferlec you enter upon that of BASMA. This also is an independent kingdom, and the people have a language of their own; but they are just like beasts, without laws or religion."—_Marco Polo_, Bk. iii. ch. 9.

1511.—"Next day we departed with the plunder of the captured vessel, which also we had with us; we took our course forward until we reached another port in the same island Trapobana (Sumatra), which was called PAZZE; and anchoring in the said port we found at anchor there several junks and ships from divers parts."—_Empoli_, p. 53.

1553.—"In the same manner he (Diogo Lopes) was received in the kingdom of PACEM ... and as the King of Pedir had given him a cargo of pepper ... he did not think well to go further ... in case ... they should give news of his coming at Malaca, those two ports of Pedir and PACEM being much frequented by a multitude of ships that go there for cargoes."—_Barros_, II. iv. 31.

1726.—"Next to this and close to the East-point of Sumatra is the once especially famous city PASI (or PACEM), which in old times, next to Magapahit and Malakka, was one of the three greatest cities of the East ... but now is only a poor open village with not more than 4 or 500 families, dwelling in poor bamboo cottages."—_Valentijn_, (v.) _Sumatra_, 10.

1727.—"And at PISSANG, about 10 Leagues to the Westward of Diamond Point, there is a fine deep River, but not frequented, because of the treachery and bloody disposition of the Natives."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 125; [ed. 1744].

PĀT, s. A can or pot. Sea-Hind. from English.—_Roebuck._

PATACA, PATACOON, s. Ital. _patacco_; Provenc. _patac_; Port. _pataca_ and _patação_; also used in Malayālam. A term, formerly much diffused, for a dollar or piece of eight. Littré connects it with an old French word _patard_, a kind of coin, "du reste, origine inconnue." But he appears to have overlooked the explanation indicated by Volney (_Voyage en Egypte_, &c., ch. ix. note) that the name _abūṭāḳa_ (or corruptly _bāṭāḳa_, see also _Dozy & Eng._ s.v.) was given by the Arabs to certain coins of this kind with a scutcheon on the reverse, the term meaning 'father of the window, or niche'; the scutcheon being taken for such an object. Similarly, the pillar-dollars are called in modern Egypt _abū medfa_', 'father of a cannon'; and the Maria Theresa dollar _abū ṭēra_, 'father of the bird.' But on the Red Sea, where only the coinage of one particular year (or the modern imitation thereof, still struck at Trieste from the old die), is accepted, it is _abū nuḳāṭ_, 'father of dots,' from certain little points which mark the right issue.

[1528.—"Each of the men engaged in the attack on Purakkat received no less than 800 gold PATTAKS (ducats) as his share."—_Logan, Malabar_, i. 329.

[1550.—"And afterwards while Viceroy Dom Affonso Noronha ordered silver coins to be made, which were patecoons (PATECOES)."—_Arch. Port. Orient._, Fasc. ii. No. 54 of 1569.]

PATCH, s. "Thin pieces of cloth at Madras" (_Indian Vocabulary_, 1788). Wilson gives PATCH as a vulgar abbreviation for Telug. _pach'chadamu_, 'a

## particular kind of cotton cloth, generally 24 cubits long and 2 broad; two

cloths joined together.'

[1667.—"Pray if can procuer a good Pallenkeen bambo and 2 PATCH of ye finest with what colours you thinke hansome for my own wear, chockoloes and susaes (see SOOSIE)."—In _Yule, Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. cclxii.]

PATCHARÉE, PATCHERRY, PARCHERRY, s. In the Bengal Presidency, before the general construction of 'married quarters' by Government, _patcharée_ was the name applied in European corps to the cottages which used to form the quarters of married soldiers. The origin of the word is obscure, and it has been suggested that it was a corruption of Hind. _pichch'hārī_, 'the rear,' because these cottages were in rear of the barracks. But we think it most likely that the word was brought, with many other terms peculiar to the British soldier in India, from Madras, and is identical with a term in use there, _parcherry_ or _patcherry_, which represents the Tam. _pa_R_ash'shēri_, _paraiççeri_, 'a Pariah village,' or rather the quarter or outskirts of a town or village where the Pariahs reside. Mr. Whitworth (s.v. _Patcherry_) says that "in some native regiments the term denotes the married sepoys' quarters, possibly because Pariah sepoys had their families with them, while the higher castes left them at home." He does not say whether Bombay or Madras sepoys are in question. But in any case what he states confirms the origin ascribed to the Bengal Presidency term _Patcharée_.

1747.—"PATCHEREE POINT, mending Platforms and Gunports ... (Pgs.) 4 : 21 : 48."—_Accounts from Ft. St. David_, under Feb. 21. MS. Records, in India Office.

1781.—"Leurs maisons (c.-à-d. des _Parias_) sont des cahutes où un homme peut à peine entrer, et elles forment de petits villages qu'on appelle PARETCHERIS."—_Sonnerat_, ed. 1782, i. 98.

1878.—"During the greater portion of the year extra working gangs of scavengers were kept for the sole purpose of going from PARCHERRY to PARCHERRY and cleaning them."—_Report of Madras Municipality_, p. 24.

c. 1880.—"Experience obtained in Madras some years ago with reconstructed PARCHERRIES, and their effect on health, might be imitated possibly with advantage in Calcutta."—_Report by Army Sanitary Commission._

PATCHOULI, PATCH-LEAF, also PUTCH and PUTCHA-LEAF, s. In Beng. _pachapāt_; Deccani Hind. _pacholī_. The latter are trade names of the dried leaves of a labiate plant allied to mint (_Pogostemon patchouly_, Pelletier). It is supposed to be a cultivated variety of _Pogostemon Heyneanus_, Bentham, a native of the Deccan. It is grown in native gardens throughout India, Ceylon, and the Malay Islands, and the dried flowering spikes and leaves of the plant, which are used, are sold in every bazar in Hindustan. The _pacha-pāt_ is used as an ingredient in tobacco for smoking, as hair-scent by women, and especially for stuffing mattresses and laying among clothes as we use lavender. In a fluid form _patchouli_ was introduced into England in 1844, and soon became very fashionable as a perfume.

The origin of the word is a difficulty. The name is alleged in Drury, and in Forbes Watson's _Nomenclature_ to be Bengāli. Littré says the word _patchouli_ is _patchey-elley_, 'feuille de patchey'; in what language we know not; perhaps it is from Tamil _pachcha_, 'green,' and _êlâ_, _êlam_, an aromatic perfume for the hair. [The _Madras Gloss._ gives Tamil _paççilai_, _paççai_, 'green,' _ilai_, 'leaf.']

1673.—"_Note_, that if the following Goods from _Acheen_ hold out the following _Rates_, the Factor employed is no further responsible.

* * * * *

PATCH LEAF, 1 _Bahar Maunds_ 7 20 _sear_."—_Fryer_, 209.

PATECA, s. This word is used by the Portuguese in India for a water-melon (_Citrullus vulgaris_, Schrader; _Cucurbita Citrullus_, L.). It is from the Ar. _al-baṭṭikh_ or _al-biṭṭīkh_. F. Johnson gives this 'a melon, musk-melon. A pumpkin; a cucurbitaceous plant.' We presume that this is not merely the too common dictionary looseness, for the chaos of cucurbitaceous nomenclature, both vulgar and scientific, is universal (see _A. De Candolle, Origine des Plantes cultivées_). In Lane's _Modern Egyptians_ (ed. 1837, i. 200) the word _butteekh_ is rendered explicitly 'water-melon.' We have also in Spanish _albadeca_, which is given by Dozy and Eng. as 'espèce de melon'; and we have French _pastèque_, which we believe always means a water-melon. De Candolle seems to have no doubt that the water-melon was cultivated in ancient Egypt, and believes it to have been introduced into the Graeco-Roman world about the beginning of our era; whilst Hehn carries it to Persia from India, 'whether at the time of the Arabian or of the Mongol domination, (and then) to Greece, through the medium of the Turks, and to Russia, through that of the Tartar States of Astrakan and Kazan.'

The name PATECA, looking to the existence of the same word in Spanish, we should have supposed to have been Portuguese long before the Portuguese establishment in India; yet the whole of what is said by Garcia de Orta is inconsistent with this. In his _Colloquio XXXVI._ the gist of the dialogue is that his visitor from Europe, Ruano, tells how he had seen what seemed a most beautiful melon, and how Garcia's housekeeper recommended it, but on trying it, it tasted only of mud instead of melon! Garcia then tells him that at Diu, and in the Bālaghāt, &c., he would find excellent melons with the flavour of the melons of Portugal but "those others which the Portuguese here in India call PATECAS are quite another thing—huge round or oval fruits, with black seeds—not sweet (_doce_) like the Portugal melons, but bland (_suave_), most juicy and cooling, excellent in bilious fevers, and congestions of the liver and kidneys, &c." Both name and thing are represented as novelties to Ruano. Garcia tells him also that the Arabs and Persians call it _batiec indi_, _i.e._ melon of India (F. Johnson gives '_biṭṭīkh-i-hindī_, the citrul'; whilst in Persian _hinduwāna_ is also a word for water-melon) but that the real Indian country name was (_calangari_ Mahr. _kālingaṛ_, [perhaps that known in the N.W.P. as _kalindā_, 'a water-melon']). Ruano then refers to the _budiecas_ of Castille of which he had heard, and queries if these were not the same as these Indian PATECAS, but Garcia says they are quite different. All this is curious as implying that the water-melon was strange to the Portuguese at that time (1563; see _Colloquios_, f. 141v. _seqq._).

[A friend who has Burnell's copy of Garcia De Orta tells me that he finds a note in the writing of the former on _bateca_: "_i.e._ the Arabic term. As this is used all over India, water-melons must have been imported by the Mahommedans." I believe it to be a mistake that the word is in use all over India. I do not think the word is ever used in Upper India, nor is it (in that sense) in either Shakespear or Fallon. [Platts gives: A. _biṭṭīkh_, s.m. The melon (_kharbūza_); the water-melon, _Cucurbita citrullus_.] The most common word in the N.W.P. for a water-melon is Pers. _tarbūz_, whilst the musk-melon is Pers. _kharbūza_. And these words are so rendered from the _Āīn_ respectively by Blochmann (see his E.T. i. 66, "melons ... water-melons," and the original i. 67, "_kharbuza_ ... _tarbuz_"). But with the usual chaos already alluded to, we find both these words interpreted in F. Johnson as "water-melon." And according to Hehn the latter is called in the Slav tongues _arbuz_ and in Mod. Greek καρπούσια, the first as well as the last probably from the Turkish _ḳārpūz_, which has the same meaning, for this hard _ḳ_ is constantly dropt in modern pronunciation.—H. Y.]

We append a valuable note on this from Prof. Robertson-Smith:

"(1) The classical form of the Ar. word is _biṭṭīkh_. _Baṭṭīkh_ is a widely-spread vulgarism, indeed now, I fancy, universal, for I don't think I ever heard the first syllable pronounced with an _i_.

"(2) The term, according to the law-books, includes all kinds of melons (_Lane_); but practically it is applied (certainly at least in Syria and Egypt) almost exclusively to the water-melon, unless it has a limiting adjective. Thus "the wild _biṭṭīkh_" is the colocynth, and with other adjectives it may be used of very various cucurbitaceous fruits (see examples in Dozy's _Suppt._)

"(6) The biblical form is _ăbaṭṭīkh_ (_e.g._ Numbers xi. 5, where the E.V. has 'melons'). But this is only the 'water-melon'; for in the Mishna it is distinguished from the sweet melon, the latter being named by a mere transcription in Hebrew letters of the Greek μηλοπέπων. Löw justly concludes that the Palestinians (and the Syrians, for their name only differs slightly) got the sweet melon from the Greeks, whilst for the water-melon they have an old and probably true Semitic word. For _baṭṭīkh_ Syriac has _paṭṭīkh_, indicating that in literary Arabic the _a_ has been changed to _i_, only to agree with rules of grammar. Thus popular pronunciation seems always to have kept the old form, as popular usage seems always to have used the word mainly in its old specific meaning. The Bible and the Mishna suffice to refute Hehn's view (of the introduction of the water-melon from India). Old Ḳimḥi, in his _Miklol_, illustrates the Hebrew word by the Spanish _budiecas_."

1598.—"... ther is an other sort like _Melons_, called PATECAS or _Angurias_, or _Melons of India_, which are outwardlie of a darke greene colour; inwardlie white with blacke kernels; they are verie waterish and hard to byte, and so moyst, that as a man eateth them his mouth is full of water, but yet verie sweet and verie cold and fresh meat, wherefore manie of them are eaten after dinner to coole men."—_Linschoten_, 97; [Hak. Soc. ii. 35].

c. 1610.—"Toute la campagne est couverte d'arbres fruitiers ... et d'arbres de coton, de quantité de melons et de PATEQUES, qui sont espèce de citrouilles de prodigieuse grosseur...."—_Pyrard de Laval_, ed. 1679, i. 286; [Hak. Soc. i. 399, and see i. 33].

" A few pages later the word is written PASTEQUES.—_Ibid._ 301; [Hak. Soc. i. 417].

[1663.—"PATEQUES, or water-melons, are in great abundance nearly the whole year round: but those of _Delhi_ are soft, without colour or sweetness. If this fruit be ever found good, it is among the wealthy people, who import the seed and cultivate it with much care and expense."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 250.]

1673.—"From hence (Elephanta) we sailed to the _Putachoes_, a Garden of Melons (PUTACHO being a Melon) were there not wild Rats that hinder their growth, and so to _Bombaim_."—_Fryer_, 76.

PATEL, POTAIL, s. The headman of a village, having general control of village affairs, and forming the medium of communication with the officers of Government. In Mahr. _paṭīl_, Hind. _paṭel_. The most probable etym. seems to be from _paṭ_, Mahr. 'a roll or register,' Skt.—Hind. _paṭṭa_. The title is more particularly current in territories that are or have been subject to the Mahrattas, "and appears to be an essentially Maráthi word, being used as a respectful title in addressing one of that nation, or a Súdra in general" (_Wilson_). The office is hereditary, and is often held under a Government grant. The title is not used in the Gangetic Provinces, but besides its use in Central and W. India it has been commonly employed in S. India, probably as a Hindustani word, though _Monigar_ (see MONEGAR) (_Maṇiyakāram_), _adhikārī_ (see ADIGAR), &c., are appropriate synonyms in Tamil and Malabar districts.

[1535.—"The TANADARS began to come in and give in their submission, bringing with them all the patels (PATEIS) and renters with their payments, which they paid to the Governor, who ordered fresh records to be prepared."—_Couto_, Dec. IV. Bk. ix. ch. 2 (description of the commencement of Portuguese rule in Bassein).

[1614.—"I perceive that you are troubled with a bad commodity, wherein the desert of PATELL and the rest appeareth."—_Foster, Letters_, ii. 281.]

1804.—"The PATEL of Beitculgaum, in the usual style of a Mahratta PATEL, keeps a band of plunderers for his own profit and advantage. You will inform him that if he does not pay for the horses, bullocks, and articles plundered, he shall be hanged also."—_Wellington_, March 27.

1809.—"... PATTELS, or headmen."—_Lord Valentia_, i. 415.

1814.—"At the settling of the _jummabundee_, they pay their proportion of the village assessment to government, and then dispose of their grain, cotton, and fruit, without being accountable to the PATELL."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ ii. 418; [2nd ed. ii. 44].

1819.—"The present system of Police, as far as relates to the villagers may easily be kept up; but I doubt whether it is enough that the village establishment be maintained, and the whole put under the MAMLUTDAR. The POTAIL'S respectability and influence in the village must be kept up."—_Elphinstone_, in _Life_, ii. 81.

1820.—"The PATAIL holds his office direct of Government, under a written obligation ... which specifies his duties, his rank, and the ceremonies of respect he is entitled to; and his perquisites, and the quantity of freehold land allotted to him as wages."—_T. Coats_, in _Tr. Bo. Lit. Soc._ iii. 183.

1823.—"The heads of the family ... have purchased the office of POTAIL, or headman."—_Malcolm, Central India_, i. 99.

1826.—"The POTAIL offered me a room in his own house, and I very thankfully accepted it."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1877, p. 241; [ed. 1873, ii. 45].

1851.—"This affected humility was in fact one great means of effecting his elevation. When at Poonah he (Madhajee Sindea) ... instead of arrogating any exalted title, would only suffer himself to be called PATEIL...."—_Fraser, Mil. Mem. of Skinner_, i. 33.

1870.—"The POTAIL accounted for the revenue collections, receiving the perquisites and percentages, which were the accustomed dues of the office."—_Systems of Land Tenure_ (Cobden Club), 163.

PATNA, n.p. The chief city of Bahar; and the representative of the _Palibothra_ (_Pātaliputra_) of the Greeks. Hind. _Paṭṭana_, "the city." [See quotation from D'Anville under ALLAHABAD.]

1586.—"From Bannaras I went to PATENAW downe the riuer of Ganges.... PATENAW is a very long and a great towne. In times past it was a kingdom, but now it is vnder Zelabdim Echebar, the great Mogor.... In this towne there is a trade of cotton, and cloth of cotton, much sugar, which they carry from hence to Bengala and India, very much Opium, and other commodities."—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 388.

1616.—"_Bengala_, a most spacious and fruitful Province, but more properly to be called a kingdom, which hath two very large Provinces within it, _Purb_ (see POORUB) and PATAN, the one lying on the east, and the other on the west side of the River Ganges."—_Terry_, ed. 1665, p. 357.

[1650.—"PATNA is one of the largest towns in India, on the margin of the Ganges, on its western side, and it is not less than two _coss_ in length."—_Tavernier_, ed. _Ball_, i. 121 _seq._]

1673.—"_Sir William Langham_ ... is Superintendent over all the Factories on the coast of _Coromandel_, as far as the Bay of _Bengala_, and up Huygly River ... viz. _Fort St. George_, alias _Maderas_, _Pettipolee_, _Mechlapatan_, _Gundore_, _Medapollon_, _Balasore_, _Bengala_, _Huygly_, _Castle Buzzar_, PATTANAW."—_Fryer_, 38.

1726.—"If you go higher up the Ganges to the N. W. you come to the great and famous trading city of PATTENA, capital of the Kingdom of Behar, and the residence of the Vice-roy."—_Valentijn_, v. 164.

1727.—"PATANA is the next Town frequented by Europeans ... for Saltpetre and raw Silk. It produces also so much Opium, that it serves all the Countries in India with that commodity."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 21; [ed. 1744].

PATOLA, s. Canarese and Malayāl. _paṭṭuda_, 'a silk-cloth.' In the fourth quotation it is rather misapplied to the Ceylon dress (see COMBOY).

1516.—"Coloured cottons and silks which the Indians call PATOLA."—_Barbosa_, 184.

1522.—"... PATOLOS of silk, which are cloths made at Cambaya that are highly prized at Malaca."—_Correa, Lendas_, ii. 2, 714.

1545.—"... homems ... enchachados com PATOLAS de seda."—_Pinto_, ch. clx. (_Cogan_, p. 219).

1552.—"They go naked from the waist upwards, and below it they are clothed with silk and cotton which they call PATOLAS."—_Castanheda_, ii. 78.

[1605.—"PATTALA."—_Birdwood, Letter Book_, 74.]

1614.—"... PATOLLAS...."—_Peyton_, in _Purchas_, i. 530.

PATTAMAR, PATIMAR, &c. This word has two senses:

A. A foot-runner, a courier. In this use the word occurs only in the older writers, especially Portuguese.

B. A kind of lateen-rigged ship, with one, two, or three masts, common on the west coast. This sense seems to be comparatively modern. In both senses the word is perhaps the Konkani _path-mār_, 'a courier.' C. P. Brown, however, says that _patta-mar_, applied to a vessel, is Malayāl. signifying "goose-wing." Molesworth's _Mahr. Dict._ gives both _patemārī_ and _phatemārī_ for "a sort of swift-sailing vessel, a _pattymar_," with the etym. "tidings-bringer." _Patta_ is 'tidings,' but the second part of the word so derived is not clear. Sir. J. M. Campbell, who is very accurate, in the _Bo. Gazetteer_ writes of the vessel as _pātimār_, though identifying, as we have done, both uses with _pathmār_, 'courier.' The Moslem, he says, write _phatemārī_ quasi _fatḥ-mār_, 'snake of victory'(?). [The _Madras Gloss._ gives Mal. _pattamāri_, Tam. _pāttimār_, from _patār_, Hind. 'tidings' (not in Platts), _māri_, Mahr. 'carrier.'] According to a note in _Notes and Extracts_, No. 1 (Madras, 1871), p. 27, under a Ft. St. Geo. Consultation of July 4, 1673, _Pattamar_ is therein used "for a native vessel on the Coromandel Coast, though now confined to the Western Coast." We suspect a misapprehension. For in the following entry we have no doubt that the parenthetical gloss is wrong, and that _couriers_ are meant:

"A letter sent to the President and Councell at Surratt by a Pair of PATTAMARS (native craft) express...."—_Op. cit._ No. ii. p. 8. [On this word see further Sir H. Yule's note on _Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. ii. 165.]

A.—

1552.—"... But Lorenço de Brito, seeing things come to such a pass that certain Captains of the King (of Cananor) with troops chased him to the gates, he wrote to the Viceroy of the position in which he was by PATAMARES, who are men that make great journeys by land."—_De Barros_, II. i. 5.

The word occurs repeatedly in _Correa, Lendas_, _e.g._ III. i. 108, 149, &c.

1598.—"... There are others that are called PATAMARES, which serue onlie for Messengers or Posts, to carie letters from place to place by land in winter-time when men cannot travaile by sea."—_Linschoten_, 78; [Hak. Soc. i. 260, and see ii. 165].

1606.—"The eight and twentieth, a PATTEMAR told that the Governor was a friend to us only in shew, wishing the _Portugalls_ in our roome; for we did no good in the Country, but brought Wares which they were forced to buy...."—_Roger Hawes_, in _Purchas_, i. 605.

[1616.—"The PATAMAR (for so in this country they call poor footmen that are letter-bearers)...."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 227.]

1666.—"Tranquebar, qui est eloigné de Saint Thomé de cinq journées d'un Courier à pié, qu'on appelle PATAMAR."—_Thevenot_, v. 275.

1673.—"After a month's Stay here a PATAMAR (a Foot Post) from _Fort St. George_ made us sensible of the Dutch being gone from thence to Ceylon."—_Fryer_, 36.

[1684.—"The PATTAMARS that went to Codaloor by reason of the deepness of the Rivers were forced to Return...."—_Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo._ 1st ser. iii. 133.]

1689.—"A PATTAMAR, _i.e._ a Foot Messenger, is generally employ'd to carry them (letters) to the remotest Bounds of the Empire."—_Ovington_, 251.

1705.—"Un PATEMARE qui est un homme du Pais; c'est ce que nous appellons un exprès...."—_Luillier_, 43.

1758.—"Yesterday returned a PATTAMAR or express to our Jew merchant from Aleppo, by the way of the Desert...."—_Ives_, 297.

c. 1760.—"Between Bombay and Surat there is a constant intercourse preserved, not only by sea ... but by PATTAMARS, or foot-messengers overland."—_Grose_, i. 119. This is the last instance we have met of the word in this sense, which is now quite unknown to Englishmen.

B.—

1600.—"... Escrevia que hum barco pequeno, dos que chamam PATAMARES, se meteria...."—_Lucena, Vida do P. F. Xavier_, 185.

[1822.—"About 12 o'clock on the same night they embarked in PADDIMARS for Cochin."—_Wallace, Fifteen Years_, 206.]

1834.—A description of the PATAMÁRS, with a plate, is given in Mr. John Edye's paper on Indian coasting vessels, in vol. i. of the _R. As. Soc. Journal_.

1860.—"Among the vessels at anchor lie the dows (see DHOW) of the Arabs, the PETAMARES of Malabar, and the dhoneys (see DONEY) of Coromandel."—_Tennent's Ceylon_, ii. 103.

PATTELLO, PATELLEE, s. A large flat-bottomed boat on the Ganges; Hind. _paṭelā_. [Mr. Grierson gives among the Behar boats "the _paṭelī_ or _paṭailī_, also called in Sāran _katrā_, on which the boards forming the sides overlap and are not joined edge to edge," with an illustration (_Bihar Peasant Life_, 42).]

[1680.—"The PATELLA; the boats that come down from Pattana with Saltpeeter or other goods, built of an Exceeding Strength and are very flatt and burthensome."—_Yule, Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. 15.]

1685.—"We came to a great _Godowne_, where ... this Nabob's Son has laid in a vast quantity of Salt, here we found divers great PATELLOS taking in their lading for Pattana."—_Ibid._ Jan 6; [Hak. Soc. i. 175].

1860.—"The PUTELEE (or Kutora), or Baggage-boat of Hindostan, is a very large, flat-bottomed, clinker-built, unwieldy-looking piece of rusticity of probably ... about 35 tons burthen; but occasionally they may be met with double this size."—_Colesworthy Grant, Rural Life in Bengal_, p. 6.

PAULIST, n.p. The Jesuits were commonly so called in India because their houses in that country were formerly always dedicated to St. Paul, the great Missionary to the Heathen. They have given up this practice since their modern re-establishment in India. They are still called _Paolotti_ in Italy, especially by those who don't like them.

c. 1567.—"... e vi sono assai Chiese dei PADRI DI SAN PAULO i quali fanno in quei luoghi gran profitto in conuertire quei popoli."—_Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 390.

1623.—"I then went to the College of the Jesuit Fathers, the Church of which, like that at Daman, at Bassaim, and at almost all the other cities of the Portuguese in India, is called SAN PAOLO; whence it happens that in India the said Fathers are known more commonly by the name of PAOLISTI than by that of Jesuits."—_P. della Valle_, April 27; [iii. 135].

c. 1650.—"The _Jesuits_ at _Goa_ are known by the name of PAULISTS; by reason that their great Church is dedicated to St. _Paul_. Nor do they wear Hats, or Corner-Caps, as in _Europe_, but only a certain Bonnet, resembling the Skull of a Hat without the Brims."—_Tavernier_, E.T. 77; [ed. _Ball_, i. 197].

1672.—"There was found in the fortress of Cranganor a handsome convent, and Church of the PAULISTS, or disciples and followers of Ignatius Loyola...."—_Baldaeus, Germ._, p. 110. In another passage this author says they were called PAULISTS because they were first sent to India by Pope Paul III. But this is not the correct reason.

1673.—"St. Paul's was the first Monastery of the Jesuits in _Goa_, from whence they receive the name PAULISTINS."—_Fryer_, 150.

[1710.—See quotation under COBRA DE CAPELLO.]

1760.—"The Jesuits, who are better known in India by the appellation of PAULISTS, from their head church and convent of St. Paul's in Goa."—_Grose_, i. 50.

PAUNCHWAY, s. A light kind of boat used on the rivers of Bengal; like a large DINGY (q.v.), with a tilted roof of matting or thatch, a mast and four oars. Beng. _panśī_, and _pansoī_. [Mr. Grierson (_Peasant Life_, 43) describes the _pansūhī_ as a boat with a round bottom, but which goes in shallow water, and gives an illustration.]

[1757.—"He was then beckoning to his servant that stood in a PONSY above the Gaut."—_A. Grant, Account of the Loss of Calcutta_, ed. by _Col. Temple_, p. 7.]

c. 1760.—"PONSWAYS, Guard-boats."—_Grose_ (Glossary).

1780.—"The PAUNCHWAYS are nearly of the same general construction (as budgerows), with this difference, that the greatest breadth is somewhat further aft, and the stern lower."—_Hodges_, 39-40.

1790.—"Mr. Bridgwater was driven out to sea in a common PAUNCHWAY, and when every hope forsook him the boat floated into the harbour of Masulipatam."—_Calcutta Monthly Review_, i. 40.

1823.—"... A PANCHWAY, or passage-boat ... was a very characteristic and interesting vessel, large and broad, shaped like a snuffer-dish; a deck fore-and-aft, and the middle covered with a roof of palm-branches...."—_Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 21.

1860.—"... You may suppose that I engage neither pinnace nor _bujra_ (see BUDGEROW), but that comfort and economy are sufficiently obtained by hiring a small _bhouliya_ (see BOLIAH) ... what is more likely at a fine weather season like this, a small native PUNSÓEE, which, with a double set of hands, or four oars, is a lighter and much quicker boat."—_C. Grant, Rural Life in Bengal_, 10 [with an illustration].

PAWL, s. Hind. _pāl_, [Skt. _paṭala_, 'a roof']. A small tent with two light poles, and steep sloping sides; no walls, or ridge-pole. I believe the statement 'no ridge-pole,' is erroneous. It is difficult to derive from memory an exact definition of tents, and especially of the difference between PAWL and SHOOLDARRY. A reference to India failed in getting a reply. The SHOOLDARRY is not essentially different from the PAWL, but is trimmer, tauter, better closed, and sometimes has two FLIES. [The names of tents are used in various senses in different parts. The _Madras Gloss._ defines a PAUL as "a small tent with two light poles, a ridge-bar, and steep sloping sides; the walls, if any, are very short, often not more than 6 inches high. Sometimes a second ridge above carries a second roof over the first; this makes a common shooting tent." Mr. G. R. Dampier writes: "These terms are, I think, used rather loosely in the N.W.P. SHOLDĀRĪ generally means a servant's tent, a sort of _tente d'abri_, with very low sides: the sides are generally not more than a foot high; there are no doors only flaps at one end. PĀL is generally used to denote a sleeping tent for Europeans; the roof slopes on both sides from a longitudinal ridge-pole; the sides are much higher than in the SHOLDĀRĪ, and there is a door at one end; the FLY is almost invariably single. The Raoti (see ROWTEE) is incorrectly used in some places to denote a sleeping PĀL; it is, properly speaking, I believe, a larger tent, of the same kind, but with doors in the side, not at the end. In some parts I have found they use the word PĀL as equivalent to SHOLDĀRĪ and BILṬAN (? _bell-tent_)."]

1785.—"Where is the great quantity of baggage belonging to you, seeing that you have nothing besides tents, PAWLS, and other such necessary articles?"—_Tippoo's Letters_, p. 49.

1793.—"There were not, I believe, more than two small PAULS, or tents, among the whole of the deputation that escorted us from Patna."—_Kirkpatrick's Nepaul_, p. 118.

[1809.—"The shops which compose the Bazars, are mostly formed of blankets or coarse cloth stretched over a bamboo, or some other stick for a ridge-pole, supported at either end by a forked stick fixed in the ground. These habitations are called PALS."—_Broughton, Letters_, ed. 1892, p. 20.]

1827.—"It would perhaps be worth while to record ... the matériel and personnel of my camp equipment; an humble captain and single man travelling on the most economical principles. One double-poled tent, one routee (see ROWTEE), or small tent, a PÂL or servants' tent, 2 elephants, 6 camels, 4 horses, a pony, a buggy, and 24 servants, besides mahouts, serwâns or camel-drivers, and tent pitchers."—_Mundy, Journal of a Tour in India_, [3rd ed. p. 8]. We may note that this is an absurd exaggeration of any equipment that, even seventy-five years since, would have characterised the march of a "humble captain travelling on economical principles," or any one under the position of a highly-placed civilian. Captain Mundy must have been enormously extravagant.

[1849.—"... we breakfasted merrily under a PAUL (a tent without walls, just like two cards leaning against each other)."—_Mrs. Mackenzie, Life in the Mission_, ii. 141.]

PAWN, s. The BETEL-leaf (q.v.) Hind. _pān_, from Skt. _parṇa_, 'a leaf.' It is a North Indian term, and is generally used for the combination of betel, areca-nut, lime, &c., which is politely offered (along with otto of roses) to visitors, and which intimates the termination of the visit. This is more fully termed PAWN-SOOPARIE (_supārī_, [Skt. _supriya_, 'pleasant,'] is Hind. for areca). "These leaves are not vsed to bee eaten alone, but because of their bitternesse they are eaten with a certaine kind of fruit, which the _Malabars_ and _Portugalls_ call _Arecca_, the _Gusurates_ and _Decanijns_ _Suparijs_...." (In _Purchas_, ii. 1781).

1616.—"The King giving mee many good words, and two pieces of his PAWNE out of his Dish, to eate of the same he was eating...."—_Sir T. Roe_, in _Purchas_, i. 576; [Hak. Soc. ii. 453].

[1623.—"... a plant, whose leaves resemble a Heart, call'd here PAN, but in other parts of India, Betle."—_P. della Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 36.]

1673.—"... it is the only Indian entertainment, commonly called PAWN."—_Fryer_, p. 140.

1809.—"On our departure PAWN and roses were presented, but we were spared the _attar_, which is every way detestable."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 101.

PAWNEE, s. Hind. _pānī_, 'water.' The word is used extensively in Anglo-Indian compound names, such as BILAYUTEE PAWNEE, 'soda-water,' brandy-PAWNEE, _Khush-bo_ PAWNEE (for European scents), &c., &c. An old friend, Gen. J. T. Boileau, R.E. (Bengal), contributes from memory the following Hindi ode to Water, on the Pindaric theme ἄριστον μὲν ὕδωρ, or the Thaletic one ἀρχὴ δε τῶν πάντων ὑδωρ!

"PĀNĪ kūā, pānī tāl; PĀNĪ āṭā, pānī dāl; PĀNĪ bāgh, pānī ramnā; PĀNĪ Gangā, pānī Jumnā; PĀNĪ haṅstā, pānī rotā; PĀNĪ jagtā, pānī sotā; PĀNĪ bāp, pānī mā; Barā nām PĀNĪ kā!"

Thus rudely done into English:

"Thou, Water, stor'st our Wells and Tanks, Thou fillest Gunga's, Jumna's banks; Thou Water, sendest daily food, And fruit and flowers and needful wood; Thou, Water, laugh'st, thou, Water, weepest; Thou, Water, wak'st, thou, Water, sleepest; —Father, Mother, in thee blent,— Hail, O glorious element!"

PAWNEE, KALLA, s. Hind. _kālā pānī_, _i.e._ 'Black Water'; the name of dread by which natives of the interior of India designate the Sea, with especial reference to a voyage across it, and to transportation to penal settlements beyond it. "Hindu servants and sepoys used to object to cross the Indus, and called _that_ the KĀLĀ PĀNĪ. I think they used to assert that they lost caste by crossing it, which might have induced them to call it by the same name as the ocean,—or possibly they believed it to be part of the river that flows round the world, or the country beyond it to be outside the limits of Aryavartta" (_Note by Lt.-Col. J. M. Trotter_).

1823.—"An agent of mine, who was for some days with Cheetoo" (a famous Pindārī leader), "told me he raved continually about KALA PANEE, and that one of his followers assured him when the Pindarry chief slept, he used in his dreams to repeat these dreaded words aloud."—_Sir J. Malcolm, Central India_ (2nd ed.), i. 446.

1833.—"KALA PANY, dark water, in allusion to the Ocean, is the term used by the Natives to express transportation. Those in the interior picture the place to be an island of a very dreadful description, and full of malevolent beings, and covered with snakes and other vile and dangerous nondescript animals."—_Mackintosh, Acc. of the Tribe of Ramoosies_, 44.

PAYEN-GHAUT, n.p. The country on the coast below the Ghauts or passes leading up to the table-land of the Deccan. It was applied usually on the west coast, but the expression _Carnatic_ PAYEN-GHAUT is also pretty frequent, as applied to the low country of Madras on the east side of the Peninsula, from Hind. and Mahr. _ghāt_, combined with Pers. _pāīn_, 'below.' [It is generally used as equivalent to _Talaghāt_, "but some Musalmans seem to draw the distinction that the Pāyīn-ghāt is nearer to the foot of the Ghāts than the Talaghāt" (_Le Fanu, Man. of Salem_, ii. 338).]

1629-30.—"But ('Azam Khán) found that the enemy having placed their elephants and baggage in the fort of Dhárúr, had the design of descending the PÁYÍN-GHÁT."—_Abdu'l Hamíd Lahori_, in _Elliot_, vii. 17.

1784.—"Peace and friendship ... between the said Company and the Nabob Tippo Sultan Bahauder, and their friends and allies, particularly including therein the Rajahs of Tanjore and Travencore, who are friends and allies to the English and the Carnatic PAYEN GHAUT."—_Treaty of Mangalore_, in _Munro's Narr._, 252.

1785.—"You write that the European taken prisoner in the PÂYEN-GHAUT ... being skilled in the mortar practice, you propose converting him to the faith.... It is known (or understood)."—_Letters of Tippoo_, p. 12.

PAZEND, s. See for meaning of this term s.v. PAHLAVI, in connection with ZEND. (See also quotation from _Maṣ'ūdī_ under latter.)

PECUL, PIKOL, s. Malay and Javanese _pikul_, 'a man's load.' It is applied as the Malay name of the Chinese weight of 100 _katis_ (see CATTY), called by the Chinese themselves _shih_, and = 133⅓lb. _avoird._ Another authority states that the _shih_ is = 120 _kin_ or _katis_, whilst the 100 _kin_ weight is called in Chinese _tan_.

1554.—"In China 1 TAEL weighs 7½ TANGA LARINS of silver, and 16 TAELS = 1 caté (see CATTY); 100 catés = 1 PICO = 45 tangas of silver weigh 1 mark, and therefore 1 PICO = 133½ arratels (see ROTTLE)."—_A. Nunes_, 41.

" "And in China anything is sold and bought by _cates_ and PICOS and _taels_, provisions as well as all other things."—_Ibid._ 42.

1613.—"Bantam pepper vngarbled ... was worth here at our comming tenne Tayes the PECCULL which is one hundred cattees, making one hundred thirtie pound _English_ subtill."—_Saris_, in _Purchas_, i. 369.

[1616.—"The wood we have sold at divers prices from 24 to 28 mas per PICOLL."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 259.]

PEDIR, n.p. The name of a port and State of the north coast of Sumatra. Barros says that, before the establishment of Malacca, Pedir was the greatest and most famous of the States on that island. It is now a place of no consequence.

1498.—It is named as PATER in the _Roteiro_ of Vasco da Gama, but with very incorrect information. See p. 113.

1510.—"We took a junk and went towards Sumatra, to a city called PIDER.... In this country there grows a great quantity of pepper, and of long pepper which is called _Molaga_ ... in this port there are laden with it every year 18 or 20 ships, all of which go to Cathai."—_Varthema_, 233.

1511.—"And having anchored before the said PEDIR, the Captain General (Alboquerque) sent for me, and told me that I should go ashore to learn the disposition of the people ... and so I went ashore in the evening, the General thus sending me into a country of enemies,—people too whose vessels and goods we had seized, whose fathers, sons, and brothers we had killed;—into a country where even among themselves there is little justice, and treachery in plenty, still more as regards strangers; truly he acted as caring little what became of me!... The answer given me was this: that I should tell the Captain Major General that the city of PEDIR had been for a long time noble and great in trade ... that its port was always free for every man to come and go in security ... that they were _men_ and not _women_, and that they could hold for no friend one who seized the ships visiting their harbours; and that if the General desired the King's friendship let him give back what he had seized, and then his people might come ashore to buy and sell."—Letter of _Giov. da Empoli_, in _Archiv. Stor. Ital._ 54.

1516.—"The Moors live in the seaports, and the Gentiles in the interior (of Sumatra). The principal kingdom of the Moors is called PEDIR. Much very good pepper grows in it, which is not so strong or so fine as that of Malabar. Much silk is also grown there, but not so good as the silk of China."—_Barbosa_, 196.

1538.—"Furthermore I told him what course was usually held for the fishing of seed-pearl between _Pullo Tiquos_ and _Pullo Quenim_, which in time past were carried by the _Bataes_ to _Pazem_ (see PASEI) and PEDIR, and exchanged with the _Turks_ of the Straight of _Mecqua_, and the Ships of _Judaa_ (see JUDEA) for such Merchandise as they brought from _Grand Cairo_."—_Pinto_ (in _Cogan_), 25.

1553.—"After the foundation of Malaca, and especially after our entrance to the Indies, the Kingdom of Pacem began to increase, and that of PEDIR to wane. And its neighbour of Achem, which was then insignificant, is now the greatest of all, so vast are the vicissitudes in States of which men make so great account."—_Barros_, iii. v. 1.

1615.—"Articles exhibited against John Oxwicke. That since his being in PEEDERE 'he did not entreate' anything for Priaman and Tecoe, but only an answer to King James's letter...."—_Sainsbury_, i. 411.

" "PEDEARE."—_Ibid._ p. 415.

PEEÁDA. See under PEON.

PEENUS, s. Hind. _pīnas_; a corruption of Eng. _pinnace_. A name applied to a class of budgerow rigged like a brig or brigantine, on the rivers of Bengal, for European use. Roebuck gives as the marine Hind. for pinnace, _p'hineez_. [The word has been adopted by natives in N. India as the name for a sort of palankin, such as that used by a bride.]

[1615.—"Soe he sent out a PENISSE to look out for them."—_Cocks's Diary_, Hak. Soc. i. 22.]

1784.—"For sale ... a very handsome PINNACE Budgerow."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 45.

[1860.—"The PINNACE, the largest and handsomest, is perhaps more frequently a private than a hired boat—the property of the planter or merchant."—_C. Grant, Rural Life in Bengal_, 4 (with an illustration).]

PEEPUL, s. Hind. _pīpal_, Skt. _pippala_, _Ficus religiosa_, L.; one of the great fig-trees of India, which often occupies a prominent place in a village, or near a temple. The _Pīpal_ has a strong resemblance, in wood and foliage, to some common species of poplar, especially the aspen, and its leaves with their long footstalks quaver like those of that tree. This trembling is popularly attributed to spirits agitating each leaf. And hence probably the name of 'Devil's tree' given to it, according to Rheede (_Hort. Mal._ i. 48), by Christians in Malabar. It is possible therefore that the name is identical with that of the poplar. Nothing would be more natural than that the Aryan immigrants, on first seeing this Indian tree, should give it the name of the poplar which they had known in more northern latitudes (_popul-us_, _pappel_, &c.). Indeed, in Kumāon, a true sp. of poplar (_Populus ciliata_) is called by the people _gar-pipal_ (qu. _ghar_, or 'house'-peepul? [or rather perhaps as another name for it is _pahāṛī_, from _gir_, _giri_, 'a mountain']). Dr. Stewart also says of this _Populus_: "This tree grows to a large size, occasionally reaching 10 feet in girth, and from its leaves resembling those of the pipal ... is frequently called by that name by plainsmen" (_Punjab Plants_, p. 204). A young _peepul_ was shown to one of the present writers in a garden at Palermo as _populo delle Indie_. And the recognised name of the peepul in French books appears to be _peuplier d'Inde_. Col. Tod notices the resemblance (_Rajasthan_, i. 80), and it appears that Vahl called it _Ficus populifolia_. (See also _Geograph. Magazine_, ii. 50). In Balfour's _Indian Cyclopaedia_ it is called by the same name in translation, 'the poplar-leaved Fig-tree.' We adduce these facts the more copiously perhaps because the suggestion of the identity of the names _pippala_ and _populus_ was somewhat scornfully rejected by a very learned scholar. The tree is peculiarly destructive to buildings, as birds drop the seeds in the joints of the masonry, which becomes thus penetrated by the spreading roots of the tree. This is alluded to in a quotation below. "I remember noticing among many Hindus, and especially among Hinduized Sikhs, that they often say _Pīpal ko jātā hūṅ_ ('I am going to the Peepul Tree'), to express 'I am going to say my prayers.'" (_Lt.-Col. John Trotter_.) (See BO-TREE.)

c. 1550.—"His soul quivered like a PIPAL leaf."—_Rāmāyana of Tulsi Dás_, by _Growse_ (1878), ii. 25.

[c. 1590.—"In this place an arrow struck Sri Kishn and buried itself in a PIPAL tree on the banks of the _Sarsuti_."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 246.]

1806.—"Au sortir du village un PIPAL élève sa tête majestueuse.... Sa nombreuse posterité l'entoure au loin sur la plaine, telle qu'une armée de géans qui entrelacent fraternellement leurs bras informes."—_Haafner_, i. 149. This writer seems to mean a BANYAN. The _peepul_ does not drop roots in that fashion.

1817.—"In the second ordeal, an excavation in the ground ... is filled with a fire of PIPPAL wood, into which the party must walk barefoot, proving his guilt if he is burned; his innocence, if he escapes unhurt."—_Mill_ (quoting from Halhed), ed. 1830, i. 280.

1826.—"A little while after this he arose, and went to a PEEPUL-tree, a short way off, where he appeared busy about something, I could not well make out what."—_Pandurang Hari_, 26; [ed. 1873, i. 36, reading PEEPAL].

1836.—"It is not proper to allow the English, after they have made made war, and peace has been settled, to remain in the city. They are accustomed to act like the PEEPUL tree. Let not Younger Brother therefore allow the English to remain in his country."—Letter from _Court of China_ to _Court of Ava_. See _Yule, Mission to Ava_, p. 265.

1854.—"Je ne puis passer sous silence deux beaux arbres ... ce sont le PEUPLIER _d'Inde_ à larges feuilles, arbre réputé sacré...."—_Pallegoix, Siam_, i. 140.

1861.—

"... Yonder crown of umbrage hoar Shall shield her well; the PEEPUL whisper a dirge And Caryota drop her tearlike store Of beads; whilst over all slim Casuarine Points upwards, with her branchlets ever green, To that remaining Rest where Night and Tears are o'er." _Barrackpore Park, 18th Nov. 1861._

PEER, s. Pers. _pīr_, a Mahommedan Saint or _Beatus_. But the word is used elliptically for the tombs of such personages, the circumstance pertaining to them which chiefly creates notoriety or fame of sanctity; and it may be remarked that WALI (or _Wely_ as it is often written), _Imāmzāda_, _Shaikh_, and _Marabout_ (see ADJUTANT), are often used in the same elliptical way in Syria, Persia, Egypt, and Barbary respectively. We may add that _Nabī_ (Prophet) is used in the same fashion.

[1609.—See under NUGGURCOTE.

[1623.—"Within the Mesquita (see MOSQUE) ... is a kind of little Pyramid of Marble, and this they call PIR, that is _Old_, which they say is equivalent to Holy; I imagine it the Sepulchre of some one of their Sect accounted such."—_P. della Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 69.]

1665.—"On the other side was the Garden and the chambers of the Mullahs, who with great conveniency and delight spend their lives there under the shadow of the miraculous Sanctity of this PIRE, which they are not wanting to celebrate: But as I am always very unhappy on such occasions, he did no Miracle that day upon any of the sick."—_Bernier_, 133; [ed. _Constable_, 415].

1673.—"Hard by this is a PEOR, or Burying place of one of the Prophets, being a goodly monument."—_Fryer_, 240.

1869.—"Certains PIRS sont tellement renommés, qu'ainsi qu'on le verra plus loin, le peuple a donné leurs noms aux mois lunaires où se trouvent placées les fêtes qu'on celèbre en leur honneur."—_Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Musulm._ p. 18.

The following are examples of the parallel use of the words named:

WALI:

1841.—"The highest part (of Hermon) crowned by the WELY, is towards the western end."—_Robinson, Biblical Researches_, iii. 173.

" "In many of the villages of Syria the Traveller will observe small dome-covered buildings, with grated windows and surmounted by the crescent. These are the so-called WELIS, mausolea of saints, or tombs of sheikhs."—_Baedeker's Egypt_, Eng. ed. Pt. i. 150.

IMAMZADA:

1864.—"We rode on for three farsakhs, or fourteen miles, more to another IMÁMZÁDAH, called _Kafsh-gírí_...."—_Eastwick, Three Years' Residence in Persia_, ii. 46.

1883.—"The few villages ... have numerous walled gardens, with rows of poplar and willow-trees and stunted mulberries, and the inevitable IMAMZADEHS."—_Col. Beresford Lovett's Itinerary Notes of Route Surveys in N. Persia in 1881 and 1882, Proc. R.G.S._ (N.S.) v. 73.

SHAIKH:

1817.—"Near the ford (on Jordan), half a mile to the south, is a tomb called 'SHEIKH Daoud,' standing on an apparent round hill like a barrow."—_Irby and Mangles, Travels in Egypt_, &c., 304.

NABI:

1856.—"Of all the points of interest about Jerusalem, none perhaps gains so much from an actual visit to Palestine as the lofty-peaked eminence which fills up the north-west corner of the table-land.... At present it bears the name of NEBI-Samuel, which is derived from the Mussulman tradition—now perpetuated by a mosque and tomb—that here lies buried the prophet Samuel."—_Stanley's Palestine_, 165.

So also NABI-_Yūnus_ at Nineveh; and see NEBI-_Mousa_ in _De Saulcy_, ii. 73.

PEGU, n.p. The name which we give to the Kingdom which formerly existed in the Delta of the Irawadi, to the city which was its capital, and to the British province which occupies its place. The Burmese name is _Bagó_. This name belongs to the Talaing language, and is popularly alleged to mean 'conquered by stratagem,' to explain which a legend is given; but no doubt this is mere fancy. The form _Pegu_, as in many other cases of our geographical nomenclature, appears to come through the Malays, who call it _Paigū_. The first European mention that we know of is in Conti's narrative (c. 1440) where Poggio has Latinized it as _Pauco-nia_; but Fra Mauro, who probably derived this name, with much other new knowledge, from Conti, has in his great map (c. 1459) the exact Malay form _Paigu_. Nikitin (c. 1475) has, if we may depend on his translator into English, _Pegu_, as has Hieronimo di S. Stefano (1499). The _Roteiro_ of Vasco da Gama (1498) has _Pegúo_, and describes the land as Christian, a mistake arising no doubt from the use of the ambiguous term _Kāfir_ by his Mahommedan informants (see under CAFFER). Varthema (1510) has _Pego_, and Giov. da Empoli (1514) _Pecù_; Barbosa (1516) again _Paygu_; but PEGU is the usual Portuguese form, as in Barros, and so passed to us.

1498.—"PEGÚO is a land of Christians, and the King is a Christian; and they are all white like us. This King can assemble 20,000 fighting men, _i.e._ 10,000 horsemen, as many footmen, and 400 war elephants; here is all the musk in the world ... and on the main land he has many rubies and much gold, so that for 10 cruzados you can buy as much gold as will fetch 25 in Calecut, and there is much lac (_lacra_) and benzoin...."—_Roteiro_, 112.

1505.—"Two merchants of Cochin took on them to save two of the ships; one from PEGÚ with a rich cargo of lac (_lacre_), benzoin, and musk, and another with a cargo of drugs from Banda, nutmeg, mace, clove, and sandalwood; and they embarked on the ships with their people, leaving to chance their own vessels, which had cargoes of rice, for the value of which the owners of the ships bound themselves."—_Correa_, i. 611.

1514.—"Then there is PECÙ, which is a populous and noble city, abounding in men and in horses, where are the true mines of _linoni_ (? '_di_ linoni _e perfetti rubini_,' perhaps should be 'di _buoni_ e perfetti') and perfect rubies, and these in great plenty; and they are fine men, tall and well limbed and stout; as of a race of giants...."—_Empoli_, 80.

[1516.—"PEIGU." (See under BURMA).]

1541.—"BAGOU." (See under PEKING.)

1542.—"... and for all the goods which came from any other ports and places, viz. from PEGUU to the said Port of Malaqua, from the Island of Çamatra and from within the Straits...."—_Titolo of the Fortress and City of Malaqua_, in _Tombo_, p. 105 in _Subsidios_.

1568.—"Concludo che non è in terra Re di possãza maggiore del Re di PEGÙ, per ciòche ha sotto di se venti Re di corona."—_Ces. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 394.

1572.—

"Olha o reino Arracão, olha o assento De PEGÚ, que já monstros povoaram, Monstros filhos do feo ajuntamento D'huma mulher e hum cão, que sos se acharam." _Camões_, x. 122.

By Burton:

"Arracan-realm behold, behold the seat of PEGU peopled by a monster-brood; monsters that gendered meeting most unmeet of whelp and woman in the lonely wood...."

1597.—"... I recommend you to be very watchful not to allow the Turks to export any timber from the Kingdom of PEGÚ nor yet from that of Achin (_do Dachem_); and with this view you should give orders that this be the subject of treatment with the King of Dachem since he shows so great a desire for our friendship, and is treating in that sense."—_Despatch from the King to Goa_, 5th Feb. In _Archiv. Port. Orient._ Fasc. iii.

PEGU PONIES. These are in Madras sometimes termed elliptically PEGUS, as Arab horses are universally termed Arabs. The ponies were much valued, and before the annexation of Pegu commonly imported into India; less commonly since, for the local demand absorbs them.

1880.—"For sale ... also Bubble and Squeak, bay PEGUES."—_Madras Mail_, Feb. 19.

[1890.—"Ponies, sometimes very good ones, were reared in a few districts in Upper Burma, but, even in Burmese times, the supply was from the Shan States. The so-called PEGU PONY, of which a good deal is heard, is, in fact, not a Pegu pony at all, for the justly celebrated animals called by that name were imported from the Shan States."—Report of _Capt. Evans_, in _Times_, Oct. 17.]

PEKING, n.p. This name means 'North-Court,' and in its present application dates from the early reigns of the Ming Dynasty in China. When they dethroned the Mongol descendants of Chinghiz and Kublai (1368) they removed the capital from Taitu or Khānbāligh (_Cambaluc_ of Polo) to the great city on the Yangtsze which has since been known as _Nan-King_ or 'South-Court.' But before many years the Mongol capital was rehabilitated as the imperial residence, and became _Pe-King_ accordingly. Its preparation for reoccupation began in 1409. The first English mention that we have met with is that quoted by Sainsbury, in which we have the subjects of more than one allusion in Milton.

1520.—"Thomé Pires, quitting this pass, arrived at the Province of Nanquij, at its chief city called by the same name, where the King dwelt, and spent in coming thither always travelling north, four months; by which you may take note how vast a matter is the empire of this gentile prince. He sent word to Thomé Pires that he was to wait for him at PEQUIJ, where he would despatch his affair. This city is in another province so called, much further north, in which the King used to dwell for the most part, because it was on the frontier of the Tartars...."—_Barros_, III. vi. 1.

1541.—"This City of PEQUIN ... is so prodigious, and the things therein so remarkable, as I do almost repent me for undertaking to discourse of it.... For one must not imagine it to be, either as the City of _Rome_, or _Constantinople_, or _Venice_, or _Paris_, or _London_, or _Sevill_, or _Lisbon_.... Nay I will say further, that one must not think it to be like to Grand _Cairo_ in _Egypt_, _Tauris_ in _Persia_, _Amadaba_ (Amadabad, AVADAVAT) in _Cambaya_, _Bisnaga(r)_ in _Narsingaa_, _Goura_ (Gouro) in _Bengala_, _Ava_ in _Chalen_, _Timplan_ in _Calaminham_, _Martaban_ (Martavão) and _Bagou_ in _Pegu_, _Guimpel_ and _Tinlau_ in _Siammon_, _Odia_ in the Kingdom of _Sornau_, _Passavan_ and _Dema_ in the Island of _Java_, _Pangor_ in the Country of the _Lequiens_ (no Lequio), _Usangea_ (Uzãgnè) in the _Grand Cauchin_, _Lancama_ (Laçame) in _Tartary_, and _Meaco_ (Mioco) in _Jappun_ ... for I dare well affirm that all those same are not to be compared to the least part of the wonderful City of PEQUIN...."—_Pinto_ (in _Cogan_), p. 136 (orig. cap. cvii.).

[c. 1586.—"The King maketh alwayes his abode in the great city PACHIN, as much as to say in our language ... the towne of the kingdome."—_Reports of China_, in _Hakl._ ii. 546.]

1614.—"Richard Cocks writing from Ferando understands there are great cities in the country of Corea, and between that and the sea mighty bogs, so that no man can travel there; but great waggons have been invented to go upon broad flat wheels, under sail as ships do, in which they transport their goods ... the deceased Emperor of Japan did pretend to have conveyed a great army in these sailing waggons, to assail the Emperor of China in his City of PAQUIN."—In _Sainsbury_, i. 343.

166*.—

"from the destined walls Of Cambalu, seat of Cathaian Can, And Samarchand by Oxus, Temer's throne, To PAQUIN of Sinaean Kings...." _Paradise Lost_, xi. 387-390.

PELICAN, s. This word, in its proper application to the _Pelicanus onocrotalus_, L., is in no respect peculiar to Anglo-India, though we may here observe that the bird is called in Hindi by the poetical name _gagan-bheṛ_, _i.e._ 'Sheep of the Sky,' which we have heard natives with their strong propensity to metathesis convert into the equally appropriate _Gangā-bheṛī_ or 'Sheep of the Ganges.' The name may be illustrated by the old term 'Cape-sheep' applied to the albatross.[222] But _Pelican_ is habitually misapplied by the British soldier in India to the bird usually called ADJUTANT (q.v.). We may remember how Prof. Max Müller, in his Lectures on Language, tells us that the Tahitians show respect to their sovereign by ceasing to employ in common language those words which form part or the whole of his name, and invent new terms to supply their place. "The object was clearly to guard against the name of the sovereign being ever used, even by accident, in ordinary conversation," 2nd ser. 1864, p. 35, [_Frazer, Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. i. 421 _seqq._]. Now, by an analogous process, it is possible that some martinet, holding the office of adjutant, at an early date in the Anglo-Indian history, may have resented the ludicrously appropriate employment of the usual name of the bird, and so may have introduced the entirely inappropriate name of _pelican_ in its place. It is in the recollection of one of the present writers that a worthy northern matron, who with her husband had risen from the ranks in the —th Light Dragoons, on being challenged for speaking of "the _pelicans_ in the barrack-yard," maintained her correctness, conceding only that "some ca'd them PAYLICANS, some ca'd them AUDJUTANTS."

1829.—"This officer ... on going round the yard (of the military prison) ... discovered a large beef-bone recently dropped. The sergeant was called to account for this ominous appearance. This sergeant was a shrewd fellow, and he immediately said,—'Oh Sir, the PELICANS have dropped it.' This was very plausible, for these birds will carry enormous bones; and frequently when fighting for them they drop them, so that this might very probably have been the case. The moment the dinner-trumpet sounds, whole flocks of these birds are in attendance at the barrack-doors, waiting for bones, or anything that the soldiers may be pleased to throw to them."—_Mem. of John Shipp_, ii. 25.

PENANG, n.p. This is the proper name of the Island adjoining the Peninsula of Malacca (_Pulo_, properly _Pulau_, _Pinang_), which on its cession to the English (1786) was named 'Prince of Wales's Island.' But this official style has again given way to the old name. _Pinang_ in Malay signifies an areca-nut or areca-tree, and, according to Crawfurd, the name was given on account of the island's resemblance in form to the fruit of the tree (_vulgo_, 'the betel-nut').

1592.—"Now the WINTER coming vpon vs with much contagious weather, we directed our course from hence with the Ilands of _Pulo_ PINAOU (where by the way is to be noted that _Pulo_ in the Malaian tongue signifieth an Iland) ... where we came to an anker in a very good harborough betweene three Ilands.... This place is in 6 degrees and a halfe to the Northward, and some fiue leagues from the maine betweene Malacca and Pegu."—_Barker_, in _Hakl._ ii. 589-590.

PENANG LAWYER, s. The popular name of a handsome and hard (but sometimes brittle) walking-stick, exported from Penang and Singapore. It is the stem of a miniature palm (_Licuala acutifida_, Griffith). The sticks are prepared by scraping the young stem with glass, so as to remove the epidermis and no more. The sticks are then straightened by fire and polished (_Balfour_). The name is popularly thought to have originated in a jocular supposition that law-suits in Penang were decided by the _lex baculina_. But there can be little doubt that it is a corruption of some native term, and _pinang liyar_, 'wild areca' [or _pinang lāyor_, "fire-dried areca," which is suggested in _N.E.D._], may almost be assumed to be the real name. [Dennys (_Descr. Dict._ s.v.) says from "_Layor_, a species of cane furnishing the sticks so named." But this is almost certainly wrong.]

1883.—(But the book—an excellent one—is without date—more shame to the _Religious Tract Society_ which publishes it). "Next morning, taking my 'PENANG LAWYER' to defend myself from dogs...." The following note is added: "A PENANG LAWYER is a heavy walking-stick, supposed to be so called from its usefulness in settling disputes in Penang."—_Gilmour, Among the Mongols_, 14.

PENGUIN, s. Popular name of several species of birds belonging to the genera _Aptenodytes_ and _Spheniscus_. We have not been able to ascertain the etymology of this name. It may be from the Port. _pingue_, 'fat.' See Littré. He quotes Clausius as picturing it, who says they were called a _pinguedine_. It is surely not that given by Sir Thomas Herbert in proof of the truth of the legend of Madoc's settlement in America; and which is indeed implied 60 years before by the narrator of Drake's voyage; though probably borrowed by Herbert direct from Selden.

1578.—"In these Islands we found greate relief and plenty of good victuals, for infinite were the number of fowle which the Welsh men named PENGUIN, and Magilanus tearmed them geese...."—_Drake's Voyage_, by _F. Fletcher_, Hak. Soc. p. 72.

1593.—"The PENGWIN described."—_Hawkins, V. to S. Sea_, p. 111, Hak. Soc.

1606.—"The PENGWINES bee as bigge as our greatest Capons we have in England, they have no winges nor cannot flye ... they bee exceeding fatte, but their flesh is verie ranke...."—_Middleton_, f. B. 4.

1609.—"Nous trouvâmes beaucoup de Chiẽs de Mer, et Oyseaux qu'on appelle PENGUYNS, dont l'Escueil en estait quasi couvert."—_Houtman_, p. 4.

c. 1610.—"... le reste est tout couvert ... d'vne quantité d'Oyseaux nommez PINGUY, qui font là leurs oeufs et leurs petits, et il y en a une quantité si prodigieuse qu'on ne sçauroit mettre ... le pied en quelque endroit que ce soit sans toucher."—_Pyrard de Laval_, i. 73; [Hak. Soc. i. 97, also see i. 16].

1612.—"About the year CIↃ. C.LXX. Madoc brother to _David ap Owen_, prince of Wales, made this sea voyage (to _Florida_); and by probability these names of _Capo de Briton_ in _Norumbeg_, and PENGWIN in part of the Northern America, for a _white_ rock, and a _white-headed_ bird, according to the _British_, were relicks of this discovery."—_Selden, Notes on Drayton's Polyolbion_, in _Works_ (ed. 1726), iii. col. 1802.

1616.—"The Island called PEN-GUIN Island, probably so named by some Welshman, in whose Language PEN-GUIN signifies a white head; and there are many great lazy fowls upon, and about, this Island, with great cole-black bodies, and very white heads, called PENGUINS."—_Terry_, ed. 1665, p. 334.

1638.—"... that this people (of the Mexican traditions) were Welsh rather than Spaniards or others, the Records of this Voyage writ by many Bardhs and Genealogists confirme it ... made more orthodoxall by Welsh names given there to birds, rivers, rocks, beasts, &c., as ... PENGWYN, refer'd by them to a bird that has a white head...."—_Herbert, Some Yeares Travels_, &c., p. 360.

Unfortunately for this etymology the head is precisely that part which seems in all species of the bird to be black! But M. Roulin, quoted by Littré, maintains the Welsh (or Breton) etymology, thinking the name was first given to some short-winged sea-bird with a white head, and then transferred to the penguin. And _Terry_, if to be depended on, supports this view. [So Prof. Skeat (_Concise Dict._, s.v.): "In that case, it must first have been given to another bird, such as the auk (the puffin is common in Anglesey), since the penguin's head is black."]

1674.—

"So Horses they affirm to be Mere Engines made by Geometry, And were invented first from Engins, As _Indian Britons_ were from PENGUINS." _Hudibras_, Pt. I. Canto ii. 57.

[1869.—In Lombock ducks "are very cheap and are largely consumed by the crews of the rice ships, by whom they are called Baly-soldiers, but are more generally known elsewhere as PENGUIN-_ducks_."—_Wallace, Malay Archip._ ed. 1890, p. 135.]

PEON, s. This is a Portuguese word _peão_ (Span. _peon_); from _pé_, 'foot,' and meaning a 'footman' (also a _pawn_ at chess), and is not therefore a corruption, as has been alleged, of Hind. _piyāda_, meaning the same; though the words are, of course ultimately akin in root. It was originally used in the sense of 'a foot-soldier'; thence as 'orderly' or messenger. The word _Sepoy_ was used within our recollection, and perhaps is still, in the same sense in the city of Bombay. The transition of meaning comes out plainly in the quotation from Ives. In the sense of 'orderly,' _peon_ is the word usual in S. India, whilst CHUPRASSY (q.v.) is more common in N. India, though _peon_ is also used there. The word is likewise very generally employed for men on police service (see BURKUNDAUZE). [Mr. Skeat notes that _Piyun_ is used in the Malay States, and _Tambi_ or _Tanby_ at Singapore]. The word had probably become unusual in Portugal by 1600; for Manoel Correa, an early commentator on the Lusiads (d. 1613), thinks it necessary to explain PIÕES by 'gente de pé.'

1503.—"The Çamorym ordered the soldier (PIÃO) to take the letter away, and strictly forbade him to say anything about his having seen it."—_Correa, Lendas_, I. i. 421.

1510.—"So the Sabayo, putting much trust in this (Rumi), made him captain within the city (Goa), and outside of it put under him a captain of his with two thousand soldiers (PIÃES) from the Balagate...."—_Ibid._ II. i. 51.

1563.—"The pawn (PIÃO) they call _Piada_, which is as much as to say a man who travels on foot."—_Garcia_, f. 37.

1575.—

"O Rey de Badajos era alto Mouro Con quatro mil cavallos furiosos, Innumeros PIÕES, darmas e de ouro, Guarnecidos, guerreiros, e lustrosos." _Camões_, iii. 66.

By Burton:

"The King of Badajos was a Moslem bold, with horse four thousand, fierce and furious knights, and countless PEONS, armed and dight with gold, whose polisht surface glanceth lustrous light."

1609.—"The first of February the Capitaine departed with fiftie PEONS...."—_W. Finch_, in _Purchas_, i. 421.

c. 1610.—"Les PIONS marchent après le prisonnier, lié avec des cordes qu'ils tiennent."—_Pyrard de Laval_, ii. 11; [Hak. Soc. ii. 17; also i. 428, 440; ii. 16].

[1616.—"This Shawbunder (see SHABUNDER) imperiously by a couple of PYONS commanded him from me."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 351.]

c. 1630.—"The first of _December_, with some PE-UNES (or black Foot-boyes, who can pratle some English) we rode (from Swally) to Surat."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1638, p. 35. [For "black" the ed. of 1677 reads "olive-coloured," p. 42.]

1666.—"... siete cientos y treinta y tres mil PEONES."—_Faria y Sousa_, i. 195.

1673.—"The Town is walled with Mud, and Bulwarks for Watch-Places for the English PEONS."—_Fryer_, 29.

" "... PEONS or servants to wait on us."—_Ibid._ 26.

1687.—"Ordered that ten PEONS be sent along the coast to Pulicat ... and enquire all the way for goods driven ashore."—In _Wheeler_, i. 179.

1689.—"At this Moors Town, they got a PEUN to be their guide to the Mogul's nearest Camp.... These PEUNS are some of the Gentous or _Rashbouts_ (see RAJPOOT), who in all places along the Coast, especially in Seaport Towns, make it their business to hire themselves to wait upon Strangers."—_Dampier_, i. 508.

" "A PEON of mine, named _Gemal_, walking abroad in the Grass after the Rains, was unfortunately bit on a sudden by one of them" (a snake).—_Ovington_, 260.

1705.—"... PIONS qui sont ce que nous appellons ici des Gardes...."—_Luillier_, 218.

1745.—"Dès le lendemain je fis assembler dans la Forteresse où je demeurois en qualité d'Aumonier, le Chef des PIONS, chez qui s'étaient fait les deux mariages."—_Norbert, Mém._ iii. 129.

1746.—"As the Nabob's behaviour when Madras was attacked by De la Bourdonnais, had caused the English to suspect his assurances of assistance, they had 2,000 PEONS in the defence of Cuddalore...."—_Orme_, i. 81.

c. 1760.—"PEON. One who waits about the house to run on messages; and he commonly carries under his arm a sword, or in his sash a _krese_, and in his hand a ratan, to keep the rest of the servants in subjection. He also walks before your palanquin, carries CHITS (q.v.) or notes, and is your bodyguard."—_Ives_, 50.

1763.—"Europeans distinguish these undisciplined troops by the general name of PEONS."—_Orme_, ed. 1803, i. 80.

1772.—Hadley, writing in Bengal, spells the word PUNE; but this is evidently phonetic.

c. 1785.—"... PEONS, a name for the infantry of the Deckan."—_Carraccioli's Life of Clive_, iv. 563.

1780-90.—"I sent off annually from Sylhet from 150 to 200 (elephants) divided into 4 distinct flocks.... They were put under charge of the common PEON. These people were often absent 18 months. On one occasion my servant Manoo ... after a twelve-months' absence returned ... in appearance most miserable; he unfolded his girdle, and produced a scrap of paper of small dimensions, which proved to be a banker's bill amounting to 3 or 4,000 pounds,—his own pay was 30 shillings a month.... When I left India Manoo was still absent on one of these excursions, but he delivered to my agents as faithful an account of the produce as he would have done to myself...."—_Hon. R. Lindsay_, in _Lives of the Lindsays_, iii. 77.

1842.—"... he was put under arrest for striking, and throwing into the Indus, an inoffensive PEON, who gave him no provocation, but who was obeying the orders he received from Captain ——. The Major General has heard it said that the supremacy of the British over the native must be maintained in India, and he entirely concurs in that opinion, but it must be maintained by justice."—_Gen. Orders, &c., of Sir Ch. Napier_, p. 72.

1873.—"Pandurang is by turns a servant to a shopkeeper, a PEON, or orderly, a groom to an English officer ... and eventually a pleader before an English Judge in a populous city."—_Saturday Review_, May 31, p. 728.

PEPPER, s. The original of this word, Skt. _pippali_, means not the ordinary pepper of commerce ('black pepper') but _long pepper_, and the Sanskrit name is still so applied in Bengal, where one of the long-pepper plants, which have been classed sometimes in a different genus (_Chavica_) from the black pepper, was at one time much cultivated. There is still indeed a considerable export of long pepper from Calcutta; and a kindred species grows in the Archipelago. Long pepper is mentioned by Pliny, as well as white and black pepper; the three varieties still known in trade, though with the kind of error that has persisted on such subjects till quite recently, he misapprehends their relation. The proportion of their ancient prices will be found in a quotation below.

The name must have been transferred by foreign traders to black pepper, the staple of export, at an early date, as will be seen from the quotations. _Pippalimūla_, the root of long pepper, still a stimulant medicine in the native pharmacopoeia, is probably the πεπέρεως ῥίζα of the ancients (_Royle_, p. 86).

We may say here that _Black pepper_ is the fruit of a perennial climbing shrub, _Piper nigrum_, L., indigenous in the forests of Malabar and Travancore, and thence introduced into the Malay countries, particularly Sumatra.

_White pepper_ is prepared from the black by removing the dark outer layer of pericarp, thereby depriving it of a part of its pungency. It comes chiefly _viâ_ Singapore from the Dutch settlement of Rhio, but a small quantity of fine quality comes from Tellicherry in Malabar.

_Long pepper_ is derived from two shrubby plants, _Piper officinarum_, C.D.C., a native of the Archipelago, and _Piper longum_, L., indigenous in Malabar, Ceylon, E. Bengal, Timor, and the Philippines. Long pepper is the fruit-spike gathered and dried when not quite ripe (_Hanbury and Flückiger, Pharmacographia_). All these kinds of pepper were, as has been said, known to the ancients.

c. 70 A.D.—"The cornes or graines ... lie in certaine little huskes or cods.... If that be plucked from the tree before they gape and open of themselves, they make that spice which is called LONG PEPPER; but if as they do ripen, they cleave and chawne by little and little, they shew within the WHITE PEPPER: which afterwards beeing parched in the Sunne, chaungeth colour and waxeth blacke, and therewith riveled also.... LONG PEPPER is soone sophisticated, with the senvie or mustard seed of Alexandria: and a pound of it is worth fifteen Roman deniers. The WHITE costeth seven deniers a pound, and the BLACK is sold after foure deniers by the pound."—_Pliny_, tr. by _Phil. Holland_, Bk. xii. ch. 7.

c. 80-90.—"And there come to these marts great ships, on account of the bulk and quantity of PEPPER and MALABATHRUM.... The PEPPER is brought (to market) here, being produced largely only in one district near these marts, that which is called _Kottonarikē_."—_Periplus_, § 56.

c. A.D. 100.—"The PEPPER-tree (πέπερι δένδρον) is related to grow in India; it is short, and the fruit as it first puts it forth is long, resembling pods; and this LONG PEPPER has within it (grains) like small millet, which are what grow to be the perfect (BLACK) PEPPER. At the proper season it opens and puts forth a cluster bearing the berries such as we know them. But those that are like unripe grapes, which constitute the WHITE PEPPER, serve the best for eye-remedies, and for antidotes, and for theriacal potencies."—_Dioscorides, Mat. Med._ ii. 188.

c. 545.—"This is the PEPPER-tree" (there is a drawing). "Every plant of it is twined round some lofty forest tree, for it is weak and slim like the slender stems of the vine. And every bunch of fruit has a double leaf as a shield; and it is very green, like the green of rue."—_Cosmas_,