Book III

. p. 324.

[c. 1617.—"PORT GRANDE, PORT PEQUINA," in _Sir T. Roe's List_, Hak. Soc. ii. 538.]

POSTEEN, s. An Afghan leathern pelisse, generally of sheep-skin with the fleece on. Pers. _postīn_, from _post_, 'a hide.'

1080.—"Khwája Ahmad came on some Government business to Ghaznín, and it was reported to him that some merchants were going to Turkistán, who were returning to Ghaznín in the beginning of winter. The Khwája remembered that he required a certain number of POSTINS (great coats) every year for himself and sons...."—_Nizám-ul-Mulk_, in _Elliot_, ii. 497.

1442.—"His Majesty the Fortunate Khākān had sent for the Prince of Kālikūt, horses, pelisses (POSTĪN) and robes woven of gold...."—_Abdurazzāk_, in _Not. et Extr._ xiv. Pt. i. 437.

[c. 1590.—"In the winter season there is no need of POSHTINS (fur-lined coats)...."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 337.]

1862.—"Otter skins from the Hills and Kashmir, worn as POSTĪNS by the Yarkandis."—_Punjab Trade Report_, p. 65.

POTTAH, s. Hind. and other vernaculars, _paṭṭā_, &c. A document specifying the conditions on which lands are held; a lease or other document securing rights in land or house property.

1778.—"I am therefore hopeful you will be kindly pleased to excuse me the five lacs now demanded, and that nothing may be demanded of me beyond the amount expressed in the POTTAH."—_The Rajah of Benares_ to Hastings, in _Articles of Charge against H._, Burke, vi. 591.

[1860.—"By the Zumeendar, then, or his under tenant, as the case may be, the land is farmed out to the Ryuts by POTTAHS, or agreements...."—_Grant, Rural Life in Bengal_, 67.

PRA, PHRA, PRAW, s. This is a term constantly used in Burma, familiar to all who have been in that country, in its constant application as a style of respect, addressed or applied to persons and things of especial sanctity or dignity. Thus it is addressed at Court to the King; it is the habitual designation of the Buddha and his images and dagobas; of superior ecclesiastics and sacred books; corresponding on the whole in use, pretty closely to the Skt. _Śṛī_. In Burmese the word is written _bhurā_, but pronounced (in Arakan) _p'hrā_, and in modern Burma Proper, with the usual slurring of the _r_, _P'hyā_ or _Pyā_. The use of the term is not confined to Burma; it is used in quite a similar way in Siam, as may be seen in the quotation below from Alabaster; the word is used in the same form _P'hra_ among the Shans; and in the form _Prea_, it would seem, in Camboja. Thus Garnier speaks of Indra and Vishnu under their Cambojan epithets as _Prea_ En and _Prea_ Noreai (Nārāyaṇa); of the figure of Buddha entering _nirvāna_, as _Prea_ Nippan; of the King who built the great temple of Angkor Wat as _Prea_ Kot Melea, of the King reigning at the time of the expedition as _Prea_ Ang Reachea Vodey, of various sites of temples as _Preacon_, _Preacan_, _Prea_ Pithu, &c. (_Voyage d'Exploration_, i. 26, 49, 388, 77, 85, 72).

The word P'HRĀ appears in composition in various names of Burmese kings, as of the famous _Alom_P'HRA (1753-60), founder of the late dynasty, and of his son _Bodoah-_P'HRA (1781-1819). In the former instance the name is, according to Sir A. Phayre, Alaung-_p'hrā_, _i.e._ the embryo Buddha, or Bodisatva. A familiar Siamese example of use is in the PHRĀ _Bāt_, or sacred foot-mark of Buddha, a term which represents the _Śṛi Pada_ of Ceylon.

The late Prof. H. H. Wilson, as will be seen, supposed the word to be a corruption of Skt. _prabhu_ (see PARVOE). But Mr. Alabaster points, under the guidance of the Siamese spelling, rather to Skt. _vara_, 'pre-eminent, excellent.' This is in Pali _varo_, "excellent, best, precious, noble" (_Childers_). A curious point is that, from the prevalence of the term PHRĀ in all the Indo-Chinese kingdoms, we must conclude that it was, at the time of the introduction of Buddhism into those countries, in predominant use among the Indian or Ceylonese propagators of the new religion. Yet we do not find any evidence of such a use of either _prabhu_ or _vara_. The former would in Pali be _pabbho_. In a short paper in the _Bijdragen_ of the Royal Institute of the Hague (Dl. X. 4de Stuk, 1885), Prof. Kern indicates that this term was also in use in Java, in the forms _Bra_ and _pra_, with the sense of 'splendid' and the like; and he cites as an example BRA-_Wijaya_ (the style of several of the medieval kings of Java), where BRA is exactly the representative of Skt. _Śṛī_.

1688.—"I know that in the country of _Laos_ the Dignities of _Pa-ya_ and _Meuang_, and the honourable Epithets of PRA are in use; it may be also that the other terms of Dignity are common to both Nations, as well as the Laws."—_De la Loubère, Siam_, E.T. 79.

" "The PRA-Clang, or by a corruption of the _Portugueses_, the _Barcalon_, is the officer, who has the appointment of the Commerce, as well within as without the Kingdom.... His name is composed of the Balie word PRA, which I have so often discoursed of, and of the word _Clang_, which signifies Magazine."—_Ibid._ 93.

" "Then _Sommona-Codom_ (see GAUTAMA) they call PRA-_Boute-Tchaou_, which verbatim signifies the _Great and Excellent Lord_."—_Ibid._ 134.

1795.—"At noon we reached Meeaday, the personal estate of the Magwoon of Pegue, who is oftener called, from this place, Meeaday PRAW, or Lord of Meeaday."—_Symes, Embassy to Ava_, 242.

1855.—"The epithet PHRA, which occupies so prominent a place in the ceremonial and religious vocabulary of the Siamese and Burmese, has been the subject of a good deal of nonsense. It is unfortunate that our Burmese scholars have never (I believe) been Sanskrit scholars, nor _vice versâ_, so that the Palee terms used in Burma have had little elucidation. On the word in question, Professor H. H. Wilson has kindly favoured me with a note: 'Phrá is no doubt a corruption of the Sanskrit _Prabhu_, a Lord or Master; the _h_ of the aspirate _bh_ is often retained alone, leaving _Prahu_ which becomes PRÁH or PHRA.'"—_Sir H. Yule, Mission to Ava_, 61.

1855.—"All these readings (of documents at the Court) were intoned in a high recitative, strongly resembling that used in the English cathedral service. And the long-drawn PHYÁ-Á-Á-Á! (My Lord), which terminated each reading, added to the resemblance, as it came in exactly like the Amen of the Liturgy."—_Ibid._ 88.

1859.—"The word PHRA, which so frequently occurs in this work, here appears for the first time; I have to remark that it is probably derived from, or of common origin with, the Pharaoh of antiquity. It is given in the Siamese dictionaries as synonymous with God, ruler, priest, and teacher. It is in fact the word by which sovereignty and sanctity are associated in the popular mind."—_Bowring, Kingdom and People of Siam_, [i. 35].

1863.—"The title of the First King (of Siam) is PHRA-_Chom-Klao-Yu-Hua_ and spoken as PHRA _Phutthi-Chao-Yu-Hua_.... His Majesty's nose is styled in the Pali form PHRA-_Nasa_.... The Siamese term the (Catholic) missionaries, the Preachers of the PHRA-_Chao Phu-Sang_, _i.e._ of God the Creator, or the Divine Lord Builder.... The Catholic missionaries express 'God' by PHRA-_Phutthi-Chao_ ... and they explain the Eucharist as PHRA-_Phutthi-Kaya_ (_Kaya_ = 'Body')."—_Bastian, Reise_, iii. 109, and 114-115.

1870.—"The most excellent PARĀ, brilliant in his glory, free from all ignorance, beholding Nibbāna the end of the migration of the soul, lighted the lamp of the law of the Word."—_Rogers, Buddhagosha's Parables_, tr. from the Burmese, p. 1.

1871.—"PHRA is a Siamese word applied to all that is worthy of the highest respect, that is, everything connected with religion and royalty. It may be translated as 'holy.' The Siamese letters _p_—_h_—_r_ commonly represent the Sanskrit _v_—_r_. I therefore presume the word to be derived from the Sanskrit '_vri_'—'to choose, or to be chosen,' and '_vara_'—'better, best, excellent,' the root of ἄριστος."—_Alabaster, The Wheel of the Law_, 164.

PRAAG, sometimes PIAGG, n.p. Properly _Prayāga_, 'the place of sacrifice,' the old Hindu name of ALLAHABAD, and especially of the river confluence, since remote ages a place of pilgrimage.

c. A.D. 638.—"Le royaume de _Polo-ye-kia_ (PRAYÂGA) a environ 5000 _li_ de tour. La capitale, qui est située au confluent de deux fleuves, a environ 20 _li_ de tour.... Dans la ville, il y a un temple des dieux qui est d'une richesse éblouissante, et où éclatent une multitude de miracles.... Si quel qu'un est capable de pousser le mépris de la vie jusqu' à se donner la mort dans ce temple, il obtient le bonheur eternel et les joies infinies des dieux.... Depuis l'antiquité jusqu' à nos jours, cette coutume insensée n'a pas cessé un instant."—_Hiouen-Thsang_, in _Pèl. Boudd._ ii. 276-79.

c. 1020.—"... thence to the tree of BARĀGI, 12 (parasangs). This is at the confluence of the Jumna and Ganges."—_Al-Birūnī_, in _Elliot_, i. 55.

1529.—"The same day I swam across the river Ganges for my amusement. I counted my strokes, and found that I crossed over at 33 strokes. I then took breath and swam back to the other side. I had crossed by swimming every river that I had met with, except the Ganges. On reaching the place where the Ganges and Jumna unite, I rowed over in the boat to the PIÂG side...."—_Baber_, 406.

1585.—"... Frõ Agra I came to PRAGE, where the riuer Jemena entreth into the mightie riuer Ganges, and Iemena looseth his name."—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 386.

PRACRIT, s. A term applied to the older vernacular dialects of India, such as were derived from, or kindred to, Sanskrit. Dialects of this nature are used by ladies, and by inferior characters, in the Sanskrit dramas. These dialects, and the modern vernaculars springing from them, bear the same relation to Sanskrit that the "Romance" languages of Europe bear to Latin, an analogy which is found in many particulars to hold with most surprising exactness. The most completely preserved of old Prakrits is that which was used in Magadha, and which has come down in the Buddhist books of Ceylon under the name of PALI (q.v.). The first European analysis of this language bears the title "_Institutiones Linguae_ PRACRITICAE. _Scripsit Christianus Lassen_, Bonnae ad Rhenum, 1837." The term itself is Skt. _prākṛita_, 'natural, unrefined, vulgar,' &c.

1801.—"_Sanscrita_ is the speech of the Celestials, framed in grammatical institutes, PRACRITA is similar to it, but manifold as a provincial dialect, and otherwise."—_Sanskrit Treatise_, quoted by _Colebrooke_, in _As. Res._ vii. 199.

PRAYA, s. This is in Hong-Kong the name given to what in most foreign settlements in China is called the BUND; _i.e._ the promenade or drive along the sea. It is Port. _praia_, 'the shore.'

[1598.—"Another towne towards the North, called Villa de PRAYA (for PRAYA is as much as to say, as strand)."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. ii. 278.]

PRESIDENCY (and PRESIDENT), s. The title 'President,' as applied to the Chief of a principal Factory, was in early popular use, though in the charters of the E.I.C. its first occurrence is in 1661 (see _Letters Patent_, below). In Sainsbury's _Calendar_ we find letters headed "to Capt. Jourdain, president of the English at Bantam" in 1614 (i. 297-8); but it is to be doubted whether this wording is in the original. A little later we find a "proposal by Mr. Middleton concerning the appointment of two especial factors, at Surat and Bantam, to have authority over all other factors; Jourdain named." And later again he is styled "John Jourdain, Captain of the house" (at Bantam; see pp. 303, 325), and "Chief Merchant at Bantam" (p. 343).

1623.—"Speaking of the Dutch Commander, as well as of the English PRESIDENT, who often in this fashion came to take me for an airing, I should not omit to say that both of them in Surat live in great style, and like the grandees of the land. They go about with a great train, sometimes with people of their own mounted, but particularly with a great crowd of Indian servants on foot and armed, according to custom, with sword, target, bow and arrows."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 517.

" "Our boat going ashore, the PRESIDENT of the English Merchants, who usually resides in Surat, and is chief of all their business in the E. Indies, Persia, and other places dependent thereon, and who is called Sign. Thomas Rastel[225] ... came aboard in our said boat, with a minister of theirs (so they term those who do the priest's office among them)."—_Ibid._ ii. 501-2; [Hak. Soc. i. 19].

1638.—"As soon as the Commanders heard that the (English) PRESIDENT was come to Suhaly, they went ashore.... The two dayes following were spent in feasting, at which the Commanders of the two Ships treated the PRESIDENT, who afterwards returned to _Suratta_.... During my abode at _Suratta_, I wanted for no divertisement; for I ... found company at the _Dutch_ PRESIDENT'S, who had his Farms there ... inasmuch as I could converse with them in their own Language."—_Mandelslo_, E.T., ed. 1669, p. 19.

1638.—"Les Anglois ont bien encore vn bureau à Bantam, dans l'Isle de Jaua, mais il a son PRESIDENT particulier, qui ne depend point de celuy de _Suratta_."—_Mandelslo_, French ed. 1659, p. 124.

" "A mon retour à _Suratta_ ie trouvay dans la loge des Anglois plus de cinquante marchands, que le PRESIDENT auoit fait venir de tous les autres Bureaux, pour rendre compte de leur administration, et pour estre presens à ce changement de Gouuernement."—_Ibid._ 188.

1661.—"And in case any Person or Persons, being convicted and sentenced by the PRESIDENT and Council of the said Governor and Company, in the said East Indies, their Factors or Agents there, for any Offence by them done, shall appeal from the same, that then, and in every such case, it shall and may be lawful to and for the said PRESIDENT and Council, Factor or Agent, to seize upon him or them, and to carry him or them home Prisoners to England."—_Letters Patent to the Governor and Company of Merchants of London, trading with the E. Indies_, 3d April.

1670.—The Court, in a letter to Fort St. George, fix the amount of tonnage to be allowed to their officers (for their private investments) on their return to Europe:

"PRESIDENTS and Agents, at Surat, Fort St. George, and Bantam 5 _tonns_.

_Chiefes_, at Persia, the BAY (q.v.), Mesulapatam, and Macassar: Deputy at Bombay, and Seconds at Surat, Fort St. George, and Bantam 3 _tonns_."

In _Notes and Exts._, No. i. p. 3.

1702.—"Tuesday 7th Aprill.... In the morning a Councill ... afterwards having some Discourse arising among us whether the charge of hiring Calashes, &c., upon Invitations given us from the Shabander or any others to go to their Countrey Houses or upon any other Occasion of diverting our Selves abroad for health, should be charged to our Honble Masters account or not, the PRESIDENT and Mr. Loyd were of opinion to charge the same.... But Mr. Rouse, Mr. Ridges, and Mr. Master were of opinion that Batavia being a place of extraordinary charge and Expense in all things, the said Calash hire, &c., ought not to be charged to the Honourable Company's Account."—_MS. Records in India Office_.

The book containing this is a collocation of fragmentary MS. diaries. But this passage pertains apparently to the proceedings of President Allen Catchpole and his council, belonging to the Factory of Chusan, from which they were expelled by the Chinese in 1701-2; they stayed some time at Batavia on their way home. Mr. Catchpole (or Ketchpole) was soon afterwards chief of an English settlement made upon Pulo Condore, off the Cambojan coast. In 1704-5, we read that he reported favourably on the prospects of the settlement, requesting a supply of young WRITERS, to learn the Chinese language, anticipating that the island would soon become an important station for Chinese trade. But Catchpole was himself, about the end of 1705, murdered by certain people of Macassar, who thought he had broken faith with them, and with him all the English but two (see _Bruce's Annals_, 483-4, 580, 606, and _A. Hamilton_, ii. 205 [ed. 1744]). The Pulo Condore enterprise thus came to an end.

1727.—"About the year 1674, PRESIDENT Aungier, a gentleman well qualified for governing, came to the Chair, and leaving Surat to the Management of Deputies, came to _Bombay_, and rectified many things."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 188.

PRICKLY-HEAT, s. A troublesome cutaneous rash (_Lichen tropicus_) in the form of small red pimples, which itch intolerably. It affects many Europeans in the hot weather. Fryer (pub. 1698) alludes to these "fiery pimples," but gives the disease no specific name. Natives sometimes suffer from it, and (in the south) use a paste of sandal-wood to alleviate it. Sir Charles Napier in Sind used to suffer much from it, and we have heard him described as standing, when giving an interview during the hot weather, with his back against the edge of an open door, for the convenience of occasional friction against it. [See RED-DOG.]

1631.—"Quas Latinus Hippocrates _Cornelius Celsus_ papulas, Plinius sudamina vocat ... ita crebra sunt, ut ego adhuc neminem noverim qui molestias has effugerit, non magis quam morsas culicum, quos Lusitani _Mosquitas_ vocant. Sunt autem haec papulae rubentes, et asperae aliquantum, per sudorem in cutem ejectæ; plerumque a capite ad calcem usque, cum summo pruritu, et assiduo scalpendi desiderio erumpentes."—_Jac. Bontii, Hist. Nat._ &c., ii. 18, p. 33.

1665.—"The Sun is but just now rising, yet he is intolerable; there is not a Cloud in the Sky, not a breath of Wind; my horses are spent, they have not seen a green Herb since we came out of _Lahor_; my _Indians_, for all their black, dry, and hard skin, sink under it. My face, hands and feet are peeled off, and my body is covered all over with PIMPLES THAT PRICK ME, as so many needles."—_Bernier_, E.T. 125; [ed. _Constable_, 389].

[1673.—"This Season ... though moderately warm, yet our Bodies broke out into small FIERY PIMPLES (a sign of a prevailing _Crasis_) augmented by MUSKEETOE-Bites, and _Chinces_ raising Blisters on us."—_Fryer_, 35.]

1807.—"One thing I have forgotten to tell you of—the PRICKLY HEAT. To give you some notion of its intensity, the placid Lord William (Bentinck) has been found sprawling on a table on his back; and Sir Henry Gwillin, one of the Madras Judges, who is a Welshman, and a fiery Briton in all senses, was discovered by a visitor rolling on his own floor, roaring like a baited bull."—_Lord Minto in India_, June 29.

1813.—"Among the primary effects of a hot climate (for it can hardly be called a disease) we may notice PRICKLY HEAT."—_Johnson, Influence of Trop. Climates_, 25.

PRICKLY-PEAR, s. The popular name, in both E. and W. Indies, of the _Opuntia Dillenii_, Haworth (_Cactus Indica_, Roxb.), a plant spread all over India, and to which Roxburgh gave the latter name, apparently in the belief of its being indigenous in that country. Undoubtedly, however, it came from America, wide as has been its spread over Southern Europe and Asia. On some parts of the Mediterranean shores (_e.g._ in Sicily) it has become so characteristic that it is hard to realize the fact that the plant had no existence there before the 16th century. Indeed at Palermo we have heard this scouted, and evidence quoted in the supposed circumstance that among the mosaics of the splendid Duomo of Monreale (12th century) the fig-leaf garments of Adam and Eve are represented as of this uncompromising material. The mosaic was examined by one of the present writers, with the impression that the belief has no good foundation. [See 8th ser. _Notes and Queries_, viii. 254.] The cactus fruit, yellow, purple, and red, which may be said to form an important article of diet in the Mediterranean, and which is now sometimes seen in London shops, is not, as far as we know, anywhere used in India, except in times of famine. No cactus is named in Drury's _Useful Plants of India_. And whether the Mediterranean plants form a different species, or varieties merely, as compared with the Indian _Opuntia_, is a matter for inquiry. The fruit of the Indian plant is smaller and less succulent. There is a good description of the plant and fruit in _Oviedo_, with a good cut (see Ramusio's Ital. version, bk. viii. ch. xxv.). That author gives an amusing story of his first making acquaintance with the fruit in S. Domingo, in the year 1515.

Some of the names by which the _Opuntia_ is known in the Punjab seem to belong properly to species of _Euphorbia_. Thus the _Euphorbia Royleana_, Bois., is called _tsūī_, _chū_, &c.; and the _Opuntia_ is called _Kābulī tsūī_, _Gangi sho_, _Kanghi chū_, &c. _Gangi chū_ is also the name of an _Euphorbia_ sp. which Dr. Stewart takes to be the _E. Neriifolia_, L. (_Punjab Plants_, pp. 101 and 194-5). [The common name in Upper India for the prickly pear is _nāgphanī_, 'snake-hood,' from its shape.] This is curious; for although certain cactuses are very like certain _Euphorbias_, there is no _Euphorbia_ resembling the _Opuntia_ in form.

The _Zaḳūm_ mentioned in the _Āīn_ (_Gladwin_, 1800, ii. 68; [_Jarrett_, ii. 239; _Sidi Ali_, ed. _Vambery_, p. 31] as used for hedges in Guzerat, is doubtless _Euphorbia_ also. The _Opuntia_ is very common as a hedge plant in cantonments, &c., and it was much used by Tippoo as an obstruction round his fortifications. Both the _E. Royleana_ and the _Opuntia_ are used for fences in parts of the Punjab. The latter is objectionable, from harbouring dirt and reptiles; but it spreads rapidly both from birds eating the fruit, and from the facility with which the joints take root.

1685.—"The PRICKLY-PEAR, Bush, or Shrub, of about 4 or 5 foot high ... the Fruit at first is green, like the Leaf.... It is very pleasant in taste, cooling and refreshing; but if a Man eats 15 or 20 of them they will colour his water, making it look like Blood."—_Dampier_, i. 223 (in W. Indies).

1764.—

"On this lay cuttings of the PRICKLY PEAR; They soon a formidable fence will shoot." _Grainger_, Bk. i.

[1829.—"The castle of Bunai ... is covered with the _cactus_, or PRICKLY PEAR, so abundant on the east side of the Aravali."—_Tod, Annals_, Calcutta reprint, i. 826.]

1861.—"The use of the PRICKLY PEAR" (for hedges) "I strongly deprecate; although impenetrable and inexpensive, it conveys an idea of sterility, and is rapidly becoming a nuisance in this country."—_Cleghorn, Forests and Gardens_, 285.

PROME, n.p. An important place in Pegu above the Delta. The name is Talaing, properly _Brun_. The Burmese call it _Pyé_ or (in the Aracanese form in which the _r_ is pronounced) _Pré_ and _Pré-myo_ ('city').

1545.—"When he (the K. of _Bramaa_) was arrived at the young King's pallace, he caused himself to be crowned King of PROM, and during the Ceremony ... made that poor Prince, whom he had deprived of his Kingdom, to continue kneeling before him, with his hands held up.... This done he went into a Balcone, which looked on a great Market-place, whither he commanded all the dead children that lay up and down the streets, to be brought, and then causing them to be hacked very small, he gave them, mingled with Bran, Rice, and Herbs, to his Elephants to eat."—_Pinto_, E.T. 211-212 (orig. clv.).

c. 1609.—"... this quarrel was hardly ended when a great rumour of arms was heard from a quarter where the Portuguese were still fighting. The cause of this was the arrival of 12,000 men, whom the King of PREN sent in pursuit of the King of Arracan, knowing that he had fled that way. Our people hastening up had a stiff and well fought combat with them; for although they were fatigued with the fight which had been hardly ended, those of PREN were so disheartened at seeing the Portuguese, whose steel they had already felt, that they were fain to retire."—_Bocarro_, 142. This author has PROM (p. 132) and PORÃO (p. 149). [Also see under AVA.]

1755.—"PRONE ... has the ruins of an _old brick wall round it_, and immediately without _that_, another with _Teak Timber_."—_Capt. G. Baker_, in _Dalrymple_, i. 173.

1795.—"In the evening, my boat being ahead, I reached the city of _Peeaye-mew_, or PROME, ... renowned in Birman history."—_Symes_, pp. 238-9.

PROW, PARAO, &c., s. This word seems to have a double origin in European use; the Malayāl. _pāṛu_, 'a boat,' and the Island word (common to Malay, Javanese, and most languages of the Archipelago) _prāū_ or _prāhū_. This is often specifically applied to a peculiar kind of galley, "Malay Prow," but Crawfurd defines it as "a general term for any vessel, but generally for small craft." It is hard to distinguish between the words, as adopted in the earlier books, except by considering date and locality.

1499.—"The King despatched to them a large boat, which they call PARÁO, well manned, on board which he sent a Naire of his with an errand to the Captains...."—_Correa, Lendas_, I. i. 115.

1510.—(At Calicut) "Some other small ships are called PARAO, and they are boats of ten paces each, and are all of a piece, and go with oars made of cane, and the mast also is made of cane."—_Varthema_, 154.

1510.—"The other Persian said: 'O Sir, what shall we do?' I replied: 'Let us go along this shore till we find a PARAO, that is, a small bark.'"—_Ibid._ 269.

1518.—"Item; that any one possessing a zambuquo (see SAMBOOK) or a PARAO of his own and desiring to go in it may do so with all that belongs to him, first giving notice two days before to the Captain of the City."—_Livro dos Privilegios da Cidade de Goa_, in _Archiv. Port. Orient._ Fascic. v. p. 7.

1523.—"When Dom Sancho (Dom Sancho Anriquez; see _Correa_, ii. 770) went into Muar to fight with the fleet of the King of Bintam which was inside the River, there arose a squall which upset all our PARAOS and LANCHARAS at the bar mouth...."—_Lembrança de Cousas de India_, p. 5.

1582.—"Next daye after the Capitaine Generall with all his men being a land, working upon the ship called Berrio, there came in two little PARAOS."—_Castañeda_ (tr. by N. L.), f. 62_v_.

1586.—"The fifth and last festival, which is called _Sapan Donon_, is one in which the King (of Pegu) is embarked in the most beautiful PARÒ, or boat...."—_G. Balbi_, f. 122.

1606.—Gouvea (f. 27_v_) uses PARÒ.

" "An howre after this comming a board of the hollanders came a PRAWE or a canow from Bantam."—_Middleton's Voyage_, c. 3 (_v_).

[1611.—"The Portuguese call their own galiots Navires (_navios_) and those of the Malabars, PAIRAUS. Most of these vessels were Chetils (see CHETTY), that is to say merchantmen. Immediately on arrival the Malabars draw up their PADOS or galliots on the beach."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. i. 345.

1623.—"In the Morning we discern'd four ships of Malabar Rovers near the shore (they called them PAROES and they goe with Oars like our Galeots or Foists."—_P. della Valle_, Hak. Soc. ii. 201.]

[1666.—"Con secreto previno Lope de Soarez veinte bateles, y gobernandolo y entrando por un rio, hallaron el peligro de cinco naves y ochenta PARAOS con mucha gente resuelta y de valor."—_Faria y Sousa, Asia_, i. 66.

1673.—"They are owners of several small PROVOES, of the same make, and Canooses, cut out of one entire Piece of Wood."—_Fryer_, 20. Elsewhere (_e.g._ 57, 59) he has PROES.

1727.—"The _Andemaners_ had a yearly Custom to come to the _Nicobar_ Islands, with a great number of small PRAWS, and kill or take Prisoners as many of the poor Nicobareans as they could overcome."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 65 [ed. 1744].

1816.—"... PRAHU, a term under which the Malays include every description of vessel."—_Raffles_, in _As. Res._ xii. 132.

1817.—"The Chinese also have many brigs ... as well as native-built PRAHUS."—_Raffles, Java_, i. 203.

1868.—"On December 13th I went on board a PRAU bound for the Aru Islands."—_Wallace, Malay Archip._ 227.

PUCKA, adj. Hind. _pakkā_, 'ripe, mature, cooked'; and hence substantial, permanent, with many specific applications, of which examples have been given under the habitually contrasted term CUTCHA (q.v.). One of the most common uses in which the word has become specific is that of a building of brick and mortar, in contradistinction to one of inferior material, as of mud, matting, or timber. Thus:

[1756.—"... adjacent houses; all of them of the strongest PECCA work, and all most proof against our Mettal on ye Bastions." _Capt. Grant, Report on Siege of Calcutta_, ed. by Col. Temple, _Ind. Ant._, 1890, p. 7.]

1784.—"The House, Cook-room, bottle-connah, godown, &c., are all PUCKA-built."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 41.

1824.—"A little above this beautiful stream, some miserable PUCKA sheds pointed out the Company's warehouses."—_Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 259-60.

1842.—"I observe that there are in the town (Dehli) many buildings PUCKA-built, as it is called in India."—_Wellington_ to Ld. Ellenborough, in _Indian Adm._ of _Ld. E._, p. 306.

1857.—"Your Lahore men have done nobly. I should like to embrace them; Donald, Roberts, Mac, and Dick are, all of them, PUCCA trumps."—_Lord Lawrence_, in _Life_, ii. 11.

1869.—"... there is no surer test by which to measure the prosperity of the people than the number of PUCKA houses that are being built."—_Report of a Sub-Committee_ on Proposed Indian Census.

This application has given rise to a substantive PUCKA, for work of brick and mortar, or for the composition used as cement and plaster.

1727.—"Fort William was built on an irregular Tetragon of Brick and Mortar, called PUCKAH, which is a Composition of Brick-dust, Lime, Molasses, and cut Hemp, and when it comes to be dry, it is as hard and tougher than firm Stone or Brick."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 19; [ed. 1744, ii. 7].

The word was also sometimes used substantively for "_pucka pice_" (see CUTCHA).

c. 1817.—"I am sure I strive, and strive, and yet last month I could only lay by eight rupees and four PUCKERS."—_Mrs. Sherwood's Stories_, 66.

In (Stockdale's) _Indian Vocabulary_ of 1788 we find another substantive use, but it was perhaps even then inaccurate.

1788.—"PUCKA—A putrid fever, generally fatal in 24 hours."

Another habitual application of PUCKA and CUTCHA distinguishes between two classes of weights and measures. The existence of twofold weight, the PUCKA ser and the CUTCHA, used to be very general in India. It was equally common in Medieval Europe. Almost every city in Italy had its libra _grossa_ and libra _sottile_ (_e.g._ see _Pegolotti_, 4, 34, 153, 228, &c.), and we ourselves still have them, under the names of _pound avoirdupois_ and _pound troy_.

1673.—"The MAUND PUCKA at _Agra_ is double as much (as the Surat _Maund_)."—_Fryer_, 205.

1760.—"Les PACCA cosses ... repondent à une lieue de l'Isle de France."—_Lett. Edif._ xv. 189.

1803.—"If the rice should be sent to Coraygaum, it should be in sufficient quantities to give 72 PUCCA seers for each load."—_Wellington, Desp._ (ed. 1837), ii. 43.

In the next quotation the terms apply to the temporary or permanent character of the appointments held.

1866.—"_Susan._ Well, Miss, I don't wonder you're so fond of him. He is such a sweet young man, though he is CUTCHA. Thank goodness, my young man is PUCKA, though he is only a subordinate Government Salt Chowkee."—_Trevelyan, The Dawk Bungalow_, 222.

The remaining quotations are examples of miscellaneous use:

1853.—"'Well, Jenkyns, any news?' 'Nothing PUCKA that I know of.'"—_Oakfield_, ii. 57.

1866.—"I cannot endure a swell, even though his whiskers are PUCKA."—_Trevelyan, The Dawk Bungalow_, in _Fraser_, lxxiii. 220.

The word has spread to China:

"Dis PUKKA sing-song makee show How smart man make mistake, galow." _Leland, Pidgin English Sing-Song_, 54.

PUCKAULY, s.; also PUCKAUL. Hind. _pakhālī_, 'a water-carrier.' In N. India the _pakhāl_ [Skt. _payas_, 'water,' _khalla_, 'skin'] is a large water-skin (an entire ox-hide) of some 20 gallons content, of which a pair are carried by a bullock, and the _pakhālī_ is the man who fills the skins, and supplies the water thus. In the Madras Drill Regulations for 1785 (33), ten PUCKALIES are allowed to a battalion. (See also Williamson's _V. M._ (1810), i. 229.)

[1538.—Referring to the preparations for the siege of Diu, "which they brought from all the wells on the island by all the bullocks they could collect with their water-skins, which they call PACALS (_Pacais_)."—_Couto_, Dec. V. Bk. iii. ch. 2.]

1780.—"There is another very necessary establishment to the European corps, which is two BUCCALIES to each company: these are two large leathern bags for holding water, slung upon the back of a bullock...."—_Munro's Narrative_, 183.

1803.—"It (water) is brought by means of bullocks in leathern bags, called here PUCKALLY bags, a certain number of which is attached to every regiment and garrison in India. Black fellows called PUCKAULY-BOYS are employed to fill the bags, and drive the bullocks to the quarters of the different Europeans."—_Percival's Ceylon_, 102.

1804.—"It would be a much better arrangement to give the adjutants of corps an allowance of 26 rupees per mensam, to supply two PUCKALIE men, and two bullocks with bags, for each company."—_Wellington_, iii. 509.

1813.—"In cities, in the armies, and with Europeans on country excursions, the water for drinking is usually carried in large leather bags called PACAULIES, formed by the entire skin of an ox."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ ii. 140; [2nd ed. i. 415].

1842.—"I lost no time in confidentially communicating with Capt. Oliver on the subject of trying some experiments as to the possibility of conveying empty 'PUCKALLS' and 'MUSSUCKS' by sea to Suez."—_Sir G. Arthur_, in _Ellenborough's Ind. Admin._ 219.

[1850.—"On the reverse flank of companies march the PICKALLIERS, or men driving bullocks, carrying large leather bags filled with water...."—_Hervey, Ten Years in India_, iii. 335.]

PUCKEROW, v. This is properly the imperative of the Hind. verb _pakṛānā_, 'to cause to be seized,' _pakṛāo_, 'cause him to be seized'; or perhaps more correctly of a compound verb _pakaṛāo_, 'seize and come,' or in our idiom, 'Go and seize.' But _puckerow_ belongs essentially to the dialect of the European soldier, and in that becomes of itself a verb 'to _puckerow_,' _i.e._ to lay hold of (generally of a recalcitrant native). The conversion of the Hind. imperative into an Anglo-Indian verb infinitive, is not uncommon; compare BUNOW, DUMBCOW, GUBBROW, LUGOW, &c.

1866.—"Fanny, I am CUTCHA no longer. Surely you will allow a lover who is PUCKA to PUCKERO!"—_Trevelyan, The Dawk Bungalow_, 390.

PUDIPATAN, n.p. The name of a very old seaport of Malabar, which has now ceased to have a place in the Maps. It lay between Cannanore and Calicut, and must have been near the Waddakaré of K. Johnston's Royal Atlas. [It appears in the map in Logan's _Malabar_ as _Putuppatanam_ or _Putappanam_.] The name is Tamil, _Pudupaṭṭana_, 'New City.' Compare true form of PONDICHERRY.

c. 545.—"The most notable places of trade are these ... and then five marts of Malé from which pepper is exported, to wit, Parti, Mangaruth (see MANGALORE), Salopatana, Nalopatana, PUDOPATANA...."—_Cosmas Indicopleustes_, Bk. xi. (see in _Cathay_, &c. p. clxxviii.).

c. 1342.—"BUDDFATTAN, which is a considerable city, situated upon a great estuary.... The haven of this city is one of the finest; the water is good, the betel-nut is abundant, and is exported thence to India and China."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 87.

c. 1420.—"A quâ rursus se diebus viginti terrestri viâ contulit ad urbem portumque maritimum nomine PUDIFETANEAM."—_Conti_, in _Poggio, de Var. Fort._

1516.—"... And passing those places you come to a river called PUDRIPATAN, in which there is a good place having many Moorish merchants who possess a multitude of ships, and here begins the Kingdom of Calicut."—_Barbosa_, in _Ramusio_, i. f. 311_v_. See also in Stanley's Barbosa PUDOPATANI, and in _Tohfat-ul-Mujahideen_, by Rowlandson, pp. 71, 157, where the name (_Budfattan_) is misread BUDUFTUN.

[PUG, s. Hind. _pag_, Skt. _padaka_, 'a foot'; in Anglo-Indian use the footmarks of an animal, such as a tiger.

[1831.—"... sanguine we were sometimes on the report of a _bura_ PUG from the SHIKAREE."—_Orient. Sport. Mag._ reprint 1873, ii. 178.

[1882.—"Presently the large square 'PUG' of the tiger we were in search of appeared."—_Sanderson, Thirteen Years_, 30.]

PUGGRY, PUGGERIE, s. Hind. _pagṛī_, 'a turban.' The term being often used in colloquial for a scarf of cotton or silk wound round the hat in turban-form, to protect the head from the sun, both the thing and name have of late years made their way to England, and may be seen in London shop-windows.

c. 1200.—"Prithirâja ... wore a PAGARI ornamented with jewels, with a splendid _toro_. In his ears he wore pearls; on his neck a pearl necklace."—_Chand Bardai_ E.T. by _Beames, Ind. Ant._ i. 282.

[1627.—"... I find it is the common mode of the Eastern People to shave the head all save a long lock which superstitiously they leave at the very top, such especially as wear TURBANS, Mandils, Dustars, and PUGGAREES."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p. 140.]

1673.—"They are distinguished, some according to the consanguinity they claim with Mahomet, as a Siad is akin to that Imposture, and therefore only assumes to himself a Green Vest and PUCKERY (or Turbat)...."—_Fryer_, 93; [comp. 113].

1689.—"... with a PUGGAREE or Turbant upon their Heads."—_Ovington_, 314.

1871.—"They (the Negro Police in Demarara) used frequently to be turned out to parade in George Town streets, dressed in a neat uniform, with white PUGGRIES framing in their ebony faces."—_Jenkins, The Coolie_.

PUGGY, s. Hind. _pagī_ (not in Shakespear's Dict., nor in Platts), from _pag_ (see PUG), 'the foot.' A professional tracker; the name of a caste, or rather an occupation, whose business is to track thieves by footmarks and the like. On the system, see _Burton, Sind Revisited_, i. 180 _seqq._

[1824.—"There are in some of the districts of Central India (as in Guzerat) PUGGEES, who have small fees on the village, and whose business it is to trace thieves by the print of their feet."—_Malcolm, Central India_, 2nd ed. ii. 19.]

1879.—"Good PUGGIES or trackers should be employed to follow the dacoits during the daytime."—_Times of India_, Overland Suppt., May 12, p. 7.

PUHUR, PORE, PYRE, &c., s. Hind. _pahar_, _pahr_, from Skt. _prahara_. 'A fourth part of the day and of the night, a watch' or space of 8 _ghaṛīs_ (see GHURRY).

c. 1526.—"The natives of Hindostân divide the night and day into 60 parts, each of which they denominate a _Gheri_; they likewise divide the night into 4 parts, and the day into the same number, each of which they call a PAHAR or watch, which the Persians call a _Pâs_."—_Baber_, 331.

[c. 1590.—"The Hindu philosophers divide the day and night into four parts, each of which they call a PAHR."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, iii. 15.]

1633.—"PAR." See under GHURRY.

1673.—"PORE." See under GONG.

1803.—"I have some JASOOSES selected by Col. C's brahmin for their stupidity, that they might not pry into state secrets, who go to Sindia's camp, remain there a PHAUR in fear...."—_M. Elphinstone_, in _Life_, i. 62.

PULÁ, s. In Tamil _pillai_, Malayāl. _pilla_, 'child'; the title of a superior class of (so-called) Śūdras, [especially CURNUMS]. In Cochin and Travancore it corresponds with _Nāyar_ (see NAIR). It is granted by the sovereign, and carries exemption from customary manual labour.

1553.—"... PULAS, who are the gentlemen" (_fidalgos_).—_Castanheda_, iv. 2.

[1726.—"O Saguate que o Commendor tinha remetido como gristnave amim e as PULAMARES temos ca recebid."—_Ratification_, in _Logan, Malabar_, iii. 13.]

PULICAT, n.p. A town on the Madras coast, which was long the seat of a Dutch factory. Bp. Caldwell's native friend Seshagiri Śāstri gives the proper name as _pala-Vêlkāḍu_, 'old Velkāḍu or Verkāḍu,' the last a place-name mentioned in the Tamil Sivaite _Tevāram_ (see also Valentijn below). [The _Madras Gloss._ gives _Pazhaverk-kādu_, 'old acacia forest,' which is corroborated by Dr. Hultzsch (_Epigraphia Indica_, i. 398).]

1519.—"And because he had it much in charge to obtain all the lac (_alacre_) that he could, the Governor learning from merchants that much of it was brought to the Coast of Choromandel by the vessels of Pegu and Martaban which visited that coast to procure painted cloths and other coloured goods, such as are made in PALEACATE, which is on the coast of Choromandel, whence the traders with whom the Governor spoke brought it to Cochin; he, having got good information on the whole matter, sent a certain Frolentine (_sic_, _frolentim_) called Pero Escroco, whom he knew, and who was good at trade, to be factor on the coast of Choromandel...."—_Correa_, ii. 567.

1533.—"The said Armenian, having already been at the city of PALEACATE, which is in the Province of Choromandel and the Kingdom of Bisnaga, when on his way to Bengal, and having information of the place where the body of S. Thomas was said to be, and when they arrived at the port of PALEACATE the wind was against their going on...."—_Barros_, III. vii. 11.

[1611.—"The Dutch had settled a factory at PELLACATA."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 133; in _Foster_, ii. 83, POLLICAT.]

1726.—"Then we come to _Palleam Wedam Caddoe_, called by us for shortness PALLEACATTA, which means in Malabars 'The old Fortress,' though most commonly we call it _Castle Geldria_."—_Valentijn, Chorom._ 13.

" "The route I took was along the strip of country between PORTO NOVO and PALEIACATTA. This long journey I travelled on foot; and preached in more than a hundred places...."—_Letter of the Missionary Schultze_, July 19, in _Notices of Madras_, &c., p. 20.

1727.—"POLICAT is the next Place of Note to the City and Colony of Fort St _George_.... It is strengthned with two Forts, one contains a few Dutch soldiers for a Garrison, the other is commanded by an Officer belonging to the _Mogul_."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 372, [ed. 1744].

[1813.—"PULECAT handkerchiefs." See under PIECE-GOODS.]

PULTUN, s. Hind. _palṭan_, a corruption of _Battalion_, possibly with some confusion of _platoon_ or _péloton_. The S. India form is _pataulam_, _patālam_. It is the usual native word for a regiment of native infantry; it is never applied to one of Europeans.

1800.—"All I can say is that I am ready primed, and that if all matters suit I shall go off with a dreadful explosion, and shall probably destroy some CAMPOOS and PULTONS which have been indiscreetly pushed across the Kistna."—_A. Wellesley_ to _T. Munro_, in _Mem. of Munro_, by _Arbuthnot_, lxix.

[1895.—"I know lots of Sahibs in a PULTOON at Bareilly."—_Mrs Croker, Village Tales and Jungle Tragedies_, 60.]

PULWAH, PULWAR, s. One of the native boats used on the rivers of Bengal, carrying some 12 to 15 tons. Hind. _palwār_. [For a drawing see _Grierson, Bihar Village Life_, p. 42.]

1735.—"... We observed a boat which had come out of _Samboo_ river, making for _Patna_: the commandant detached two light PULWAARS after her...."—_Holwell, Hist. Events_, &c., i. 69.

[1767.—"... a Peon came twice to Noon-golah, to apply for POLWARS...."—_Verelst, View of Bengal_, App. 197.]

1780.—"Besides this boat, a gentleman is generally attended by two others; a PULWAH for the accommodation of the kitchen, and a smaller boat, a PAUNCHWAY" (q.v.).—_Hodges_, p. 39.

1782.—"To be sold, Three New Dacca PULWARS, 60 feet long, with Houses in the middle of each."—_India Gazette_, Aug. 31.

1824.—"The ghât offered a scene of bustle and vivacity which I by no means expected. There were so many budgerows and PULWARS, that we had considerable difficulty to find a mooring place."—_Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 131.

1860.—"The PULWAR is a smaller description of native travelling boat, of neater build, and less rusticity of character, sometimes used by a single traveller of humble means, and at others serves as _cook-boat_ and accommodation for servants accompanying one of the large kind of boats...."—_Grant, Rural Life in Bengal_, p. 7, with an illustration.

PULWAUN, s. P.—H. _pahlwān_, [which properly means 'a native of ancient Persia' (see PAHLAVI). Mr. Skeat notes that in Malay the word becomes _pahlāwan_, probably from a confusion with Malay _āwan_, 'to fight']. A champion; a professed wrestler or man of strength.

[1753.—"... the fourth, and least numerous of these bodies, were choice men of the PEHLEVANS...."—_Hanway_, iii. 104.

[1813.—"When his body has by these means imbibed an additional portion of vigour, he is dignified by the appellation of PUHLWAN."—_Broughton, Letters_, ed. 1892, p. 165.]

1828.—"I added a PEHLIVÂN or prize-fighter, a negro whose teeth were filed into saws, of a temper as ferocious as his aspect, who could throw any man of his weight to the ground, carry a jackass, devour a sheep whole, eat fire, and make a fountain of his inside, so as to act as a spout."—_Hajji Baba in England_, i. 15.

PUN, s. A certain number of cowries, generally 80; Hind. _paṇa_. (See under COWRY). The Skt. _paṇa_ is 'a stake played for a price, a sum,' and hence both a coin (whence FANAM, q.v.) and a certain amount of cowries.

1554.—"PONE." (See under PORTO PIQUENO.)

1683.—"I was this day advised that Mr. Charnock putt off Mr. Ellis's Cowries at 34 PUND to ye Rupee in payment of all ye Peons and Servants of the Factory, whereas 38 PUNDS are really bought by him for a Rupee...."—_Hedges, Diary_, Oct. 2; [Hak. Soc. i. 122].

1760.—"We now take into consideration the relief of the menial servants of this Settlement, respecting the exorbitant price of labor exacted from them by tailors, washermen, and barbers, which appear in near a quadruple (pro)portion compared with the prices paid in 1755. Agreed, that after the 1st of April they be regulated as follows:

"No tailor to demand for making:

1 JAMMA, more than 3 annas. * * * * * 1 pair of drawers, 7 PUN of cowries.

No washerman:

1 corge of pieces, 7 PUN of cowries.

No barber for shaving a single person, more than 7 gundas" (see COWRY).—_Ft. William Consns._, March 27, in _Long_, 209.

PUNCH, s. This beverage, according to the received etymology, was named from the Pers. _panj_, or Hind. and Mahr. _pānch_, both meaning 'five'; because composed of five ingredients, viz. arrack, sugar, lime-juice, spice, and water. Fryer may be considered to give something like historical evidence of its origin; but there is also something of Indian idiom in the suggestion. Thus a famous horse-medicine in Upper India is known as _battīsī_, because it is supposed to contain 32 ('_battīs_') ingredients. Schiller, in his _Punschlied_, sacrificing truth to trope, omits the spice and makes the ingredients only 4: "_Vier_ Elemente Innig gesellt, Bilden das Leben, Bauen die Welt."

The Greeks also had a "Punch," πενταπλόα, as is shown in the quotation from Athenaeus. Their mixture does not sound inviting. Littré gives the etymology correctly from the Pers. _panj_, but the 5 elements _à la française_, as tea, sugar, spirit, cinnamon, and lemon-peel,—no water therefore!

Some such compound appears to have been in use at the beginning of the 17th century under the name of LARKIN (q.v.). Both Dutch and French travellers in the East during that century celebrate the beverage under a variety of names which amalgamate the drink curiously with the vessel in which it was brewed. And this combination in the form of BOLE-PONJIS was adopted as the title of a Miscellany published in 1851, by H. Meredith Parker, a Bengal civilian, of local repute for his literary and dramatic tastes. He had lost sight of the original authorities for the term, and his quotation is far astray. We give them correctly below.

c. 210.—"On the feast of the Scirrha at Athens he (Aristodemus on Pindar) says a race was run by the young men. They ran this race carrying each a vine-branch laden with grapes, such as is called _ōschus_; and they ran from the temple of Dionysus to that of Athena Sciras. And the winner receives a cup such as is called 'FIVE-FOLD,' and of this he partakes joyously with the band of his comrades. But the cup is called πενταπλόα because it contains wine and honey and cheese and flour, and a little oil."—_Athenaeus_, XI. xcii.

1638.—"This voyage (Gombroon to Surat) ... we accomplished in 19 days.... We drank English beer, Spanish sack, French wine, Indian spirit, and good English water, and made good PALEPUNZEN."—_Mandelslo_, (Dutch ed. 1658), p. 24. The word PALEPUNZEN seems to have puzzled the English translator (John Davis, 2nd ed. 1669), who has "excellent good sack, _English_ beer, _French_ wines, _Arak, and other refreshments_." (p. 10).

1653.—"BOLLEPONGE est vn mot Anglois, qui signifie vne boisson dont les Anglois vsent aux Indes faite de sucre, suc de limon, eau de vie, fleur de muscade, et biscuit roty."—_De la Boullaye-le-Gouz_, ed. 1657, p. 534.

[1658.—"Arriued this place where found the Bezar almost Burnt and many of the People almost starued for want of Foode which caused much Sadnes in Mr. Charnock and my Selfe, but not soe much as the absence of your Company, which wee haue often remembered in a bowle of the cleerest PUNCH, hauing noe better Liquor."—_Hedges, Diary_, Hak. Soc. iii. cxiv.]

1659.—"Fürs Dritte, PALE BUNZE getituliret, von halb Wasser, halb Brantwein, dreyssig, vierzig Limonien, deren Körnlein ausgespeyet werden, und ein wenig Zucker eingeworfen; wie dem Geschmack so angenehm nicht, also auch der Gesundheit nicht."—_Saar_, ed. 1672, 60.

[1662.—"Amongst other spirituous drinks, as PUNCH, &c., they gave us Canarie that had been carried to and fro from the Indies, which was indeed incomparably good."—_Evelyn, Diary_, Jan. 16.]

c. 1666.—"Neánmoins depuis qu'ils (les Anglois) ont donné ordre, aussi bien que les Hollandois, que leurs equipages ne boivent point tant de BOULEPONGES ... il n'y a pas tant de maladies, et il ne leur meurt plus tant de monde. BOULEPONGE est un certain breuvage composé d'arac ... avec du suc de limons, de l'eau, et un peu de muscade rapée dessus: il est assez agréable au gout, mais c'est la peste du corps et de la santé."—_Bernier_, ed. 1723, ii. 335 (Eng. Tr. p. 141); [ed. _Constable_, 441].

1670.—"Doch als men zekere andere drank, die zij PALEPONTS noemen, daartusschen drinkt, zo word het quaat enigsins geweert."—_Andriesz_, 9. Also at p. 27, "PALEPUNTS."

We find this blunder of the compound word transported again to England, and explained as a 'hard word.'

1672.—Padre Vincenzo Maria describes the thing, but without a name:

"There are many fruites to which the Hollanders and the English add a certain beverage that they compound of lemon-juice, aqua-vitae, sugar, and nutmegs, to quench their thirst, and this, in my belief, augments not a little the evil influence."—_Viaggio_, p. 103.

1673.—"At Nerule is the best _Arach_ or _Nepa_ (see NIPA) _de Goa_, with which the _English_ on this Coast make that enervating Liquor called PAUNCH (which is _Indostan_ for Five), from Five Ingredients; as the Physicians name their Composition _Diapente_; or from four things, _Diatessaron_."—_Fryer_, 157.

1674.—"PALAPUNTZ, a kind of Indian drink, consisting of _Aqua-vitae_, Rose-water, juyce of Citrons and Sugar."—_Glossographia_, &c., by T. E.

[1675.—"Drank part of their boules of PUNCH (a liquor very strange to me)."—_H. Teonge, Diary_, June 1.]

1682.—"Some (of the Chinese in Batavia) also sell Sugar-beer, as well as cooked dishes and Sury (see SURA), arak or Indian brandy; wherefrom they make _Mussak_ and FOLLEPONS, as the Englishmen call it."—_Nieuhoff, Zee en Lant-Reize_, ii. 217.

1683.—"... Our owne people and mariners who are now very numerous, and insolent among us, and (by reason of PUNCH) every day give disturbance."—_Hedges, Diary_, Oct. 8; [Hak. Soc. i. 123].

1688.—"... the soldiers as merry as PUNCH could make them."—In _Wheeler_, i. 187.

1689.—"Bengal (Arak) is much stronger spirit than that of Goa, tho' both are made use of by the Europeans in making PUNCH."—_Ovington_, 237-8.

1694.—"If any man comes into a victualling house to drink PUNCH, he may demand one quart good Goa _arak_, half a pound of sugar, and half a pint of good lime water, and make his own PUNCH...."—_Order Book of Bombay Govt._, quoted by _Anderson_, p. 281.

1705.—"Un bon repas chez les Anglais ne se fait point sans _bonne_ PONSE qu'on sert dans un grand vase."—_Sieur Luillier, Voy. aux Grandes Indes_, 29.

1771.—"Hence every one (at Madras) has it in his Power to eat well, tho' he can afford no other Liquor at Meals than PUNCH, which is the common Drink among Europeans, and here made in the greatest Perfection."—_Lockyer_, 22.

1724.—"Next to _Drams_, no Liquor deserves more to be stigmatised and banished from the Repasts of the _Tender_, _Valetudinary_, and _Studious_, than PUNCH."—_G. Cheyne, An Essay on Health and Longevity_, p. 58.

1791.—"Dès que l'Anglais eut cessé de manger, le Paria ... fit un signe à sa femme, qui apporta ... une grande calebasse pleine de PUNCH, qu'elle avoit preparé, pendant le souper, avec de l'eau, et du jus de citron, et du jus de canne de sucre...."—_B. de St. Pierre, Chaumière Indienne_, 56.

PUNCH-HOUSE, s. An Inn or Tavern; now the term is chiefly used by natives (sometimes in the hybrid form PUNCH-GHAR, [which in Upper India is now transferred to the meeting-place of a Municipal Board]) at the Presidency towns, and applied to houses frequented by seamen. Formerly the word was in general Anglo-Indian use. [In the Straits the Malay _Panc-haus_ is, according to Mr. Skeat, still in use, though obolescent.]

[1661.—"... the Commandore visiting us, wee delivering him another examination of a Persee (PARSEE), who kept a PUNCH HOUSE, where the murder was committed...."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters, Home Series_, i. 189.]

1671-2.—"It is likewise enordered and declared hereby that no Victuallar, PUNCH-HOUSE, or other house of Entertainment shall be permitted to make stoppage at the pay day of their wages...."—_Rules_, in _Wheeler_, iii. 423.

1676.—Major Puckle's "Proposals to the Agent about the young men at Metchlepatam.

"That some pecuniary mulct or fine be imposed ... for misdemeanours.

* * * * *

"6. Going to PUNCH or RACK-HOUSES without leave or warrantable occasion.

"Drubbing any of the Company's PEONS or servants."

* * * * *

—In _Notes and Exts._, No. I. p. 40.

1688.—"... at his return to Achen he constantly frequented an English PUNCH-HOUSE, spending his Gold very freely."—_Dampier_, ii. 134.

" "Mrs. Francis, wife to the late Lieutenant Francis killed at Hoogly by the Moors, made it her petition that she might keep a PUNCH-HOUSE for her maintenance."—In _Wheeler_, i. 184.

1697.—"Monday, 1st April ... Mr. Cheesely having in a PUNCH-HOUSE, upon a quarrel of words, drawn his Sword ... and being taxed therewith, he both doth own and justify the drawing of the sword ... it thereupon ordered not to wear a sword while here."—In _Wheeler_, i. 320.

1727.—"... Of late no small Pains and Charge have been bestowed on its Buildings (of the Fort at Tellichery); but for what Reason I know not ... unless it be for small Vessels ... or to protect the Company's Ware-house, and a small PUNCH-HOUSE that stands on the Sea-shore...."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 299 [ed. 1744].

1789.—"Many ... are obliged to take up their residence in dirty PUNCH-HOUSES."—_Munro's Narrative_, 22.

1810.—"The best house of that description which admits boarders, and which are commonly called PUNCH-HOUSES."—_Williamson, V.M._ i. 135.

PUNCHAYET, s. Hind. _panchāyat_, from _pānch_, 'five.' A council (properly of 5 persons) assembled as a Court of Arbiters or Jury; or as a committee of the people of a village, of the members of a Caste, or whatnot, to decide on questions interesting the body generally.

1778.—"_The Honourable_ WILLIAM HORNBY, Esq., _President and Governor of His Majesty's Castle and Island of Bombay_, &c.

"The humble Petition of the Managers of the PANCHAYET of Parsis at Bombay...."—_Dosambhai Framji, H. of the Parsis_, 1884, ii. 219.

1810.—"The Parsees ... are governed by their own PANCHAÏT or village Council. The word PANCHAÏT literally means a Council of five, but that of the Guebres in Bombay consists of thirteen of the principal merchants of the sect."—_Maria Graham_, 41.

1813.—"The carpet of justice was spread in the large open hall of the durbar, where the arbitrators assembled: there I always attended, and agreeably to ancient custom, referred the decision to a PANCHAEET or jury of five persons."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._, ii. 359; [in 2nd ed. (ii. 2) PANCHAUT].

1819.—"The PUNCHAYET itself, although in all but village causes it has the defects before ascribed to it, possesses many advantages. The intimate acquaintance of the members with the subject in dispute, and in many cases with the characters of the parties, must have made their decisions frequently correct, and ... the judges being drawn from the body of the people, could act on no principles that were not generally understood."—_Elphinstone_, in _Life_, ii. 89.

1821.—"I kept up PUNCHAYETS because I found them ... I still think that the PUNCHAYET should on no account be dropped, that it is an excellent institution for dispensing justice, and in keeping up the principles of justice, which are less likely to be observed among a people to whom the administration of it is not at all intrusted."—_Ibid._ 124.

1826.—"... when he returns assemble a PUNCHAYET, and give this cause patient attention, seeing that Hybatty has justice."—_Pandurang Hari_, 31; [ed. 1873, i. 42].

1832.—Bengal Regn. VI. of this year allows the judge of the Sessions Court to call in the alternative aid of a PUNCHAYET, in lieu of assessors, and so to dispense with the FUTWA. See LAW-OFFICER.

1853.—"From the death of Runjeet Singh to the battle of Sobraon, the Sikh Army was governed by 'PUNCHAYETS' or 'PUNCHES'—committees of the soldiery. These bodies sold the Government to the Sikh chief who paid the highest, letting him command until murdered by some one who paid higher."—_Sir C. Napier, Defects of Indian Government_, 69.

1873.—"The Council of an Indian Village Community most commonly consists of five persons ... the PANCHAYET familiar to all who have the smallest knowledge of India."—_Maine, Early Hist. of Institutions_, 221.

PUNDIT, s. Skt. _paṇḍita_, 'a learned man.' Properly a man learned in Sanskrit lore. The Pundit of the Supreme Court was a Hindu LAW-OFFICER, whose duty it was to advise the English Judges when needful on questions of Hindu Law. The office became extinct on the constitution of the 'High Court,' superseding the Supreme Court and Sudder Court, under the Queen's Letters Patent of May 14, 1862.

In the Mahratta and Telegu countries, the word _Paṇḍit_ is usually pronounced _Pant_ (in English colloquial _Punt_); but in this form it has, as with many other Indian words in like case, lost its original significance, and become a mere personal title, familiar in Mahratta history, _e.g._ the Nānā Dhundo_pant_ of evil fame.

Within the last 30 or 35 years the term has acquired in India a peculiar application to the natives trained in the use of instruments, who have been employed beyond the British Indian frontier in surveying regions inaccessible to Europeans. This application originated in the fact that two of the earliest men to be so employed, the explorations by one of whom acquired great celebrity, were masters of village schools in our Himālayan provinces. And the title _Pundit_ is popularly employed there much as _Dominie_ used to be in Scotland. The _Pundit_ who brought so much fame on the title was the late Nain Singh, C.S.I. [See Markham, _Memoir of Indian Surveys_, 2nd ed. 148 _seqq._]

1574.—"I hereby give notice that ... I hold it good, and it is my pleasure, and therefore I enjoin on all the PANDITS (_panditos_) and Gentoo physicians (_phisicos gentios_) that they ride not through this City (of Goa) or the suburbs thereof on horseback, nor in ANDORS and palanquins, on pain of paying, on the first offence 10 _cruzados_, and on the second 20, _pera o sapal_,[226] with the forfeiture of such horses, ANDORS, or palanquins, and on the third they shall become the galley-slaves of the King my Lord...."—_Procl._ of the Governor _Antonio Moriz Barreto_, in _Archiv. Port. Orient._ Fascic. 5, p. 899.

1604.—"... llamando tãbien en su compania los PÕDITOS, le presentaron al Nauabo."—_Guerrero, Relaçion_, 70.

1616.—"... Brachmanae una cum PANDITIS comparentes, simile quid iam inde ab orbis exordio in Indostane visum negant."—_Jarric, Thesaurus_, iii. 81-82.

1663.—"A PENDET Brachman or _Heathen_ Doctor whom I had put to serve my Agah ... would needs make his Panegyrick ... and at last concluded seriously with this: _When you put your Foot into the Stirrup, My Lord, and when you march on Horseback in the front of the Cavalry, the Earth trembleth under your Feet, the eight Elephants that hold it up upon their Heads not being able to support it_."—_Bernier_, E.T., 85; [ed. _Constable_, 264].

1688.—"Je feignis donc d'être malade, et d'avoir la fièvre; on fit venir aussitôt un PANDITE ou médicin Gentil."—_Dellon, Rel. de l'Inq. de Goa_, 214.

1785.—"I can no longer bear to be at the mercy of our PUNDITS, who deal out Hindu law as they please; and make it at reasonable rates, when they cannot find it ready made."—Letter of _Sir W. Jones_, in Mem. by _Ld. Teignmouth_, 1807, ii. 67.

1791.—"Il était au moment de s'embarquer pour l'Angleterre, plein de perplexité et d'ennui, lorsque les brames de Bénarés lui apprirent que le brame supérieur de la fameuse pagode de Jagrenat ... était seul capable de resoudre toutes les questions de la Société royale de Londres. C'était en effet le plus fameux PANDECT, ou docteur, dont on eût jamais oui parler."—_B. de St. Pierre, La Chaumière Indienne._ The preceding exquisite passage shows that the blunder which drew forth Macaulay's flaming wrath, in the quotation lower down, was not a new one.

1798.—"... the most learned of the PUNDITS or Bramin lawyers, were called up from different parts of Bengal."—_Raynal, Hist._ i. 42.

1856.—"Besides ... being a _Pundit_ of learning, he (Sir David Brewster) is a bundle of talents of various kinds."—_Life and Letters of Sydney Dobell_, ii. 14.

1860.—"Mr. Vizetelly next makes me say that the principle of limitation is found 'amongst the PANDECTS of the Benares....' The Benares he probably supposes to be some Oriental nation. What he supposes their Pandects to be I shall not presume to guess.... If Mr. Vizetelly had consulted the Unitarian Report, he would have seen that I spoke of the PUNDITS of Benares, and he might without any very long and costly research have learned where Benares is and what a Pundit is."—_Macaulay_, Preface to his _Speeches_.

1877.—"Colonel Y——. Since Nain Singh's absence from this country precludes my having the pleasure of handing to him in person, this, the Victoria or Patron's Medal, which has been awarded to him, ... I beg to place it in your charge for transmission to the PUNDIT."—_Address_ by _Sir R. Alcock_, Prest. R. Geog. Soc., May 28.

"Colonel Y—— in reply, said: ... Though I do not know Nain Singh personally, I know his work.... He is not a topographical automaton, or merely one of a great multitude of native employés with an average qualification. His observations have added a larger amount of important knowledge to the map of Asia than those of any other living man, and his journals form an exceedingly interesting book of travels. It will afford me great pleasure to take steps for the transmission of the Medal through an official channel to the PUNDIT."—_Reply to the President_, same date.

PUNJAUB, n.p. The name of the country between the Indus and the Sutlej. The modern Anglo-Indian province so-called, now extends on one side up beyond the Indus, including Peshāwar, the Derajāt, &c., and on the other side up to the Jumna, including Delhi. [In 1901 the Frontier Districts were placed under separate administration.] The name is Pers. _Panj-āb_, 'Five Rivers.' These rivers, as reckoned, sometimes include the Indus, in which case the five are (1) Indus, (2) Jelam (see JELUM) or Behat, the ancient _Vitasta_ which the Greeks made Ὑδάσπης (_Strabo_) and Βιδάσπης (_Ptol._), (3) Chenāb, ancient _Chandrabāgha_ and _Āsiknī_. Ptolemy preserves a corruption of the former Sanskrit name in Σανδαβάλ, but it was rejected by the older Greeks because it was of ill omen, _i.e._ probably because Grecized it would be Ξανδροφάγος, 'the devourer of Alexander.' The alternative _Āsiknī_ they rendered Ἀκεσίνης. (4) Rāvī, the ancient _Airāvatī_, Ὑάρωτης (_Strabo_), Ὑδραώτης (_Arrian_), Ἄδρις or Ῥούαδις (_Ptol._). (5) Biās, ancient _Vipāsā_, Ὕφασις (Arrian), Βιβάσιος (_Ptol._). This excluded the Sutlej, _Satadru_, _Hesydrus_ of Pliny, Ζαράδρος or Ζαδάδρης (_Ptol._), as Timur excludes it below. We may take in the Sutlej and exclude the Indus, but we can hardly exclude the Chenāb as Wassāf does below.

No corresponding term is used by the Greek geographers. "Putandum est nomen PANCHANADAE Graecos aut omnino latuisse, aut casu quodam non ad nostra usque tempora pervenisse, quod in tanta monumentorum ruina facile accidere potuit" (_Lassen, Pentapotamia_, 3). Lassen however has termed the country _Pentepotamia_ in a learned Latin dissertation on its ancient geography. Though the actual word _Panjāb_ is Persian, and dates from Mahommedan times, the corresponding Skt. _Panchanada_ is ancient and genuine, occurring in the _Mahābhārata_ and _Rāmāyaṇa_. The name _Panj-āb_ in older Mahommedan writers is applied to the Indus river, after receiving the rivers of the country which we call _Punjaub_. In that sense _Panj-nad_, of equivalent meaning, is still occasionally used. [In S. India the term is sometimes applied to the country watered by the Tumbhadra, Wardha, Malprabha, Gatprabha and Kistna (_Wilks, Hist. Sketches_, Madras reprint, i. 405).]

We remember in the newspapers, after the second Sikh war, the report of a speech by a clergyman in England, who spoke of the deposition of "the bloody PUNJAUB of Lahore."

B.C. _x_.—"Having explored the land of the Pahlavi and the country adjoining, there had then to be searched PANCHANADA in every part; the monkeys then explore the region of Kashmīr with its woods of acacias."—_Rāmāyaṇa_, Bk. iv. ch. 43.

c. 940.—Maṣ'ūdī details (with no correctness) the five rivers that form the Mihrān or Indus. He proceeds: "When the FIVE RIVERS which we have named have past the House of Gold which is Mūltān, they unite at a place three days distant from that city, between it and Manṣūra at a place called Doshāb."—i. 377-8.

c. 1020.—"They all (Sind, Jhailam, Irāwa, Biah) combine with the Satlader (Sutlej) below Múltán, at a place called PANJNAD, or 'the junction of the five rivers.' They form a very wide stream."—_Al-Birūnī_, in _Elliot_, i. 48.

c. 1300.—"After crossing the PANJ-ĀB, or five rivers, namely Sind, Jelam, the river of Loháwar (_i.e._ of _Lahore_, viz. the Rāvī), Satlút, and Bīyah...."—_Wassāf_, in _Elliot_, iii. 36.

c. 1333.—"By the grace of God our caravan arrived safe and sound at BANJ-ĀB, _i.e._ at the River of the Sind. _Banj_ (_panj_) signifies 'five,' and _āb_, 'water;' so that the name signifies 'the Five Waters.' They flow into this great river, and water the country."—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 91.

c. 1400.—"All these (united) rivers (Jelam, Chenáb, Ráví, Bíyáh, Sind) are called the Sind or PANJ-ÁB, and this river falls into the Persian Gulf near Thatta."—_The Emp. Timur_, in _Elliot_, iii. 476.

[c. 1630.—"He also takes a Survey of PANG-OB...."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p. 63. He gives a list of the rivers in p. 70.]

1648.—"... PANG-AB, the chief city of which is Lahor, is an excellent and fruitful province, for it is watered by the five rivers of which we have formerly spoken."—_Van Twist_, 3.

" "The River of the ancient Indus, is by the Persians and Magols called PANG-AB, _i.e._ the Five Waters."—_Ibid._ i.

1710.—"He found this ancient and famous city (Lahore) in the Province PANSCHAAP, by the side of the broad and fish-abounding river Rari (for _Ravi_)."—_Valentijn_, iv. (_Suratte_), 282.

1790.—"Investigations of the religious ceremonies and customs of the Hindoos, written in the Carnatic, and in the PUNJAB, would in many cases widely differ."—_Forster_, Preface to _Journey_.

1793.—"The Province, of which Lahore is the capital, is oftener named PANJAB than Lahore."—_Rennell's Memoir_, 3rd ed. 82.

1804.—"I rather think ... that he (Holkar) will go off to the PUNJAUB. And what gives me stronger reason to think so is, that on the seal of his letter to me he calls himself '_the Slave of Shah Mahmoud, the King of Kings_.' Shah Mahmoud is the brother of Zemaun Shah. He seized the musnud and government of Caubul, after having defeated Zemaun Shah two or three years ago, and put out his eyes."—_Wellington, Desp._ under March 17.

1815.—"He (Subagtageen) ... overran the fine province of the PUNJAUB, in his first expedition."—_Malcolm, Hist. of Persia_, i. 316.

PUNKAH, s. Hind. _pankhā_.

A. In its original sense a portable fan, generally made from the leaf of the PALMYRA (_Borassus flabelliformis_, or 'fan-shaped'), the natural type and origin of the fan. Such _pankhās_ in India are not however formed, as Chinese fans are, like those of our ladies; they are generally, whether large or small, of a bean-shape, with a part of the dried leaf-stalk adhering, which forms the handle.

B. But the specific application in Anglo-Indian colloquial is to the large fixed and swinging fan, formed of cloth stretched on a rectangular frame, and suspended from the ceiling, which is used to agitate the air in hot weather. The date of the introduction of this machine into India is not known to us. The quotation from Linschoten shows that some such apparatus was known in the 16th century, though this comes out clearly in the French version alone; the original Dutch, and the old English translation are here unintelligible, and indicate that Linschoten (who apparently never was at Ormuz) was describing, from hearsay, something that he did not understand. More remarkable passages are those which we take from Dozy, and from El-Fakhrī, which show that the true Anglo-Indian _punka_ was known to the Arabs as early as the 8th century.

A.—

1710.—"Aloft in a Gallery the King sits in his chaire of State, accompanied with his Children and chiefe Vizier ... no other without calling daring to goe vp to him, saue onely two PUNKAWS to gather wind."—_W. Finch_, in _Purchas_, i. 439. The word seems here to be used improperly for the men who plied the fans. We find also in the same writer a verb to PUNKAW:

"... behind one PUNKAWING, another holding his sword."—_Ibid._ 433.

Terry does not use the word:

1616.—"... the people of better quality, lying or sitting on their Carpets or Pallats, have servants standing about them, who continually beat the air upon them with _Flabella's_, or Fans, of stiffned leather, which keepe off the flyes from annoying them, and cool them as they lye."—Ed. 1665, p. 405.

1663.—"On such occasions they desire nothing but ... to lie down in some cool and shady place all along, having a servant or two to fan one by turns, with their great PANKAS, or Fans."—_Bernier_, E.T., p. 76; [ed. _Constable_, 241].

1787.—"Over her head was held a PUNKER."—_Sir C. Malet_, in Parl. Papers, 1821, '_Hindoo Widows_.'

1809.—"He ... presented me ... two punkahs."—_Lord Valentia_, i. 428.

1881.—"The chair of state, the _sella gestatoria_, in which the Pope is borne aloft, is the ancient palanquin of the Roman nobles, and, of course, of the Roman Princes ... the fans which go behind are the PUNKAHS of the Eastern Emperors, borrowed from the Court of Persia."—_Dean Stanley, Christian Institutions_, 207.

B.—

c. 1150-60.—"Sous le nom de _Khaich_ on entend des étoffes de mauvais toile de lin qui servent à différents usages. Dans ce passage de Rhazès (c. A.D. 900) ce sont des ventilateurs faits de cet étoffe. Ceci se pratique de cette manière: on en prend un morceau de la grandeur d'un tapis, un peu plus grand ou un peu plus petit selon les dimensions de la chambre, et on le rembourre avec des objets qui ont de la consistance et qui ne plient pas facilement, par exemple avec du sparte. L'ayant ensuite suspendu au milieu de la chambre, on le fait tirer et lacher doucement et continuellement par un homme placé dans le haut de l'appartement. De cette manière il fait beaucoup de vent et rafraichit l'air. Quelquefois on le trempe dans de l'eau de rose, et alors il parfume l'air en même temps qu'il le rafraichit."—_Glossaire sur le Mançouri_, quoted in _Dozy et Engelmann_, p. 342. See also _Dozy, Suppt. aux Dictt. Arabes_, s.v. _Khaich_.

1166.—"He (Ibn Hamdun the Kātib) once recited to me the following piece of his composition, containing an enigmatical description of a linen fan: (^1)

"'Fast and loose, it cannot touch what it tries to reach; though tied up it moves swiftly, and though a prisoner it is free. Fixed in its place it drives before it the gentle breeze; though its path lie closed up it moves on in its nocturnal journey.'"—Quoted by _Ibn Khallikan_, E.T. iii. 91.

"(^1) The _linen fan_ (_Mirwaha-t al Khaish_) is a large piece of linen, stretched on a frame, and suspended from the ceiling of the room. They make use of it in Irâk. See de Sacy's _Hariri_, p. 474."—Note by _MacGuckin de Slane_, _ibid._ p. 92.

c. 1300.—"One of the innovations of the Caliph Manṣūr (A.D. 753-774) was the _Khaish_ of linen in summer, a thing which was not known before his time. But the Sāsānian Kings used in summer to have an apartment freshly plastered (with clay) every day, which they inhabited, and on the morrow another apartment was plastered for them."—_El-Fakhrī_, ed. _Ahlwardt_, p. 188.

1596.—"And (they use) instruments like swings with fans, to rock the people in, and to make wind for cooling, which they call _cattaventos_."—Literal Transln. from _Linschoten_, ch. 6.

1598.—"And they vse certaine instruments like Waggins, with bellowes, to beare all the people in, and to gather winde to coole themselves withall, which they call _Cattaventos_."—_Old English Translation_, by W. P., p. 16; [Hak. Soc. i. 52].

The French version is really a brief description of the punka:

1610.—"Ils ont aussi du Cattaventos qui sont certains instruments pendus en l'air es quels se faisant donner le bransle ils font du vent qui les rafraichit."—Ed. 1638, p. 17.

The next also perhaps refers to a suspended punka:

1662.—"... furnished also with good Cellars with great _Flaps_ to stir the Air, for reposing in the fresh Air from 12 till 4 or 5 of the Clock, when the Air of these Cellars begins to be hot and stuffing."—_Bernier_, p. 79; [ed. _Constable_, 247].

1807.—"As one small concern succeeds another, the PUNKAH vibrates gently over my eyes."—_Lord Minto in India_, 27.

1810.—"Were it not for the PUNKA (a large frame of wood covered with cloth) which is suspended over every table, and kept swinging, in order to freshen the air, it would be scarcely possible to sit out the melancholy ceremony of an Indian dinner."—_Maria Graham_, 30.

" Williamson mentions that PUNKAHS "were suspended in most dining halls."—_Vade Mecum_, i. 281.

1823.—"PUNKAS, large frames of light wood covered with white cotton, and looking not unlike enormous fire-boards, hung from the ceilings of the principal apartments."—_Heber_, ed. 1844, i. 28.

1852.—

"Holy stones with scrubs and slaps (Our Christmas waits!) prelude the day; For holly and festoons of bay Swing feeble PUNKAS,—or perhaps A windsail dangles in collapse." _Christmas on board a P. and O., near the Equator._

1875.—"The PUNKAH flapped to and fro lazily overhead."—_Chesney, The Dilemma_, ch. xxxviii.

Mr. Busteed observes: "It is curious that in none of the lists of servants and their duties which are scattered through the old records in the last century (18th), is there any mention of the PUNKA, nor in any narratives referring to domestic life in India then, that have come under our notice, do we remember any allusion to its use.... The swinging PUNKA, as we see it to-day, was, as every one knows, an innovation of a later period.... This dates from an early year in the present century."—_Echoes of Old Calcutta_, p. 115. He does not seem, however, to have found any positive evidence of the date of its introduction. ["Hanging punkahs are said by one authority to have originated in Calcutta by accident towards the close of the last (18th) century. It is reported that a clerk in a Government office suspended the leaf of a table, which was accidentally waved to and fro by a visitor. A breath of cool air followed the movement, and suggested the idea which was worked out and resulted in the present machine" (_Carey, Good Old Days of John Company_, i. 81). Mr. Douglas says that punkahs were little used by Europeans in Bombay till 1810. They were not in use at Nuncomar's trial in Calcutta (1775), _Bombay and W. India_, ii. 253.]

PUNSAREE, s. A native drug-seller; Hind. _pansārī_. We place the word here

## partly because C. P. Brown says 'it is certainly a foreign word,' and

assigns it to a corruption of _dispensarium_; which is much to be doubted. [The word is really derived from Skt. _paṇyaśāla_, 'a market, warehouse.']

[1830.—"Beside this, I purchased from a PANSAREE some application for relieving the pain of a bruise."—_Frazer, The Persian Adventurer_, iii. 23.]

PURDAH, s. Hind. from Pers. _parda_, 'a curtain'; a _portière_; and especially a curtain screening women from the sight of men; whence a woman of position who observes such rules of seclusion is termed _parda-nishīn_, 'one who sits behind a curtain.' (See GOSHA.)

1809.—"On the fourth (side) a PURDAH was stretched across."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 100.

1810.—"If the disorder be obstinate, the doctor is permitted to approach the PURDAH (_i.e._ curtain, or screen) and to put _the hand_ through a small aperture ... in order to feel the patient's pulse."—_Williamson, V. M._ i. 130.

[1813.—"My travelling palankeen formed my bed, its PURDOE or chintz covering my curtains."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ 2nd ed. ii. 109.]

1878.—"Native ladies look upon the confinement behind the PURDAH as a badge of rank, and also as a sign of chastity, and are exceedingly proud of it."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. 113.

[1900.—"Charitable aid is needed for the PURDAH women."—_Pioneer Mail_, Jan. 21.]

PURDESEE, s. Hind. _paradeśī_ usually written _pardesī_, 'one from a foreign country.' In the Bombay army the term is universally applied to a sepoy from N. India. [In the N.W.P. the name is applied to a wandering tribe of swindlers and coiners.]

PURWANNA, PERWAUNA, s. Hind. from Pers. _parwāna_, 'an order; a grant or letter under royal seal; a letter of authority from an official to his subordinate; a license or pass.'

1682.—"... we being obliged at the end of two months to pay Custom for the said goods, if in that time we did not procure a PHERWANNA for the _Duan_ of Decca to excuse us from it."—_Hedges, Diary_, Oct. 10; [Hak. Soc. i. 34].

1693.—"... Egmore and Pursewaukum were lately granted us by the Nabob's PURWANNAS."—_Wheeler_, i. 281.

1759.—"PERWANNA, under the Coochuck (or the small seal) of the Nabob Vizier Ulma Maleck, Nizam ul Muluck Bahadour, to Mr. John Spenser."—In _Cambridge's Acct. of the War_, 230. (See also quotation under HOSBOLHOOKUM.)

1774.—"As the peace has been so lately concluded, it would be a satisfaction to the Rajah to receive your PARWANNA to this purpose before the departure of the caravan."—_Bogle's Diary_, in _Markham's Tibet_, p. 50. But Mr. Markham changes the spelling of his originals.

PUTCHOCK, s. This is the trade-name for a fragrant root, a product of the Himālaya in the vicinity of Kashmīr, and forming an article of export from both Bombay and Calcutta to the Malay countries and to China, where it is used as a chief ingredient of the Chinese pastille-rods commonly called JOSTICK. This root was recognised by the famous Garcia de Orta as the _Costus_ of the ancients. The latter took their word from the Skt. _kusṭha_, by a modification of which name—_kuṭ_—it is still known and used as a medicine in Upper India. De Orta speaks of the plant as growing about Mandu and Chitore, whence it was brought for sale to Ahmadābād; but his informants misled him. The true source was traced _in situ_ by two other illustrious men, Royle and Falconer, to a plant belonging to the N. O. _Compositae_, _Saussurea Xappe_, Clarke, for which Dr. Falconer, not recognising the genus, had proposed the name of _Aucklandia Costus verus_, in honour of the then Governor-General. The _Costus_ is a gregarious plant, occupying open, sloping sides of the mountains, at an elevation of 8000 to 9000 feet. See article by Falconer in _Trans. Linn. Soc._ xix. 23-31.

The trade-name is, according to Wilson, the Telugu _pāch'chāku_, 'green leaf,' but one does not see how this applies. (Is there, perhaps, some confusion with _Patch_? see PATCHOULI). De Orta speaks as if the word, which he writes _pucho_, were Malay. Though neither Crawfurd nor Favre gives the word, in this sense, it is in Marsden's earlier _Malay Dict._: "PŪCHOK, a plant, the aromatic leaves of which are an article of trade; said by some to be _Costus indicus_, and by others the _Melissa_, or _Laurus_." [On this Mr. Skeat writes: "PUCHOK is the Malay word for a young sprout, or the growing shoot of a plant. PUCHOK in the special sense here used is also a Malay word, but it may be separate from the other. Klinkert gives PUCHOK as a sprout or shoot and also as a radish-like root (indigenous in China (_sic_), used in medicine for fumigation, &c.). Apparently it is always the root and not the leaves of the plant that are used, in which case Marsden may have confused the two senses of the word."] In the year 1837-38 about 250 tons of this article, valued at £10,000, were exported from Calcutta alone. The annual import into China at a later date, according to Wells Williams, was 2,000 _peculs_ or 120 tons (_Middle Kingdom_, ed. 1857, ii. 308). In 1865-66, the last year for which the details of such minor exports are found in print, the quantity exported from Calcutta was only 492½ cwt., or 24⅝ tons. In 1875 the value of the imports at Hankow and Chefoo was £6,421. [_Watt, Econ. Dict._ vi. pt. ii. p. 482, _Bombay Gazetteer_, xi. 470.]

1516.—See Barbosa under CATECHU.

1520.—"We have prohibited (the export of) pepper to China ... and now we prohibit the export of _pucho_ and incense from these parts of India to China."—_Capitulo de hum Regimento del Rey_ a Diogo Ayres, Feitor da China, in _Arch. Port. Orient._, Fasc. v. 49.

1525.—"PUCHO of Cambaya worth 35 tangas a maund."—_Lembranças_, 50.

[1527.—Mr. Whiteway notes that in a letter of Diogo Calvo to the King, dated Jan. 17, PUCHO is mentioned as one of the imports to China.—_India Office MS. Corpo Chronologico_, vol. i.]

1554.—"The _baar_ (see BAHAR) of PUCHO contains 20 _faraçolas_ (see FRAZALA), and an additional 4 of PICOTA (q.v.), in all 24 _faraçolas_...."—_A. Nunes_, 11.

1563.—"I say that _costus_ in Arabic is called _cost_ or _cast_; in Guzarate it is called _uplot_ (_upaleta_); and in Malay, for in that region there is a great trade and consumption thereof, it is called PUCHO. I tell you the name in Arabic, because it is called by the same name by the Latins and Greeks, and I tell it you in Guzerati, because that is the land to which it is chiefly carried from its birth-place; and I tell you the Malay name because the greatest quantity is consumed there, or taken thence to China."—_Garcia_, f. 72.

c. 1563.—"... Opium, Assa Fetida, PUCHIO, with many other sortes of Drugges."—_Caesar Frederike_, in _Hakl._ ii. 343.

[1609.—"Costus of 2 sorts, one called POKERMORE, the other called _Uplotte_ (see _Garcia_, above)."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 30.]

1617.—"5 hampers POCHOK...."—_Cocks, Diary_, i. 294.

1631.—"Caeterum Costus vulgato vocabulo inter mercatores Indos PUCHO, Chinensibus POTSIOCK, vocatur ... vidi ego integrum _Picol_, quod pondus centum et viginti in auctione decem realibus distribui."—_Jac. Bontii, Hist. Nat._, &c., lib. iv. p. 46.

1711.—In Malacca _Price Currant_, July 1704: "PUTCHUCK or Costus dulcis."—_Lockyer_, 77.

1726.—"PATSJAAK (a leaf of Asjien (Acheen?) that is pounded to powder, and used in incense)...."—_Valentijn, Choro._ 34.

1727.—"The Wood _Ligna dulcis_ grows only in this country (Sind). It is rather a Weed than a Wood, and nothing of it is useful but the Root, called PUTCHOCK, or _Radix dulcis_.... There are great quantities exported from _Surat_, and from thence to _China_, where it generally bears a good Price...."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 126; [ed. 1744, i. 127].

1808.—"Elles emploient ordinairement ... une racine aromatique appelée PIESCHTOK, qu'on coupe par petits morceaux, et fait bouillir dans de l'huile de noix de coco. C'est avec cette huile que les danseuses se graissent...."—_Haafner_, ii. 117.

1862.—"_Koot_ is sent down country in large quantities, and is exported to China, where it is used as incense. It is in Calcutta known under the name of 'PATCHUK.'"—_Punjab Trade Report_, cvii.

PUTLAM, n.p. A town in Ceylon on the coast of the bay or estuary of Calpentyn; properly _Puṭṭalama_; a Tamil name, said by Mr. Fergusson to be _puthu_- (_pudu?_) _alam_, 'New Salt-pans.' Ten miles inland are the ruins of Tammana Newera, the original Tambapanni (or _Taprobane_), where Vijaya, the first Hindu immigrant, established his kingdom. And Putlam is supposed to be the place where he landed.

1298.—"The pearl-fishers ... go post to a place callen BETTELAR, and (then) go 60 miles into the gulf."—_Marco Polo,_ Bk. iii. ch. 16.

c. 1345.—"The natives went to their King and told him my reply. He sent for me, and I proceeded to his presence in the town of BAṬṬĀLA, which was his capital, a pretty little place, surrounded by a timber wall and towers."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 166.

1672.—"PUTELAON...."—_Baldaeus_ (Germ.), 373.

1726.—"PORTALOON or PUTELAN."—_Valentijn, Ceylon_, 21.

PUTNEE, PUTNEY, s.

A. Hind. and Beng. _paṭṭanī_, or _paṭnī_, from v. _paṭ-nā_, 'to be agreed or closed' (_i.e._ a bargain). Goods commissioned or manufactured to order.

1755.—"A letter from Cossimbazar mentions they had directed Mr. Warren Hastings to proceed to the PUTNEY AURUNG (q.v.) in order to purchase PUTNEY on our Honble. Masters' account, and to make all necessary enquiries."—_Fort William Consns._, Nov. 10. In _Long_, 61.

B. A kind of sub-tenure existing in the Lower Provinces of Bengal, the PATNĪDĀR, or occupant of which "holds of a Zemindar a portion of the Zemindari in perpetuity, with the right of hereditary succession, and of selling or letting the whole or part, so long as a stipulated amount of rent is paid to the Zemindar, who retains the power of sale for arrears, and is entitled to a regulated fee or fine upon transfer" (_Wilson_, q.v.). Probably both A and B are etymologically the same, and connected with _paṭṭā_ (see POTTAH).

[1860.—"A perpetual lease of land held under a Zumeendar is called a PUTNEE,—and the holder is called a PUTNEEDAR, who not only pays an advanced rent to the Zumeendar, but a handsome price for the same."—_Grant, Rural Life in Bengal_, 64.]

PUTTÁN, PATHÁN, n.p. Hind. _Paṭhān_. A name commonly applied to Afghans, and especially to people in India of Afghan descent. The derivation is obscure. Elphinstone derives it from _Pushtūn_ and _Pukhtūn_, pl. _Pukhtāna_, the name the Afghans give to their own race, with which Dr. Trumpp [and Dr. Bellew (_Races of Afghanistan_, 25) agree. This again has been connected with the _Pactyica_ of Herodotus (iii. 102, iv. 44).] The Afghans have for the name one of the usual fantastic etymologies which is quoted below (see quotation, c. 1611). The Mahommedans in India are sometimes divided into four classes, viz. _Paṭhāns_; _Mughals_ (see MOGUL), _i.e._ those of Turki origin; _Shaikhs_, claiming Arab descent; and _Saiyyids_, claiming also to be descendants of Mahommed.

1553.—"This State belonged to a people called PATANE, who were lords of that hill-country. And as those who dwell on the skirts of the Pyrenees, on this side and on that, are masters of the passes by which we cross from Spain to France, or vice versâ, so these PATAN people are the masters of the two entrances to India, by which those who go thither from the landward must pass...."—_Barros_, IV. vi. 1.

1563.—"... This first King was a PATANE of certain mountains that march with Bengala."—_Garcia, Coll._ f. 34.

1572.—

"Mas agora de nomes, et de usança, Novos, et varios são os habitantes, Os Delijs, os PATÃNES que em possança De terra, e gente são mais abundantes." _Camões_, vii. 20.

[By Aubertin:

"But now inhabitants of other name And customs new and various there are found, The Delhis and PATANS, who in the fame Of land and people do the most abound."]

1610.—"A PATTAN, a man of good stature."—_Hawkins_, in _Purchas_, i. 220.

c. 1611.—"... the mightiest of the Afghan people was Kais.... The Prophet gave Kais the name of Abd Ulrasheed ... and ... predicted that God would make his issue so numerous that they, with respect to the establishment of the Faith, would outvie all other people; the angel Gabriel having revealed to him that their attachment to the Faith would, in strength, be like the wood upon which they lay the keel when constructing a ship, which wood the seamen call _Pathan_: on this account he conferred upon Abd Ulrasheed the title of PATHAN[227] also."—_Hist. of the Afghans_, E.T., by _Dorn_, i. 38.

[1638.—"... Ozmanchan a PUTTANIAN...."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p. 76.]

1648.—"In general the Moors are a haughty and arrogant and proud people, and among them the PATTANS stand out superior to the others in dress and manners."—_Van Twist_, 58.

1666.—"Martin Affonso and the other Portuguese delivered them from the war that the PATANES were making on them."—_Faria y Sousa, Asia Portuguesa_, i. 343.

1673.—"They are distinguished, some according to the Consanguinity they claim with _Mahomet_; as a _Siad_ is a kin to that Imposture.... A _Shiek_ is a Cousin too, at a distance, into which Relation they admit all new made Proselytes. _Meer_ is somewhat allied also.... The rest are adopted under the Name of the Province ... as _Mogul_, the Race of the _Tartars_ ... PATAN, _Duccan_."—_Fryer_, 93.

1681.—"En estas regiones ay vna cuyas gentes se dizen los PATANES."—_Martinez de la Puente, Compendio_, 21.

1726.—"... The _Patans_ (PATANDERS) are very different in garb, and surpass in valour and stout-heartedness in war."—_Valentijn, Choro._ 109.

1757.—"The Colonel (Clive) complained bitterly of so many insults put upon him, and reminded the Soubahdar how different his own conduct was, when called upon to assist him against the PYTANS."—_Ives_, 149.

1763.—"The northern nations of India, although idolaters ... were easily induced to embrace Mahomedanism, and are at this day the Affghans or PITANS."—_Orme_, i. 24, ed. 1803.

1789.—"Moormen are, for the most part, soldiers by profession,

## particularly in the cavalry, as are also ... PITANS."—_Munro, Narr._ 49.

1798.—"... Afghans, or as they are called in India, PATANS."—_G. Forster, Travels_, ii. 47.

[PUTTEE, PUTTY, s. Hind. _paṭṭī_.

A. A piece or strip of cloth, bandage; especially used in the sense of a ligature round the lower part of the leg used in lieu of a gaiter, originally introduced from the Himālaya, and now commonly used by sportsmen and soldiers. A special kind of cloth appears in the old trade-lists under the name of PUTEAHS (see PIECE GOODS).

1875.—"Any one who may be bound for a long march will put on leggings of a peculiar sort, a bandage about 6 inches wide and four yards long, wound round from the ankle up to just below the knee, and then fastened by an equally long string, attached to the upper end, which is lightly wound many times round the calf of the leg. This, which is called PATAWA, is a much cherished piece of dress."—_Drew, Jummoo_, 175.

1900.—"The PUTTEE leggings are excellent for peace and war, on foot or on horseback."—_Times_, Dec. 24.

B. In the N.W.P. "an original share in a joint or coparcenary village or estate comprising many villages; it is sometimes defined as the smaller subdivision of a mahal or estate" (_Wilson_). Hence PUTTEEDAREE, _paṭṭidārī_ used for a tenure of this kind.

1852.—"Their names were forthwith scratched off the collector's books, and those of their eldest sons were entered, who became forthwith, in village and cutcherry parlance, LUMBERDARS of the shares of their fathers, or in other words, of PUTTEE Shere Singh and PUTTEE Baz Singh."—_Raikes, Notes on the N.W.P._ 94.

C. In S. India, soldiers' pay.

1810.—"... hence in ordinary acceptation, the pay itself was called PUTTEE, a Canarese word which properly signifies a written statement of any kind."—_Wilks_, _Hist. Sketches_, Madras reprint, i. 415.]

PUTTYWALLA, s. Hind. _paṭṭā-wālā_, _paṭṭī-wālā_ (see PUTTEE), 'one with a belt.' This is the usual Bombay term for a messenger or orderly attached to an office, and bearing a belt and brass badge, called in Bengal CHUPRASSY or PEON (qq.v.), in Madras usually by the latter name.

1878.—"Here and there a belted Government servant, called a PUTTIWĀLĀ, or PAṬṬAWĀLĀ, because distinguished by a belt...."—_Monier Williams, Modern India_, 34.

PUTWA, s. Hind. _patwā_. The _Hibiscus sabdariffa_, L., from the succulent acid flowers of which very fair jelly is made in Anglo-Indian households. [It is also known as the Rozelle or Red Sorrel (_Watt, Econ. Dict._ iv. 243). Riddell (_Domest. Econ._ 337) calls it "Oseille or ROSELLE jam and jelly."]

PYE, s. A familiar designation among British soldiers and young officers for a PARIAH-DOG (q.v.); a contraction, no doubt, of the former word.

[1892.—"We English call him a PARIAH, but this word, belonging to a low, yet by no means degraded class of people in Madras, is never heard on native lips as applied to a dog, any more than our other word 'PIE.'"—_L. Kipling, Beast and Man_, 266.]

PYJAMMAS, s. Hind. _pāē-jāma_ (see JAMMA), lit. 'leg-clothing.' A pair of loose drawers or trowsers, tied round the waist. Such a garment is used by various persons in India, _e.g._ by women of various classes, by Sikh men, and by most Mahommedans of both sexes. It was adopted from the Mahommedans by Europeans as an article of _dishabille_ and of night attire, and is synonymous with LONG DRAWERS, SHULWÁURS, and MOGUL-BREECHES. [For some distinctions between these various articles of dress see Forbes-Watson, (_Textile Manufactures_, 57).] It is probable that we English took the habit like a good many others from the Portuguese. Thus Pyrard (c. 1610) says, in speaking of Goa Hospital: "Ils ont force _calsons_ sans quoy ne couchent iamais les Portugais des Indes" (ii. p. 11; [Hak. Soc. ii. 9]). The word is now used in London shops. A friend furnishes the following reminiscence: "The late Mr. B——, tailor in Jermyn Street, some 40 years ago, in reply to a question why PYJAMMAS had feet sewn on to them (as was sometimes the case with those furnished by London outfitters) answered: 'I believe, Sir, it is because of the WHITE ANTS!'"

[1828—

"His chief joy smoking a cigar In loose PAEE-JAMS and native slippers." _Orient. Sport. Mag._, reprint 1873, i. 64.]

1881.—"The rest of our attire consisted of that particularly light and airy white flannel garment, known throughout India as a PAJAMA suit."—_Haekel, Ceylon_, 329.

PYKE, PAIK, s. Wilson gives only one original of the term so expressed in Anglo-Indian speech. He writes: "_Páík_ or _Páyik_, corruptly _Pyke_, Hind. &c. (from S. _padātika_), _Páík_ or _Páyak_, Mar. A footman, an armed attendant, an inferior police and revenue officer, a messenger, a courier, a village watchman: in Cuttack the _Páíks_ formerly constituted a local militia, holding land of the Zamindárs or Rájas by the tenure of military service," &c., quoting Bengal Regulations. [Platts also treats the two words as identical.] But it seems clear to us that there are here two terms rolled together:

A. Pers. _Paik_, 'a foot-runner or courier.' We do not know whether this is an old Persian word or a Mongol introduction. According to Hammer Purgstall it was the term in use at the Court of the Mongol princes, as quoted below. Both the words occur in the _Āīn_, but differently spelt, and that with which we now deal is spelt _paik_ (with the _fatḥa_ point).

c. 1590.—"The _Jilaudár_ (see under JULIBDAR) and the PAIK (a runner). Their monthly pay varies from 1200 to 120_d._ (_dāms_), according to their speed and manner of service. Some of them will run from 50 to 100 _kroh_ (COSS) per day."—_Āīn_, E.T. by _Blochmann_, i. 138 (see orig. i. 144).

1673.—At the Court of Constantinople: "Les PEIKS venoient ensuite, avec leurs bonnets d'argent doré ornés d'un petit plumage de héron, un arc et un carquois chargé de flèches."—_Journal d'A. Galland_, i. 98.

1687.—"... the under officers and servants called _Agiam-Oglans_, who are designed to the meaner uses of the Seraglio ... most commonly the sons of Christians taken from their Parents at the age of 10 or 12 years.... These are: 1, _Porters_, 2, _Bostangies_ or Gardiners ... 5, PAICKS and _Solacks_...."—_Sir Paul Rycaut, Present State of the Ottoman Empire_, 19.

1761.—"Ahmad Sultán then commissioned Sháh Pasand Khán ... the _harkáras_ (see HURCARRA) and the PAIKS, to go and procure information as to the state and strength of the Mahratta army."—_Muhammad Jáfar Shámlu_, in _Elliot_, viii. 151-2.

1840.—"The express-riders (_Eilbothen_) accomplished 50 _farsangs_ a-day, so that an express came in 4 days from Khorasan to Tebris [_Tabrīz_).... The Foot-runners carrying letters (PEIK), whose name at least is maintained to this day at both the Persian and Osmanli Courts, accomplished 30 _farsangs_ a-day."—_Hammer Purgstall, Gesch. der Golden Horde_, 243.

[1868.—"The PAYEKE is entrusted with the _tchilim_ (see CHILLUM) (pipe), which at court (Khiva) is made of gold or silver, and must be replenished with fresh water every time it is filled with tobacco."—_Vambery, Sketches_, 89.]

B. Hind. _pāīk_ and _pāyik_ (also Mahr.) from Skt. _padātika_, and _padika_, 'a foot-soldier,' with the other specific application given by Wilson, exclusive of 'courier.' In some narratives the word seems to answer exactly to PEON. In the first quotation, which is from the _Āīn_, the word, it will be seen, is different from that quoted under (A) from the same source.

c. 1590.—"It was the custom in those times, for the palace (of the King of Bengal) to be guarded by several thousand PYKES (_pāyak_), who are a kind of infantry. An eunuch entered into a confederacy with these guards, who one night killed the King, Futteh Shah, when the Eunuch ascended the throne, under the title of Barbuck Shah."—_Gladwin's_ Tr., ed. 1800, ii. 19 (orig. i. 415; [_Jarrett_ (ii. 149) gives the word as PÁYIKS].

In the next quotation the word seems to be the same, though used for 'a seaman.' Compare uses of LASCAR.

c. 1615.—"(His fleet) consisted of 20 beaked vessels, all well manned with the sailors whom they call PAIQUES, as well as with Portuguese soldiers and TOPAZES who were excellent musketeers; 50 hired _jalias_ (see GALLEVAT) of like sort and his own (Sebastian Gonçalves's) galliot (see GALLEVAT), which was about the size of a _patacho_, with 14 demi-falcons on each broadside, two pieces of 18 to 20 lbs. calibre in the forecastle, and 60 Portuguese soldiers, with more than 40 TOPAZES and Cafres (see CAFFER)."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 452.

1722.—Among a detail of charges at this period in the ZEMINDÁRRY of Rājshāhī appears:

"9. _Paikan_, or the PIKES, guard of villages, everywhere necessary ... 2,161 rupees."—_Fifth Report_, App. p. 345.

The following quotation from an Indian Regulation of Ld. Cornwallis's time is a good example of the extraordinary multiplication of terms, even in one Province in India, denoting approximately the same thing:

1792.—"All PYKES, Chokeydars (see CHOKIDAR), _Pasbans_, _Dusauds_, _Nigabans_,[228] Harees (see HARRY), and other descriptions of village watchmen are declared subject to the orders of the Darogah (see DAROGA)...."—_Regns. for the Police_ ... passed by the G.-G. in C., Dec. 7.

" "The army of Assam was a militia organised as follows. The whole male population was bound to serve either as soldiers or labourers, and was accordingly divided into sets of four men each, called _gotes_, the individuals comprising the gotes being termed PYKES."—_Johnstone's Acct. of Welsh's Expedition to Assam, 1792-93-94_ (commd. by Gen. Keatinge).

1802.—After a detail of persons of rank in Midnapore:

"None of these entertain armed followers except perhaps ten or a dozen Peons for state, but some of them have PYKES in considerable numbers, to keep the peace on their estates. These PYKES are under the magistrate's orders."—_Fifth Report_, App. p. 535.

1812.—"The whole of this last-mentioned numerous class of PYKES are understood to have been disbanded, in compliance with the new Police regulations."—_Fifth Report_, 71.

1872.—"... _Dalais_ or officers of the peasant militia (PAIKS). The PAIKS were settled chiefly around the fort on easy tenures."—_Hunter's Orissa_, ii. 269.

PYSE! interjection. The use of this is illustrated in the quotations. Notwithstanding the writer's remark (below) it is really Hindustani, viz. _po'is_, 'look out!' or 'make way!' apparently from Skt. _paśya_, 'look! see!' (see Molesworth's _Mahr. Dict._ p. 529, col. _c_; Fallon's _Hind. Dict._, p. 376, col. _a_; [_Platts_, 282_b_].

[1815.—"... three men came running up behind them, as if they were clearing the road for some one, by calling out 'PICE! PICE!' (make way, make way)...."—_Elphinstone's Report on Murder of Gungadhur Shastry_, in _Papers relating to E.I. Affairs_, p. 14.]

1883.—"Does your correspondent Col. Prideaux know the origin of the warning called out by buggy drivers to pedestrians in Bombay, 'PYSE'? It is not Hindustani."—_Letter in N. & Q._, Ser. VI. viii. p. 388.

[Other expressions of the same kind are Malayāl. _po_, 'Get out of the way!' and Hind. Mahr. _khis, khis_, from _khisnā_, 'to drop off.'

1598.—"As these hayros goe in the streetes, they crie PO, PO, which is to say, take heede."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 280.

1826.—"I was awoke from disturbed rest by cries of KIS! KIS! (clear the way)."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, i. 46.]

Q

[QUAMOCLIT, s. The _Ipomaea_ QUAMOCLITIS, the name given by Linnaeus to the Red Jasmine. The word is a corruption of Skt. _Kāma-latā_, 'the creeper of Kāma, god of love.'

1834.—"This climber, the most beautiful and luxuriant imaginable, bears also the name of KAMALĀTA 'Love's Creeper.' Some have flowers of snowy hue, with a delicate fragrance...."—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 310-11.]

QUEDDA, n.p. A city, port, and small kingdom on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, tributary to Siam. The name according to Crawfurd is Malay _kadáh_, 'an elephant-trap' (see KEDDAH). [Mr. Skeat writes: "I do not know what Crawfurd's authority may be, but _kedah_ does not appear in Klinkert's Dict.... In any case the form taken by the name of the country is _Kĕdah_. The coralling of elephants is probably a Siamese custom, the method adopted on the E. coast, where the Malays are left to themselves, being to place a decoy female elephant near a powerful noose."] It has been supposed sometimes that _Kadáh_ is the Κῶλι or Κῶλις of Ptolemy's sea-route to China, and likewise the _Kalah_ of the early Arab voyagers, as in the Fourth Voyage of Sindbad the Seaman (see _Procgs. R. Geog. Soc._ 1882, p. 655; _Burton, Arabian Nights_, iv. 386). It is possible that these old names however represent _Kwala_, 'a river mouth,' a denomination of many small ports in Malay regions. Thus the port that we call _Quedda_ is called by the Malays _Kwala Batrang_.

1516.—"Having left this town of Tanassary, further along the coast towards Malaca, there is another seaport of the Kingdom of Ansiam, which is called QUEDA, in which also there is much shipping, and great interchange of merchandise."—_Barbosa_, 188-189.

1553.—"... The settlements from Tavay to Malaca are these: Tenassary, a notable city, Lungur, Torrão, QUEDA, producing the best pepper on all that coast, Pedão, Perá, Solungor, and our City of Malaca...."—_Barros_, I. ix. 1.

1572.—

"Olha Tavai cidade, onde começa De Sião largo o imperio tão comprido: Tenassarí, QUEDÁ, que he so cabeça Das que pimenta alli tem produzido." _Camões_, x. 123.

By Burton:

"Behold Tavái City, whence begin Siam's dominions, Reign of vast extent; Tenassarí, QUEDÁ of towns the Queen that bear the burthen of the hot piment."

1598.—"... to the town and Kingdome of QUEDA ... which lyeth under 6 degrees and a halfe; this is also a Kingdome like _Tanassaria_, it hath also some wine, as _Tanassaria_ hath, and some small quantitie of Pepper."—_Linschoten_, p. 31; [Hak. Soc. i. 103].

1614.—"And so ... Diogo de Mendonça ... sending the _galliots_ (see GALLEVAT) on before, embarked in the _jalia_ (see GALLEVAT) of João Rodriguez de Paiva, and coming to QUEDA, and making an attack at daybreak, and finding them unprepared, he burnt the town, and carried off a quantity of provisions and some tin" (_calaim_, see CALAY).—_Bocarro, Decada_, 187.

1838.—"Leaving Penang in September, we first proceeded to the town of QUEDAH lying at the mouth of a river of the same name."—QUEDAH, &c., by _Capt. Sherard Osborne_, ed. 1865.

QUEMOY, n.p. An island at the east opening of the Harbour of AMOY. It is a corruption of _Kin-măn_, in Chang-chau dialect _Kin-mui^n_, meaning 'Golden-door.'

QUI-HI, s. The popular distinctive nickname of the Bengal Anglo-Indian, from the usual manner of calling servants in that Presidency, viz. '_Koī hai?_' 'Is any one there?' The Anglo-Indian of Madras was known as a MULL, and he of Bombay as a DUCK (qq.v.).

1816.—"The Grand Master, or Adventures of QUI HI in Hindostan, a Hudibrastic Poem; with illustrations by Rowlandson."

1825.—"Most of the household servants are Parsees, the greater part of whom speak English.... Instead of 'KOEE HUE,' Who's there? the way of calling a servant is 'boy,' a corruption, I believe, of '_bhae_,' brother."—_Heber_, ed. 1844, ii. 98. [But see under BOY.]

c. 1830.—"J'ai vu dans vos gazettes de Calcutta les clameurs des QUOIHAÉS (sobriquet des Européens Bengalis de ce côté) sur la chaleur."—_Jacquemont, Corresp._ ii. 308.

QUILOA, n.p. _i.e._ _Kilwa_, in lat. 9° 0′ S., next in remoteness to Sofāla, which for a long time was the _ne plus ultra_ of Arab navigation on the East Coast of Africa, as Capt. Boyados was that of Portuguese navigation on the West Coast. Kilwa does not occur in the Geographies of Edrisi or Abulfeda, though Sofāla is in both. It is mentioned in the _Roteiro_, and in Barros's account of Da Gama's voyage. Barros had access to a native chronicle of Quiloa, and says it was founded about A.H. 400, and a little more than 70 years after Magadoxo and Brava, by a Persian Prince from Shiraz.

1220.—"KILWA, a place in the country of Zenj, a city."—_Yāḳūt_, (orig.), iv. 302.

c. 1330.—"I embarked at the town of _Makdashau_ (MAGADOXO), making for the country of the Sawāḥil, and the town of KULWĀ, in the country of the Zenj...."—_Ibn Batuta_, ii. 191. [See under SOFALA.]

1498.—"Here we learned that the island of which they told us in Mocombiquy as being peopled by Christians is an island at which dwells the King of Mocombiquy himself, and that the half is of Moors, and the half of Christians, and in this island is much seed-pearl, and the name of the island is QUYLUEE...."—_Roteiro da Viagem de Vasco da Gama_, 48.

1501.—"QUILLOA è cittade in Arabia in vna insuletta giunta a terra firma, ben popolata de homini negri et mercadanti: edificata al modo nr̃o: Quiui hanno abundantia de auro: argento: ambra: muschio: et perle: ragionevolmente vesteno panni de sera: et bambaxi fini."—_Letter of K. Emanuel_, 2.

1506.—"Del 1502 ... mandò al viaggio naue 21, Capitanio Don Vasco de Gamba, che fu quello che discoperse l'India ... e nell'andar de li, del Cao de Bona Speranza, zonse in uno loco chiamato OCHILIA; la qual terra e dentro uno rio...."—_Leonardo Ca' Masser_, 17.

1553.—"The Moor, in addition to his natural hatred, bore this increased resentment on account of the chastisement inflicted on him, and determined to bring the ships into port at the city of QUILOA, that being a populous place, where they might get the better of our ships by force of arms. To wreak this mischief with greater safety to himself he told Vasco da Gama, as if wishing to gratify him, that in front of them was a city called QUILOA, half peopled by Christians of Abyssinia and of India, and that if he gave the order the ships should be steered thither."—_Barros_, I. iv. 5.

1572.—

"Esta ilha pequena, que habitamos, He em toda esta terra certa escala De todos os que as ondas navegamos De QUILÓA, de Mombaça, a de Sofala." _Camões_, i. 54.

By Burton:

"This little island, where we now abide, of all this seaboard is the one sure place for ev'ry merchantman that stems the tide from QUILOA, or Sofala, or Mombas...."

QUILON, n.p. A form which we have adopted from the Portuguese for the name of a town now belonging to Travancore; once a very famous and much frequented port of Malabar, and known to the Arabs as _Kaulam_. The proper name is Tamil, _Kollam_, of doubtful sense in this use. Bishop Caldwell thinks it may be best explained as 'Palace' or 'royal residence,' from _Kolu_, 'the royal Presence,' or Hall of Audience. [Mr. Logan says: "_Kollam_ is only an abbreviated form of _Koyilagam_ or _Kovilagam_, 'King's house'" (_Malabar_, i. 231, note).] For ages _Kaulam_ was known as one of the greatest ports of Indian trade with Western Asia, especially trade in pepper and brazil-wood. It was possibly the _Malé_ of Cosmas in the 6th century (see MALABAR), but the first mention of it by the present name is about three centuries later, in the _Relation_ translated by Reinaud. The 'Kollam era' in general use in Malabar dates from A.D. 824; but it does not follow that the city had no earlier existence. In a Syriac extract (which is, however, modern) in _Land's Anecdota Syriaca_ (Latin, i. 125; Syriac, p. 27) it is stated that three Syrian missionaries came to Kaulam in A.D. 823, and got leave from King _Shakīrbīrtī_ to build a church and city at Kaulam. It would seem that there is some connection between the date assigned to this event, and the 'Kollam era'; but what it is we cannot say. _Shakīrbīrtī_ is evidently a form of _Chakravartti Rāja_ (see under CHUCKERBUTTY). Quilon, as we now call it, is now the 3rd town of Travancore, pop. (in 1891) 23,380; there is little trade. It had a European garrison up to 1830, but now only one Sepoy regiment.

In ecclesiastical narratives of the Middle Ages the name occurs in the form _Columbum_, and by this name it was constituted a See of the Roman Church in 1328, suffragan of the Archbishop of Sultaniya in Persia; but it is doubtful if it ever had more than one bishop, viz. Jordanus of Severac, author of the _Mirabilia_ often quoted in this volume. Indeed we have no knowledge that he ever took up his bishopric, as his book was written, and his nomination occurred, both during a visit to Europe. The Latin Church however which he had founded, or obtained the use of, existed 20 years later, as we know from John de' Marignolli, so it is probable that he had reached his See. The form _Columbum_ is accounted for by an inscription (see _Ind. Antiq._ ii. 360) which shows that the city was called _Kolamba_, [other forms being _Kelambapaṭṭana_, or _Kālambapaṭṭana_ (_Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. i. pt. i. 183)]. The form _Palumbum_ also occurs in most of the MSS. of Friar Odoric's Journey; this is the more difficult to account for, unless it was a mere play (or a trick of memory) on the kindred meanings of _columba_ and _palumbes_. A passage in a letter from the Nestorian Patriarch Yeshu'yab (c. 650-60) quoted in _Assemani_ (iii. pl. i. 131), appears at that date to mention COLON. But this is an arbitrary and erroneous rendering in Assemani's Latin. The Syriac has _Kalah_, and probably therefore refers to the port of the Malay regions noticed under CALAY and QUEDDA.

851.—"De ce lieu (Mascate) les navires mettent la voile pour l'Inde, et se dirigent vers KOULAM-_Malay_; la distance entre Mascate et Koulam-Malay est d'un mois de marche, avec un vent modéré."—_Relation_, &c., tr. by _Reinaud_, i. 15.

1166.—"Seven days from thence is CHULAM, on the confines of the country of the sun-worshippers, who are descendants of Kush ... and are all black. This nation is very trustworthy in matters of trade.... Pepper grows in this country.... Cinnamon, ginger, and many other kinds of spices also grow in this country."—_Benjamin of Tudela_, in _Early Travels in Palestine_, 114-115.

c. 1280-90.—"Royaumes de Ma-pa-'rh. Parmi tous les royaumes étrangers d'au-de-là des mers, il n'y eut que Ma-pa-'rh et KIU-LAN (MABAR and QUILON) sur lesquels on ait pu parvenir à établir une certaine sujétion; mais surtout Kiu-lan ... (Année 1282). Cette année ... KIU-LAN a envoyé un ambassadeur à la cour (mongole) pour présenter en tribut des marchandises precieuses et un singe noir."—_Chinese Annals_, quoted by _Pauthier, Marc Pol_, ii. 603, 643.

1298.—"When you quit Maabar and go 500 miles towards the S.W. you come to the Kingdom of COILUM. The people are idolators, but there are also some Christians and some Jews," &c.—_Marco Polo_, Bk. iii. ch. 22.

c. 1300.—"Beyond Guzerat are Kankan and Tána; beyond them the country of Malibár, which from the boundary of Karoha to KÚLAM, is 300 parasangs in length.... The people are all Samánis, and worship idols...."—_Rashíduddín_, in _Elliot_, i. 68.

c. 1310.—"Ma'bar extends in length from KÚLAM to _Níláwar_ (NELLORE) nearly 300 parasangs along the sea-coast...."—_Wassáf_, in _Elliot_, iii. 32.

c. 1322.—"... as I went by the sea ... towards a certain city called POLUMBUM (where groweth the pepper in great store)...."—_Friar Odoric_, in _Cathay_, p. 71.

c. 1322.—"Poi venni a COLONBIO, ch'è la migliore terra d'India per mercatanti. Quivi è il gengiovo in grande copia e del bueno del mondo. Quivi vanno tutti ignudi salvo che portano un panno innanzi alla vergogna, ... e legalosi di dietro."—_Palatine MS._ of _Odoric_, in _Cathay_, App., p. xlvii.

c. 1328.—"In India, whilst I was at COLUMBUM, were found two cats having wings like the wings of bats...."—_Friar Jordanus_, p. 29.

1330.—"Joannes, &c., nobili viro domino Nascarenorum et universis sub eo Christianis Nascarenis de COLUMBO gratiam in praesenti, quae ducat ad gloriam in futuro ... quatenus venerabilem Fratrem nostrum Jordanum Catalani episcopum Columbensem ... quem nuper ad episcopalis dignatatis apicem auctoritate apostolica diximus promovendum...."—_Letter of Pope John XXII._ to the Christians of Coilon, in _Odorici Raynaldi Ann. Eccles._ v. 495.

c. 1343.—"The 10th day (from Calicut) we arrived at the city of KAULAM, which is one of the finest of Malībār. Its markets are splendid, and its merchants are known under the name of _Ṣūlī_ (see CHOOLIA). They are rich; one of them will buy a ship with all its fittings and load it with goods from his own store."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 10.

c. 1348.—"And sailing on the feast of St. Stephen, we navigated the Indian Sea until Palm Sunday, and then arrived at a very noble city of India called COLUMBUM, where the whole world's pepper is produced.... There is a church of St. George there, of the Latin communion, at which I dwelt. And I adorned it with fine paintings, and taught there the holy Law."—_John Marignolli_, in _Cathay_, &c., pp. 342-344.

c. 1430.—"... COLOEN, civitatem nobilem venit, cujus ambitus duodecim millia passuum amplectitur. Gingiber qui _colobi_ (COLOMBI) dicitur, piper, verzinum, cannellae quae crassae appellantur, hac in provincia, quam vocant Melibariam, leguntur."—_Conti_, in _Poggius de Var. Fortunae_.

c. 1468-9.—"In the year _Bhavati_ (644) of the KOLAMBA era, King Adityavarmâ the ruler of Vânchi ... who has attained the sovereignty of Cherabaya Maṇdalam, hung up the bell...."—_Inscr._ in _Tinnevelly_, see _Ind. Antiq._ ii. 360.

1510.—"... we departed ... and went to another city called COLON.... The King of this city is a Pagan, and extremely powerful, and he has 20,000 horsemen, and many archers. This country has a good port near to the sea-coast. No grain grows here, but fruits as at Calicut, and pepper in great quantities."—_Varthema_, 182-3.

1516.—"Further on along the same coast towards the south is a great city and good sea-port which is named COULAM, in which dwell many Moors and Gentiles and Christians. They are great merchants and very rich, and own many ships with which they trade to Cholmendel, the Island of Ceylon, Bengal, Malaca, Samatara, and Pegu.... There is also in this city much pepper."—_Barbosa_, 157-8.

1572.—

"A hum Cochim, e a outro Cananor A qual Chalé, a qual a ilha da Pimenta, A qual COULAO, a qual da Cranganor, E os mais, a quem o mais serve, e contenta...." _Camões_, vii. 35.

By Burton:

"To this Cochim, to that falls Cananor, one hath Chalé, another th' Isle Piment, a third COULAM, a fourth takes Cranganor, the rest is theirs with whom he rests content."

1726.—"... COYLANG."—_Valentijn, Choro._, 115.

1727.—"COILOAN is another small principality. It has the Benefit of a River, which is the southermost Outlet of the _Couchin_ Islands; and the _Dutch_ have a small Fort, within a Mile of it on the Sea-shore.... It keeps a Garrison of 30 Men, and its trade is inconsiderable."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 333 [ed. 1744].

QUIRPELE, s. This Tamil name of the MUNGOOSE (q.v.) occurs in the quotation which follows: properly _Kīrippiḷḷai_, ['little squeaker'].

1601.—"... bestiolia quaedam QUIL sive QUIRPELE vocata, quae aspectu primo viverrae...."—_De Bry_, iv. 63.

R

RADAREE, s. P.—H. _rāh-dārī_, from _rāh-dār_, 'road-keeper.' A transit duty; sometimes 'black-mail.' [_Rāh-dārī_ is very commonly employed in the sense of sending prisoners, &c., by escort from one police post to another, as along the Grand Trunk road].

1620.—"Fra Nicolo Ruigiola Francescano genovese, il quale, passagiero, che d'India andava in Italia, partito alcuni giorni prima da Ispahan ... poco di qua lontano era stato trattenuto dai RAHDARI, o custodi delle strade...."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 99.

1622.—"At the garden Pelengon we found a RAHDAR or guardian of the road, who was also the chief over certain other RAHDARI, who are usually posted in another place 2 leagues further on."—_Ibid._ ii. 285.

1623.—"For RAHDARS, the Khan has given them a firman to free them, also firmans for a house...."—_Sainsbury_, iii. p. 163.

[1667.—"... that the goods ... may not be stopped ... on pretence of taking RHADARYES, or other dutyes...."—_Phirmaan of Shaw Orung Zeeb_, in _Forrest, Bombay Letters, Home Series_, i. 213.]

1673.—"This great officer, or Farmer of the Emperor's Custom (the Shawbunder [see SHABUNDER]), is obliged on the Roads to provide for the safe travelling for Merchants by a constant Watch ... for which RHADORAGE, or high Imposts, are allowed by the Merchants, both at Landing and in their passage inland."—_Fryer_, 222.

1685.—"Here we were forced to compound with the RATTAREE men, for ye Dutys on our goods."—_Hedges, Diary_, Dec. 15; [Hak. Soc. i. 213. In i. 100, RAWDARRIE].

c. 1731.—"Nizámu-l Mulk ... thus got rid of ... the RÁHDÁRÍ from which latter impost great annoyance had fallen upon travellers and traders."—_Kháfi Khán_, in _Elliot_, vii. 531.

[1744.—"Passing the river Kizilazan we ascended the mountains by the RAHDAR (a Persian toll) of Noglabar...."—_Hanway_, i. 226.]

RAGGY, s. _Rāgī_ (the word seems to be Dec. Hindustani, [and is derived from Skt. _rāga_, 'red,' on account of the colour of the grain]. A kind of grain, _Eleusine Coracana_, Gaertn.; _Cynosurus Coracanus_, Linn.; largely cultivated, as a staple of food, in Southern India.

1792.—"The season for sowing RAGGY, rice, and bajera from the end of June to the end of August."—_Life of T. Munro_, iii. 92.

1793.—"The Mahratta supplies consisting chiefly of RAGGY, a coarse grain, which grows in more abundance than any other in the Mysore Country, it became necessary to serve it out to the troops, giving rice only to the sick."—_Dirom_, 10.

[1800.—"The Deccany Mussulmans call it RAGY. In the Tamil language it is called _Kevir_ (_kēzhvaragu_)."—_Buchanan, Mysore_, i. 100.]

RAINS, THE, s. The common Anglo-Indian colloquial for the Indian rainy season. The same idiom, _as chuvas_, had been already in use by the Portuguese. (See WINTER).

c. 1666.—"Lastly, I have imagined that if in _Delhi_, for example, the RAINS come from the East, it may yet be that the Seas which are Southerly to it are the origin of them, but that they are forced by reason of some Mountains ... to turn aside and discharge themselves another way...."—_Bernier_, E.T., 138; [ed. _Constable_, 433].

1707.—"We are heartily sorry that the RAINS have been so very unhealthy with you."—Letter in _Orme's Fragments_.

1750.—"The RAINS ... setting in with great violence, overflowed the whole country."—_Orme, Hist._, ed. 1803, i. 153.

1868.—"The place is pretty, and although it is 'THE RAINS,' there is scarcely any day when we cannot get out."—_Bp. Milman_, in _Memoir_, p. 67.

[RAIS, s. Ar. _ra'īs_, from _ra's_, 'the head,' in Ar. meaning 'the captain, or master, not the owner of a ship;' in India it generally means 'a native gentleman of respectable position.'

1610.—"... REYSES of all our Nauyes."—_Birdwood, First Letter Book_, 435.

1785.—"... their chief (more worthless in truth than a HORSEKEEPER)." In note—"In the original the word SYSE is introduced for the sake of a jingle with the word RYSE (a chief or leader)."—_Tippoo's Letters_, 18.

1870.—"RAEES." See under RYOT.

1900.—"The petition was signed by representative landlords, RAISES."—_Pioneer Mail_, April 13.]

RAJA, RAJAH, s. Skt. _rājā_, 'king.' The word is still used in this sense, but titles have a tendency to degenerate, and this one is applied to many humbler dignitaries, petty chiefs, or large Zemindars. It is also now a title of nobility conferred by the British Government, as it was by their Mahommedan predecessors, on Hindus, as Nawāb is upon Moslem. _Rāī_, _Rāo_, _Rānā_, _Rāwal_, _Rāya_ (in S. India), are other forms which the word has taken in vernacular dialects or particular applications. The word spread with Hindu civilisation to the eastward, and survives in the titles of Indo-Chinese sovereigns, and in those of Malay and Javanese chiefs and princes.

It is curious that the term _Rājā_ cannot be traced, so far as we know, in any of the Greek or Latin references to India, unless the very questionable instance of Pliny's _Rachias_ be an exception. In early Mahommedan writers the now less usual, but still Indian, forms _Rāō_ and _Rāī_, are those which we find. (Ibn Batuta, it will be seen, regards the words for king in India and in Spain as identical, in which he is fundamentally right.) Among the English vulgarisms of the 18th century again we sometimes find the word barbarised into _Roger_.

c. 1338.—"... Bahā-uddīn fled to one of the heathen Kings called the Rāī Kanbīlah. The word RĀĪ among those people, just as among the people of Rūm, signifies 'King.'"—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 318. The traveller here refers, as appears by another passage, to the Spanish _Rey_.

[1609.—"RAIAW." See under GOONT.]

1612.—"In all this part of the East there are 4 castes.... The first caste is that of the RAYAS, and this is a most noble race from which spring all the Kings of Canara...."—_Couto_, V. vi. 4.

[1615.—"According to your direction I have sent per Orincay (see ORANKAY) Beege ROGER'S junk six pecculles (see PECUL) of lead."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 107.

[1623.—"A RAGIA, that is an Indian Prince."—_P. della Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 84.]

1683.—"I went a hunting with ye RAGEA, who was attended with 2 or 300 men, armed with bows and arrows, swords and targets."—_Hedges, Diary_, March 1; [Hak. Soc. i. 66].

1786.—Tippoo with gross impropriety addresses Louis XVI. as "the RAJAH of the French."—_Select Letters_, 369.

RAJAMUNDRY, n.p. A town, formerly head-place of a district, on the lower Godavery R. The name is in Telegu _Rājamahendravaramu_, 'King-chief('s)-Town,' [and takes its name from Mahendradeva of the Orissa dynasty; see _Morris, Godavery Man._ 23].

RAJPOOT, s. Hind. _Rājpūt_, from Skt. _Rājaputra_, 'King's Son.' The name of a great race in India, the hereditary profession of which is that of arms. The name was probably only a honorific assumption; but no race in India has furnished so large a number of princely families. According to Chand, the great medieval bard of the Rājpūts, there were 36 clans of the race, issued from four _Kshatriyas_ (Parihār, Pramār, Solankhī, and Chauhān) who sprang into existence from the sacred _Agnikuṇḍa_ or Firepit on the summit of Mount Abū. Later bards give five eponyms from the firepit, and 99 clans. The Rājpūts thus claim to be true _Kshatriyas_, or representatives of the second of the four fundamental castes, the Warriors; but the Brahmans do not acknowledge the claim, and deny that the true Kshatriya is extant. Possibly the story of the fireborn ancestry hides a consciousness that the claim is factitious. "The Rajpoots," says Forbes, "use animal food and spirituous liquors, both unclean in the last degree to their puritanic neighbours, and are scrupulous in the observance of only two rules,—those which prohibit the slaughter of cows, and the remarriage of widows. The clans are not forbidden to eat together, or to intermarry, and cannot be said in these respects to form separate castes" (_Rās-mālā_, reprint 1878, p. 537).

An odd illustration of the fact that to partake of animal food, and especially of the heroic repast of the flesh of the wild boar killed in the chase (see Terry's representation of this below), is a Rājpūt characteristic, occurs to the memory of one of the present writers. In Lord Canning's time the young Rājpūt Rāja of Alwar had betaken himself to degrading courses, insomuch that the Viceroy felt constrained, in open DURBAR at Agra, to admonish him. A veteran political officer, who was present, inquired of the agent at the Alwar Court what had been the nature of the conduct thus rebuked. The reply was that the young prince had become the habitual associate of low and profligate Mahommedans, who had so influenced his conduct that among other indications, he _would not eat wild pig_. The old Political, hearing this, shook his head very gravely, saying, 'Would not eat _Wild Pig_! Dear! Dear! Dear!' It seemed the _ne plus ultra_ of Rājpūt degradation! The older travellers give the name in the quaint form _Rashboot_, but this is not confined to Europeans, as the quotation from Sidi 'Alí shows; though the aspect in which the old English travellers regarded the tribe, as mainly a pack of banditti, might have made us think the name to be shaped by a certain sense of aptness. The Portuguese again frequently call them _Reys Butos_, a form in which the true etymology, at least partially, emerges.

1516.—"There are three qualities of these Gentiles, that is to say, some are called RAZBUTES, and they, in the time that their King was a Gentile, were Knights, the defenders of the Kingdom, and governors of the Country."—_Barbosa_, 50.

1533.—"Insomuch that whilst the battle went on, Saladim placed all his women in a large house, with all that he possessed, whilst below the house were combustibles for use in the fight; and Saladim ordered them to be set fire to, whilst he was in it. Thus the house suddenly blew up with great explosion and loud cries from the unhappy women; whereupon all the people from within and without rushed to the spot, but the RESBUTOS fought in such a way that they drove the Guzarat troops out of the gates, and others in their hasty flight cast themselves from the walls and perished."—_Correa_, iii. 527.

" "And with the stipulation that the 200 _pardaos_, which are paid as allowance to the _lascarins_ of the two small forts which stand between the lands of Baçaim and the REYS BUUTOS, shall be paid out of the revenues of Baçaim as they have been paid hitherto."—_Treaty_ of _Nuno da Cunha_ with the _K. of Cambaya_, in _Subsidios_, 137.

c. 1554.—"But if the caravan is attacked, and the _Bāts_ (see BHAT) kill themselves, the RASHBŪTS, according to the law of the _Bāts_, are adjudged to have committed a crime worthy of death."—_Sidi 'Ali Kapudān_, in _J. As._, Ser. I., tom. ix. 95.

[1602.—"RACHEBIDAS."—_Couto_, Dec. viii. ch. 15.]

c. 1614.—"The next day they embarked, leaving in the city, what of those killed in fight and those killed by fire, more than 800 persons, the most of them being REGIBUTOS, _Moors_ of great valour; and of ours fell eighteen...."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 210.

[1614.—"... in great danger of thieves called RASHBOUTS...."—_Foster, Letters_, ii. 260.]

1616.—"... it were fitter he were in the Company of his brother ... and his safetie more regarded, then in the hands of a RASHBOOTE Gentile...."—_Sir T. Roe_, i. 553-4; [Hak. Soc. ii. 282].

" "The RASHBOOTES eate Swines-flesh most hateful to the Mahometans."—_Terry_, in _Purchas_, ii. 1479.

1638.—"These RASBOUTES are a sort of Highway men, or Tories."—_Mandelslo_, Eng. by _Davies_, 1669, p. 19.

1648.—"These RESBOUTS (Resbouten) are held for the best soldiers of Gusuratta."—_Van Twist_, 39.

[c. 1660.—"The word RAGIPOUS signifies _Sons of Rajas_."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 39.]

1673.—"Next in esteem were the _Rashwaws_, RASHPOOTS, or Souldiers."—_Fryer_, 27.

1689.—"The place where they went ashore was at a Town of the _Moors_, which name our Seamen give to all the Subjects of the Great Mogul, but especially his Mahometan Subjects; calling the Idolaters _Gentous_ or RASHBOUTS."—_Dampier_, i. 507.

1791.—"... Quatre cipayes ou REISPOUTES montés sur des chevaux persans, pour l'escorter."—_B. de St. Pierre, Chaumière Indienne_.

RAMASAMMY, s. This corruption of _Rāmaswāmi_ ('Lord Rāma'), a common Hindū proper name in the South, is there used colloquially in two ways:

(A). As a generic name for Hindūs, like 'Tommy Atkins' for a British soldier. Especially applied to Indian coolies in Ceylon, &c.

(B). For a twisted roving of cotton in a tube (often of wrought silver) used to furnish light for a cigar (see FULEETA). Madras use:

A.—

[1843.—"I have seen him almost swallow it, by Jove, like RAMO SAMEE, the Indian juggler."—_Thackeray, Book of Snobs_, ch. i.]

1880.—"... if you want a clerk to do your work or a servant to attend on you, ... you would take on a saponaceous Bengali Baboo, or a servile abject Madrasi RAMASAMMY.... A Madrasi, even if wrongly abused, would simply call you his father, and his mother, and his aunt, defender of the poor, and epitome of wisdom, and would take his change out of you in the bazaar accounts."—_Cornhill Mag._, Nov., pp. 582-3.

RAMBOTANG, s. Malay _rambūtan_ (_Filet_, No. 6750, p. 256). The name of a fruit (_Nephelium lappaceum_, L.), common in the Straits, having a thin luscious pulp, closely adhering to a hard stone, and covered externally with bristles like those of the external envelope of a chestnut. From _rambūt_, 'hair.'

1613.—"And other native fruits, such as _bachoes_ (perhaps _bachang_, the _Mangifera foetida_?) RAMBOTANS, _rambes_,[229] _buasducos_,[229] and pomegranates, and innumerable others...."—_Godinho de Eredia_, 16.

1726.—"... the RAMBOETAN-tree (the fruit of which the Portuguese call _froeta dos caffaros_ or _Caffer's fruit_)."—_Valentijn_ (v.) _Sumatra_, 3.

1727.—"The RAMBOSTAN is a Fruit about the Bigness of a Walnut, with a tough Skin, beset with Capillaments; within the Skin is a very savoury Pulp."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 81; [ed. 1744, ii. 80].

1783.—"Mangustines, RAMBUSTINES, &c."—_Forrest, Mergui_, 40.

[1812.—"... mangustan, RHAMBUDAN, and dorian...."—_Heyne, Tracts_, 411.]

RAMDAM, s. Hind. from Ar. _ramaẓān_ (_ramaḍhān_). The ninth Mahommedan lunar month, viz. the month of the Fast.

1615.—"... at this time, being the preparation to the RAMDAM or Lent."—_Sir T. Roe_, in _Purchas_, i. 537; [Hak. Soc. i. 21; also 58, 72, ii. 274].

1623.—"The 29th June: I think that (to-day?) the Moors have commenced their RAMADHAN, according to the rule by which I calculate."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 607; [Hak. Soc. i. 179].

1686.—"They are not ... very curious or strict in observing any Days or Times of particular Devotions, except it be RAMDAM time as we call it.... In this time they fast all Day...."—_Dampier_, i. 343.

RAMOOSY, n.p. The name of a very distinct caste in W. India, Mahr. _Rāmosī_, [said to be from Mahr. _ranavāsī_, 'jungle-dweller']; originally one of the thieving castes. Hence they came to be employed as hereditary watchmen in villages, paid by cash or by rent-free lands, and by various petty dues. They were supposed to be responsible for thefts till the criminals were caught; and were often themselves concerned. They appear to be still commonly employed as hired CHOKIDARS by Anglo-Indian households in the west. They come chiefly from the country between Poona and Kolhapūr. The surviving traces of a Ramoosy dialect contain Telegu words, and have been used in more recent days as a secret slang. [See an early account of the tribe in: "An Account of the Origin and Present condition of the tribe of RAMOOSIES, including the Life of the Chief Oomíah Naik, by _Capt. Alexander Mackintosh_ of the Twenty-seventh Regiment, Madras Army," Bombay 1833.]

[1817.—"His Highness must long have been aware of RAMOOSEES near the Mahadeo pagoda."—_Elphinstone's Letter to Peshwa_, in _Papers relating to E.I. Affairs_, 23.]

1833.—"There are instances of the RAMOOSY Naiks, who are of a bold and daring spirit, having a great ascendancy over the village PATELLS (PATEL) and _Koolkurnies_ (COOLCURNEE), but which the latter do not like to acknowledge openly ... and it sometimes happens that the village officers

## participate in the profits which the RAMOOSIES derive from committing

such irregularities."—_Macintosh, Acc. of the Tribe of Ramoossies_, p. 19.

1883.—"Till a late hour in the morning he (the chameleon) sleeps sounder than a RAMOOSEY or a chowkeydar; nothing will wake him."—_Tribes on My Frontier._

RAM-RAM! The commonest salutation between two Hindus meeting on the road; an invocation of the divinity.

[1652.—"... then they approach the idol waving them (their hands) and repeating many times (the words) RAM, RAM, _i.e._ God, God."—_Tavernier_, ed. _Ball_, i. 263.]

1673.—"Those whose Zeal transports them no further than to die at home, are immediately Washed by the next of Kin, and bound up in a Sheet; and as many as go with him carry them by turns on a Colt-staff; and the rest run almost naked and shaved, crying after him RAM, RAM."—_Fryer_, 101.

1726.—"The wives of Bramines (when about to burn) first give away their jewels and ornaments, or perhaps a PINANG, (q.v.), which is under such circumstances a great present, to this or that one of their male or female friends who stand by, and after taking leave of them, go and lie over the corpse, calling out only RAM, RAM."—_Valentijn_, v. 51.

[1828.—See under SUTTEE.]

c. 1885.—Sir G. Birdwood writes: "In 1869-70 I saw a green parrot in the Crystal Palace aviary very doleful, dull, and miserable to behold. I called it 'pretty poll,' and coaxed it in every way, but no notice of me would it take. Then I bethought me of its being a Mahratta _poput_, and hailed it RAM RAM! and spoke in Mahratti to it; when at once it roused up out of its lethargy, and hopped and swung about, and answered me back, and cuddled up close to me against the bars, and laid its head against my knuckles. And every day thereafter, when I visited it, it was always in an eager flurry to salute me as I drew near to it."

RANEE, s. A Hindu queen; _rānī_, fem. of _rājā_, from Skt. _rājnī_ (= _regina_).

1673.—"_Bedmure_ (Bednūr) ... is the Capital City, the Residence of the RANNA, the Relict of _Sham Shunker Naig._"—_Fryer_, 162.

1809.—"The young RANNIE may marry whomsoever she pleases."—_Lord Valentia_, i. 364.

1879.—"There were once a Raja and a RÁNÉ who had an only daughter."—_Miss Stokes, Indian Fairy Tales_, 1.

RANGOON, n.p. Burm. _Ran-gun_, said to mean 'War-end'; the chief town and port of Pegu. The great Pagoda in its immediate neighbourhood had long been famous under the name of DAGON (q.v.), but there was no town in modern times till Rangoon was founded by Alompra during his conquest of Pegu, in 1755. The name probably had some kind of intentional assonance to _Da-gun_, whilst it "proclaimed his forecast of the immediate destruction of his enemies." Occupied by the British forces in May 1824, and again, taken by storm, in 1852, Rangoon has since the latter date been the capital, first of the British province of Pegu, and latterly of British Burma. It is now a flourishing port with a population of 134,176 (1881); [in 1891, 180,324].

RANJOW, s. A Malay term, _ranjau_. Sharp-pointed stakes of bamboo of varying lengths stuck in the ground to penetrate the naked feet or body of an enemy. See _Marsden, H. of Sumatra_, 2nd ed., 276. [The same thing on the Assam frontier is called a _poee_ (_Lewin, Wild Races_, 308), or _panji_ (_Sanderson, Thirteen Years_, 233).]

RASEED, s. Hind. _rasīd_. A native corruption of the English 'receipt,' shaped, probably, by the Pers. _rasīda_, 'arrived'; viz. an acknowledgment that a thing has 'come to hand.'

1877.—"There is no Sindi, however wild, that cannot now understand 'RASÍD' (receipt), and '_Apíl_' (appeal)."—_Burton, Sind Revisited_, i. 282.

RAT-BIRD, s. The striated bush-babbler (_Chattarhoea caudata_, Dumeril); see _Tribes on My Frontier_, 1883, p. 3.

RATTAN, s. The long stem of various species of Asiatic climbing palms, belonging to the genus _Calamus_ and its allies, of which canes are made (not 'bamboo-canes,' improperly so called), and which, when split, are used to form the seats of cane-bottomed chairs and the like. From Malay _rotan_, [which Crawfurd derives from _rawat_, 'to pare or trim'], applied to various species of _Calamus_ and _Daemonorops_ (see _Filet_, No. 696 _et seq._). Some of these attain a length of several hundred feet, and are used in the Himālaya and the Kāsia Hills for making suspension bridges, &c., rivalling rope in strength.

1511.—"The Governor set out from Malaca in the beginning of December, of this year, and sailed along the coast of Pedir.... He met with such a contrary gale that he was obliged to anchor, which he did with a great anchor, and a cable of RÓTAS, which are slender but tough canes, which they twist and make into strong cables."—_Correa, Lendas_, ii. 269.

1563.—"They took thick ropes of ROTAS (which are made of certain twigs which are very flexible) and cast them round the feet, and others round the tusks."—_Garcia_, f. 90.

1598.—"There is another sorte of the same reedes which they call ROTA: these are thinne like twigges of Willow for baskets...."—_Linschoten_, 28; [Hak. Soc. i. 97].

c. 1610.—"Il y a vne autre sorte de canne qui ne vient iamais plus grosse que le petit doigt ... et il ploye comme osier. Ils l'appellent ROTAN. Ils en font des cables de nauire, et quantité de sortes de paniers gentiment entre lassez."—_Pyrard de Laval_, i. 237; [Hak. Soc. i. 331, and see i. 207].

1673.—"... The Materials Wood and Plaister, beautified without with folding windows, made of Wood and latticed with RATTANS...."—_Fryer_, 27.

1844.—"In the deep vallies of the south the vegetation is most abundant and various. Amongst the most conspicuous species are ... the RATTAN winding from trunk to trunk and shooting his pointed head above all his neighbours."—_Notes on the Kasia Hills and People_, in _J.A.S.B._ vol. xiii. pt. ii. 615.

RAVINE DEER. The sportsman's name, at least in Upper India, for the Indian gazelle (_Gazella Bennettii_, Jerdon, [Blanford, _Mammalia_, 526 _seqq._]).

RAZZIA, s. This is Algerine-French, not Anglo-Indian, meaning a sudden raid or destructive attack. It is in fact the Ar. _ghāziya_, 'an attack upon infidels,' from _ghāzī_, 'a hero.'

REAPER, s. The small laths, laid across the rafters of a sloping roof to bear the tiles, are so called in Anglo-Indian house-building. We find no such word in any Hind. Dictionary; but in the Mahratti Dict. we find _rīp_ in this sense.

[1734-5.—See under BANKSHALL.]

REAS, REES, s. Small money of account, formerly in use at Bombay, the 25th part of an anna, and 400th of a rupee. Port. _real_, pl. _réis_. Accounts were kept at Bombay in rupees, quarters, and _reas_, down at least to November 1834, as we have seen in accounts of that date at the India Office.

1673.—(In Goa) "The _Vinteen_ ... 15 _Basrooks_ (see BUDGROOK), whereof 75 make a _Tango_ (see TANGA), and 60 REES make a _Tango_."—_Fryer_, 207.

1727.—"Their Accounts (Bombay) are kept by RAYES and _Rupees_. 1 _Rupee_ is ... 400 RAYES."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. App. 6; [ed. 1744, ii. 315].

RED CLIFFS, n.p. The nautical name of the steep coast below Quilon. This presents the only bluffs on the shore from Mt. Dely to Cape Comorin, and is thus identified, by character and name, with the Πυῤῥὸν ὄρος of the _Periplus_.

c. 80-90.—"Another village, Bakarē, lies by the mouth of the river, to which the ships about to depart descend from Nelkynda.... From Bakarē extends the RED-HILL (πυῤῥον ὄρος) and then a long stretch of country called Paralia."—_Periplus_, §§ 55-58.

1727.—"I wonder why the English built their Fort in that place (Anjengo), when they might as well have built it near the RED CLIFFS to the Northward, from whence they have their Water for drinking."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 332; [ed. 1744, i. 334].

1813.—"Water is scarce and very indifferent; but at the RED CLIFFS, a few miles to the north of Anjengo, it is said to be very good, but difficult to be shipped."—_Milburn, Or. Comm._ i. 335. See also _Dunn's New Directory_, 5th ed. 1780, p. 161.

1814.—"From thence (Quilone) to Anjengo the coast is hilly and romantic; especially about the RED CLIFFS at _Boccoli_ (qu. Βακαρὴ as above?); where the women of Anjengo daily repair for water, from a very fine spring."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._, i. 334; [2nd ed. i. 213].

1841.—"There is said to be fresh water at the RED CLIFFS to the northward of Anjengo, but it cannot be got conveniently; a considerable surf generally prevailing on the coast, particularly to the southward, renders it unsafe for ships' boats to land."—_Horsburgh's Direc._ ed. 1841, i. 515.

RED-DOG, s. An old name for PRICKLY-HEAT (q.v.).

c. 1752.—"The RED-DOG is a disease which affects almost all foreigners in hot countries, especially if they reside near the shore, at the time when it is hottest."—_Osbeck's Voyage_, i. 190.

REGULATION, s. A law passed by the Governor-General in Council, or by a Governor (of Madras or Bombay) in Council. This term became obsolete in 1833, when legislative authority was conferred by the Charter Act (3 & 4 Will. IV. cap. 85) on those authorities; and thenceforward the term used is _Act_. By 13 Geo. III. cap. 63, § xxxv., it is enacted that it shall be lawful for the G.-G. and Council of Fort William in Bengal to issue Rules or Decrees and Regulations for the good order and civil government of the Company's settlements, &c. This was the same Charter Act that established the Supreme Court. But the authorised compilation of "_Regulations of the Govt. of Fort William in force at the end of 1853_," begins only with the Regulations of 1793, and makes no allusion to the earlier Regulations. No more does Regulation XLI. of 1793, which prescribes the form, numbering, and codifying of the Regulations to be issued. The fact seems to be that prior to 1793, when the enactment of Regulations was systematized, and the Regulations began to be regularly numbered, those that were issued partook rather of the character of resolutions of Government and circular orders than of Laws.

1868.—"The new Commissioner ... could discover nothing prejudicial to me, except, perhaps, that the REGULATIONS were not sufficiently observed. The sacred REGULATIONS! How was it possible to fit them on such very irregular subjects as I had to deal with?"—_Lt.-Col. Lewin, A Fly on the Wheel_, p. 376.

1880.—"The laws promulgated under this system were called REGULATIONS, owing to a lawyer's doubts as to the competence of the Indian authorities to infringe on the legislative powers of the English Parliament, or to modify the 'laws and customs' by which it had been decreed that the various nationalities of India were to be governed."—_Saty. Review_, March 13, p. 335.

REGULATION PROVINCES. See this explained under NON-REGULATION.

REGUR, s. Dakh. Hind. _regaṛ_, also _legaṛ_. The peculiar black loamy soil, commonly called by English people in India 'black cotton soil.' The word may possibly be connected with H.—P. _reg_, 'sand'; but _regaḍa_ and _regaḍi_ is given by Wilson as Telugu. [Platts connects it with Skt. _rekha_, 'a furrow.'] This soil is not found in Bengal, with some restricted exception in the Rājmahal Hills. It is found everywhere on the plains of the Deccan trap-country, except near the coast. Tracts of it are scattered through the valley of the Krishna, and it occupies the flats of Coimbatore, Madura, Salem, Tanjore, Ramnād, and Tinnevelly. It occurs north of the Nerbudda in Saugor, and occasionally on the plain of the eastern side of the Peninsula, and composes the great flat of Surat and Broach in Guzerat. It is also found in Pegu. The origin of _regaṛ_ has been much debated. We can only give the conclusion as stated in the _Manual of the Geology of India_, from which some preceding particulars are drawn: "REGUR has been shown on fairly trustworthy evidence to result from the impregnation of certain argillaceous formations with organic matter, but ... the process which has taken place is imperfectly understood, and ... some peculiarities in distribution yet require explanation."—_Op. cit._ i. 434.

REH, s. [Hind. _reh_, Skt. _rej_, 'to shine, shake, quiver.'] A saline efflorescence which comes to the surface in extensive tracts of Upper India, rendering the soil sterile. The salts (chiefly sulphate of soda mixed with more or less of common salt and carbonate of soda) are superficial in the soil, for in the worst _reh_ tracts sweet water is obtainable at depths below 60 or 80 feet. [Plains infested with these salts are very commonly known in N. India as _Oosur_ Plains (Hind. _ūsar_, Skt. _ūshara_, 'impregnated with salt.')] The phenomenon seems due to the climate of Upper India, where the ground is rendered hard and impervious to water by the scorching sun, the parching winds, and the treeless character of the country, so that there is little or no water-circulation in the subsoil. The salts in question, which appear to be such of the substances resulting from the decomposition of rock, or of the detritus derived from rock, and from the formation of the soil, as are not assimilated by plants, accumulate under such circumstances, not being diluted and removed by the natural purifying process of percolation of the rain-water. This accumulation of salts is brought to the surface by capillary action after the rains, and evaporated, leaving the salts as an efflorescence on the surface. From time to time the process culminates on considerable tracts of land, which are thus rendered barren. The canal-irrigation of the Upper Provinces has led to some aggravation of the evil. The level of the canal-waters being generally high, they raise the level of the _reh_-polluted water in the soil, and produce in the lower tracts a great increase of the efflorescence. A partial remedy for this lies in the provision of drainage for the subsoil water, but this has only to a small extent been yet carried out. [See a full account in _Watt, Econ. Dict._ VI. pt. i. 400 _seqq._]

REINOL, s. A term formerly in use among the Portuguese at Goa, and applied apparently to 'Johnny Newcomes' or GRIFFINS (q.v.). It is from _reino_, 'the Kingdom' (viz. of Portugal). The word was also sometimes used to distinguish the European Portuguese from the country-born.

1598.—"... they take great pleasure and laugh at him, calling him REYNOL, which is a name given in iest to such as newly come from _Portingall_, and know not how to behave themselves in such grave manner, and with such ceremonies as the _Portingales_ use there in _India_."—_Linschoten_, ch. xxxi.; [Hak. Soc. i. 208].

c. 1610.—"... quand ces soldats Portugais arriuent de nouueau aux Indes portans encor leurs habits du pays, ceux qui sont là de long tẽs quand ils les voyent par les ruës les appellent RENOL, chargez de poux, et mille autres iniures et mocqueries."—_Mocquet_, 304.

[ " "When they are newly arrived in the Indies, they are called RAIGNOLLES, that is to say 'men of the Kingdom,' and the older hands mock them until they have made one or two voyages with them, and have learned the manners and customs of the Indies; this name sticks to them until the fleet arrives the year following."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. ii. 123.

[1727.—"The REYNOLDS or European fidalgos."—_A. Hamilton_, ed. 1744, i. 251.]

At a later date the word seems to have been applied to Portuguese deserters who took service with the E.I. Co. Thus:

c. 1760.—"With respect to the military, the common men are chiefly such as the Company sends out in their ships, or deserters from the several nations settled in India, Dutch, French, or Portuguese, which last are commonly known by the name of REYNOLS."—_Grose_, i. 38.

RESHIRE, n.p. _Rīshihr_. A place on the north coast of the Persian Gulf, some 5 or 6 miles east of the modern port of BUSHIRE (q.v.). The present village is insignificant, but it is on the site of a very ancient city, which continued to be a port of some consequence down to the end of the 16th century. I do not doubt that this is the place intended by REYXEL in the quotation from A. Nunes under DUBBER. The spelling RAXET in Barros below is no doubt a clerical error for RAXEL.

c. 1340.—"RISHIHR.... This city built by Lohrasp, was rebuilt by Shapūr son of Ardeshīr Babegān; it is of medium size, on the shore of the sea. The climate is very hot and unhealthy.... The inhabitants generally devote themselves to sea-trade, but poor and feeble that they are, they live chiefly in dependence on the merchants of other countries. Dates and the cloths called _Rīschihrī_ are the chief productions."—_Hamdalla Mastūfī_, quoted in _Barbier de Meynard, Dict. de la Perse_.

1514.—"And thereupon Pero Dalboquerque sailed away ... and entered through the straits of the Persian sea, and explored all the harbours, islands, and villages which are contained in it ... and when he was as far advanced as Bárem, the winds being now westerly—he tacked about, and stood along in the tack for a two days voyage, and reached RAXEL, where he found Mirbuzaca, Captain of the Xeque Ismail, (Shāh Ismaīl Sūfi, of Persia), who had captured 20 _tarradas_ from a Captain of the King of Ormuz."—_Alboquerque_, Hak. Soc. iv. 114-115.

" "On the Persian side (of the Gulf) is the Province of RAXEL, which contains many villages and fortresses along the sea, engaged in a flourishing trade."—_Ibid._ 186-7.

1534.—"And at this time insurrection was made by the King of RAXEL, (which is a city on the coast of Persia); who was a vassal of the King of Ormuz, so the latter King sought help from the Captain of the Castle, Antonio da Silveira. And he sent down Jorge de Crasto with a galliot and two foists and 100 men, all well equipt, and good musketeers; and bade him tell the King of RAXEL that he must give up the fleet which he kept at sea for the purpose of plundering, and must return to his allegiance to the K. of Ormuz."—_Correa_, iii. 557.

1553.—"... And Francisco de Gouvea arrived at the port of the city of RAXET, and having anchored, was forthwith visited by a Moor on the King's part, with refreshments and compliments, and a message that ... he would make peace with us, and submit to the King of Ormuz."—_Barros_, IV. iv. 26.

1554.—"REYXEL." See under DUBBER, as above.

1600.—"Reformados y proueydos en Harmuz de lo necessario, nos tornamos a

## partir ... fuymos esta vez por fuera de la isla Queixiome (see KISHM)

corriendo la misma costa, como de la primera, passamos ... mas adelante la fortaleza de REXEL, celebre por el mucho y perfetto pan y frutos, que su territorio produze."—_Teixeira, Viage_, 70.

1856.—"48 hours sufficed to put the troops in motion northwards, the ships of war, led by the Admiral, advancing along the coast to their support. This was on the morning of the 9th, and by noon the enemy was observed to be in force in the village of RESHIRE. Here amidst the ruins of old houses, garden-walls, and steep ravines, they occupied a formidable position; but notwithstanding their firmness, wall after wall was surmounted, and finally they were driven from their last defence (the old fort of RESHIRE) bordering on the cliffs at the margin of the sea."—_Despatch_ in _Lowe's H. of the Indian Navy_, ii. 346.

RESIDENT, s. This term has been used in two ways which require distinction. Thus (A) up to the organization of the Civil Service in Warren Hastings's time, the chiefs of the Company's commercial establishments in the provinces, and for a short time the European chiefs of districts, were termed _Residents_. But later the word was applied (B) also to the representative of the Governor-General at an important native Court, _e.g._ at Lucknow, Delhi, Hyderabad, and Baroda. And this is the only meaning that the term now has in British India. In Dutch India the term is applied to the chief European officer of a province (corresponding to an Indian ZILLAH) as well as to the Dutch representative at a native Court, as at Solo and Djokjocarta.

A.—

1748.—"We received a letter from Mr. Henry Kelsall, RESIDENT at Ballasore."—_Ft. William Consn._, in _Long_, 3.

1760.—"_Agreed_, Mr. Howitt the present RESIDENT in Rajah Tillack Chund's country (_i.e._ Burdwan) for the collection of the tuncahs (see TUNCA), be wrote to...."—_Ibid._ March 29, _ibid._ 244.

c. 1778.—"My pay as RESIDENT (at Sylhet) did not exceed 500_l._ per annum, so that fortune could only be acquired by my own industry."—_Hon. R. Lindsay_, in _Lives of the L.'s_, iii. 174.

B.—

1798.—"Having received overtures of a very friendly nature from the Rajah of Berar, who has requested the presence of a British RESIDENT at his Court, I have despatched an ambassador to Nagpore with full powers to ascertain the precise nature of the Rajah's views."—_Marquis Wellesley, Despatches_, i. 99.

RESPONDENTIA, s. An old trade technicality, thus explained: "Money which is borrowed, not upon the vessel as in bottomry, but upon the goods and merchandise contained in it, which must necessarily be sold or exchanged in the course of the voyage, in which case the borrower personally is bound to answer the contract" (_Wharton's Law Lexicon_, 6th ed., 1876; [and see _N.E.D._ under _Bottomry_]). What is now a part of the Calcutta Course, along the bank of the Hoogly, was known down to the first quarter of the last century, as RESPONDENTIA Walk. We have heard this name explained by the supposition that it was a usual scene of proposals and contingent JAWAUBS, (q.v.); but the name was no doubt, in reality, given because this walk by the river served as a sort of 'Change, where bargains in RESPONDENTIA and the like were made.

[1685.—"... Provided he gives his Bill to repay itt in Syam, ... with 20 p. Ct. RESPONDENTIA on the Ship...."—_Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. iv. 123.]

1720.—"I am concerned with Mr. Thomas Theobalds in a RESPONDENTIA Bond in the 'George' Brigantine."—_Testament of Ch. Davers_, Merchant. In _Wheeler_, ii. 340.

1727.—"There was one Captain Perrin Master of a Ship, who took up about 500 L. on RESPONDENTIA from Mr. Ralph Sheldon ... payable at his Return to Bengal."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 14; [ed. 1744, ii. 12].

" "... which they are enabled to do by the Money taken up here on RESPONDENTIA bonds...."—In _Wheeler_, ii. 427.

1776.—"I have desired my Calcutta Attorney to insure some Money lent on RESPONDENTIA on Ships in India.... I have also subscribed £500 towards a China Voyage."—_MS. Letter_ of _James Rennell_, Feb. 20.

1794.—"I assure you, Sir, Europe articles, especially good wine, are not to be had for love, money, or RESPONDENTIA."—_The Indian Observer_, by _Hugh Boyd_, &c., p. 206.

[1840.—"A Grecian ghat has been built at the north end of the old RESPONDENTIA walk...."—_Davidson, Diary of Travels_, ii. 209.]

RESSAIDAR, s. P.—H. _Rasāīdār_. A native subaltern of irregular cavalry, under the RESSALDAR (q.v.). It is not clear what sense _rasāī_ has in the formation of this title (which appears to be of modern devising). The meaning of that word is 'quickness of apprehension; fitness, perfection.'

RESSALA, s. Hind. from Ar. _risāla_. A troop in one of our regiments of native (so-called) Irregular Cavalry. The word was in India applied more loosely to a native corps of horse, apart from English regimental technicalities. The Arabic word properly means the charge or commission of a _rasūl_, _i.e._ of a civil officer employed to make arrests (_Dozy_), [and in the passage from the _Āīn_, quoted under RESSALDAR, the original text has _Risalah_]. The transition of meaning, as with many other words of Arabic origin, is very obscure.

1758.—"Presently after Shokum Sing and Harroon Cawn (formerly of Roy Dullub's RISSALLA) came in and discovered to him the whole affair."—_Letter_ of _W. Hastings_, in _Gleig_, i. 70.

[1781.—"The enemy's troops before the place are five ROSOLLARS of infantry...."—_Sir Eyre Coote_, letter of July 6, in _Progs. of Council_, September 7, _Forrest, Letters_, vol. iii.]

RESSALDAR, Ar.—P.—H. _Risāladār_ (RESSALA). Originally in Upper India the commander of a corps of Hindustani horse, though the second quotation shows it, in the south, applied to officers of infantry. Now applied to the native officer who commands a RESSALA in one of our regiments of "Irregular Horse." This title is applied honorifically to overseers of post-horses or stables. (See _Panjab Notes & Queries_, ii. 84.)

[c. 1590.—"Besides, there are several copyists who write a good hand and a lucid style. They receive the _yáddásht_ (memorandum) when completed, keep it with themselves, and make a proper abridgement of it. After signing it, they return this instead of the _yaddásht_, when the abridgement is signed and sealed by the Wāqi'ahnawīs, and the RISALAHDAR (in orig. _risālah_)...."—_Āīn_, i. 259.]

1773.—"The Nawaub now gave orders to the RISALADÁRS of the regular and irregular infantry, to encircle the fort, and then commence the attack with their artillery and musketry."—_H. of Hydur Naik_, 327.

1803.—"The RISSALDARS finding so much money in their hands, began to quarrel about the division of it, while Perron crossed in the evening with the bodyguard."—_Mil. Mem. of James Skinner_, i. 274.

c. 1831.—"Le lieutenant de ma troupe a bonne chance d'être fait Capitaine (RESSELDAR)."—_Jacquemont, Corresp._ ii. 8.

REST-HOUSE, s. Much the same as DAWK BUNGALOW (q.v.). Used in Ceylon only. [But the word is in common use in Northern India for the CHOKIES along roads and canals.]

[1894.—"'REST-HOUSES' or 'staging bungalows' are erected at intervals of twelve or fifteen miles along the roads."—_G. W. MacGeorge, Ways and Works in India_, p. 78.]

RESUM, s. Lascar's Hind. for _ration_ (_Roebuck_).

RHINOCEROS, s. We introduce this word for the sake of the quotations, showing that even in the 16th century this animal was familiar not only in the Western Himālaya, but in the forests near Peshāwar. It is probable that the nearest rhinoceros to be found at the present time would be not less than 800 miles, as the crow flies, from Peshāwar. See also GANDA, [and for references to the animal in Greek accounts of India, _McCrindle, Ancient India, its Invasion by Alexander_, 186].

c. 1387.—"In the month of Zí-l Ka'da of the same year he (Prince Muhammed Khan) went to the mountains of Sirmor (W. of the Jumna) and spent two months in hunting the RHINOCEROS and the elk."—_Táríkh-i-Mubárak-Sháhí_, in _Elliot_, iv. 16.

1398.—(On the frontier of Kashmīr). "Comme il y avoit dans ces Pays un lieu qui par sa vaste étendue, et la grande quantité de gibiers, sembloit inviter les passans à chaser.... Timur s'en donna le divertissement ... ils prisent une infinité de gibiers, et l'on tua plusiers RHINOCEROS à coups de sabre et de lances, quoique cet animal ... a la peau si ferme, qu'on ne peut la percer que par des efforts extraordinaires."—_Petis de la Croix, H. de Timur-Bec_, iii. 159.

1519.—"After sending on the army towards the river (Indus), I myself set off for Sawâti, which they likewise call Karak-Khaneh (_kark-khāna_, 'the rhinoceros-haunt'), to hunt the RHINOCEROS. We started many RHINOCEROSES, but as the country abounds in brushwood, we could not get at them. A she rhinoceros, that had whelps, came out, and fled along the plain; many arrows were shot at her, but ... she gained cover. We set fire to the brushwood, but the rhinoceros was not to be found. We got sight of another, that, having been scorched in the fire, was lamed and unable to run. We killed it, and every one cut off a bit as a trophy of the chase."—_Baber_, 253.

1554.—"Nous vinmes à la ville de _Pourschewer_ (PESHAWUR), et ayant heureusement passe le _Koutel_ (KOTUL), nous gagnâmes la ville de Djouschayeh. Sur le _Koutel_ nous apercûmes des RHINOCEROS, dont la grosseur approchait celle d'un elephant...."—_Sidi 'Ali_, in _J. As._, 1st ser. tom. ix. 201-202.

RHOTASS, n.p. This (_Rohtās_) is the name of two famous fortresses in India, viz. A. a very ancient rock-fort in the Shāhābād district of Behar, occupying part of a tabular hill which rises on the north bank of the Sōn river to a height of 1490 feet. It was an important stronghold of Sher Shāh, the successful rival of the Mogul Humāyūn: B. A fort at the north end of the Salt-range in the Jhelum District, Punjab, which was built by the same king, named by him after the ancient Rohtās. The ruins are very picturesque.

A.—

c. 1560.—"Sher Sháh was occupied night and day with the business of his kingdom, and never allowed himself to be idle.... He kept money (_khazána_) and revenue _kharáj_) in all parts of his territories, so that, if necessity required, soldiers and money were ready. The chief treasury was in ROHTÁS under the care of Ikhtiyár Khán."—_Waki'at-i-Mushtaki_, in _Elliot_, iv. 551.

[c. 1590.—"ROHTAS is a stronghold on the summit of a lofty mountain, difficult of access. It has a circumference of 14 _kos_ and the land is cultivated. It contains many springs, and whenever the soil is excavated to the depth of 3 or 4 yards, water is visible. In the rainy season many lakes are formed, and more than 200 waterfalls gladden the eye and ear."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 152 _seq._]

1665.—"... You must leave the great road to _Patna_, and bend to the South through _Exberbourgh_ (?) [Akbarpur] and the famous Fortress of RHODES."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 53; [ed. _Ball_, i. 121].

[1764.—"From Shaw Mull, Kelladar of ROTUS to Major Munro."—In _Long_, 359.]

B.—

c. 1540.—"Sher Sháh ... marched with all his forces and retinue through all the hills of Padmán and Garjhák, in order that he might choose a fitting site, and build a fort there to keep down the Ghakkars.... Having selected ROHTÁS, he built there the fort which now exists."—_Táríkh-i-Sher Sháhí_, in _Elliot_, iv. 390.

1809.—"Before we reached the Hydaspes we had a view of the famous fortress of ROTAS; but it was at a great distance.... ROTAS we understood to be an extensive but strong fort on a low hill."—_Elphinstone, Caubul_, ed. 1839, i. 108.

RICE, s. The well-known cereal, _Oryza sativa_, L. There is a strong temptation to derive the Greek ὀρύζα, which is the source of our word through It. _riso_, Fr. _riz_, etc., from the Tamil _ariśi_, 'rice deprived of husk,' ascribed to a root _ari_, 'to separate.' It is quite possible that Southern India was the original seat of rice cultivation. Roxburgh (_Flora Indica_, ii. 200) says that a wild rice, known as _Newaree_ [Skt. _nīvāra_, Tel. _nivvāri_] by the Telinga people, grows abundantly about the lakes in the Northern Circars, and he considers this to be the original plant.

It is possible that the Arabic _al-ruzz_ (_arruzz_) from which the Spaniards directly take their word _arroz_, may have been taken also directly from the Dravidian term. But it is hardly possible that ὀρύζα can have had that origin. The knowledge of rice apparently came to Greece from the expedition of Alexander, and the mention of ὀρύζα by Theophrastus, which appears to be the oldest, probably dates almost from the lifetime of Alexander (d. B.C. 323). Aristobulus, whose accurate account is quoted by Strabo (see below), was a companion of Alexander's expedition, but seems to have written later than Theophrastus. The term was probably acquired on the Oxus, or in the Punjab. And though no Skt. word for rice is nearer ὀρύζα than _vrīhi_, the very common exchange of aspirant and sibilant might easily give a form like _vrīsi_ or _brīsi_ (comp. _hindū_, _sindū_, &c.) in the dialects west of India. Though no such exact form seems to have been produced from old Persian, we have further indications of it in the Pushtu, which Raverty writes, sing. 'a grain of rice' _w'rijza'h_, pl. 'rice' _w'rijzey_, the former close to _oryza_. The same writer gives in _Barakai_ (one of the uncultivated languages of the Kabul country, spoken by a 'Tajik' tribe settled in Logar, south of Kabul, and also at Kanigoram in the Waziri country) the word for rice as _w'rizza_, a very close approximation again to _oryza_. The same word is indeed given by Leech, in an earlier vocabulary, largely coincident with the former, as _rizza_. The modern Persian word for husked rice is _birinj_, and the Armenian _brinz_. A nasal form, deviating further from the hypothetical _brīsi_ or _vrīsi_, but still probably the same in origin, is found among other languages of the Hindū Kūsh tribes, _e.g._ Burishki (Khajuna of Leitner) _broṉ_; Shina (of Gilgit), _brīūṉ_; Khowar of the Chitral Valley (Arniyah of Leitner), _grinj_ (_Biddulph, Tribes of Hindoo Koosh_, App., pp. xxxiv., lix., cxxxix.).

1298.—"Il hi a forment et RIS asez, mès il ne menuient pain de forment por ce que il est en cele provence enferme, mès menuient RIS et font poison (_i.e._ drink) de RIS con especes qe molt e(s)t biaus et cler et fait le home evre ausi con fait le vin."—_Marc Pol._ Geo. Text, 132.

B.C. c. 320-300.—"Μᾶλλον δὲ σπείρουσι τὸ καλούμενον ὅρυζον, ἐξ οὗ το ἔψημα· τοῦτο δὲ ὅμοιον τῇ ζειᾷ, καὶ περιπτισθὲν οἷον χόνδρος, ευπεπτον δὲ τὴν ὄψιν πεφυκὸς ὅμοιον ταῖς αἴραις, καὶ τὸν πολύν χρόνον ἐν ὕδατι. Ἀποχεῖται δὲ οὒκ εἰς στάχυν, ἀλλ' οἷον φόβην ὥσπερ ὁ κέγχρος καὶ ὁ ἔλυμος."—_Theophrast. de Hist. Plantt._, iv. c. 4.

B.C. c. 20.—"The rice (ὄρυζα), according to Aristobulus, stands in water, in an enclosure. It is sowed in beds. The plant is 4 cubits in height, with many ears, and yields a large produce. The harvest is about the time of the setting of the Pleiades, and the grain is beaten out like barley.

"It grows in Bactriana, Babylonia, Susis, and in the Lower Syria."—_Strabo_, xv. i. § 18, in Bohn's E.T. iii. 83.

B.C. 300.—"Megasthenes writes in the second Book of his _Indica_: The Indians, says he, at their banquets have a table placed before each person. This table is made like a buffet, and they set upon it a golden bowl, into which they first help boiled rice (ὄρυζαν), as it might be boiled groats, and then a variety of cates dressed in Indian fashions."—_Athenaeus_, iv. § 39.

A.D. c. 70.—"Hordeum Indis sativum et silvestre, ex quo panis apud eos praecipuus et alica. Maxime quidem ORYZA gaudent, ex qua tisanam conficiunt quam reliqui mortales ex hordeo...."—_Pliny_, xviii. 13. Ph. Holland has here got so wrong a reading that we abandon him.

A.D. c. 80-90.—"Very productive is this country (_Syrastrēnē_ or Penins. Guzerat) in wheat and rice (ὀρύζης) and sessamin oil and butter[230] (see GHEE) and cotton, and the abounding Indian piece-goods made from it."—_Periplus_, § 41.

ROC, s. The _Rukh_ or fabulous colossal bird of Arabian legend. This has been treated of at length by one of the present writers in _Marco Polo_ (Bk. iii. ch. 33, notes); and here we shall only mention one or two supplementary facts.

M. Marre states that _rūḳ-rūḳ_ is applied by the Malays to a bird of prey of the vulture family, a circumstance which _possibly_ may indicate the source of the Arabic name, as we know it to be of some at least of the legends. [See Skeat, _Malay Magic_, 124.]

In one of the notes just referred to it is suggested that the roc's quills, spoken of by Marco Polo in the passage quoted below (a passage which evidently refers to some real object brought to China), might possibly have been some vegetable production such as the great frond of the _Ravenala_ of Madagascar (_Urania speciosa_), cooked to pass as a bird's quill. Mr. Sibree, in his excellent book on Madagascar (_The Great African Island_, 1880), noticed this, but pointed out that the object was more probably the immensely long midrib of the _rofia_ palm (_Sagus Raphia_). Sir John Kirk, when in England in 1882, expressed entire confidence in this identification, and on his return to Zanzibar in 1883 sent four of these midribs to England. These must have been originally from 36 to 40 feet in length. The leaflets were all stript, but when entire the object must have strongly resembled a Brobdingnagian feather. These roc's quills were shown at the Forestry Exhibition in Edinburgh, 1884. Sir John Kirk wrote:

"I send to-day per S.S. Arcot ... four fronds of the Raphia palm, called here _Moale_. They are just as sold and shipped up and down the coast. No doubt they were sent in Marco Polo's time in exactly the same state—_i.e._ stripped of their leaflets and with the tip broken off. They are used for making stages and ladders, and last long if kept dry. They are also made into doors, by being cut into lengths, and pinned through."

Some other object has recently been shown at Zanzibar as part of the wings of a great bird. Sir John Kirk writes that this (which he does not describe

## particularly) was in the possession of the R. C. priests at Bagamoyo, to

whom it had been given by natives of the interior, and these declared that they had brought it from Tanganyika, and that it was part of the wing of a gigantic bird. On another occasion they repeated this statement, alleging that this bird was known in the Udoe (?) country, near the coast. The priests were able to communicate directly with their informants, and certainly believed the story. Dr. Hildebrand also, a competent German naturalist, believed in it. But Sir John Kirk himself says that 'what the priests had to show was most undoubtedly the whalebone of a comparatively small whale' (see letter of the present writer in _Athenaeum_, March 22nd, 1884).

(c. 1000?).—"El Haçan fils d'Amr et d'autres, d'après ce qu'ils tenaient de maint-personnages de l'Inde, m'ont rapporté des choses bien extraordinaires, au sujet des oiseaux du pays de Zabedj, de Khmêr (_Kumār_), du Senf et autres regions des parages de l'Inde. Ce que j'ai vu de plus grand, en fait de plumes d'oiseaux, c'est un tuyau que me montra Abou' l-Abbas de Siraf. Il était long de deux aunes environs capable, semblait-il, de contenir une outre d'eau.

"'J'ai vu dans l'Inde, me dit le capitaine Ismaïlawéih, chez un des principaux marschands, un tuyau de plume qui était près de sa maison, et dans lequel on versait de l'eau comme dans une grande tonne.... Ne sois pas étonné, me dit-il, car un capitaine du pays des Zindjs m'a conté qu'il avait vu chez le roi de Sira un tuyau de plume qui contenait vingt-cinq outres d'eau.'"—_Livre des Mervailles d'Inde._ (_Par Van der Lith et Marcel Devic_, pp. 62-63.)

ROCK-PIGEON. The bird so called by sportsmen in India is the _Pterocles exustus_ of Temminck, belonging to the family of sand-grouse (_Pteroclidae_). It occurs throughout India, except in the more wooded parts. In their swift high flight these birds look something like pigeons on the wing, whence perhaps the misnomer.

ROGUE (Elephant), s. An elephant (generally, if not always a male) living in apparent isolation from any herd, usually a bold marauder, and a danger to travellers. Such an elephant is called in Bengal, according to Williamson, _saun_, _i.e._ _sān_ [Hind. _sānḍ_, Skt. _shaṇḍa_]; sometimes it would seem _gunḍā_ [Hind. _gunḍā_, 'a rascal']; and by the Sinhalese _hora_. The term _rogue_ is used by Europeans in Ceylon, and its origin is somewhat obscure. Sir Emerson Tennent finds such an elephant called, in a curious book of the 18th century, _ronkedor_ or _runkedor_, of which he supposes that _rogue_ may perhaps have been a modification. That word looks like Port. _roncador_, 'a snorer, a noisy fellow, a bully,' which gives a plausible sense. But Littré gives _rogue_ as a colloquial French word conveying the idea of arrogance and rudeness. In the following passage which we have copied, unfortunately without recording the source, the word comes still nearer the sense in which it is applied to the elephant: "On commence à s'apperceuoir dés Bayonne, que l'humeur de ces peuples tient vn peu de celle de ses voisins, et qu'ils sont _rogues_ et peu communicatifs avec l'Estranger." After all however it is most likely that the word is derived from an English use of the word. For Skeat shows that _rogue_, from the French sense of 'malapert, saucy, rude, surly,' came to be applied as a cant term to beggars, and is used, in some old English passages which he quotes, exactly in the sense of our modern 'tramp.' The transfer to a vagabond elephant would be easy. Mr. Skeat refers to Shakspeare:—

"And wast thou fain, poor father, To hovel thee with swine, and ROGUES forlorn?" _K. Lear_, iv. 7.

1878.—"Much misconception exists on the subject of ROGUE or solitary elephants. The usually accepted belief that these elephants are turned out of the herds by their companions or rivals is not correct. Most of the so-called solitary elephants are the lords of some herds near. They leave their companions at times to roam by themselves, usually to visit cultivation or open country ... sometimes again they make the expedition merely for the sake of solitude. They, however, keep more or less to the jungle where their herd is, and follow its movements."—_Sanderson_, p. 52.

ROGUE'S RIVER, n.p. The name given by Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries to one of the Sunderbund channels joining the Lower Hoogly R. from the eastward. It was so called from being frequented by the Arakan Rovers, sometimes Portuguese vagabonds, sometimes native MUGGS, whose vessels lay in this creek watching their opportunity to plunder craft going up and down the Hoogly.

Mr. R. Barlow, who has partially annotated _Hedges' Diary_ for the Hakluyt Society, identifies Rogue's River with Channel Creek, which is the channel between Saugor Island and the Delta. Mr. Barlow was, I believe, a member of the Bengal Pilot service, and this, therefore, must have been the application of the name in recent tradition. But I cannot reconcile this with the sailing directions in the _English Pilot_ (1711), or the indications in Hamilton, quoted below.

The _English Pilot_ has a sketch chart of the river, which shows, just opposite Buffalo Point, "_R. Theeves_," then, as we descend, the _R. Rangafula_, and, close below that, "_Rogues_" (without the word _River_), and still further below, _Chanell Creek_ or _R. Jessore_. Rangafula R. and Channel Creek we still have in the charts.

After a careful comparison of all the notices, and of the old and modern charts, I come to the conclusion that the R. of Rogues must have been either what is now called _Chingrī Khāl_, entering immediately below DIAMOND HARBOUR, or _Kalpī_ Creek, about 6 m. further down, but the preponderance of argument is in favour of _Chingrī Khāl_. The position of this quite corresponds with the _R. Theeves_ of the old English chart; it corresponds in distance from Saugor (the _Gunga Saugor_ of those days, which forms the extreme S. of what is styled _Saugor Island_ now) with that stated by Hamilton, and also in being close to the "first safe anchoring place in the River," viz. Diamond Harbour. The Rogue's River was apparently a little 'above the head of the Grand Middle Ground' or great shoals of the Hoogly, whose upper termination is now some 7½ m. below Chingrī Khāl. One of the extracts from the _English Pilot_ speaks of the "R. of Rogues, commonly called by the Country People, _Adegom_." Now there is a town on the Chingrī Khāl, a few miles from its entrance into the Hoogly, which is called in Rennell's Map _Ottogunge_, and in the _Atlas of India_ Sheet _Huttoogum_. Further, in the tracing of an old Dutch chart of the 17th century, in the India Office, I find in a position corresponding with Chingrī Khāl, _D'Roevers Spruit_, which I take to be 'Robber's (or ROGUE'S) RIVER.'

1683.—"And so we parted for this night, before which time it was resolved by y^e Councill that if I should not prevail to go this way to Decca, I should attempt to do it with y^e Sloopes by way of the RIVER OF ROGUES, which goes through to the great River of Decca."—_Hedges, Diary_, Hak. Soc. i. 36.

1711.—"_Directions to go up along the Western Shore_.... The nearer the Shore the better the Ground until past the River of Tygers.[231] You may begin to edge over towards the RIVER OF ROGUES about the head of the Grand Middle Ground; and when the _Buffalow_ Point bears from you ½ N. ¾ of a Mile, steer directly over for the East Shore E.N.E."—_The English Pilot_, Pt. iii. p. 54.

" "_Mr. Herring, the Pilot's Directions for bringing of Ships down the River of Hughley_.... From the lower point of the _Narrows_ on the Starboard side ... the Eastern Shore is to be kept close aboard, until past the said Creek, afterwards allowing only a small Birth for the Point off the RIVER OF ROGUES, commonly called by the Country People, Adegom.... From the RIVER ROGUES, the Starboard (qu. larboard?) shore with a great ship ought to be kept close aboard all along down to Channel Trees, for in the offing lies the Grand Middle Ground."—_Ibid._ p. 57.

1727.—"The first safe anchoring Place in the River, is off the Mouth of a River about 12 Leagues above Sagor,[232] commonly known by the Name of ROGUES RIVER, which had that Appellation from some _Banditti Portuguese_, who were followers of _Shah Sujah_ ... for those Portuguese ... after their Master's Flight to the Kingdom of _Arackan_, betook themselves to Piracy among the Islands at the Mouth of the _Ganges_, and this River having communication with all the Channels from _Xatigam_ (see CHITTAGONG) to the Westward, from this River they used to sally out."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 3 [ed. 1744].

1752.—"... 'On the receipt of your Honors' orders per _Dunnington_, we sent for Capt. Pinson, the Master Attendant, and directed him to issue out fresh orders to the Pilots not to bring up any of your Honors' Ships higher than ROGUES RIVER.'"[232]—_Letter to Court_, in _Long_, p. 32.

ROHILLA, n.p. A name by which Afghāns, or more particularly Afghāns settled in Hindustan, are sometimes known, and which gave a title to the province _Rohilkand_, and now, through that, to a Division of the N.W. Provinces embracing a large part of the old province. The word appears to be Pushtu, _rōhēlah_ or _rōhēlai_, adj., formed from _rōhu_, 'mountain,' thus signifying 'mountaineer of Afghānistān.' But a large part of E. Afghānistān specifically bore the name of _Roh._ Keene (_Fall of the Moghul Monarchy_, 41) puts the rise of the Rohillas of India in 1744, when 'Ali Mahommed revolted, and made the territory since called Rohilkhand independent. A very comprehensive application is given to the term _Roh_ in the quotation from Firishta. A friend (Major J. M. Trotter) notes here: "The word ROHILLA is little, if at all, used now in Pushtu, but I remember a line of an ode in that language, '_Sádik_ ROHILAI _yam pa Hindubár gad_,' meaning, 'I am a simple mountaineer, compelled to live in Hindustan'; _i.e._ 'an honest man among knaves.'"

c. 1452.—"The King ... issued _farmáns_ to the chiefs of the various Afghán Tribes. On receipt of the _farmáns_, the Afgháns of ROH came as is their wont, like ants and locusts, to enter the King's service.... The King (Bahlol Lodi) commanded his nobles, saying,—'Every Afghán who comes to Hind from the country of ROH to enter my service, bring him to me. I will give him a _jágír_ more than proportional to his deserts.'"—_Táríkh-i-Shír-Sháhí_, in _Elliot_, iv. 307.

c. 1542.—"Actuated by the pride of power, he took no account of clanship, which is much considered among the Afghans, and especially among the ROHILLA men."—_Ibid._ 428.

c. 1612.—"ROH is the name of a particular mountain [-country], which extends in length from Swád and Bajaur to the town of Siwí belonging to Bhakar. In breadth it stretches from Hasan Abdál to Kábul. Kandahár is situated in this territory."—_Firishta's Introduction_, in _Elliot_, vi. 568.

1726.—"... 1000 other horsemen called RUHELAHS."—_Valentijn_, iv. (_Suratte_), 277.

1745.—"This year the Emperor, at the request of Suffder Jung, marched to reduce Ali Mahummud Khan, a ROHILLA adventurer, who had, from the negligence of the Government, possessed himself of the district of Kutteer (_Kathehar_), and assumed independence of the royal authority."—In Vol. II. of _Scott's_ E.T. of _Hist. of the Dekkan_, &c., p. 218.

1763.—"After all the ROHILAS are but the best of a race of men, in whose blood it would be difficult to find one or two single individuals endowed with good nature and with sentiments of equity; in a word they are AFGHANS."—_Seir Mutaqherin_, iii. 240.

1786.—"That the said Warren Hastings ... did in September, 1773, enter into a private engagement with the said Nabob of Oude ... to furnish them, for a stipulated sum of money to be paid to the E. I. Company, with a body of troops for the declared purpose of 'thoroughly extirpating the nation of the ROHILLAS'; a nation from whom the Company had never received, or pretended to receive, or apprehend, any injury whatever."—_Art. of Charge against Hastings_, in _Burke_, vi. 568.

ROLONG, s. Used in S. India, and formerly in W. India, for fine flour; semolina, or what is called in Bengal SOOJEE (q.v.). The word is a corruption of Port. _rolão_ or _ralão_. But this is explained by Bluteau as _farina secunda_. It is, he says (in Portuguese), that substance which is extracted between the best flour and the bran.

1813.—"Some of the greatest delicacies in India are now made from the ROLONG-flour, which is called the heart or kidney of the wheat."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ i. 47; [2nd ed. i. 32].

ROOCKA, ROCCA, ROOKA, s.

A. Ar. _ruḳ'a_. A letter, a written document; a note of hand.

1680.—"One Sheake Ahmud came to Towne slyly with several peons dropping after him, bringing letters from Futty Chaun at Chingalhatt, and RUCCAS from the Ser Lascar...."—_Fort St. Geo. Consns._ May 25. In _Notes and Exts._ iii. 20. [See also under AUMILDAR and JUNCAMEER.]

" "... proposing to give 200 Pagodas Madaras Brahminy to obtain a ROCCA from the Nabob that our business might go on Salabad (see SALLABAD)."—_Ibid._ Sept. 27, p. 35.

[1727.—"Swan ... holding his Petition or ROCCA above his head...."—_A. Hamilton_, ed. 1744, i. 199.]

[B. An ancient coin in S. India; Tel. _rokkam_, _rokkamu_, Skt. _roka_, 'buying with ready money,' from _ruch_, 'to shine.'

[1875.—"The old native coins seem to have consisted of Varaghans, ROOKAS and Doodoos. The Varaghan is what is now generally called a PAGODA.... The ROOKAS have now entirely disappeared, and have probably been melted into rupees. They varied in value from 1 to 2 Rupees. Though the coins have disappeared, the name still survives, and the ordinary name for silver money generally is ROOKALOO."—_Gribble, Man. of Cuddapah_, 296 _seq._]

ROOK, s. In chess the _rook_ comes to us from Span. _roque_, and that from Ar. and Pers. _rukh_, which is properly the name of the famous gryphon, the ROC of Marco Polo and the _Arabian Nights_. According to Marcel Devic it meant 'warrior.' It is however generally believed that this form was a mistake in transferring the Indian _rath_ (see RUT) or 'chariot,' the name of the piece in India.

ROOM, n.p. 'Turkey' (_Rūm_); ROOMEE, n.p. (_Rūmī_); 'an Ottoman Turk.' Properly 'a Roman.' In older Oriental books it is used for an European, and was probably the word which Marco Polo renders as 'a _Latin_'—represented in later times by FIRINGHEE (_e.g._ see quotation from Ibn Batuta under RAJA). But _Rūm_, for the Roman Empire, continued to be applied to what had been part of the Roman Empire after it had fallen into the hands of the Turks, first to the Seljukian Kingdom in Anatolia, and afterwards to the Ottoman Empire seated at Constantinople. Garcia de Orta and Jarric deny the name of _Rūmī_, as used in India, to the Turks of Asia, but they are apparently wrong in their expressions. What they seem to mean is that Turks of the Ottoman Empire were called _Rūmī_; whereas those others in Asia of Turkish race (whom we sometimes call _Toorks_), as of Persia and Turkestan, were excluded from the name.

c. 1508.—"Ad haec, trans euripum, seu fretum, quod insulam fecit, in orientali continentis plaga oppidum condidit, receptaculum advenis militibus, maximo Turcis; ut ab Diensibus freto divisi, rixandi cum iis ... causas procul haberent. Id oppidum primo Gogola (see GOGOLLA), dein RUMEpolis vocitatum ab ipsa re...."—_Maffei_, p. 77.

1510.—"When we had sailed about 12 days we arrived at a city which is called _Diuobandier_RUMI, that is 'DIU, the port of the Turks.'... This city is subject to the Sultan of Combeia ... 400 Turkish merchants reside here constantly."—_Varthema_, 91-92.

_Bandar-i-Rūmī_ is, as the traveller explains, the 'Port of the Turks.' Gogola, a suburb of Diu on the mainland, was known to the Portuguese some years later, as _Villa dos Rumes_ (see GOGOLLA, and quotation from Maffei above). The quotation below from Damian a Goes alludes apparently to Gogola.

1513.—"... Vnde RUMINU Turchorũque sex millia nostros continue infestabãt."—_Emanuelis Regis Epistola_, p. 21.

1514.—"They were ships belonging to Moors, or to ROMI (there they give the name of ROMI to a white people who are, some of them, from Armenia the Greater and the Less, others from Circassia and Tartary and Rossia, Turks and Persians of Shaesmal called the _Soffi_, and other renegades from all) countries."—_Giov. da Empoli_, 38.

1525.—In the expenditure of Malik Aiaz we find 30 RUMES at the pay (monthly) of 100 _fedeas_ each. The _Arabis_ are in the same statement paid 40 and 50 FEDEAS, the _Coraçones_ (Khorāsānīs) the same; Guzerates and _Cymdes_ (_Sindis_) 25 and 30 _fedeas_; _Fartaquis_, 50 _fedeas_.—_Lembrança_, 37.

1549.—"... in nova civitate quae RHOMAEUM appellatur. Nomen inditum est RHOMAEIS, quasi Rhomanis, vocantur enim in totâ Indiâ RHOMAEI ii, quos nos communi nomine _Geniceros_ (_i.e._ Janisaries) vocamus...."—_Damiani a Goes, Diensis Oppugnatio_—in _De Rebus Hispanicis Lusitanicis, Aragonicis, Indicis et Aethiopicis_.... Opera, Colon. Agr., 1602, p. 281.

1553.—"The Moors of India not understanding the distinctions of those Provinces of Europe, call the whole of Thrace, Greece, Sclavonia, and the adjacent islands of the Mediterranean RUM, and the men thereof RUMI, a name which properly belongs to that part of Thrace in which lies Constantinople: from the name of New Rome belonging to the latter, Thrace taking that of Romania."—_Barros_, IV. iv. 16.

1554.—"Also the said ambassador promised in the name of Idalshaa (see IDALCAN) his lord, that if a fleet of RUMES should invade these parts, Idalshaa should be bound to help and succour us with provisions and mariners at our expense...."—_S. Botelho, Tombo_, 42.

c. 1555.—"One day (the Emp. Humāyūn) asked me: 'Which of the two countries is greatest, that of RŪM or of Hindustan?' I replied: ... 'If by RŪM you mean all the countries subject to the Emperor of Constantinople, then India would not form even a sixth part thereof.'..."—_Sidi 'Ali_, in _J. As._, ser. I. tom. ix. 148.

1563.—"The _Turks_ are those of the province of Natolia, or (as we now say) Asia Minor; the RUMES are those of Constantinople, and of its empire."—_Garcia De Orta_, f. 7.

1572.—

"Persas feroces, Abassis, e RUMES, Que trazido de Roma o nome tem...." _Camões_, x. 68.

[By Aubertin:

"Fierce Persians, Abyssinians, RUMIANS, Whose appellation doth from Rome descend...."]

1579.—"Without the house ... stood foure ancient comely hoare-headed men, cloathed all in red downe to the ground, but attired on their heads not much vnlike the Turkes; these they call ROMANS, or strangers...."—_Drake, World Encompassed_, Hak. Soc. 143.

1600.—"A nation called RUMOS who have traded many hundred years to Achen. These RUMOS come from the Red Sea."—_Capt. J. Davis_, in _Purchas_, i. 117.

1612.—"It happened on a time that Rajah Sekunder, the Son of Rajah Darab, a _Roman_ (RUMI), the name of whose country was Macedonia, and whose title was Zul-Karneini, wished to see the rising of the sun, and with this view he reached the confines of India."—_Sijara Malayu_, in _J. Indian Archip._ v. 125.

1616.—"RUMAE, id est Turcae Europaei. In India quippe duplex militum Turcaeorum genus, quorum primi, in Asia orti, qui _Turcae_ dicuntur; alii in Europa qui Constantinopoli quae olim Roma Nova, advocantur, ideoque RUMAE, tam ab Indis quam a Lusitanis nomine Graeco Ῥωμαῖοι in RUMAS depravato dicuntur."—_Jarric, Thesaurus_, ii. 105.

1634.—

"Allī o forte Pacheco se eterniza Sustentando incansavel o adquirido; Depois Almeida, que as Estrellas piza Se fez do RUME, e Malavar temido." _Malaca Conquistada_, ii. 18.

1781.—"These Espanyols are a very western nation, always at war with the ROMAN Emperors (_i.e._ the Turkish Sultans); since the latter took from them the city of Ashtenbol (_Istambūl_), about 500 years ago, in which time they have not ceased to wage war with the ROUMEES."—_Seir Mutaqherin_, iii. 336.

1785.—"We herewith transmit a letter ... in which an account is given of the conference going on between the Sultan of ROOM and the English ambassador."—_Letters of Tippoo_, p. 224.

ROOMAUL, s. Hind. from Pers. _rūmāl_ (lit. 'face-rubber,') a towel, a handkerchief. ["In modern native use it may be carried in the hand by a high-born _parda_ lady attached to her _batwa_ or tiny silk handbag, and ornamented with all sorts of gold and silver trinkets; then it is a handkerchief in the true sense of the word. It may be carried by men, hanging on the left shoulder, and used to wipe the hands or face; then, too, it is a handkerchief. It may be as big as a towel, and thrown over both shoulders by men, the ends either hanging loose or tied in a knot in front; it then serves the purpose of a _gulúband_ or muffler. In the case of children it is tied round the neck as a neckkerchief, or round the waist for mere show. It may be used by women much as the 18th century tucker was used in England in Addison's time" (_Yusuf Ali, Mon. on Silk_, 79; for its use to mark a kind of shawl, see Forbes Watson, _Textile Manufactures_, 123).] In ordinary Anglo-Indian Hind. it is the word for a 'pocket handkerchief.' In modern trade it is applied to thin silk piece-goods with handkerchief-patterns. We are not certain of its meaning in the old trade of piece-goods, _e.g._:

[1615.—"2 handkerchiefs RUMALL cottony."—_Cock's Diary_, Hak. Soc. i. 179.

[1665.—"Towel, RUMALE."—_Persian Glossary_, in _Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p. 100.

[1684.—"ROMALLS Courge ... 16."—_Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. iii. 119.]

1704.—"Price Currant (Malacca) ... ROMALLS, Bengall ordinary, per Corge, 26 Rix Dlls."—_Lockyer_, 71.

1726.—"ROEMAALS, 80 pieces in a pack, 45 ells long, 1½ broad."—_Valentijn_, v. 178.

_Rūmāl_ was also the name technically used by the THUGS for the handkerchief with which they strangled their victims.

[c. 1833.—"There is no doubt but that all the Thugs are expert in the use of the handkerchief, which is called ROOMAL or _Paloo_...."—_Wolff, Travels_, ii. 180.]

ROSALGAT, CAPE, n.p. The most easterly point of the coast of Arabia; a corruption (originally Portuguese) of the Arabic name _Rās-al-ḥadd_, as explained by P. della Valle, with his usual acuteness and precision, below.

1553.—"From CURIA MURIA to Cape ROSALGATE, which is in 22½°, an extent of coast of 120 leagues, all the land is barren and desert. At this Cape commences the Kingdom of Ormus."—_Barros_, I. ix. 1.

" "Affonso d'Alboquerque ... passing to the Coast of Arabia ran along till he doubled CAPE ROÇALGATE, which stands at the beginning of that coast ... which Cape Ptolemy calls _Siragros Promontory_ (Σύαγρος ἄκρα)...."—_Ibid._ II. ii. 1.

c. 1554.—"We had been some days at sea, when near RĀ'IS-AL-HADD the _Damani_, a violent wind so called, got up...."—_Sidi 'Ali, J. As. S._ ser. I. tom. ix. 75.

" "If you wish to go from RÁSOLHADD to _Dúlsind_ (see DIUL-SIND) you steer E.N.E. till you come to Pasani ... from thence ... E. by S. to _Rás Karáshí_ (_i.e._ Karāchī), where you come to an anchor...."—_The Mohit_ (by _Sidi 'Ali_), in _J.A.S.B._, v. 459.

1572.—

"Olha Dofar insigne, porque manda O mais cheiroso incenso para as aras; Mas attenta, já cá est' outra banda De ROÇALGATE, o praias semper avaras, Começa o regno Ormus...." _Camões_, x. 101.

By Burton:

"Behold insign Dofar that doth command for Christian altars sweetest incense-store; But note, beginning now on further band of ROÇALGATÉ'S ever greedy shore, yon Hormus Kingdom...."

1623.—"We began meanwhile to find the sea rising considerably; and having by this time got clear of the Strait ... and having past not only Cape Iasck on the Persian side, but also that cape on the Arabian side which the Portuguese vulgarly call ROSALGATE, as you also find it marked in maps, but the proper name of which is RAS EL HAD, signifying in the Arabic tongue Cape of the End or Boundary, because it is in fact the extreme end of that Country ... just as in our own Europe the point of Galizia is called by us for a like reason _Finis Terrae_."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 496; [Hak. Soc. ii. 11].

[1665.—"... ROZELGATE formerly _Corodamum_ and _Maces_ in _Amian. lib._ 23, almost _Nadyr_ to the Tropick of _Cancer_."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p. 101.]

1727.—"_Maceira_, a barren uninhabited Island ... within 20 leagues of Cape RASSELGAT."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 56; [ed. 1744, i. 57].

[1823.—"... it appeared that the whole coast of Arabia, from RAS AL HAD, or Cape RASELGAT, as it is sometimes called by the English, was but little known...."—_Owen, Narr._ i. 333.]

ROSE-APPLE. See JAMBOO.

ROSELLE, s. The Indian Hibiscus or _Hib. sabdariffa_, L. The fleshy calyx makes an excellent sub-acid jelly, and is used also for tarts; also called 'Red Sorrel.' The French call it 'Guinea Sorrel,' _Oseille_ de Guinée, and _Roselle_ is probably a corruption of _Oseille_. [See PUTWA.]

[ROSE-MALLOWS, s. A semi-fluid resin, the product of the _Liquidambar altingia_, which grows in Tenasserim; also known as Liquid Storax, and used for various medicinal purposes. (See _Hanbury and Flückiger, Pharmacog._ 271, _Watt, Econ. Dict. V._ 78 _seqq._). The Burmese name of the tree is _nan-ta-yoke_ (_Mason, Burmah_, 778). The word is a corruption of the Malay-Javanese _rasamalla_, Skt. _rasa-mālā_, 'Perfume garland,' the gum being used as incense (_Encycl. Britann._ 9th ed. xii. 718.)

1598.—"ROSAMALLIA."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 150.]

ROTTLE, RATTLE, s. Arab. _raṭl_ or _riṭl_, the Arabian pound, becoming in S. Ital. _rotolo_; in Port. _arratel_; in Span. _arrelde_; supposed to be originally a transposition of the Greek λίτρα, which went all over the Semitic East. It is in Syriac as _līṭrā_; and is also found as _lītrīm_ (pl.) in a Phœnician inscription of Sardinia, dating c. B.C. 180 (see _Corpus Inscriptt. Semitt._ i. 188-189.)

c. 1340.—"The RITL of India which is called _sīr_ (see SEER) weighs 70 _mithḳāls_ ... 40 _sīrs_ form a _mann_ (see MAUND)."—_Shihābuddīn Dimishkī_, in _Notes and Exts._ xiii. 189.

[c. 1590.—"_Ḳafíz_ is a measure, called also _sáa'_ weighing 8 RAṬL, and, some say, more."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 55.

[1612.—"The BAHAR is 360 ROTTOLAS of Moha."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 193.]

1673.—"... Weights in Goa:

1 _Baharr_ is 3½ _Kintal_. 1 _Kintal_ is 4 _Arobel_ or _Rovel_. 1 _Arobel_ is 32 ROTOLAS. 1 ROTOLA is 16 Ounc. or 1_l._ _Averd_." _Fryer_, 207.

1803.—"At Judda the weights are:

15 Vakeeas = 1 RATTLE. 2 RATTLES = 1 maund." _Milburn_, i. 88.

ROUND, s. This is used as a Hind. word, _raund_, or corruptly _raun gasht_, a transfer of the English, in the sense of patrolling, or 'going the rounds.' [And we find in the Madras Records the grade of 'Rounder,' or 'Gentlemen of the Round,' officers whose duty it was to visit the sentries.

[1683.—"... itt is order'd that 18 Souldiers, 1 Corporall & 1 ROUNDER goe upon the Sloop Conimer for Hugly...."—_Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo._ 1st ser. ii. 33.]

ROUNDEL, s. An obsolete word for an umbrella, formerly in use in Anglo-India. [In 1676 the use of the _Roundell_ was prohibited, except in the case of "the Councell and Chaplaine" (_Hedges, Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. ccxxxii.)] In old English the name _roundel_ is applied to a variety of circular objects, as a mat under a dish, a target, &c. And probably this is the origin of the present application, in spite of the circumstance that the word is sometimes found in the form _arundel_. In this form the word also seems to have been employed for the conical hand-guard on a lance, as we learn from Bluteau's great _Port. Dictionary_: "ARUNDELA, or ARANDELLA, is a guard for the right hand, in the form of a funnel. It is fixed to the thick part of the lance or mace borne by men at arms. The Licentiate Covarrubias, who piques himself on finding etymologies for every kind of word, derives _Arandella_ from _Arundel_, a city (so he says) of the Kingdom of England." Cobarruvias (1611) gives the above explanation; adding that it also was applied to a kind of smooth collar worn by women, from its resemblance to the other thing. Unless historical proof of this last etymology can be traced, we should suppose that _Arundel_ is, even in this sense, probably a corruption of _roundel_. [The _N.E.D._ gives _arrondell_, _arundell_ as forms of _hirondelle_, 'a swallow.']

1673.—"Lusty Fellows running by their Sides with ARUNDELS (which are broad Umbrelloes held over their Heads)."—_Fryer_, 30.

1676.—"Proposals to the Agent, &c., about the young men in Metchlipatam.

"_Generall._ I.—Whereas each hath his peon and some more with their RONDELLS, that none be permitted but as at the Fort."—_Ft. St. Geo. Consn._, Feb. 16. In _Notes and Exts._ No. I. p. 43.

1677-78.—"... That except by the Members of this Councell, those that have formerly been in that quality, Cheefes of Factorys, Commanders of Shipps out of England, and the Chaplains, RUNDELLS shall not be worne by any Men in this Towne, and by no Woman below the Degree of Factors' Wives and Ensigns' Wives, except by such as the Governour shall permit."—_Madras Standing Orders_, in _Wheeler_, iii. 438.

1680.—"To Verona (the Company's Chief Merchant)'s adopted son was given the name of Muddoo Verona, and a RUNDELL to be carried over him, in respect to the memory of Verona, eleven cannon being fired, that the Towne and Country might take notice of the honour done them."—_Ft. St. Geo. Consn._ In _Notes and Exts._ No. II. p. 15.

1716.—"All such as serve under the Honourable Company and the English Inhabitants, deserted their Employs; such as Cooks, Water bearers, Coolies, Palankeen-boys, ROUNDEL men...."—In _Wheeler_, ii. 230.

1726.—"Whenever the magnates go on a journey they go not without a considerable train, being attended by their pipers, horn-blowers, and RONDEL bearers, who keep them from the Sun with a RONDEL (which is a kind of little round sunshade)."—_Valentijn, Chor._ 54.

" "Their Priests go like the rest clothed in yellow, but with the right arm and breast remaining uncovered. They also carry a RONDEL, or parasol, of a _Tallipot_ (see TALIPOT) leaf...."—_Ibid._ v. (_Ceylon_), 408.

1754.—"Some years before our arrival in the country, they (the E. I. Co.) found such sumptuary laws so absolutely necessary, that they gave the strictest orders that none of these young gentlemen should be allowed even to hire a ROUNDEL-BOY, whose business it is to walk by his master, and defend him with his ROUNDEL or Umbrella from the heat of the sun. A young fellow of humour, upon this last order coming over, altered the form of his Umbrella from a round to a square, called it a _Squaredel_ instead of a ROUNDEL, and insisted that no order yet in force forbad him the use of it."—_Ives_, 21.

1785.—"He (Clive) enforced the Sumptuary laws by severe penalties, and gave the strictest orders that none of these young gentlemen should be allowed even to have a ROUNDEL-BOY, whose business is to walk by his master, and defend him with his ROUNDEL or umbrella from the heat of the sun."—_Carraccioli_, i. 283. This ignoble writer has evidently copied from Ives, and applied the passage (untruly, no doubt) to Clive.

ROWANNAH, s. Hind. from Pers. _rawānah_, from _rawā_, 'going.' A pass or permit.

[1764.—"... that the English shall carry on their trade ... free from all duties ... excepting the article of salt, ... on which a duty is to be levied on the ROWANA or Houghly market-price...."—_Letter from Court_, in _Verelst, View of Bengal_, App. 127.]

ROWCE, s. Hind. _raus_, _rois_, _rauns_. A Himālayan tree which supplies excellent straight and strong alpenstocks and walking-sticks, _Cotoneaster bacillaris_, Wall., also _C. acuminata_ (N.O. _Rosaceae_). [See Watt, _Econ. Dict._ ii. 581.]

1838.—"We descended into the KHUD, and I was amusing myself jumping from rock to rock, and thus passing up the centre of the brawling mountain stream, aided by my long _pahārī_ pole of ROUS wood."—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 241; [also i. 112].

ROWNEE, s.

A. A fausse-braye, _i.e._ a subsidiary enceinte surrounding a fortified place on the outside of the proper wall and on the edge of the ditch; Hind. _raonī_. The word is not in Shakespear, Wilson, Platts or Fallon. But it occurs often in the narratives of Anglo-Indian siege operations. The origin of the word is obscure. [Mr. Irvine suggests Hind. _rūndhnā_, 'to enclose as with a hedge,' and says: "Fallon evidently knew nothing of the word _raunī_, for in his _E. H. Dict._ he translates fausse-braye by _dhus, mattī kā pushtah_; which also shows that he had no definite idea of what a fausse-braye was, _dhus_ meaning simply an earthen or mud fort." Dr. Grierson suggests Hind. _ramanā_, 'a park,' of which the fem., _i.e._ diminutive, would be _ramanī_ or _rāonī_; or possibly the word may come from Hind. _rev_, Skt. _reṇu_, 'sand,' meaning "an entrenchment of sand."]

1799.—"On the 20th I ordered a mine to be carried under (the glacis) because the guns could not bear on the ROUNEE."—_Jas. Skinner's Mil. Memoirs_, i. 172. J. B. Fraser, the editor of Skinner, parenthetically interprets _rounee_ here as 'counterscarp'; but that is nonsense, as well as incorrect.

[1803.—Writing of Hathras, "RENNY wall, with a deep, broad, dry ditch behind it surrounds the fort."—_W. Thorn, Mem. of the War in India_, p. 400.]

1805.—In a work by Major L. F. Smith (_Sketch of the Rise, &c., of the Regular Corps in the Service of the Native Princes of India_) we find a plan of the attack of Aligarh, in which is marked "Lower Fort or RENNY, well supplied with grape," and again, "Lower Fort, RENNY or Faussebraye."

[1819.—"... they saw the necessity of covering the foot of the wall from an enemy's fire, and formed a defence, similar to our fausse-braye, which they call RAINEE."—_Fitzclarence, Journal of a Route to England_, p. 245; also see 110.]

B. This word also occurs as representative of the Burmese _yo-wet-ni_, or (in Arakan pron.) _ro-wet-ni_, 'red-leaf,' the technical name of the standard silver of the Burmese ingot currency, commonly rendered FLOWERED-SILVER.

1796.—"ROUNI or fine silver, Ummerapoora currency."—_Notification_ in _Seton-Karr_, ii. 179.

1800.—"The quantity of alloy varies in the silver current in different parts of the empire; at Rangoon it is adulterated 25 per cent.; at Ummerapoora, pure, or what is called FLOWERED SILVER, is most common; in the latter all duties are paid. The modifications are as follows:

"ROUNI, or pure silver. _Rounika_, 5 per cent. of alloy." _Symes_, 327.

ROWTEE, s. A kind of small tent with pyramidal roof, and no projection of fly, or eaves. Hind. _rāoṭī_.

[1813.—"... the military men, and others attached to the camp, generally possess a dwelling of somewhat more comfortable description, regularly made of two or three folds of cloth in thickness, closed at one end, and having a flap to keep out the wind and rain at the opposite one: these are dignified with the name of RUOTEES, and come nearer (than the PAWL) to our ideas of a tent."—_Broughton, Letters_, ed. _Constable_, p. 20.

[1875.—"For the servants I had a good RAUTI of thick lined cloth."—_Wilson, Abode of Snow_, 90.]

ROY, s. A common mode of writing the title _rāī_ (see RAJA); which sometimes occurs also as a family name, as in that of the famous Hindu Theist Rammohun ROY.

ROZA, s. Ar. _rauḍa_, Hind. _rauẓa_. Properly a garden; among the Arabs especially the _rauḍa_ of the great mosque at Medina. In India it is applied to such mausolea as the TAJ (generally called by the natives the _Tāj-rauẓa_); and the mausoleum built by Aurungzīb near Aurungābād.

1813.—"... the ROZA, a name for the mausoleum, but implying something saintly or sanctified."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ iv. 41; [2nd ed. ii. 413].

ROZYE, s. Hind. _raẓāī_ and _rajāī_; a coverlet quilted with cotton. The etymology is very obscure. It is spelt in Hind. with the Ar. letter _zwād_; and F. Johnson gives a Persian word so spelt as meaning 'a cover for the head in winter.' The kindred meaning of _mirzāī_ is apt to suggest a connection between the two, but this may be accidental, or the latter word factitious. We can see no likelihood in Shakespear's suggestion that it is a corruption of an alleged Skt. _raṅjika_, 'cloth.' [Platts gives the same explanation, adding "probably through Pers. _razā'i_, from _razīdan_, 'to dye.'"] The most probable suggestion perhaps is that _raẓāī_ was a word taken from the name of some person called _Raẓā_, who may have invented some variety of the article; as in the case of _Spencer_, _Wellingtons_, &c. A somewhat obscure quotation from the Pers. Dict. called _Bahār-i-Ajam_, extracted by Vüllers (s.v.), seems to corroborate the suggestion of a _personal_ origin of the word.

1784.—"I have this morning ... received a letter from the Prince addressed to you, with a present of a REZY and a shawl handkerchief."—_Warren Hastings to his Wife_, in _Busteed, Echoes of Old Calcutta_, 195.

1834.—"I arrived in a small open pavilion at the top of the building, in which there was a small Brahminy cow, clothed in a wadded RESAI, and lying upon a carpet."—_Mem. of Col. Mountain_, 135.

1857.—(Imports into Kandahar, from Mashad and Khorasan) "RAZAIES from Yezd...."—_Punjab Trade Report_, App. p. lxviii.

1867.—"I had brought with me a soft quilted REZAI to sleep on, and with a rug wrapped round me, and sword and pistol under my head, I lay and thought long and deeply upon my line of action on the morrow."—_Lieut.-Col. Lewin, A Fly on the Wheel_, 301.

RUBBEE, s. Ar. _rabi_, 'the Spring.' In India applied to the crops, or harvest of the crops, which are sown after the rains and reaped in the following spring or early summer. Such crops are wheat, barley, GRAM, linseed, tobacco, onions, carrots and turnips, &c. (See KHURREEF.)

[1765.—"... we have granted them the Dewannee (see DEWAUNY) of the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, from the beginning of the Fussul RUBBY of the Bengal year 1172...."—_Firmaun of Shah Aaalum_, in _Verelst, View of Bengal_, App. 167.

[1866.—"It was in the month of November, when, if the rains closed early, irrigation is resorted to for producing the young RUBBEE crops."—_Confessions of an Orderly_, 179.]

RUBLE, s. Russ. The silver unit of Russian currency, when a coin (not paper) equivalent to 3_s._ 1½_d._; [in 1901 about 2_s._ 1½_d._]. It was originally a silver ingot; see first quotation and note below.

1559.—"Vix centum annos vtuntur moneta argentea, praesertim apud illos cusa. Initio cum argentum in provinciam inferebatur, fundebantur portiunculae oblongae argenteae, sine imagine et scriptura, aestimatione vnius RUBLI, quarum nulla nunc apparet."[233]—_Herberstein_, in _Rerum Moscovit. Auctores_, Francof. 1600, p. 42.

1591.—"This penaltie or mulct is 20 _dingoes_ (see TANGA) or pence upon every RUBBLE or mark, and so ten in the hundred.... Hee (the Emperor) hath besides for every name conteyned in the writs that passe out of their courts, five _alteens_, an alteen 5 pence sterling or thereabouts."—_Treatise of the Russian Commonwealth_, by _Dr. Giles Fletcher_, Hak. Soc. 51.

c. 1654-6.—"Dog dollars they (the Russians) are not acquainted with, these being attended with loss ... their own _dínárs_ they call ROUBLES."—_Macarius_, E.T. by _Balfour_, i. 280.

[RUFFUGUR, s. P.—H. _rafūgar_, Pers. _rafū_, 'darning.' The modern _rafūgar_ in Indian cities is a workman who repairs rents and holes in Kashmīr shawls and other woollen fabrics. Such workmen were regularly employed in the cloth factories of the E.I. Co., to examine the manufactured cloths and remove petty defects in the weaving.

1750.—"On inspecting the Dacca goods, we found the Seerbetties (see PIECE-GOODS) very much frayed and very badly RAFFA-GURR'D or joined."—_Bengal Letter to E.I. Co._, Feb. 25, India Office MSS.

1851.—"RAFU-GARS are darners, who repair the cloths that have been damaged during bleaching. They join broken threads, remove knots from threads, &c."—_Taylor, Cotton Manufacture of Dacca_, 97.]

RUM, s. This is not an Indian word. The etymology is given by Wedgwood as from a slang word of the 16th century, _rome_ for 'good'; _rome-booze_, 'good drink'; and so, _rum_. The English word has always with us a note of vulgarity, but we may note here that Gorresio in his Italian version of the Rāmāyaṇa, whilst describing the Palace of Rāvaṇa, is bold enough to speak of its being pervaded by "an odoriferous breeze, perfumed with sandalwood, and bdellium, with _rum_ and with sirop" (iii. 292). "Mr. N. Darnell Davis has put forth a derivation of the word _rum_, which gives the only probable history of it. It came from Barbados, where the planters first distilled it, somewhere between 1640 and 1645. A MS. 'Description of Barbados,' in Trinity College, Dublin, written about 1651, says: 'The chief fudling they make in the Island is _Rumbullion_, alias _Kill-Divil_, and this is made of sugar-canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liqour.' G. Warren's _Description of Surinam_, 1661, shows the word in its present short term: 'RUM is a spirit extracted from the juice of sugar-canes ... called _Kill-Devil_ in New England!' '_Rambullion_' is a Devonshire word, meaning 'a great tumult,' and may have been adopted from some of the Devonshire settlers in Barbados; at any rate, little doubt can exist that it has given rise to our word RUM, and the longer name _rumbowling_, which sailors give to their grog."—_Academy_, Sept. 5, 1885.

RUM-JOHNNY, s. Two distinct meanings are ascribed to this vulgar word, both, we believe, obsolete.

A. It was applied, according to Williamson, (_V.M._, i. 167) to a low class of native servants who plied on the wharves of Calcutta in order to obtain employment from new-comers. That author explains it as a corruption of _Ramaẓānī_, which he alleges to be one of the commonest of Mahommedan names. [The _Meery-jhony Gully_ of Calcutta (_Carey, Good Old Days_, i. 139) perhaps in the same way derived its name from one _Mīr Jān_.]

1810.—"Generally speaking, the present _banians_, who attach themselves to the captains of European ships, may without the least hazard of controversion, be considered as nothing more or less than RUM-JOHNNIES 'of a larger growth.'"—_Williamson, V.M._, i. 191.

B. Among soldiers and sailors, 'a prostitute'; from Hind. _rāmjanī_, Skt. _rāmā-janī_, 'a pleasing woman,' 'a dancing-girl.'

[1799.—"... and the RÁMJENÍS (Hindu dancing women) have been all day dancing and singing before the idol."—_Colebrooke_, in _Life_, 153.]

1814.—"I lived near four years within a few miles of the solemn groves where those voluptuous devotees pass their lives with the RAMJANNIES or dancing-girls attached to the temples, in a sort of luxurious superstition and sanctified indolence unknown in colder climates."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ iii. 6; [2nd ed. ii. 127].

[1816.—"But we must except that class of females called RAVJANNEES, or dancing-girls, who are attached to the temples."—_Asiatic Journal_, ii. 375, quoting _Wathen, Tour to Madras and China_.]

RUMNA, s. Hind. _ramnā_, Skt. _ramaṇa_, 'causing pleasure,' a chase, or reserved hunting-ground.

1760.—"Abdal Chab Cawn murdered at the RUMNA in the month of March, 1760, by some of the Hercarahs...."—_Van Sittart_, i. 63.

1792.—"The Peshwa having invited me to a novel spectacle at his RUNMA (read _rumna_), or park, about four miles from Poonah...."—_Sir C. Malet_, in _Forbes, Or. Mem._ [2nd ed. ii. 82]. (See also verses quoted under PAWNEE.)

RUNN (OF CUTCH), n.p. Hind. _raṇ_. This name, applied to the singular extent of sand-flat and salt-waste, often covered by high tides, or by land-floods, which extends between the Peninsula of Cutch and the mainland, is a corruption of the Skt. _iriṇa_ or _īriṇa_, 'a salt-swamp, a desert,' [or of _araṇya_, 'a wilderness']. The Runn is first mentioned in the _Periplus_, in which a true indication is given of this tract and its dangers.

c. A.D. 80-90.—"But after passing the Sinthus R. there is another gulph running to the north, not easily seen, which is called IRINON, and is distinguished into the Great and the Little. And there is an expanse of shallow water on both sides, and swift continual eddies extending far from the land."—_Periplus_, § 40.

c. 1370.—"The guides had maliciously misled them into a place called the KÚNCHIRAN. In this place all the land is impregnated with salt, to a degree impossible to describe."—_Shams-i-Síráj-Afíf_, in _Elliot_, iii. 324.

1583.—"Muzaffar fled, and crossed the RAN, which is an inlet of the sea, and took the road to Jessalmír. In some places the breadth of the water of the RAN is 10 _kos_ and 20 _kos_. He went into the country which they call KACH, on the other side of the water."—_Tabaḳāt-i-Akbarī_, _Ibid._ v. 440.

c. 1590.—"Between Chalwaneh, Sircar Ahmedabad, Putten, and Surat, is a low tract of country, 90 cose in length, and in breadth from 7 to 30 cose, which is called RUN. Before the commencement of the periodical rains, the sea swells and inundates this spot, and leaves by degrees after the rainy season."—_Ayeen_, ed. _Gladwin_, 1800, ii. 71; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 249].

1849.—"On the morning of the 24th I embarked and landed about 6 p.m. in the RUNN of Sindh.

"... a boggie syrtis, neither sea Nor good dry land ..." _Dry Leaves from Young Egypt_, 14.

RUPEE, s. Hind. _rūpiya_, from Skt. _rūpya_, 'wrought silver.' The standard coin of the Anglo-Indian monetary system, as it was of the Mahommedan Empire that preceded ours. It is commonly stated (as by Wilson, in his article on this word, which contains much valuable and condensed information) that the rupee was introduced by Sher Shāh (in 1542). And this is, no doubt, formally true; but it is certain that a coin substantially identical with the rupee, _i.e._ approximating to a standard of 100 _ratis_ (or 175 grains troy) of silver, an ancient Hindu standard, had been struck by the Mahommedan sovereigns of Delhi in the 13th and 14th centuries, and had formed an important part of their currency. In fact, the capital coins of Delhi, from the time of Iyaltimish (A.D. 1211-1236) to the accession of Mahommed Tughlak (1325) were gold and silver pieces, respectively of the weight just mentioned. We gather from the statements of Ibn Batuta and his contemporaries that the gold coin, which the former generally calls TANGA and sometimes _gold_ DĪNĀR, was worth 10 of the silver coin, which he calls DĪNĀR, thus indicating that the relation of gold to silver value was, or had recently been, as 10 : 1. Mahommed Tughlak remodelled the currency, issuing gold pieces of 200 grs. and silver pieces of 140 grs.—an indication probably of a great "depreciation of gold" (to use our modern language) consequent on the enormous amount of gold bullion obtained from the plunder of Western and Southern India. Some years later (1330) Mahommed developed his notable scheme of a forced currency, consisting entirely of copper tokens. This threw everything into confusion, and it was not till six years later that any sustained issues of ordinary coin were recommenced. From about this time the old standard of 175 grs. was readopted for gold, and was maintained till the time of Sher Shāh. But it does not appear that the old standard was then resumed for silver. In the reign of Mahommed's successor Feroz Shāh, Mr. E. Thomas's examples show the gold coin of 175 grs. standard running parallel with continued issues of a silver (or professedly silver) coin of 140 grs.; and this, speaking briefly, continued to be the case to the end of the Lodi dynasty (_i.e._ 1526). The coinage seems to have sunk into a state of great irregularity, not remedied by Baber (who struck _ashrafīs_ (see ASHRAFEE) and _dirhams_, such as were used in Turkestan) or Humāyūn, but the reform of which was undertaken by Sher Shāh, as above mentioned.

His silver coin of 175-178 grs. was that which popularly obtained the name of _rūpiya_, which has continued to our day. The weight, indeed, of the coins so styled, never very accurate in native times, varied in different States, and the purity varied still more. The former never went very far on either side of 170 grs., but the quantity of pure silver contained in it sunk in some cases as low as 140 grs., and even, in exceptional cases, to 100 grs. Variation however was not confined to native States. Rupees were struck in Bombay at a very early date of the British occupation. Of these there are four specimens in the Br. Mus. The first bears _obv._ 'THE RVPEE OF BOMBAIM. 1677. BY AUTHORITY OF CHARLES THE SECOND' _rev._ 'KING OF GREAT BRITAINE . FRANCE . AND . IRELAND .' Wt. 167.8 gr. The fourth bears _obv._ 'HON . SOC . ANG . IND . ORI.' with a shield; _rev._ 'A . DEO . PAX . ET . INCREMENTUM:—MON . BOMBAY . ANGLIC . REGIM^S. A^o 7^o.' Weight 177.8 gr. Different _Rupees_ minted by the British Government were current in the three Presidencies, and in the Bengal Presidency several were current; viz. the _Sikka_ (see SICCA) Rupee, which latterly weighed 192 grs., and contained 176 grs. of pure silver; the _Farrukhābād_, which latterly weighed 180 grs.,[234] containing 165.215 of pure silver; the _Benares_ Rupee (up to 1819), which weighed 174.76 grs., and contained 168.885 of pure silver. Besides these there was the _Chalānī_ or 'current' rupee of account, in which the Company's accounts were kept, of which 116 were equal to 100 _sikkas_. ["The _bharī_ or Company's Arcot rupee was coined at Calcutta, and was in value 3½ per cent. less than the Sikka rupee" (_Beveridge, Bakarganj_, 99).] The Bombay Rupee was adopted from that of Surat, and from 1800 its weight was 178.32 grs.; its pure silver 164.94. The Rupee at Madras (where however the standard currency was of an entirely different character, see PAGODA) was originally that of the Nawāb of the Carnatic (or 'Nabob of Arcot') and was usually known as the _Arcot_ Rupee. We find its issues varying from 171 to 177 grs. in weight, and from 160 to 170 of pure silver; whilst in 1811 there took place an abnormal coinage, from Spanish dollars, of rupees with a weight of 188 grs. and 169.20 of pure silver.

Also from some reason or other, perhaps from commerce between those places and the 'COAST,' the Chittagong and Dacca currency (_i.e._ in the extreme east of Bengal) "formerly consisted of Arcot rupees; and they were for some time coined expressly for those districts at the Calcutta and Dacca Mints." (!) (_Prinsep, Useful Tables_, ed. by _E. Thomas_, 24.)

These examples will give some idea of the confusion that prevailed (without any reference to the vast variety besides of native coinages), but the subject is far too complex to be dealt with minutely in the space we can afford to it in such a work as this. The first step to reform and assimilation took place under Regulation VII. of 1833, but this still maintained the exceptional SICCA in Bengal, though assimilating the rupees over the rest of India. The _Sicca_ was abolished as a coin by Act XIII. of 1836; and the universal rupee of British territory has since been the "Company's Rupee," as it was long called, of 180 grs. weight and 165 pure silver, representing therefore in fact the _Farrukhābād_ Rupee.

1610.—"This armie consisted of 100,000 horse at the least, with infinite number of Camels and Elephants: so that with the whole baggage there could not bee lesse than fiue or sixe hundred thousand persons, insomuch that the waters were not sufficient for them; a MUSSOCKE (see MUSSUCK) of water being sold for a RUPIA, and yet not enough to be had."—_Hawkins_, in _Purchas_, i. 427.

[1615.—"ROUPIES Jangers (_Jahāngīrī_) of 100 _pisas_, which goeth four for five ordinary roupies of 80 _pisas_ called _Cassanes_ (see KUZZANNA), and we value them at 2_s._ 4_d._ per piece: _Cecaus_ (see SICCA) of Amadavrs which goeth for 86 _pisas_; _Challennes_ of Agra, which goeth for 83 _pisas_."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 87.]

1616.—"RUPIAS monetae genus est, quarum singulae xxvi assibus gallicis aut circiter aequivalent."—_Jarric_, iii. 83.

" "... As for his Government of Patan onely, he gave the King eleven Leckes of RUPIAS (the RUPIA is two shillings, twopence sterling) ... wherein he had Regall Authoritie to take what he list, which was esteemed at five thousand horse, the pay of every one at two hundred Rupias by the yeare."—_Sir T. Roe,_ in _Purchas,_ i. 548; [Hak. Soc. i. 239, with some differences of reading].

" "They call the peeces of money ROOPEES, of which there are some of divers values, the meanest worth two shillings and threepence, and the best two shillings and ninepence sterling."—_Terry_, in _Purchas_, ii. 1471.

[ " "This money, consisting of the two-shilling pieces of this country called ROOPEAS."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 229.]

1648.—"Reducing the ROPIE to four and twenty Holland Stuyvers."—_Van Twist_, 26.

1653.—"ROUPIE est vne mõnoye des Indes de la valeur de 30_s._" (_i.e._ _sous_).—_De la Boullaye-le-Gouz_, ed. 1657, p. 355.

c. 1666.—"And for a ROUPY (in Bengal) which is about half a Crown, you may have 20 good Pullets and more; Geese and Ducks, in proportion."—_Bernier_, E.T. p. 140; [ed. _Constable_, 438].

1673.—"The other was a Goldsmith, who had coined copper RUPEES."—_Fryer_, 97.

1677.—"We do, by these Presents ... give and grant unto the said Governor and Company ... full and free Liberty, Power, and Authority ... to stamp and coin ... Monies, to be called and known by the Name or Names of RUPEES, PICES, and BUDGROOKS, or by such other Name or Names ..."—_Letters Patent of Charles II._ In _Charters of the E.I. Co._, p. 111.

1771.—"We fear the worst however; that is, that the Government are about to interfere with the Company in the management of Affairs in India. Whenever that happens it will be high Time for us to decamp. I know the Temper of the King's Officers pretty well, and however they may decry our manner of acting they are ready enough to grasp at the RUPEES whenever they fall within their Reach."—_MS. Letter of James Rennell_, March 31.

RUSSUD, s. Pers. _rasad_. The provisions of grain, forage, and other necessaries got ready by the local officers at the camping ground of a military force or official cortège. The vernacular word has some other technical meanings (see _Wilson_), but this is its meaning in an Anglo-Indian mouth.

[c. 1640-50.—RASAD. (See under TANA.)]

RUT, s. Hind. _rath_, 'a chariot.' Now applied to a native carriage drawn by a pony, or oxen, and used by women on a journey. Also applied to the car in which idols are carried forth on festival days. [See ROOK.]

[1810-17.—"Tippoo's AUMIL ... wanted iron, and determined to supply himself from the RUT, (a temple of carved wood fixed on wheels, drawn in procession on public occasions, and requiring many thousand persons to effect its movement)."—_Wilks, Sketches_, Madras reprint, ii. 281.

[1813.—"In this camp HACKERIES and RUTHS, as they are called when they have four wheels, are always drawn by bullocks, and are used, almost exclusively, by the _Baees_, the Nach girls, and the bankers."—_Broughton, Letters_, ed. 1892, p. 117.]

1829.—"This being the case I took the liberty of taking the RUT and horse to camp as prize property."—_Mem. of John Shipp_, ii. 183.

RUTTEE, RETTEE, s. Hind. _rattī_, _ratī_, Skt. _raktikā_, from _rakta_, 'red.' The seed of a leguminous creeper (_Abrus precatorius_, L.) sometimes called country liquorice—a pretty scarlet pea with a black spot—used from time immemorial in India as a goldsmith's weight, and known in England as 'Crab's eyes.' Mr. Thomas has shown that the ancient _rattī_ may be taken as equal to 1.75 grs. Troy (_Numismata Orientalia_, New ed., Pt. I. pp. 12-14). This work of Mr. Thomas's contains interesting information regarding the old Indian custom of basing standard weights upon the weight of seeds, and we borrow from his paper the following extract from Manu (viii. 132): "The very small mote which may be discerned in a sunbeam passing through a lattice is the first of quantities, and men call it a _trasareṇu_. 133. Eight of these _trasareṇus_ are supposed equal in weight to one minute poppy-seed (_likhyá_), three of those seeds are equal to one black mustard-seed (_raja-sarshapa_), and three of these last to a white mustard-seed (_gaura-sarshapa_). 134. Six white mustard-seeds are equal to a middle-sized barley-corn (_yava_), three such barley-corns to one _krishṇala_ (or RAKTIKA), five _krishṇalas_ of gold are one _másha_, and sixteen such _máshas_ one _suvarna_," &c. (_ibid._ p. 13). In the _Āīn_, Abul Faẓl calls the RATTI _surkh_, which is a translation (Pers. for 'red'). In Persia the seed is called _chashm-i-khurūs_, 'Cock's eye' (see _Blochmann's_ E.T., i. 16 n., and _Jarrett_, ii. 354). Further notices of the _ratī_ used as a weight for precious stones will be found in Sir W. Elliot's _Coins of Madras_ (p. 49). Sir Walter's experience is that the _ratī_ of the gem-dealers is a _double ratī_, and an approximation to the _maṇjāḍi_ (see MANGELIN). This accounts for Tavernier's valuation at 3½ grs. [Mr. Ball gives the weight at 2.66 Troy grs. (_Tavernier_, ii. 448).]

c. 1676.—"At the mine of _Soumelpour_ in _Bengala_, they weigh by RATI'S, and the RATI is seven eighths of a Carat, or three grains and a half."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 140; [ed. _Ball_, ii. 89].

RYOT, s. Ar. _ra'īyat_, from _ra'ā_, 'to pasture,' meaning originally, according to its etymology, 'a herd at pasture'; but then 'subjects' (collectively). It is by natives used for 'a subject' in India, but its specific Anglo-Indian application is to 'a tenant of the soil'; an individual occupying land as a farmer or cultivator. In Turkey the word, in the form _raiya_, is applied to the Christian subjects of the Porte, who are not liable to the conscription, but pay a poll-tax in lieu, the _Kharāj_, or _Jizya_ (see JEZYA).

[1609.—"RIATS or clownes." (See under DOAI.)]

1776.—"For some period after the creation of the world there was neither Magistrate nor Punishment ... and the RYOTS were nourished with piety and morality."—_Halhed, Gentoo Code_, 41.

1789.—

"To him in a body the RYOTS complain'd That their houses were burnt, and their cattle distrain'd." _The Letters of Simpkin the Second_, &c. 11.

1790.—"A RAIYOT is rather a farmer than a husbandman."—_Colebrooke_, in _Life_, 42.

1809.—"The RYOTS were all at work in their fields."—_Lord Valentia_, ii. 127.

1813.—

"And oft around the cavern fire On visionary schemes debate, To snatch the RAYAHS from their fate." _Byron, Bride of Abydos._

1820.—"An acquaintance with the customs of the inhabitants, but

## particularly of the RAYETS, the various tenures ... the agreements usual

among them regarding cultivation, and between them and soucars (see SOWCAR) respecting loans and advances ... is essential to a judge."—_Sir T. Munro_, in _Life_, ii. 17.

1870.—"RYOT is a word which is much ... misused. It is Arabic, but no doubt comes through the Persian. It means 'protected one,' 'subject,' 'a commoner,' as distinguished from '_Raees_' or 'noble.' In a native mouth, to the present day, it is used in this sense, and not in that of tenant."—_Systems of Land Tenure_ (Cobden Club), 166.

The title of a newspaper, in English but of native editing, published for some years back in Calcutta, corresponds to what is here said; it is _Raees and_ RAIYAT.

1877.—"The great financial distinction between the followers of Islam ... and the RAYAHS or infidel subjects of the Sultan, was the payment of _haratch_ or capitation tax."—_Finlay, H. of Greece_, v. 22 (ed. 1877).

1884.—"Using the rights of conquest after the fashion of the Normans in England, the Turks had everywhere, except in the Cyclades, ... seized on the greater part of the most fertile lands. Hence they formed the landlord class of Greece; whilst the RAYAHS, as the Turks style their non-Mussulman subjects, usually farmed the territories of their masters on the _metayer_ system."—_Murray's Handbook for Greece_ (by A. F. Yule), p. 54.

RYOTWARRY, adj. A technicality of modern coinage. Hind. from Pers. _ra'iyatwār_, formed from the preceding. The _ryotwarry_ system is that under which the settlement for land revenue is made directly by the Government agency with each individual cultivator holding land, not with the village community, nor with any middleman or landlord, payment being also received directly from every such individual. It is the system which chiefly prevails in the Madras Presidency; and was elaborated there in its present form mainly by Sir T. Munro.

1824.—"It has been objected to the RYOTWÁRI system that it produces unequal assessment and destroys ancient rights and privileges: but these opinions seem to originate in some misapprehension of its nature."—_Minutes_, &c., of _Sir T. Munro_, i. 265. We may observe that the spelling here is not Munro's. The Editor, Sir A. Arbuthnot, has followed a system (see Preface, p. x.); and we see in _Gleig's Life_ (iii. 355) that Munro wrote 'RAYETWAR.'

S

SABAIO, ÇABAIO, &c., n.p. The name generally given by the Portuguese writers to the Mahommedan prince who was in possession of Goa when they arrived in India, and who had lived much there. He was in fact that one of the captains of the Bāhmanī kingdom of the Deccan who, in the division that took place on the decay of the dynasty towards the end of the 15th century, became the founder of the 'Adil Shāhī family which reigned in Bijapur from 1489 to the end of the following century (see IDALCAN). His real name was Abdul Muẓaffar Yūsuf, with the surname _Sabāī_ or _Savāī_. There does not seem any ground for rejecting the intelligent statement of De Barros (II. v. 2) that he had this name from being a native of _Sāvā_ in Persia [see _Bombay Gazetteer_, xxiii. 404]. Garcia de Orta does not seem to have been aware of this history, and he derives the name from _Sāḥib_ (see below), apparently a mere guess, though not an unnatural one. Mr. Birch's surmise (_Alboquerque_, ii. 82), with these two old and obvious sources of suggestion before him, that "the word may possibly be connected with _sipāhī_, Arabic, a soldier," is quite inadmissible (nor is _sipāhī_ Arabic). [On this word Mr. Whiteway writes: "In his explanation of this word Sir H. Yule has been misled by Barros. Couto (Dec. iv. Bk. 10 ch. 4) is conclusive, where he says: 'This Çufo extended the limits of his rule as far as he could till he went in person to conquer the island of Goa, which was a valuable possession for its income, and was in possession of a lord of Canara, called _Savay_, a vassal of the King of Canara, who then had his headquarters at what we call Old Goa.... As there was much jungle here, _Savay_, the lord of Goa, had certain houses where he stayed for hunting.... These houses still preserve the memory of the Hindu _Savay_, as they are called the SAVAYO'S house, where for many years the Governors of India lived. As our João de Barros could not get true information of these things, he confounded the name of the Hindu _Savay_ with that of _Çufo_ (? Yūsuf) Adil Shāh, saying in the 5th Book of his 2nd Decade that when we went to India a Moor called SOAY was lord of Goa, that we ordinarily called him SABAYO, and that he was a vassal of the King of the Deccan, a Persian, and native of the city of _Sawa_. At this his sons laughed heartily when we read it to them, saying that their father was anything but a Turk, and his name anything but Çufo.' This passage makes it clear that the origin of the word is the Hindu title _Siwāī_, Hind. _Sawāī_, 'having the excess of a fourth,' 'a quarter better than other people,' which is one of the titles of the Mahārājā of Jaypur. To show that it was more or less well known, I may point to the little State of Sunda, which lay close to Goa on the S.E., of which the Rāja was of the Vijayanagar family. This little State became independent after the destruction of Vijayanagar, and remained in existence till absorbed by Tippoo Sultan. In this State _Siwāī_ was a common honorific of the ruling family. At the same time Barros was not alone in calling Adil Shāh the SABAIO (see _Alboquerque, Cartas_, p. 24), where the name occurs. The mistake having been made, everyone accepted it."]

There is a story, related as unquestionable by Firishta, that the Sabaio was in reality a son of the Turkish Sultan Agā Murād (or 'Amurath') II., who was saved from murder at his father's death, and placed in the hands of 'Imād-ud-dīn, a Persian merchant of Sāvā, by whom he was brought up. In his youth he sought his fortune in India, and being sold as a slave, and going through a succession of adventures, reached his high position in the Deccan (_Briggs, Firishta_, iii. 7-8).

1510.—"But when Afonso Dalboquerque took Goa, it would be about 40 years more or less since the ÇABAIO had taken it from the Hindoos."—_Dalboquerque_, ii. 96.

" "In this island (Goa called _Goga_) there is a fortress near the sea, walled round after our manner, in which there is sometimes a captain called SAVAIU, who has 400 Mamelukes, he himself being also a Mameluke...."—_Varthema_, 116.

1516.—"Going further along the coast there is a very beautiful river, which sends two arms into the sea, making between them an island, on which stands the city of Goa belonging to _Daquem_ (DECCAN), and it was a principality of itself with other districts adjoining in the interior; and in it there was a great Lord, as vassal of the said King (of Deccan) called SABAYO, who being a good soldier, well mannered and experienced in war, this lordship of Goa was bestowed upon him, that he might continually make war on the King of Narsinga, as he did until his death. And then he left this city to his son ÇABAYM HYDALÇAN...."—_Barros_, Lisbon ed. 287.

1563.—"_O._ ... And returning to our subject, as Adel in Persian means 'justice,' they called the prince of these territories _Adelham_, as it were 'Lord of Justice.'

"_R._ A name highly inappropriate, for neither he nor the rest of them are wont to do justice. But tell me also why in Spain they call him the SABAIO?

"_O._ Some have told me that he was so called because they used to call a Captain by this name; but I afterwards came to know that in fact _saibo_ in Arabic means 'lord.'..."—_Garcia_, f. 36.

SABLE-FISH. See HILSA.

SADRAS, SADRASPATÁM, n.p. This name of a place 42 m. south of Madras, the seat of an old Dutch factory, was probably shaped into the usual form in a sort of conformity with MADRAS or _Madraspatam_. The correct name is _Sadurai_, but it is sometimes made into _Sadrang-_ and _Shatranj-patam_. [The _Madras Gloss._ gives _Tam. Shathurangappaṭanam_, Skt. _chatur-anga_, 'the four military arms, infantry, cavalry, elephants and cars.'] Fryer (p. 28) calls it _Sandraslapatam_, which is probably a misprint for _Sandrastapatam_.

1672.—"From Tirepoplier you come ... to SADRASPATAM, where our people have a Factory."—_Baldaeus_, 152.

1726.—"The name of the place is properly SADRANGAPATAM; but for short it is also called SADRAMPATAM, and most commonly SADRASPATAM. In the Tellinga it indicates the name of the founder, and in Persian it means 'thousand troubles' or the Shah-board which we call chess."—_Valentijn, Choromandel_, 11. The curious explanation of _Shatranj_ or 'chess,' as 'a thousand troubles,' is no doubt some popular etymology; such as P. _sad-ranj_, 'a hundred griefs.' The word is really of Sanskrit origin, from _Chaturangam_, literally, 'quadripartite'; the four constituent parts of an army, viz. horse, foot, chariots and elephants.

[1727.—"SADERASS, or SADERASS PATAM." (See under LONG-CLOTH.)]

c. 1780.—"J'avois pensé que SADRAS auroit été le lieu où devoient finir mes contrarietés et mes courses."—_Haafner_, i. 141.

" "'Non, je ne suis point Anglois,' m'écriai-je avec indignation et transport; 'je suis un Hollandois de SADRINGAPATNAM.'"—_Ibid._ 191.

1781.—"The chief officer of the French now despatched a summons to the English commandant of the Fort to surrender, and the commandant, not being of opinion he could resist ... evacuated the fort, and proceeded by sea in boats to SUDRUNG PUTTUN."—_H. of Hydur Naik_, 447.

SAFFLOWER, s. The flowers of the annual _Carthamus tinctorius_, L. (N.O. _Compositae_), a considerable article of export from India for use of a red dye, and sometimes, from the resemblance of the dried flowers to saffron, termed 'bastard saffron.' The colouring matter of safflower is the basis of _rouge_. The name is a curious modification of words by the 'striving after meaning.' For it points, in the first half of the name, to the analogy with saffron, and in the second half, to the object of trade being a flower. But neither one nor the other of these meanings forms any real element in the word. _Safflower_ appears to be an eventual corruption of the Arabic name of the thing, _'us̤fūr_. This word we find in medieval trade-lists (_e.g._ in Pegolotti) to take various forms such as _asfiore_, _asfrole_, _astifore_, _zaffrole_, _saffiore_; from the last of which the transition to _safflower_ is natural. In the old Latin translation of Avicenna it seems to be called _Crocus hortulanus_, for the corresponding Arabic is given _hasfor_. Another Arabic name for this article is _ḳurṭum_, which we presume to be the origin of the botanist's _carthamus_. In Hind. it is called _kusumbha_ or _kusum_. Bretschneider remarks that though the two plants, saffron and safflower, have not the slightest resemblance, and belong to two different families and classes of the nat. system, there has been a certain confusion between them among almost all nations, including the Chinese.

c. 1200.—"'USFUR ... _Abu Hanifa_. This plant yields a colouring matter, used in dyeing. There are two kinds, cultivated and wild, both of which grow in Arabia, and the seeds of which are called _al-ḳurṭum_."—_Ibn Baithar_, ii. 196.

c. 1343.—"AFFIORE vuol esser fresco, e asciutto, e colorito rosso in colore di buon zafferano, e non giallo, e chiaro a modo di femminella di zafferano, e che non sia trasandato, che quando è vecchio e trasandato si spolverizza, e fae vermini."—_Pegolotti_, 372.

1612.—"The two Indian ships aforesaid did discharge these goods following ... OOSFAR, which is a red die, great quantitie."—_Capt. Saris_, in _Purchas_, i. 347.

[1667-8.—"... madder, SAFFLOWER, argoll, castoreum...."—_List of Goods imported_, in _Birdwood, Report on Old Records_, 76.]

1810.—"Le safran bâtard ou carthame, nommé dans le commerce _safranon_, est appelé par les Arabes ... OSFOUR ou ... _Kortom_. Suivant M. Sonnini, le premier nom désigne la plante; et le second, ses graines."—_Silv. de Sacy_, Note on _Abdallatif_, p. 123.

1813.—"SAFFLOWER (_Cussom_, Hind., _Asfour_, Arab.) is the flower of an annual plant, the _Carthamus tinctorius_, growing in Bengal and other parts of India, which when well-cured is not easily distinguishable from saffron by the eye, though it has nothing of its smell or taste."—_Milburn_, ii. 238.

SAFFRON, s. Arab. _za'farān_. The true saffron (_Crocus sativus_, L.) in India is cultivated in Kashmīr only. In South India this name is given to _turmeric_, which the Portuguese called _açafrão da terra_ ('country saffron.') The Hind. name is _haldī_, or in the Deccan _halad_, [Skt. _haridra_, _hari_, 'green, yellow']. Garcia de Orta calls it _croco Indiaco_, 'Indian saffron.' Indeed, Dozy shows that the Arab. _kurkum_ for turmeric (whence the bot. Lat. _curcuma_) is probably taken from the Greek κρόκος or obl. κρόκον. Moodeen Sherif says that _kurkum_ is applied to saffron in many Persian and other writers.

c. 1200.—"The Persians call this root _al-Hard_, and the inhabitants of Basra call it _al-Kurkum_, and _al-Kurkum_ is SAFFRON. They call these plants SAFFRON because they dye yellow in the same way as Saffron does."—_Ibn Baithar_, ii. 370.

1563.—"_R._ Since there is nothing else to be said on this subject, let us speak of what we call 'country SAFFRON.'

"_O._ This is a medicine that should be spoken of, since it is in use by the Indian physicians; it is a medicine and article of trade much exported to Arabia and Persia. In this city (Goa) there is little of it, but much in Malabar, _i.e._ in Cananor and Calecut. The Canarins call the root _alad_; and the Malabars sometimes give it the same name, but more properly call it _mangale_, and the Malays _cunhet_; the Persians, _darzard_, which is as much as to say 'yellow-wood.' The Arabs call it _habet_; and all of them, each in turn, say that this saffron does not exist in Persia, nor in Arabia, nor in Turkey, except what comes from India."—_Garcia_, f. 78_v_. Further on he identifies it with _curcuma_.

1726.—"Curcuma, or Indian SAFFRON."—_Valentijn, Chor._ 42.

SAGAR-PESHA, s. Camp-followers, or the body of servants in a private establishment. The word, though usually pronounced in vulgar Hind. as written above, is Pers. _shāgird-pesha_ (lit. _shāgird_, 'a disciple, a servant,' and _pesha_, 'business').

[1767.—"SAGGUR DEPESSAH-pay...."—In _Long_, 513.]

SAGO, s. From Malay _sāgū_. The farinaceous pith taken out of the stem of several species of a particular genus of palm, especially _Metroxylon laeve_, Mart., and _M. Rumphii_, Willd., found in every part of the Indian Archipelago, including the Philippines, wherever there is proper soil. They are most abundant in the eastern part of the region indicated, including the Moluccas and N. Guinea, which probably formed the original habitat; and in these they supply the sole bread of the natives. In the remaining parts of the Archipelago, _sago_ is the food only of certain wild tribes, or consumed (as in Mindanao) by the poor only, or prepared (as at Singapore, &c.) for export. There are supposed to be five species producing the article.

1298.—"They have a kind of trees that produce flour, and excellent flour it is for food. These trees are very tall and thick, but have a very thin bark, and inside the bark they are crammed with flour."—_Marco Polo_, Bk. iii. ch. xi.

1330.—"But as for the trees which produce flour, tis after this fashion.... And the result is the best _pasta_ in the world, from which they make whatever they choose, cates of sorts, and excellent bread, of which I, Friar Odoric, have eaten."—_Fr. Odoric_, in _Cathay_, &c., 32.

1522.—"Their bread (in Tidore) they make of the wood of a certain tree like a palm-tree, and they make it in this way. They take a piece of this wood, and extract from it certain long black thorns which are situated there; then they pound it, and make bread of it which they call SAGU. They make provision of this bread for their sea voyages."—_Pigafetta_, Hak. Soc. p. 136. This is a bad description, and seems to refer to the SAGWIRE, not the true sago-tree.

1552.—"There are also other trees which are called ÇAGUS, from the pith of which bread is made."—_Castanheda_, vi. 24.

1553.—"Generally, although they have some millet and rice, all the people of the Isles of Maluco eat a certain food which they call SAGUM, which is the pith of a tree like a palm-tree, except that the leaf is softer and smoother, and the green of it is rather dark."—_Barros_, III. v. 5.

1579.—"... and a Kind of meale which they call SAGO, made of the toppes of certaine trees, tasting in the Mouth like some curds, but melts away like sugar."—_Drake's Voyage_, Hak. Soc. p. 142.

" Also in a list of "Certaine Wordes of the Naturall Language of Iaua"; "SAGU, bread of the Countrey."—_Hakl._ iv. 246.

c. 1690.—"Primo SAGUS genuina, Malaice SAGU, sive _Lapia tuni_, h.e. vera _Sagu_."—_Rumphius_, i. 75. (We cannot make out the language of _lapia tuni_.)

1727.—"And the inland people subsist mostly on SAGOW, the Pith of a small Twig split and dried in the Sun."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 93; [ed. 1744].

SAGWIRE, s. A name applied often in books, and, formerly at least, in the colloquial use of European settlers and traders, to the GOMUTI palm or _Arenga saccharifera_, Labill., which abounds in the Ind. Archipelago, and is of great importance in its rural economy. The name is Port. _sagueira_ (analogous to _palmeira_), in Span. of the Indies _saguran_, and no doubt is taken from _sagu_, as the tree, though not the SAGO-palm of commerce, affords a sago of inferior kind. Its most important product, however, is the sap, which is used as TODDY (q.v.), and which in former days also afforded almost all the sugar used by natives in the islands. An excellent cordage is made from a substance resembling black horse-hair, which is found between the trunk and the fronds, and this is the GOMUTI of the Malays, which furnished one of the old specific names (_Borassus Gomutus_, Loureiro). There is also found in a like position a fine cotton-like substance which makes excellent tinder, and strong stiff spines from which pens are made, as well as arrows for the blow-pipe, or Sumpitan (see SARBATANE). "The seeds have been made into a confection, whilst their pulpy envelope abounds in a poisonous juice—used in the barbarian wars of the natives—to which the Dutch gave the appropriate name of 'hell-water'" (_Crawfurd, Desc. Dict._ p. 145). The term _sagwire_ is sometimes applied to the toddy or palm-wine, as will be seen below.

1515.—"They use no sustenance except the meal of certain trees, which trees they call SAGUR, and of this they make bread."—_Giov. da Empoli_, 86.

1615.—"Oryza tamen magna hic copia, ingens etiam modus arborum quas SAGURAS vocant, quaeque varia suggerunt commoda."—_Jarric_, i. 201.

1631.—"... tertia frequens est in Banda ac reliquis insulis Moluccis, quae distillat ex arbore non absimili Palmae Indicae, isque potus indigenis SAGUËR vocatur...."—_Jac. Bontii, Dial._ iv. p. 9.

1784.—"The natives drink much of a liquor called SAGUIRE, drawn from the palm-tree."—_Forrest, Mergui_, 73.

1820.—"The Portuguese, I know not for what reason, and other European nations who have followed them, call the tree and the liquor SAGWIRE."—_Crawfurd, Hist._ i. 401.

SAHIB, s. The title by which, all over India, European gentlemen, and it may be said Europeans generally, are addressed, and spoken of, when no disrespect is intended, by natives. It is also the general title (at least where Hindustani or Persian is used) which is affixed to the name or office of a European, corresponding thus rather to _Monsieur_ than to Mr. For _Colonel Ṣāḥib_, _Collector Ṣāḥib_, _Lord Ṣāḥib_, and even _Sergeant Ṣāḥib_ are thus used, as well as the general vocative _Ṣāḥib!_ 'Sir!' In other Hind. use the word is equivalent to 'Master'; and it is occasionally used as a specific title both among Hindus and Musulmans, _e.g._ _Appa Ṣāḥib_, _Tīpū Ṣāḥib_; and generically is affixed to the titles of men of rank when indicated by those titles, as _Khān Ṣāḥib_, _Nawāb Ṣāḥib_, _Rājā Ṣāḥib_. The word is Arabic, and originally means 'a companion'; (sometimes a companion of Mahommed). [In the _Arabian Nights_ it is the title of a Wazīr (_Burton_, i. 218).]

1673.—"... To which the subtle Heathen replied, SAHAB (i.e. Sir), why will you do more than the Creator meant?"—_Fryer_, 417.

1689.—"Thus the distracted Husband in his _Indian_ English confest, _English fashion_, SAB, best fashion, have one Wife best for one Husband."—_Ovington_, 326.

1853.—"He was told that a 'SAHIB' wanted to speak with him."—_Oakfield_, ii. 252.

1878.—"... forty Elephants and five SAHIBS with guns and innumerable followers."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. 194.

[ST. DEAVES, n.p. A corruption of the name of the island of _Sandwīp_ in the Bay of Bengal, situated off the coast of Chittagong and Noakhālī, which is best known in connection with the awful loss of life and property in the cyclone of 1876.

[1688.—"From Chittagaum we sailed away the 29th January, after had sent small vessels to search round the Island ST. DEAVES."—In _Yule, Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. II. lxxx.]

SAINT JOHN'S, n.p.

A. An English sailor's corruption, which for a long time maintained its place in our maps. It is the _Sindān_ of the old Arab Geographers, and was the first durable settling-place of the Parsee refugees on their emigration to India in the 8th century. [Dosabhai Framji, _Hist. of the Parsis_, i. 30.] The proper name of the place, which is in lat. 20° 12′ and lies 88 m. north of Bombay, is apparently _Sajām_ (see _Hist. of Cambay_, in _Bo. Govt. Selections_, No. xxvi., N.S., p. 52), but it is commonly called _Sanjān_. E. B. Eastwick in _J. Bo. As. Soc. R._ i. 167, gives a Translation from the Persian of the "_Kiṣṣah-i_-SANJĀN, or History of the arrival and settlement of the Parsees in India." Sanjān is about 3 m. from the little river-mouth port of Umbargām. "Evidence of the greatness of Sanjān is found, for miles around, in old foundations and bricks. The bricks are of very superior quality."—_Bomb. Gazetteer_, vol. xiv. 302, [and for medieval references to the place, _ibid._ I. Pt. i. 262, 520 _seq._].

c. 1150.—"SINDĀN is 1½ mile from the sea.... The town is large and has an extensive commerce both in exports and imports."—_Edrisi_, in _Elliot_, i. 85.

c. 1599.—

"When the Dastur saw the soil was good, He selected the place for their residence: The Dastur named the spot SANJAN, And it became populous as the Land of Iran." —_Kiṣṣah_, &c., as above, p. 179.

c. 1616.—"The aldea Nargol ... in the lands of Daman was infested by Malabar Moors in their _parós_, who commonly landed there for water and provisions, and plundered the boats that entered or quitted the river, and the passengers who crossed it, with heavy loss to the aldeas adjoining the river, and to the revenue from them, as well as to that from the custom-house of SANGENS."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 670.

1623.—"La mattina seguente, fatto giorno, scoprimmo terra di lontano ... in un luogo poco discosto da Bassain, che gl'Inglesi chiamano _Terra di_ SAN GIOVANNI; ma nella carta da navigare vidi esser notato, in lingua Portoghese, col nome d'_ilhas das vaccas_, o 'isole delle vacche' al modo nostro."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 500; [Hak. Soc. i. 16].

1630.—"It happened that in safety they made to the land of ST. IOHNS on the shoares of India."—_Lord, The Religion of the Persees_, 3.

1644.—"Besides these four posts there are in the said district four _Tanadarias_ (see TANADAR), or different Captainships, called SAMGÊS (St. John's), Danū, Maim, and Trapor."—_Bocarro_ (Port. MS.).

1673.—"In a Week's Time we turned it up, sailing by Baçein, Tarapore, Valentine's Peak, ST. JOHN'S, and Daman, the last City northward on the Continent, belonging to the Portuguese."—_Fryer_, 82.

1808.—"They (the Parsee emigrants) landed at Dieu, and lived there 19 years; but, disliking the place ... the greater part of them left it and came to the Guzerat coast, in vessels which anchored off SEYJAN, the name of a town."—_R. Drummond._

1813.—"The Parsees or Guebres ... continued in this place (Diu) for some time, and then crossing the Gulph, landed at SUZAN, near Nunsaree, which is a little to the southward of Surat."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ i. 109; [2nd ed. i. 78].

1841.—"The high land of ST. JOHN, about 3 leagues inland, has a regular appearance...."—_Horsburgh's Directory_, ed. 1841, i. 470.

1872.—"In connexion with the landing of the Parsis at SANJÂN, in the early part of the 8th century, there still exist copies of the 15 Sanskrit _Ślokas_, in which their Mobeds explained their religion to Jadé Rânâ, the Râja of the place, and the reply he gave them."—_Ind. Antiq._ i. 214. The Ślokas are given. See them also in _Dosabhai Framji's Hist. of the Parsees_, i. 31.

B. ST. JOHN'S ISLAND, n.p. This again is a corruption of _San-Shan_, or more correctly _Shang-chuang_, the Chinese name of an island about 60 or 70 miles S.W. of Macao, and at some distance from the mouth of the Canton River, the place where St. Francis Xavier died, and was originally buried.

1552.—"Inde nos ad SANCIANUM, Sinarum insulam a Cantone millia pas. circiter cxx Deus perduxit incolumes."—_Scti. Franc. Xaverii Epistt._, Pragae 1667, IV. xiv.

1687.—"We came to Anchor the same Day, on the N.E. end of ST. JOHN'S Island. This Island is in Lat. about 32 d. 30 min. North, lying on the S. Coast of the Province of Quantung or Canton in _China_."—_Dampier_, i. 406.

1727.—"A Portuguese Ship ... being near an Island on that Coast, called after ST. JUAN, some Gentlemen and Priests went ashore for Diversion, and accidentally found the Saint's Body uncorrupted, and carried it Passenger to Goa."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 252; [ed. 1744, ii. 255].

1780.—"ST. JOHN'S," in _Dunn's New Directory_, 472.

C. ST. JOHN'S ISLANDS. This is also the chart-name, and popular European name, of two islands about 6 m. S. of Singapore, the chief of which is properly Pulo _Sikajang_, [or as Dennys (_Desc. Dict._ 321) writes the word, Pulo _Skijang_].

SAIVA, s. A worshipper of _Śiva_; Skt. _Śaiva_, adj., 'belonging to Siva.'

1651.—"The second sect of the Bramins, 'SEIVIÁ' ... by name, say that a certain _Eswara_ is the supreme among the gods, and that all the others are subject to him."—_Rogerius_, 17.

1867.—"This temple is reckoned, I believe, the holiest shrine in India, at least among the SHAIVITES."—_Bp. Milman_, in _Memoirs_, p. 48.

SALA, s. Hind. _sālā_, 'brother-in-law,' _i.e._ wife's brother; but used elliptically as a low term of abuse.

[1856.—"Another reason (for infanticide) is the blind pride which makes them hate that any man should call them SALA, or Sussoor—brother-in-law, or father-in-law."—_Forbes, Rās Mālā_, ed. 1878, 616.]

1881.—"Another of these popular Paris sayings is '_et ta sœur?_' which is as insulting a remark to a Parisian as the apparently harmless remark SĀLĀ, 'brother-in-law,' is to a Hindoo."—_Sat. Rev._, Sept. 10, 326.

SALAAM, s. A salutation; properly oral salutation of Mahommedans to each other. Arab. _salām_, 'peace.' Used for any act of salutation; or for 'compliments.'

[c. 60 B.C.—

"Ἀλλ' εἰ μὲν Σύρος ἐσσὶ "Σαλὰμ," εἰ δ' οὗν σύ γε φοίνιξ "Ναίδιος," εἰ δ' Ἕλλην "Χαῖρε"· τὸ δ' αὐτὸ φράσον." —_Meleagros_, in _Anthologia Palatina_, vii. 149.

The point is that he has been a bird of passage, and says good-bye now to his various resting-places in their own tongue.]

1513.—"The ambassador (of Bisnagar) entering the door of the chamber, the Governor rose from the chair on which he was seated, and stood up while the ambassador made him great ÇALEMA."—_Correa, Lendas_, II. i. 377. See also p. 431.

1552.—"The present having been seen he took the letter of the Governor, and read it to him, and having read it told him how the Governor sent him his ÇALEMA, and was at his command with all his fleet, and with all the Portuguese...."—_Castanheda_, iii. 445.

1611.—"ÇALEMA. The salutation of an inferior."—_Cobarruvias, Sp. Dict._ s.v.

1626.—"Hee (Selim _i.e._ Jahāngīr) turneth ouer his Beades, and saith so many words, to wit three thousand and two hundred, and then presenteth himself to the people to receive their SALAMES or good morrow...."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 523.

1638.—"En entrant ils se salüent de leur SALOM qu'ils accompagnent d'vne profonde inclination."—_Mandelslo_, Paris, 1659, 223.

1648.—"... this salutation they call SALAM; and it is made with bending of the body, and laying of the right hand upon the head."—_Van Twist_, 55.

1689.—"The SALEM of the Religious Bramins, is to join their Hands together, and spreading them first, make a motion towards their Head, and then stretch them out."—_Ovington_, 183.

1694.—"The Town CONICOPOLIES, and chief inhabitants of Egmore, came to make their SALAAM to the President."—_Wheeler_, i. 281.

1717.—"I wish the Priests in Tranquebar a Thousand fold SCHALAM."—_Philipp's Acct._ 62.

1809.—"The old priest was at the door, and with his head uncovered, to make his SALAAMS."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 273.

1813.—

"'Ho! who art thou?'—'This low SALAM Replies, of Moslem faith I am.'" _Byron, The Giaour._

1832.—"Il me rendit tous les SALAMS que je fis autrefois au Grand Mogol."—_Jacquemont, Corresp._ ii. 137.

1844.—"All chiefs who have made their SALAM are entitled to carry arms personally."—_G. O. of Sir C. Napier_, 2.

SALAK, s. A singular-looking fruit, sold and eaten in the Malay regions, described in the quotation. It is the fruit of a species of ratan (_Salacca edulis_), of which the Malay name is _rotan-salak_.

1768-71.—"The SALAC (_Calamus rotang zalacca_) which is the fruit of a prickly bush, and has a singular appearance, being covered with scales, like those of a lizard; it is nutritious and well tasted, in flavour somewhat resembling a raspberry."—_Stavorinus_, E.T. i. 241.

SALEB, SALEP, s. This name is applied to the tubers of various species of _orchis_ found in Europe and Asia, which from ancient times have had a great reputation as being restorative and highly nutritious. This reputation seems originally to have rested on the 'doctrine of signatures,' but was due partly no doubt to the fact that the mucilage of saleb has the property of forming, even with the addition of 40 parts of water, a thick jelly. Good modern authorities quite disbelieve in the virtues ascribed to _saleb_, though a decoction of it, spiced and sweetened, makes an agreeable drink for invalids. Saleb is identified correctly by Ibn Baithar with the Satyrium of Dioscorides and Galen. The full name in Ar. (analogous to the Greek _orchis_) is _Khuṣī-al-tha'lab_, i.e. '_testiculus vulpis_'; but it is commonly known in India as _s̤a'lab miṣrī_, i.e. Salep of Egypt, or popularly _salep-misry_. In Upper India _s̤aleb_ is derived from various species of _Eulophia_, found in Kashmīr and the Lower Himālaya. SALOOP, which is, or used to be, supplied hot in winter mornings by itinerant vendors in the streets of London, is, we believe, a representative of Saleb; but we do not know from what it is prepared. [In 1889 a correspondent to _Notes & Queries_ (7 ser. vii. 35) stated that "within the last twenty years SALOOP vendors might have been seen plying their trade in the streets of London. The term SALOOP was also applied to an infusion of the sassafras bark or wood. In Pereira's _Materia Medica_, published in 1850, it is stated that 'sassafras tea, flavoured with milk and sugar, is sold at daybreak in the streets of London under the name of SALOOP.' SALOOP in balls is still sold in London, and comes mostly from Smyrna."]

In the first quotation it is doubtful what is meant by _salīf_; but it seems possible that the traveller may not have recognised the _tha'lab_, _s̤a'lab_ in its Indian pronunciation.

c. 1340.—"After that, they fixed the amount of provision to be given by the Sultan, viz. 1000 Indian _riṭls_ of flour ... 1000 of meat, a large number of _riṭls_ (how many I don't now remember) of sugar, of ghee, of SALĪF, of areca, and 1000 leaves of betel."—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 382.

1727.—"They have a fruit called SALOB, about the size of a Peach, but without a stone. They dry it hard ... and being beaten to Powder, they dress it as Tea and Coffee are.... They are of opinion that it is a great restorative."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 125; [ed. 1744, i. 126].

[1754.—In his list of Indian drugs Ives (p. 44) gives "Rad. SALOP, Persia Rs. 35 per maund."]

1838.—"SALEB MISREE, a medicine, comes (a little) from Russia. It is considered a good nutritive for the human constitution, and is for this purpose powdered and taken with milk. It is in the form of flat oval pieces of about 80 grains each.... It is sold at 2 or 3 Rupees per ounce."—_Desc. of articles found in Bazars of Cabool._ In _Punjab Trade Report_, 1862, App. vi.

1882 (?).—"Here we knock against an ambulant SALEP-shop (a kind of tea which people drink on winter mornings); there against roaming oil, salt, or water-vendors, bakers carrying brown bread on wooden trays, pedlars with cakes, fellows offering dainty little bits of meat to the knowing purchaser."—_Levkosia, The Capital of Cyprus_, ext. in _St. James's Gazette_, Sept. 10.

SALEM, n.p. A town and inland district of S. India. Properly _Shelam_, which is perhaps a corruption of _Chera_, the name of the ancient monarchy in which this district was embraced. ["According to one theory the town of Salem is said to be identical with Seran or Sheran, and occasionally to have been named Sheralan; when S. India was divided between the three dynasties of Chola, Sera and Pandia, according to the generally accepted belief, Karur was the place where the three territorial divisions met; the boundary was no doubt subject to vicissitudes, and at one time possibly Salem or Serar was a part of Sera."—_Le Fanu, Man. of Salem_, ii. 18.]

SALEMPOORY, s. A kind of chintz. See allusions under PALEMPORE. [The _Madras Gloss._, deriving the word from Tel. _sāle_, 'weaver,' _pura_, Skt. 'town,' describes it as "a kind of cotton cloth formerly manufactured at Nellore; half the length of ordinary Punjums" (see PIECE-GOODS). The third quotation indicates that it was sometimes white.]

[1598.—"SARAMPURAS."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 95.

[1611.—"I ... was only doubtful about the white BETTEELAS and SALEMPURYS."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 155.

[1614.—"SALAMPORA, being a broad white cloth."—_Foster_, _ibid._ ii. 32.]

1680.—"Certain goods for Bantam priced as follows:—

"SALAMPORES, Blew, at 14 Pagodas per corge...."—_Ft. St. Geo. Consn._, April 22. In _Notes and Exts._ iii. 16; also _ibid._ p. 24.

1747.—"The Warehousekeeper reported that on the 1st inst. when the French entered our Bounds and attacked us ... it appeared that 5 Pieces of Long Cloth and 10 Pieces of SALAMPORES were stolen, That Two Pieces of SALAMPORES were found upon a Peon ... and the Person detected is ordered to be severely whipped in the Face of the Publick...."—_Ft. St. David Consn._, March 30 (MS. Records in India Office).

c. 1780.—"... en l'on y fabriquoit différentes espèces de toiles de coton, telles que SALEMPOURIS."—_Haafner_, ii. 461.

SALIGRAM, s. Skt. _Śālagrāma_ (this word seems to be properly the name of a place, 'Village of the Sāl-tree'—a real or imaginary _tīrtha_ or place of sacred pilgrimage, mentioned in the _Mahābhārata_). [Other and less probable explanations are given by Oppert, _Anc. Inhabitants_, 337.] A pebble having mystic virtues, found in certain rivers, _e.g._ Gandak, Son, &c. Such stones are usually marked by containing a fossil ammonite. The _śālagrāma_ is often adopted as the representative of some god, and the worship of any god may be performed before it.[235] It is daily worshipped by the Brahmans; but it is especially connected with Vaishnava doctrine. In May 1883 a _śālagrāma_ was the ostensible cause of great popular excitement among the Hindus of Calcutta. During the proceedings in a family suit before the High Court, a question arose regarding the identity of a _śālagrāma_, regarded as a household god. Counsel on both sides suggested that the thing should be brought into court. Mr. Justice Norris hesitated to give this order till he had taken advice. The attorneys on both sides, Hindus, said there could be no objection; the Court interpreter, a high-caste Brahman, said it could not be brought into Court, _because of the coir-matting_, but it might with perfect propriety be brought into the corridor for inspection; which was done. This took place during the excitement about the "Ilbert Bill," giving natives magisterial authority in the provinces over Europeans; and there followed most violent and offensive articles in several native newspapers reviling Mr. Justice Norris, who was believed to be hostile to the Bill. The editor of the _Bengallee_ newspaper, an educated man, and formerly a member of the covenanted Civil Service, the author of one of the most unscrupulous and violent articles, was summoned for contempt of court. He made an apology and complete retractation, but was sentenced to two months' imprisonment.

c. 1590.—"SALGRAM is a black stone which the Hindoos hold sacred.... They are found in the river Sown, at the distance of 40 cose from the mouth."—_Ayeen, Gladwin's_ E.T. 1800, ii. 25; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 150].

1782.—"Avant de finir l'histoire de Vichenou, je ne puis me dispenser de parler de la pierre de SALAGRAMAN. Elle n'est autre chose qu'une coquille petrifiée du genre des _cornes d'Ammon_: les Indiens prétendent qu'elle represente Vichenou, parcequ'ils en ont découvert de neuf nuances différentes, ce qu'ils rapportent aux neuf incarnations de ce Dieu.... Cette pierre est aux sectateurs de Vichenou ce que le Lingam est à ceux de Chiven."—_Sonnerat_, i. 307.

[1822.—"In the Nerbuddah are found those types of Shiva, called SOLGRAMMAS, which are sacred pebbles held in great estimation all over India."—_Wallace, Fifteen Years in India_, 296.]

1824.—"The SHALGRAMŬ is black, hollow, and nearly round; it is found in the Gunduk River, and is considered a representation of Vishnoo.... The SHALGRAMŬ is the only stone that is naturally divine; all the other stones are rendered sacred by incantations."—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 43.

1885.—"My father had one (a SALAGRAM). It was a round, rather flat, jet black, small, shining stone. He paid it the greatest reverence possible, and allowed no one to touch it, but worshipped it with his own hands. When he became ill, and as he would not allow a woman to touch it, he made it over to a Brahman ascetic with a money present."—_Sundrábái_, in _Punjab Notes and Queries_, ii. 109. The ŚĀLAGRĀMA is in fact a Hindu fetish.

SALLABAD, s. This word, now quite obsolete, occurs frequently in the early records of English settlements in India, for the customary or prescriptive exactions of the native Governments, and for native prescriptive claims in general. It is a word of Mahratti development, _sālābād_, 'perennial,' applied to permanent collections or charges; apparently a factitious word from Pers. _sāl_, 'year,' and Ar. _ābād_, 'ages.'

[1680.—"SALABAD." See under ROOCKA.]

1703.—"... although these are hardships, yet by length of time become SALLABAD (as we esteem them), there is no great demur made now, and are not recited here as grievances."—In _Wheeler_, ii. 19.

1716.—"The Board upon reading them came to the following resolutions:—That for anything which has yet appeared the Comatees (COMATY) may cry out their Pennagundoo Nagarum ... at their houses, feasts, and weddings, &c., according to SALABAD but not before the Pagoda of Chindy Pillary...."—_Ibid._ 234.

1788.—"SALLABAUD. (Usual Custom). A word used by the Moors Government to enforce their demand of a present."—_Indian Vocabulary (Stockdale)_.

SALOOTREE, SALUSTREE, s. Hind. _Sālotar_, _Sālotrī_. A native farrier or horse-doctor. This class is now almost always Mahommedan. But the word is taken from the Skt. name _Sālihotra_, the original owner of which is supposed to have written in that language a treatise on the Veterinary Art, which still exists in a form more or less modified and imperfect. "A knowledge of Sanskrit must have prevailed pretty generally about this time (14th century), for there is in the Royal Library at Lucknow a work on the veterinary art, which was translated from the Sanskrit by order of Ghiyásu-d dín Muhammad Sháh Khiljí. This rare book, called _Kurrutu-l-Mulk_, was translated as early as A.H. 783 (A.D. 1381), from an original styled _Sálotar_, which is the name of an Indian, who is said to have been a Bráhman, and the tutor of Susruta. The Preface says the translation was made 'from the barbarous Hindi into the refined Persian, in order that there may be no more need of a reference to infidels.'"[236] (_Elliot_, v. 573-4.)

[1831.—"'... your aloes are not genuine.' 'Oh yes, they are,' he exclaimed. 'My SALUTREE got them from the Bazaar.'"—_Or. Sport. Mag._, reprint 1873, ii. 223.]

SALSETTE, n.p.

A. A considerable island immediately north of Bombay. The island of Bombay is indeed naturally a kind of pendant to the island of Salsette, and during the Portuguese occupation it was so in every sense. That occupation is still marked by the remains of numerous villas and churches, and by the survival of a large R. Catholic population. The island also contains the famous and extensive caves of Kāṇhērī (see KENNERY). The old city of TANA (q.v.) also stands upon Salsette. Salsette was claimed as part of the Bombay dotation of Queen Catherine, but refused by the Portuguese. The Mahrattas took it from them in 1739, and it was taken from these by us in 1774. The name has been by some connected with the salt-works which exist upon the islands (_Salinas_). But it appears in fact to be the corruption of a Mahratti name _Shāshṭī_, from _Shāshashṭī_, meaning 'Sixty-six' (Skt. _Shaṭ-shashṭi_), because (it is supposed) the island was alleged to contain that number of villages. This name occurs in the form SHATSASHTI in a stone inscription dated Sak. 1103 (A.D. 1182). See _Bo. J. R. As. Soc._ xii. 334. Another inscription on copper plates dated Sak. 748 (A.D. 1027) contains a grant of the village of Naura, "one of the 66 of _Śri Sthānaka_ (Thana)," thus entirely confirming the etymology (_J. R. As. Soc._ ii. 383). I have to thank Mr. J. M. Campbell, C.S.I., for drawing my attention to these inscriptions.

B. SALSETTE is also the name of the three provinces of the Goa territory which constituted the _Velhas Conquistas_ or Old Conquests. These lay all along the coast, consisting of (1) the _Ilhas_ (viz. the island of Goa and minor islands divided by rivers and creeks), (2) _Bardez_ on the northern mainland, and (3) _Salsette_ on the southern mainland. The port of Marmagaon, which is the terminus of the Portuguese Indian Railway, is in this Salsette. The name probably had the like origin to that of the Island Salsette; a parallel to which was found in the old name of the Island of Goa, _Tiçoari_, meaning (Mahr.) _Tīs-wādī_, "30 hamlets." [See BARGANY.]

A.D. 1186.—"I, Aparāditya ("the paramount sovereign, the Ruler of the Koṅkana, the most illustrious King") have given with a libation of water 24 drachms, after exempting other taxes, from the fixed revenue of the oart in the village of Mahauli, connected with SHAṬ-SHASHṬI."—_Inscription_ edited by _Pandit Bhagavānlāl Indraji_, in _J. Bo. Br. R. A. S._ xii. 332. [And see _Bombay Gazetteer_, I. Pt. ii. 544, 567.]

A.—

1536.—

"Item—Revenue of the Cusba (Caçabe—see CUSBAH) of Maym: R̃b^c lxbij _fedeas_ (40,567) And the custom-house (_Mandovim_) of the said Maym " (48,000) And MAZAGONG (_Mazaguão_) " (11,500) And BOMBAY (_Monbaym_) " (23,000) And the _Cusba_ and Customs of Caranja " (94,700) And in PADDY (_baté_) xxi _muras_ (see MOORAH) 1 _candil_ (see CANDY) And the Island of SALSETE fedeas (319,100) And in paddy xxi _muras_ 1 _candil_." _S. Botelho, Tombo_, 142.

1538.—"Beyond the Isle of ELEPHANTA (_do Alifante_) about a league distant is the island of SALSETE. This island is seven leagues long by 5 in breadth. On the north it borders the Gulf of Cambay, on the south it has the I. of Elephanta, on the east the mainland, and on the west the I. of BOMBAI or of _Boa Vida_. This island is very fertile, abounding in provisions, cattle, and game of sorts, and in its hills is great plenty of timber for building ships and galleys. In that part of the island which faces the S.W. wind is built a great and noble city called Thana; and a league and a half in the interior is an immense edifice called the Pagoda of SALSETE; both one and the other objects most worthy of note; Thana for its decay (_destroição_) and the Pagoda as a work unique in its way, and the like of which is nowhere to be seen."—_João de Castro, Primo Roteiro da India_, 69-70.

1554.—"And to the TANADAR (_tenadar_) of SALSETE 30,000 _reis_.

"He has under him 12 PEONS (_piães_) of whom the said governor takes 7; leaving him 5, which at the aforesaid rate amount to 10,800 _reis_.

"And to a _Parvu_ (see PARVOE) that he has, who is the country writer ... and having the same pay as the Tenadar Mor, which is 3 pardaos a month, amounting in a year at the said rate to 10,800 _reis_."—_Botelho, Tombo_, in _Subsidios_, 211-212.

1610.—"Frey Manuel de S. Mathias, guardian of the convent of St. Francis in Goa, writes to me that ... in Goa alone there are 90 resident friars; and besides in Baçaim and its adjuncts, viz., in the island of SALSETE and other districts of the north they have 18 parishes (FREGUEZIAS) of native Christians with vicars; and five of the convents have colleges, or seminaries where they bring up little orphans; and that the said Ward of Goa extends 300 leagues from north to south."—_Livros das Monções_, 298.

[1674.—"From whence these Pieces of Land receive their general Name of SALSET ... either because it signifies in _Canorein_ a Granary...."—_Fryer_, 62.]

c. 1760.—"It was a melancholy sight on the loss of SALSETT, to see the many families forced to seek refuge on Bombay, and among them some Portuguese Hidalgos or noblemen, reduced of a sudden from very flourishing circumstances to utter beggary."—_Grose_, i. 72.

[1768.—"Those lands are comprised in 66 villages, and from this number it is called SALSETTE."—_Foral of Salsette_, India Office MS.]

1777.—"The acquisition of the Island of SALSET, which in a manner surrounds the Island of Bombay, is sufficient to secure the latter from the danger of a famine."—_Price's Tracts_, i. 101.

1808.—"The island of _Sashty_ (corrupted by the Portuguese into SALSETTE) was conquered by that Nation in the year of Christ 1534, from the Mohammedan Prince who was then its Sovereign; and thereupon parcelled out, among the European subjects of Her Most Faithful Majesty, into village allotments, at a very small Foro or quit-rent."—_Bombay, Regn._ I. of 1808, sec. ii.

B.—

1510.—"And he next day, by order of the Governor, with his own people and many more from the Island (Goa) passed over to the mainland of SALSETE and Antruz, scouring the districts and the TANADARIS, and placing in them by his own hand TANADARS and collectors of revenue, and put all in such order that he collected much money, insomuch that he sent to the factor at Goa very good intelligence, accompanied by much money."—_Correa_, ii. 161.

1546.—"We agree in the manner following, to wit, that I Idalxaa (IDALCAN) promise and swear on our Koran (_no noso moçaffo_), and by the head of my eldest son, that I will remain always firm in the said amity with the King of Portugal and with his governors of India, and that the lands of SALSETE and Bardees, which I have made contract and donation of to His Highness, I confirm and give anew, and I swear and promise by the oath aforesaid never to reclaim them or make them the Subject of War."—_Treaty_ between _D. John de Castro_ and _Idalxaa_, who was formerly called Idalção (_Adil Khān_).—_Botelho, Tombo_, 40.

1598.—"On the South side of the Iland of _Goa_, wher the riuer runneth againe into the Sea, there cometh euen out with the coast a land called SALSETTE, which is also vnder the subiection of the Portingales, and is ... planted both with people and fruite."—_Linschoten_, 51; [Hak. Soc. i. 177].

1602.—"Before we treat of the Wars which in this year (c. 1546) Idalxa (Adil Shāh) waged with the State about the mainland provinces of SALSETE and Bardés, which caused much trouble to the Government of India, it seems well to us to give an account of these Moor Kings of Visiapor."—_Couto_, IV. x. 4.

SALWEN, n.p. The great river entering the sea near Martaban in British Burma, and which the Chinese in its upper course call _Lu-kiang_. The Burmese form is _Than-lwen_, but the original form is probably Shān. ["The SALWEEN River, which empties itself into the sea at Maulmain, rivals the Irrawaddy in length but not in importance" (_Forbes, British Burma_, 8).]

SAMBOOK, s. Ar. _sanbuḳ_, and _sunbūḳ_ (there is a Skt. word _śambūka_, 'a bivalve shell,' but we are unable to throw any light on any possible transfer); a kind of small vessel formerly used in Western India and still on the Arabian coast. [See _Bombay Gazetteer_, xiii. Pt. ii. 470.] It is smaller than the _bagalā_ (see BUGGALOW), and is chiefly used to communicate between a roadstead and the shore, or to go inside the reefs. Burton renders the word 'a foyst,' which is properly a smaller kind of galley. See description in the last but one quotation below.

c. 330.—"It is the custom when a vessel arrives (at Makdashau) that the Sultan's ṢUNBŪḲ boards her to ask whence the ship comes, who is the owner, and the skipper (or pilot), what she is laden with, and what merchants or other passengers are on board."—_Ibn Batuta_, ii. 183; also see pp. 17, 181, &c.

1498.—"The ZAMBUCO came loaded with doves'-dung, which they have in those islands, and which they were carrying, it being merchandize for Cambay, where it is used in dyeing cloths."—_Correa, Lendas_, i. 33-34.

" In the curious Vocabulary of the language of Calicut, at the end of the _Roteiro_ of Vasco da Gama, we find: "Barcas; CAMBUCO."

[1502.—"ZAMBUCOS." See under NACODA.]

1506.—"Questo Capitanio si prese uno SAMBUCO molto ricco, veniva dalla Mecha per Colocut."—_Leonardo Ca' Masser_, 17.

1510.—"As to the names of their ships, some are called SAMBUCHI, and these are flat-bottomed."—_Varthema_, 154.

1516.—"Item—our Captain Major, or Captain of Cochim shall give passes to secure the navigation of the ships and ZANBUQOS of their ports ... provided they do not carry spices or drugs that we require for our cargoes, but if such be found, for the first occasion they shall lose all the spice and drugs so loaded, and on the second they shall lose both ship and cargo, and all may be taken as prize of war."—_Treaty_ of _Lopo Soares_ with _Coulão_ (QUILON), in _Botelho, Tombo, Subsidios_, p. 32.

[1516.—"ZAMBUCOS." See under ARECA.]

1518.—"ZAMBUQUO." See under PROW.

1543.—"Item—that the ZANBUQUOS which shall trade in his port in rice or _nele_ (paddy) and cottons and other matters shall pay the customary dues."—_Treaty_ of _Martin Affonso de Sousa_ with _Coulam_, in _Botelho, Tombo_, 37.

[1814.—"SAMBOUK." See under DHOW.]

1855.—"Our pilgrim ship ... was a SAMBUK of about 400 _ardébs_ (50 tons), with narrow wedge-like bows, a clean water-line, a sharp keel, undecked except upon the poop, which was high enough to act as a sail in a gale of wind. We carried 2 masts, imminently raking forward, the main considerably longer than the mizen, and the former was provided with a large triangular latine...."—_Burton, Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah_, i. 276; [Memorial ed. i. 188].

1858.—"The vessels of the Arabs called SEMBUK are small Baggelows of 80 to 100 tons burden. Whilst they run out forward into a sharp prow, the after part of the vessel is disproportionately broad and elevated above the water, in order to form a counterpoise to the colossal triangular sail which is hoisted to the masthead with such a spread that often the extent of the yard is greater than the whole length of the vessel."—_F. von Neimans_, in _Zeitschr. der Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellsch._ xii. 420.

1880.—"The small sailing boat with one sail, which is called by the Arabs 'JÁMBOOK' with which I went from Hodeida to Aden."—Letter in _Athenaeum_, March 13, p. 346.

[1900.—"We scrambled into a SAMBOUKA crammed and stuffed with the baggage."—_Bent, Southern Arabia_, 220.]

SAMBRE, SAMBUR, s. Hind. _sābar_, _sāmbar_; Skt. śambara. A kind of stag (_Rusa Aristotelis_, Jerdon; [Blanford, _Mammalia_, 543 _seqq._]) the ELK of S. Indian sportsmen; _ghaus_ of Bengal; jerrow (_jarāo_) of the Himālaya; the largest of Indian stags, and found in all the large forests of India. The word is often applied to the soft leather, somewhat resembling chamois leather, prepared from the hide.

1673.—"... Our usual diet was of spotted deer, SABRE, wild Hogs and sometimes wild Cows."—_Fryer_, 175.

[1813.—"Here he saw a number of deer, and four large SABIRS or SAMBOOS, one considerably bigger than an ox...."—_Diary_, in _Forbes, Or. Mem._ 2nd ed. ii. 400.]

1823.—"The skin of the SAMBRE, when well prepared, forms an excellent material for the military accoutrements of the soldiers of the native Powers."—_Malcolm, Central India_, i. 9.

[1900.—"The SAMBU stags which Lord Powerscourt turned out in his glens...."—_Spectator_, December 15, p. 883.]

SAMPAN, s. A kind of small boat or skiff. The word appears to be Javanese and Malay. It must have been adopted on the Indian shores, for it was picked up there at an early date by the Portuguese; and it is now current all through the further East. [The French have adopted the Annamite form _tamban_.] The word is often said to be originally Chinese, '_sanpan_,' = 'three boards,' and this is possible. It is certainly one of the most ordinary words for a boat in China. Moreover, we learn, on the authority of Mr. E. C. Baber, that there is another kind of boat on the Yangtse which is called _wu-pan_, 'five boards.' Giles however says: "From the Malay _sam-pan_ = three boards"; but in this there is some confusion. The word has no such meaning in Malay.

1510.—"My companion said, 'What means then might there be for going to this island?"' They answered: 'That it was necessary to purchase a CHIAMPANA,' that is a small vessel, of which many are found there."—_Varthema_, 242.

1516.—"They (the Moors of Quilacare) perform their voyages in small vessels which they call CHAMPANA."—_Barbosa_, 172.

c. 1540.—"In the other, whereof the captain was slain, there was not one escaped, for _Quiay Panian_ pursued them in a CHAMPANA, which was the Boat of his Junk."—_Pinto_ (_Cogan_, p. 79), orig. ch. lix.

1552.-"... CHAMPANAS, which are a kind of small vessels."—_Castanheda_, ii. 76; [rather, Bk. ii. ch. xxii. p. 76].

1613.—"And on the beach called the Bazar of the _Jaos_ ... they sell every sort of provision in rice and grain for the Jaos merchants of Java Major, who daily from the dawn are landing provisions from their junks and ships in their boats or CHAMPENAS (which are little skiffs)...."—_Godinho de Eredia_, 6.

[1622.—"Yt was thought fytt ... to trym up a China SAMPAN to goe with the fleete...."—_Cocks's Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. 122.]

1648.—In _Van Spilbergen's Voyage_ we have CHAMPANE, and the still more odd CHAMPAIGNE. [See under TOPAZ.]

1702.—"SAMPANS being not to be got we were forced to send for the Sarah and Eaton's Long-boats."—_MS. Correspondence in 1. Office from China Factory_ (at Chusan), Jan. 8.

c. 1788.—"Some made their escape in prows, and some in SAMPANS."—_Mem. of a Malay Family_, 3.

1868.—"The harbour is crowded with men-of-war and trading vessels ... from vessels of several hundred tons burthen down to little fishing-boats and passenger SAMPANS."—_Wallace, Malay Archip._ 21.

SAMSHOO, s. A kind of ardent spirit made in China from rice. Mr. Baber doubts this being Chinese; but according to Wells Williams the name is _san-shao_, 'thrice fired' (_Guide_, 220). 'Distilled liquor' is _shao-siu_, 'fired liquor.' Compare Germ. _Brantwein_, and XXX beer. Strabo says: 'Wine the Indians drink not except when sacrificing, and that is made of rice in lieu of barley" (xv. c. i. § 53).

1684.—"... SAMPSOE, or Chinese Beer."—_Valentijn_, iv. (_China_) 129.

[1687.—"SAMSHU." See under ARRACK.]

1727.—"... SAMSHEW or Rice Arrack."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 222; [ed. 1744, ii. 224].

c. 1752.—"... the people who make the _Chinese_ brandy called SAMSU, live likewise in the suburbs."—_Osbeck's Voyage_, i. 235.

[1852.—"... SAMSHOE, a Chinese invention, and which is distilled from rice, after the rice has been permitted to foment (?) in ... vinegar and water."—_Neale, Residence in Siam_, 75.

SANDAL, SANDLE, SANDERS, SANDAL-WOOD, s. From Low Latin santalum, in Greek σάνταλον, and in later Greek σάνδανον; coming from the Arab. _ṣandal_, and that from Skt. _chandana_. The name properly belongs to the fragrant wood of the _Santalum album_, L. Three woods bearing the name _santalum_, white, yellow, and red, were in officinal use in the Middle Ages. But the name Red Sandalwood, or Red Sanders, has been long applied, both in English and in the Indian vernaculars, to the wood of _Pterocarpus santalina_, L., a tree of S. India, the wood of which is inodorous, but which is valued for various purposes in India (pillars, turning, &c.), and is exported as a dye-wood. According to Hanbury and Flückiger this last was the _sanders_ so much used in the cookery of the Middle Ages for colouring sauces, &c. In the opinion of those authorities it is doubtful whether the red sandal of the medieval pharmacologists was a kind of the real odorous sandal-wood, or was the wood of _Pteroc. santal._ It is possible that sometimes the one and sometimes the other was meant. For on the one hand, even in modern times, we find Milburn (see below) speaking of the three colours of the real sandal-wood; and on the other hand we find Matthioli in the 16th century speaking of the red sandal as inodorous.

It has been a question how the _Pterocarpus santalina_ came to be called sandal-wood at all. We may suggest, as a possible origin of this, the fact that its powder "mixed with oil is used for bathing and purifying the skin" (_Drury_, s.v.), much as the true sandal-wood powder also is used in the East.

c. 545.—"And from the remoter regions, I speak of Tzinista and other places of export, the imports to Taprobane are silk, aloeswood, cloves, SANDALWOOD (τζάνδανη), and so forth...."—_Cosmas_, in _Cathay_, &c., clxxvii.

1298.—"Encore sachiez que en ceste ysle a arbres de SANDAL vermoille ausi grant come sunt les arbres des nostre contrée ... et il en ont bois come nos avuns d'autres arbres sauvajes."—_Marco Polo_, Geog. Text, ch. cxci.

c. 1390.—"Take powdered rice and boil it in almond milk ... and colour it with SAUNDERS."—Recipe quoted by _Wright, Domestic Manners_, &c., 350.

1554.—"Le SANTAL donc croist es Indes Orientales et Occidentales: en grandes Forestz, et fort espesses. Il s'en treuue trois especes: mais le plus pasle est le meilleur: le blanc apres: le rouge est mis au dernier ranc, pource qu'il n'a aucune odeur: mais les deux premiers sentent fort bon."—_Matthioli_ (old Fr. version), liv. i. ch. xix.

1563.—"The SANDAL grows about Timor, which produces the largest quantity, and it is called CHUNDANA; and by this name it is known in all the regions about Malaca; and the Arabs, being those who carried on the trade of those parts, corrupted the word and called it SANDAL. Every Moor, whatever his nation, calls it thus...."—_Garcia_, f. 185_v_. He proceeds to speak of the SANDALO _vermelho_ as quite a different product, growing in Tenasserim and on the Coromandel Coast.

1584.—"... SANDALES wilde from Cochin. SANDALES domestick from Malacca...."—_Wm. Barrett_, in _Hakl._ ii. 412.

1613.—"... certain renegade Christians of the said island, along with the Moors, called in the Hollanders, who thinking it was a fine opportunity, went one time with five vessels, and another time with seven, against the said fort, at a time when most of the people ... were gone to Solor for the SANDAL trade, by which they had their living."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 723.

1615.—"Committee to procure the commodities recommended by Capt. Saris for Japan, viz. ... pictures of wars, steel, skins, SANDERS-WOOD."—_Sainsbury_, i. 380.

1813.—"When the trees are felled, the bark is taken off; they are then cut into billets, and buried in a dry place for two months, during which period the white ants will eat the outer wood without touching the SANDAL; it is then taken up and ... sorted into three kinds. The deeper the colour, the higher is the perfume; and hence the merchants sometimes divide SANDAL into red, yellow, and white; but these are all different shades of the same colour."—_Milburn_, i. 291.

1825.—"REDWOOD, properly RED SAUNDERS, is produced chiefly on the Coromandel Coast, whence it has of late years been imported in considerable quantity to England, where it is employed in dyeing. It ... comes in round billets of a thickish red colour on the outside, a deep brighter red within, with a wavy grain; no smell or taste."—_Ibid._ ed. 1825, p. 249.

SANDOWAY, n.p. A town of Arakan, the Burmese name of which is _Thandwé_ (Sand-wé), for which an etymology ('iron-tied'), and a corresponding legend are invented, as usual [see _Burmah Gazetteer_, ii. 606]. It is quite possible that the name is ancient, and represented by the _Sada_ of Ptolemy.

1553.—"In crossing the gulf of Bengal there arose a storm which dispersed them in such a manner that Martin Affonso found himself alone, with his ship, at the island called Negamale, opposite the town of SODOE, which is on the mainland, and there was wrecked upon a reef...."—_Barros_, IV. ii. 1.

In I. ix. 1, it is called SEDOE.

1696.—"Other places along this Coast subjected to this King (of Arracan) are _Coromoria_, SEDOA, _Zara_, and _Port Magaoni_."—Appendix to _Ovington_, p. 563.

SANGUICEL, s. This is a term (pl. _sanguiceis_) often used by the Portuguese writers on India for a kind of boat, or small vessel, used in war. We are not able to trace any origin in a vernacular word. It is perhaps taken from the similar proper name which is the subject of the next article. [This supposition is rendered practically certain from the quotation from Albuquerque below, furnished by Mr. Whiteway.] Bluteau gives "SANGUICEL; termo da India. He hum genero de embarcação pequena q̃ serve na costa da India para dar alcanse aos paròs dos Mouros," 'to give chase to the prows of the Moors.'

[1512.—"Here was Nuno Vaz in a ship, the St. John, which was built in ÇAMGUICAR."—_Albuquerque, Cartas_, p. 99. In a letter of Nov. 30, 1513, he varies the spelling to ÇAMGICAR. There are many other passages in the same writer which make it practically certain that SANGUICELS were the vessels built at Sanguicer.]

1598.—"The Conde (Francisco da Gama) was occupied all the WINTER (q.v.) in reforming the fleets ... and as the time came on he nominated his brother D. Luiz da Gama to be Captain-Major of the Indian Seas for the expedition to Malabar, and wrote to Baçaim to equip six very light SANGUICELS according to instructions which should be given by Sebastian Botelho, a man of great experience in that craft.... These orders were given by the Count Admiral because he perceived that big fleets were not of use to guard convoys, and that it was light vessels like these alone which could catch the paraos and vessels of the pirates ... for these escaped our fleets, and got hold of the merchant vessels at their pleasure, darting in and out, like light horse, where they would...."—_Couto_, Dec. XII. liv. i. ch. 18.

1605.—"And seeing that I am informed that ... the incursions of certain pirates who still infest that coast might be prevented with less apparatus and expense, if we had light vessels which would be more effective than the foists and galleys of which the fleets have hitherto been composed, seeing how the enemy use their SANGUICELS, which our ships and galleys cannot overtake, I enjoin and order you to build a quantity of light vessels to be employed in guarding the coast in place of the fleet of galleys and foists...."—_King's Letter_ to _Dom Affonso de Castro_, in _Livros das Monções_, i. 26.

[1612.—See under GALLIVAT, B.]

1614.—"The eight Malabaresque SANGUICELS that Francis de Miranda despatched to the north from the bar of Goa went with three chief captains, each of them to command a week in turn...."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 262.

SANGUICER, SANGUEÇA, ZINGUIZAR, &c., n.p. This is a place often mentioned in the Portuguese narratives, as very hostile to the Goa Government, and latterly as a great nest of corsairs. This appears to be _Sangameshvar_, lat. 17° 9′, formerly a port of Canara on the River Shāstrī, and standing 20 miles from the mouth of that river. The latter was navigable for large vessels up to Sangameshvar, but within the last 50 years has become impassable. [The name is derived from Skt. _sangama-īśvara_, 'Siva, Lord of the river confluence.']

1516.—"Passing this river of Dabul and going along the coast towards Goa you find a river called CINGUIÇAR, inside of which there is a place where there is a traffic in many wares, and where enter many vessels and small _Zambucos_ (SAMBOOK) of Malabar to sell what they bring, and buy the products of the country. The place is peopled by Moors, and Gentiles of the aforesaid Kingdom of Daquem" (DECCAN).—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. p. 286.

1538.—"Thirty-five leagues from Guoa, in the middle of the Gulf of the Malabars there runs a large river called ZAMGIZARA. This river is well known and of great renown. The bar is bad and very tortuous, but after you get within, it makes amends for the difficulties without. It runs inland for a great distance with great depth and breadth."—_De Castro, Primeiro Roteiro_, 36.

1553.—De Barros calls it ZINGAÇAR in II. i. 4, and SANGAÇA in IV. i. 14.

1584.—"There is a Haven belonging to those ryvers (rovers), distant from Goa about 12 miles, and is called SANGUISEO, where many of those Rovers dwell, and doe so much mischiefe that no man can passe by, but they receive some wrong by them.... Which the Viceroy understanding, prepared an armie of 15 Foists, over which he made chiefe Captaine a Gentleman, his Nephew called Don Iulianes Mascharenhas, giving him expresse commandement first to goe unto the Haven of SANGUISEU, and utterly to raze the same downe to the ground."—_Linschoten_, ch. 92; [Hak. Soc. ii. 170].

1602.—"Both these projects he now began to put in execution, sending all his treasures (which they said exceeded ten millions in gold) to the river of SANGUICER, which was also within his jurisdiction, being a seaport, and there embarking it at his pleasure."—_Couto_, ix. 8. See also Dec. X. iv.:

"_How D. Gileanes Mascarenhas arrived in Malabar, and how he entered the river of_ SANGUICER _to chastise the Naique of that place; and of the disaster in which he met his death_." (This is the event of 1584 related by Linschoten); also Dec. X. vi. 4: "_Of the things that happened to D. Jeronymo Mascarenhas in Malabar, and how he had a meeting with the Zamorin, and swore peace with him; and how he brought destruction on the Naique of_ SANGUICER."

1727.—"There is an excellent Harbour for Shipping 8 Leagues to the Southward of _Dabul_, called SANGUSEER, but the Country about being inhabited by _Raparees_, it is not frequented."—_A. Hamilton_, [ed. 1744] i. 244.

SANSKRIT, s. The name of the classical language of the Brahmans, _Saṃskṛita_, meaning in that language 'purified' or 'perfected.' This was obviously at first only an epithet, and it is not of very ancient use in this specific application. To the Brahmans Sanskrit was the _bhāsha_, or language, and had no particular name. The word Sanskrit is used by the protogrammarian Pāṇini (some centuries before Christ), but not as a denomination of the language. In the latter sense, however, both 'Sanskrit' and 'Prakrit' (PRACRIT) are used in the _Bṛihat Samhitā_ of Varāhamihira, c. A.D. 504, in a chapter on omens (lxxxvi. 3), to which Prof. Kern's translation does not extend. It occurs also in the _Mṛichch'hakaṭikā_, translated by Prof. H. H. Wilson in his _Hindu Theatre_, under the name of the 'Toy-cart'; in the works of Kumārila Bhatta, a writer of the 7th century; and in the _Pāṇinīyā Śīkshā_, a metrical treatise ascribed by the Hindus to Pāṇini, but really of comparatively modern origin.

There is a curiously early mention of Sanskrit by the Mahommedan poet Amīr Khusrū of Delhi, which is quoted below. The first mention (to our knowledge) of the word in any European writing is in an Italian letter of Sassetti's, addressed from Malabar to Bernardo Davanzati in Florence, and dating from 1586. The few words on the subject, of this writer, show much acumen.

In the 17th and 18th centuries such references to this language as occur are found chiefly in the works of travellers to Southern India, and by these it is often called _Grandonic_, or the like, from _grantha_, 'a book' (see GRUNTH, GRUNTHUM) _i.e._ a book of the classical Indian literature. The term _Sanskrit_ came into familiar use after the investigations into this language by the English in Bengal (viz. by Wilkins, Jones, &c.) in the last quarter of the 18th century. [See Macdonell, _Hist. of Sanskrit Lit._ ch. i.]

A.D. _x_?—"_Maitreya._ Now, to me, there are two things at which I cannot choose but laugh, a woman reading SANSKRIT, and a man singing a song: the woman snuffles like a young cow when the rope is first passed through her nostrils; and the man wheezes like an old Pandit repeating his bead-roll."—_The Toy-Cart_, E.T. in _Wilson's Works_, xi. 60.

A.D. _y_?—"Three-and-sixty or four-and-sixty sounds are there originally in Prakrit (PRACRIT) even as in SANSKRIT, as taught by the Svayambhū."—_Pāṇinīyā Śīkshā_, quoted in _Weber's Ind. Studien_ (1858), iv. 348. But see also _Weber's Akadem. Vorlesungen_ (1876), p. 194.

1318.—"But there is another language, more select than the other, which all the Brahmans use. Its name from of old is SAHASKRIT, and the common people know nothing of it."—_Amīr Khusrū_, in _Elliot_, iii. 563.

1586.—"Sono scritte le loro scienze tutte in una lingua che dimandano SAMSCRUTA, che vuol dire 'bene articolata': della quale non si ha memoria quando fusse parlata, con avere (com' io dico) memorie antichissime. Imparanla come noi la greca e la latina, e vi pongono molto maggior tempo, si che in 6 anni o 7 sene fanno padroni: et ha la lingua d'oggi molte cose comuni con quella, nella quale sono molti de' nostri nomi, e

## particularmente de numeri il 6, 7, 8, e 9, _Dio, serpe_, et altri

assai."—_Sassetti_, extracted in _De Gubernatis, Storia_, &c., Livorno, 1875, p. 221.

c. 1590.—"Although this country (Kashmīr) has a peculiar tongue, the books of knowledge are SANSKRIT (or Sahanskrit). They also have a written character of their own, with which they write their books. The substance which they chiefly write upon is _Tūs_, which is the bark of a tree,[237] which with a little pains they make into leaves, and it lasts for years. In this way ancient books have been written thereon, and the ink is such that it cannot be washed out."—_Āīn_ (orig.), i. p. 563; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 351].

1623.—"The Jesuites conceive that the Bramenes are of the dispersion of the Israelites, and their Bookes (called SAMESCRETAN) doe somewhat agree with the Scriptures, but that they understand them not."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 559.

1651.—"... _Souri_ signifies the Sun in SAMSCORTAM, which is a language in which all the mysteries of Heathendom are written, and which is held in esteem by the Bramines just as Latin is among the Learned in Europe."—_Rogerius_, 4.

In some of the following quotations we have a form which it is difficult to account for:

c. 1666.—"Their first study is in the HANSCRIT, which is a language entirely different from the common _Indian_, and which is only known by the _Pendets_. And this is that Tongue, of which Father _Kircher_ hath published the Alphabet received from Father _Roa_. It is called HANSCRIT, that is, a pure Language; and because they believe this to be the Tongue in which God, by means of _Brahma_, gave them the four _Beths_ (see VEDA), which they esteem _Sacred Books_, they call it a Holy and Divine Language."—_Bernier_, E.T. 107; [ed. _Constable_, 335].

1673.—"... who founded these, their Annals nor their SANSCRIPT deliver not."—_Fryer_, 161.

1689.—"... the learned Language among them is called the SANSCREET."—_Ovington_, 248.

1694.—"Indicus ludus _Tchûpur_, sic nominatus veterum Brachmanorum linguâ Indicè dictâ SANSCROOT, seu, ut vulgo, exiliori sono elegantiae causâ SANSCREET, non autem HANSCREET ut minus recte eam nuncupat Kircherus."—_Hyde, De Ludis Orientt._, in _Syntagma Diss._ ii. 264.

1726.—"Above all it would be a matter of general utility to the Coast that some more chaplains should be maintained there for the sole purpose of studying the _Sanskrit_ tongue (_de_ SANSKRITZE _taal_) the head-and-mother tongue of most of the Eastern languages, and once for all to make an exact translation of the _Vedam_ or Law book of the Heathen...."—_Valentijn, Choro._ p. 72.

1760.—"They have a learned language peculiar to themselves, called the HANSCRIT...."—_Grose_, i. 202.

1774.—"This code they have written in their own language, the SHANSCRIT. A translation of it is begun under the inspection of one of the body, into the Persian language, and from that into English."—_W. Hastings_, to _Lord Mansfield_, in _Gleig_, i. 402.

1778.—"The language as well as the written character of Bengal are familiar to the Natives ... and both seem to be base derivatives from the SHANSCRIT."—_Orme_, ed. 1803, ii. 5.

1782.—"La langue SAMSCROUTAM, _Samskret_, HANSCRIT ou _Grandon_, est la plus étendue: ses caractères multipliés donnent beaucoup de facilité pour exprimer ses pensées, ce qui l'a fait nommer langue divine par le P. Pons."—_Sonnerat_, i. 224.

1794.—

"With Jones, a linguist, SANSKRIT, Greek, or Manks." _Pursuits of Literature_, 6th ed. 286.

1796.—"La madre di tutte le lingue Indiane è la SAMSKRDA, cioè, _lingua perfetta_, piena, _ben digerita_. _Krda_ opera perfetta o compita, _Sam_, simul, _insieme_, e vuol dire lingua tutta insieme _ben digerita_, legata, _perfetta_."—_Fra Paolino_, p. 258.

SAPECA, SAPÈQUE, s. This word is used at Macao for what we call CASH (q.v.) in Chinese currency; and it is the word generally used by French writers for that coin. Giles says: "From _sapek_, a coin found in Tonquin and Cochin-China, and equal to about half a pfennig (1/600 Thaler), or about one-sixth of a German Kreutzer" (_Gloss. of Reference_, 122). We cannot learn much about this coin of Tonquin. Milburn says, under 'Cochin China': "The only currency of the country is a sort of cash, called SAPPICA, composed chiefly of tutenague (see TOOTNAGUE), 600 making a _quan_: this is divided into 10 mace of 60 cash each, the whole strung together, and divided by a knot at each mace" (ed. 1825, pp. 444-445). There is nothing here inconsistent with our proposed derivation, given later on. _Mace_ and _Sappica_ are equally Malay words. We can hardly doubt that the true origin of the term is that communicated by our friend Mr. E. C. Baber: "Very probably from Malay _sa_, 'one,' and _păku_, 'a string or file of the small coin called pichis.' _Pichis_ is explained by Crawfurd as 'Small coin ... money of copper, brass, or tin.... It was the ancient coin of Java, and also the only one of the Malays when first seen by the Portuguese.' _Păku_ is written by Favre _peḳū_ (_Dict. Malais-Français_) and is derived by him from Chinese _pé-ko_, 'cent.' In the dialect of Canton _pak_ is the word for 'a hundred,' and one _pak_ is the colloquial term for a string of one hundred cash." SAPEKU would then be properly a string of 100 cash, but it is not difficult to conceive that it might through some misunderstanding (_e.g._ a confusion of _peku_ and _pichis_) have been transferred to the single coin. There is a passage in Mr. Gerson da Cunha's _Contributions to the Study of Portuguese Numismatics_, which may seem at first sight inconsistent with this derivation. For he seems to imply that the smallest denomination of coin struck by Albuquerque at Goa in 1510 was called CEPAYQUA, _i.e._ in the year before the capture of Malacca, and consequent familiarity with Malay terms. I do not trace his authority for this; the word is not mentioned in the Commentaries of Alboquerque, and it is quite possible that the _dinheiros_, as these small copper coins were also called, only received the name _cepayqua_ at a later date, and some time after the occupation of Malacca (see _Da Cunha_, pp. 11-12, and 22). [But also see the quotation of 1510 from Correa under PARDAO. This word has been discussed by Col. Temple (_Ind. Antiq._, August 1897, pp. 222 _seq._), who gives quotations establishing the derivation from the Malay _sapaku_.

[1639.—"It (_caxa_, cash) hath a four-square hole through it, at which they string them on a Straw; a String of two hundred _Caxaes_, called _Sata_, is worth about three farthings sterling, and five _Satas_ tyed together make a SAPOCON. The Javians, when this money first came amongst them, were so cheated with the Novelty, that they would give six bags of Pepper for ten SAPOCONS, thirteen whereof amount to but a Crown."-_-Mandelslo, Voyages_, E.T. p. 117.

[1703.—"This is the reason why the _Caxas_ are valued so little: they are punched in the middle, and string'd with little twists of Straw, two hundred in one Twist, which is called Santa, and is worth nine Deniers. Five Santas tied together make a thousand _Caxas_, or a SAPOON (? SAPOCON)."—_Collection of Dutch Voyages_, 199.

[1830.—"The money current in Bali consists solely of Chinese pice with a hole in the centre.... They however put them up in hundreds and thousands; two hundred are called _satah_, and are equal to one rupee copper, and a thousand called SAPAKU, are valued at five rupees."—_Singapore Chronicle_, June 1830, in _Moor, Indian Archip._ p. 94.

[1892.—"This is a brief history of the SAPEC (more commonly known to us as the CASH), the only native coin of China, and which is found everywhere from Malaysia to Japan."—_Ridgeway, Origin of Currency_, 157.]

SAPPAN-WOOD, s. The wood of _Caesalpina sappan_; the _baḳḳam_ of the Arabs, and the BRAZIL-WOOD of medieval commerce. Bishop Caldwell at one time thought the Tamil name, from which this was taken, to have been given because the wood was supposed to come from _Japan_. Rumphius says that Siam and Champa are the original countries of the Sappan, and quotes from Rheede that in Malabar it was called _Tsajampangan_, suggestive apparently of a possible derivation from _Champa_. The mere fact that it does not come from Japan would not disprove this derivation any more than the fact that turkeys and maize did not originally come from Turkey would disprove the fact of the birds and the grain (_gran turco_) having got names from such a belief. But the tree appears to be indigenous in Malabar, the Deccan, and the Malay Peninsula; whilst the Malayāl. _shappaṅṅam_, and the Tamil _shappu_, both signifying 'red (wood),' are apparently derivatives from _shawa_, 'to be red,' and suggest another origin as most probable. [The _Mad. Gloss._ gives Mal. _chappannam_, from _chappu_, 'leaf,' Skt. _anga_, 'body'; Tam. _shappangaṃ_.] The Malay word is also _sapang_, which Crawfurd supposes to have originated the trade-name. If, however, the etymology just suggested be correct, the word must have passed from Continental India to the Archipelago. For curious particulars as to the names of this dye-wood, and its vicissitudes, see BRAZIL; [and Burnell's note on _Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 121].

c. 1570.—

"O rico Sião ja dado ao Bremem, O Cochim de Calemba que deu mana De SAPÃO, chumbo, salitre e vitualhas Lhe apercebem celleiros e muralhas." _A. de Abreu, Desc. de Malaca._

1598.—"There are likewise some Diamants and also ... the wood SAPON, whereof also much is brought from _Sian_, it is like Brasill to die withall."—_Linschoten_, 36; [Hak. Soc. i. 120].

c. 1616.—"There are in this city of Ová (read _Odia_, JUDEA), capital of the kingdom of Siam, two factories; one of the Hollanders with great capital, and another of the English with less. The trade which both drive is in deer-skins, shagreen SAPPAN (_sapão_) and much silk which comes thither from Chincheo and Cochinchina...."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 530.

[1615.—"Hindering the cutting of BACCAM or brazill wood."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 158.]

1616.—"I went to Sapàn Dono to know whether he would lend me any money upon interest, as he promised me; but ... he drove me afe with wordes, ofring to deliver me money for all our SAPPON which was com in this junk, at 22 _mas_ per _pico_."—_Cocks's Diary_, i. 208-9.

1617.—Johnson and Pitts at JUDEA in Siam "are glad they can send a junk well laden with SAPON, because of its scarcity."—_Sainsbury_, ii. 32.

1625.—"... a wood to die withall called SAPAN wood, the same we here call Brasill."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 1004.

1685.—"Moreover in the whole Island there is a great plenty of Brazill wood, which in India is called SAPÃO."—_Ribeiro, Fat. Hist._ f. 8.

1727.—"It (the Siam Coast) produces good store of SAPAN and Agala-woods, with Gumlack and Sticklack, and many Drugs that I know little about."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 194; [ed. 1744].

1860.—"The other productions which constituted the exports of the island were SAPAN wood to Persia...."—_Tennent, Ceylon_, ii. 54.

SARBATANE, SARBACANE, s. This is not Anglo-Indian, but it often occurs in French works on the East, as applied to the blowing-tubes used by various tribes of the Indian Islands for discharging small arrows, often poisoned. The same instrument is used among the tribes of northern South America, and in some parts of Madagascar. The word comes through the Span. _cebratana_, _cerbatana_, _zarbatana_, also Port. _sarabatana_, &c., Ital. _cerbotana_, Mod. Greek ζαροβοτάνα, from the Ar. _zabaṭāna_, 'a tube for blowing pellets' (a pea-shooter in fact!). Dozy says that the _r_ must have been sounded in the Arabic of the Spanish Moors, as Pedro de Alcala translates _zebratana_ by Ar. _zarbatāna_. The resemblance of this to the Malay SUMPITAN (q.v.) is curious, though it is not easy to suggest a transition, if the Arabic word is, as it appears, old enough to have been introduced into Spanish. There is apparently, however, no doubt that in Arabic it is a borrowed word. The Malay word seems to be formed directly from _sumpit_, 'to discharge from the mouth by a forcible expiration' (_Crawfurd, Mal. Dict._).

[1516.—"... the force which had accompanied the King, very well armed, many of them with bows, others carrying blowing tubes with poisoned arrows (_Zarvatanas com setas ervadas_)...."—_Comm. of Dalboquerque_, Hak. Soc. iii. 104.]

SARBOJI, s. This is the name of some weapon used in the extreme south of India; but we have not been able to ascertain its character or etymology. We conjecture, however, that it may be the long lance or pike, 18 or 20 feet long, which was the characteristic and formidable weapon of the Marava COLLERIES (q.v.). See _Bp. Caldwell's H. of Tinnevelly_, p. 103 and _passim_; [_Stuart, Man. of Tinnevelly_, 50. This explanation is probably incorrect. Welsh (_Military Rem._ i. 104) defines SARABOGIES as "a species of park guns, for firing salutes at feasts, &c.; but not used in war." It has been suggested that the word is simply Hind. _sirbojha_, 'a head-load,' and Dr. Grierson writes: "'Laden with a head' may refer to a head carried home on a spear." Dr. Pope writes: "_Sarboji_ is not found in any Dravidian dialect, as far as I know. It is a synonym for Sivaji. _Sarva_ (_sarbo_)-_ji_ is honorific. In the Tanjore Inscription it is _Serfogi_. In mythology Siva's name is 'arrow,' 'spear,' and 'head-burthen,' of course by metonomy." Mr. Brandt suggests Tam. _sĕrŭ_, "war," _bŭgei_, "a tube." No weapon of the name appears in Mr. Egerton's _Hand-book of Indian Arms_.]

1801.—"The Rt. Hon. the Governor in Council ... orders and directs all persons, whether Polygars (see POLIGAR), COLLERIES, or other inhabitants possessed of arms in the Provinces of Dindigul, Tinnevelly, Ramnadpuram, Sivagangai, and Madura, to deliver the said arms, consisting of Muskets, Matchlocks, Pikes, Gingauls (see GINGALL), and SARABOGOI to Lieut.-Col. Agnew...."—_Procl. by Madras Govt._, dd. 1st Decr., in _Bp. Caldwell's Hist._ p. 227.

c. 1814.—"Those who carry spear and sword have land given them producing 5 _kalams_ of rice; those bearing muskets, 7 _kalams_; those bearing the SARBOJI, 9 _kalams_; those bearing the _sanjali_ (see GINGALL), or gun for two men, 14 kalams...."—_Account of the Maravas_, from _Mackenzie MSS._ in _Madras Journal_, iv. 360.

SAREE, s. Hind. _sāṛī_, _sāṛhī_. The cloth which constitutes the main part of a woman's dress in N. India, wrapt round the body and then thrown over the head.

1598.—"... likewise they make whole pieces or webbes of this hearbe, sometimes mixed and woven with silke.... Those webs are named SARIJN...."—_Linschoten_, 28; [Hak. Soc. i. 96].

1785.—"... Her clothes were taken off, and a red silk covering (a SAURRY) put upon her."—_Acct. of a Suttee_, in _Seton-Karr_, i. 90.

SARNAU, SORNAU, n.p. A name often given to Siam in the early part of the 16th century; from _Shahr-i-nao_, Pers. 'New-city'; the name by which Yuthia or Ayodhya (see JUDEA), the capital founded on the Menam about 1350, seems to have become known to the traders of the Persian Gulf. Mr. Braddell (_J. Ind. Arch._ v. 317) has suggested that the name (_Sheher-al-nawi_, as he calls it) refers to the distinction spoken of by La Loubère between the Thai-_Yai_, an older people of the race, and the Thai-_Noi_, the people known to us as Siamese. But this is less probable. We have still a city of Siam called _Lophaburī_, anciently a capital, and the name of which appears to be a Sanskrit or Pali form, _Nava-pura_, meaning the same as _Shahr-i-nao_; and this indeed may have first given rise to the latter name. The _Cernove_ of Nicolo Conti (c. 1430) is generally supposed to refer to a city of Bengal, and one of the present writers has identified it with Lakhnāotī or Gauṛ, an official name of which in the 14th cent. was _Shahr-i-nao_. But it is just possible that Siam was the country spoken of.

1442.—"The inhabitants of the sea-coasts arrive here (at Ormuz) from the counties of Chín, Java, Bengal, the cities of Zirbád, Tenásiri, Sokotora, SHAHR-I-NAO...."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _Not. et Exts._, xiv. 429.

1498.—"XARNAUZ is of Christians, and the King is Christian; it is 50 days voyage with a fair wind from Calicut. The King ... has 400 elephants of war; in the land is much benzoin ... and there is aloeswood...."—_Roteiro de Vasco da Gama_, 110.

1510.—"... They said they were from a city called SARNAU, and had brought for sale silken stuffs, and aloeswood, and benzoin, and musk."—_Varthema_, 212.

1514.—"... Tannazzari, SARNAU, where is produced all the finest white benzoin, storax, and lac finer than that of Martaman."—Letter of _Giov. d'Empoli_, in _Arch. Storico Italiano_, App. 80.

1540.—"... all along the coast of _Malaya_, and within the Land, a great King commands, who for a more famous and recommendable Title above all other Kings, causeth himself to be called _Prechau Saleu_, Emperor of all SORNAU, which is a Country wherein there are thirteen kingdoms, by us commonly called SIAM" (Sião).—_Pinto_ (orig. cap. xxxvi.), in _Cogan_, p. 43.

c. 1612.—"It is related of Siam, formerly called SHEHER-AL-NAWI, to which Country all lands under the wind here were tributary, that there was a King called Bubannia, who when he heard of the greatness of Malacca sent to demand submission and homage of that kingdom."—_Sijara Malayu_, in _J. Ind. Arch._ v. 454.

1726.—"About 1340 reigned in the kingdom of SIAM (then called SJAHARNOUW or SORNAU), a very powerful Prince."—_Valentijn_, v. 319.

SARONG, s. Malay. _sārung_; the body-cloth, or long kilt, tucked or girt at the waist, and generally of coloured silk or cotton, which forms the chief article of dress of the Malays and Javanese. The same article of dress, and the name (_saran_) are used in Ceylon. It is an old Indian form of dress, but is now used only by some of the people of the south; _e.g._ on the coast of Malabar, where it is worn by the Hindus (white), by the Mappilas (MOPLAH) of that coast, and the Labbais (LUBBYE) of Coromandel (coloured), and by the _Banṭs_ of Canara, who wear it of a dark blue. With the Labbais the coloured _sarong_ is a modern adoption from the Malays. Crawfurd seems to explain _sarung_ as Javanese, meaning first 'a case or sheath,' and then a wrapper or garment. But, both in the Malay islands and in Ceylon, the word is no doubt taken from Skt. _sāranga_, meaning 'variegated' and also 'a garment.'

[1830.—"... the cloth or SARONG, which has been described by Mr. Marsden to be 'not unlike a Scots highlander's plaid in appearance, being a piece of party-coloured cloth, about 6 or 8 feet long, and 3 or 4 feet wide, sewed together at the ends, forming, as some writers have described it, a wide sack without a bottom.' With the _Maláyus_, the SARONG is either worn slung over the shoulders as a sash, or tucked round the waist and descending to the ankles, so as to enclose the legs like a petticoat."—_Raffles, Java_, i. 96.]

1868.—"He wore a SARONG or Malay petticoat, and a green jacket."—_Wallace, Mal. Arch._ 171.

SATIGAM, n.p. _Sātgāon_, formerly and from remote times a port of much trade on the right bank of the Hoogly R., 30 m. above Calcutta, but for two and a half centuries utterly decayed, and now only the site of a few huts, with a ruined mosque as the only relique of former importance. It is situated at the bifurcation of the Saraswati channel from the Hoogly, and the decay dates from the silting up of the former. It was commonly called by the Portuguese PORTO PEQUENO (q.v.).

c. 1340.—"About this time the rebellion of Fakhrá broke out in Bengal. Fakhrá and his Bengali forces killed Kádar Khán (Governor of Lakhnauti).... He then plundered the treasury of Lakhnauti, and secured possession of that place and of SATGÁNW and Sunárgánw."—_Ziā-ud-dīn Barnī_, in _Elliot_, iii. 243.

1535.—"In this year Diogo Rabello, finishing his term of service as Captain and Factor of the Choromandel fishery, with license from the Governor went to Bengal in a vessel of his ... and he went well armed along with two foists which equipped with his own money, the Governor only lending him artillery and nothing more.... So this Diogo Rabello arrived at the Port of SATIGAON, where he found two great ships of Cambaya which three days before had arrived with great quantity of merchandise, selling and buying: and these, without touching them, he caused to quit the port and go down the river, forbidding them to carry on any trade, and he also sent one of the foists, with 30 men, to the other port of CHATIGAON, where they found three ships from the Coast of Choromandel, which were driven away from the port. And Diogo Rabello sent word to the Gozil that he was sent by the Governor with choice of peace or war, and that he should send to ask the King if he chose to liberate the (Portuguese) prisoners, in which case he also would liberate his ports and leave them in their former peace...."—_Correa_, iii. 649.

[c. 1590.—"In the Sarkár of SÁTGÁON, there are two ports at a distance of half a _kos_ from each other; the one is SÁTGÁON, the other Hugli: the latter the chief; both are in the possession of the Europeans. Fine pomegranates grow here."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 125.]

SATIN, s. This is of course English, not Anglo-Indian. The common derivation [accepted by Prof. Skeat (_Concise Dict._ 2nd ed. s.v.)] is with Low Lat. _seta_, 'silk,' Lat. _seta_, _saeta_, 'a bristle, a hair,' through the Port. _setim_. Dr. Wells Williams (_Mid. King._, ii. 123) says it is probably derived eventually from the Chinese _sz'-tün_, though intermediately through other languages. It is true that _sz'tün_ or _sz'-twan_ is a common (and ancient) term for this sort of silk texture. But we may remark that trade-words adopted directly from the Chinese are comparatively rare (though no doubt the intermediate transit indicated would meet this objection, more or less). And we can hardly doubt that the true derivation is that given in _Cathay and the Way Thither_, p. 486; viz. from _Zaitun_ or _Zayton_, the name by which Chwan-chau (CHINCHEW), the great medieval port of western trade in Fokien, was known to western traders. We find that certain rich stuffs of damask and satin were called from this place, by the Arabs, _Zaitūnia_; the Span. _aceytuni_ (for 'satin'), the medieval French _zatony_, and the medieval Ital. _zetani_, afford intermediate steps.

c. 1350.—"The first city that I reached after crossing the sea was _Zaitūn_.... It is a great city, superb indeed; and in it they make damasks of velvet as well as those of satin (_kimkhā_—see KINCOB, ATLAS), which are called from the name of the city ZAITŪNIA."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 269.

1352.—In an inventory of this year in _Douet d'Arcq_ we have: "ZATONY at 4 _écus_ the ell" (p. 342).

1405.—"And besides, this city (Samarkand) is very rich in many wares which come to it from other parts. From Russia and Tartary come hides and linens, and from Cathay silk-stuffs, the best that are made in all that region, especially the SETUNIS, which are said to be the best in the world, and the best of all are those that are without pattern."—_Clavijo_ (translated anew—the passage corresponding to Markham's at p. 171). The word SETUNI occurs repeatedly in Clavijo's original.

1440.—In the _Libro de Gabelli_, &c., of Giov. da Uzzano, we have mention among silk stuffs, several times, of "ZETANI _vellutati_, and other kinds of ZETANI."—_Della Decima_, iv. 58, 107, &c.

1441.—"Before the throne (at Bijanagar) was placed a cushion of ZAITŪNĪ satin, round which three rows of the most exquisite pearls were sewn."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _Elliot_, iv. 120. (The original is "_darpesh-i-takht bālishī az_ AṬLAS-I-ZAITŪNĪ"; see _Not. et Exts._ xiv. 376. Quatremère (_ibid._ 462) translated '_un carreau de satin_ olive,' taking _zaitūn_ in its usual Arabic sense of 'an olive tree.') Also see _Elliot_, iv. 113.

SATRAP, s. Anc. Pers. _khshatrapa_, which becomes _satrap_, as _khshāyathiya_ becomes _shāh_. The word comes to us direct from the Greek writers who speak of Persia. But the title occurs not only in the books of Ezra, Esther, and Daniel, but also in the ancient inscriptions, as used by certain lords in Western India, and more precisely in Surāshtra or Peninsular Guzerat. Thus, in a celebrated inscription regarding a dam, near Girnār:

c. A.D. 150.—"... he, the Mahā-KHSHATRAPA Rudradāman ... for the increase of his merit and fame, has rebuilt the embankment three times stronger."—In _Indian Antiquary_, vii. 262. The identity of this with _satrap_ was pointed out by James Prinsep, 1838 (_J. As. Soc. Ben._ vii. 345). [There were two Indian satrap dynasties, viz. the Western Satraps of Saurāshtra and Gujarāt, from about A.D. 150 to A.D. 388; for which see _Rapson and Indraji, The Western Kshatrapas_ (_J. R. A. S., N. S._, 1890, p. 639); and the Northern Kshatrapas of Mathura and the neighbouring territories in the 1st cent. A.D. See articles by _Rapson and Indraji_ in _J. R. A. S., N. S._, 1894, pp. 525, 541.]

1883.—"An eminent Greek scholar used to warn his pupils to beware of false analogies in philology. 'Because,' he used to say, 'σατράπης is the Greek for SATRAP, it does not follow that ῥατράπης is the Greek for rat-trap.'"—_Sat. Rev._ July 14, p. 53.

SATSUMA, n.p. Name of a city and formerly of a principality (daimioship) in Japan, the name of which is familiar not only from the deplorable necessity of bombarding its capital Kagosima in 1863 (in consequence of the murder of Mr. Richardson, and other outrages, with the refusal of reparation), but from the peculiar cream-coloured pottery made there and now well known in London shops.

1615.—"I said I had receued suffition at his highnes hands in havinge the good hap to see the face of soe mightie a King as the King of SHASHMA; whereat he smiled."—_Cocks's Diary_, i. 4-5.

1617.—"Speeches are given out that the _caboques_ or Japon players (or whores) going from hence for Tushma to meete the Corean ambassadors, were set on by the way by a boate of XAXMA theeves, and kild all both men and women, for the money they had gotten at Firando."—_Ibid._ 256.

SAUGOR, SAUGOR ISLAND, n.p. A famous island at the mouth of the Hoogly R., the site of a great fair and pilgrimage—properly _Ganga Sāgara_ ('Ocean Ganges'). It is said once to have been populous, but in 1688 (the date is clearly wrong) to have been swept by a cyclone-wave. It is now a dense jungle haunted by tigers.

1683.—"We went in our Budgeros to see ye Pagodas at SAGOR, and returned to ye Oyster River, where we got as many Oysters as we desired."—_Hedges_, March 12; [Hak. Soc. i. 68].

1684.—"James Price assured me that about 40 years since, when ye Island called GONGA SAGUR was inhabited, ye Raja of ye Island gathered yearly Rent out of it, to ye amount of 26 Lacks of Rupees."—_Ibid._ Dec. 15; [Hak. Soc. i. 172].

1705.—"SAGORE est une Isle où il y a une Pagode très-respectée parmi les Gentils, où ils vont en pelerinage, et où il y a deux Faquers qui y font leur residence. Ces Faquers sçavent charmer les bêtes feroces, qu'on y trouve en quantité, sans quoi ils seroient tous les jours exposés à estre devorez."—_Luillier_, p. 123.

1727.—"... among the _Pagans_, the Island SAGOR is accounted holy, and great numbers of _Jougies_ go yearly thither in the Months of _November_ and _December_, to worship and wash in Salt-Water, tho' many of them fall Sacrifices to the hungry Tigers."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 3; [ed. 1744].

SAUL-WOOD, s. Hind. _sāl_, from Skt. _śāla_; the timber of the tree _Shorea robusta_, Gaertner, N.O. _Dipterocarpeae_, which is the most valuable building timber of Northern India. Its chief habitat is the forest immediately under the Himālaya, at intervals throughout that region from the Brahmaputra to the Biās; it abounds also in various more southerly tracts between the Ganges and the Godavery. [The botanical name is taken from Sir John Shore. For the peculiar habitat of the Sāl as compared with the Teak, see _Forsyth, Highlands of C.I._ 25 _seqq._] It is strong and durable, but very heavy, so that it cannot be floated without more buoyant aids, and is, on that and other accounts, inferior to teak. It does not appear among eight kinds of timber in general use, mentioned in the _Āīn_. The _saul_ has been introduced into China, perhaps at a remote period, on account of its connection with Buddha's history, and it is known there by the Indian name, _so-lo_ (_Bretschneider_ on _Chinese Botan. Works_, p. 6).

c. 650.—"L'Honorable du siècle, animé d'une grande pitié, et obéissant à l'ordre des temps, jugea utile de paraitre dans le monde. Quand il eut fini de convertir les hommes, il se plongea dans les joies du Nirvâna. Se plaçant entre deux arbres SÂLAS, il tourna sa tête vers le nord et s'endormit."—_Hiouen Thsang, Mémoires_ (_Voyages des Pèl. Bouddh._ ii. 340).

1765.—"The produce of the country consists of SHAAL timbers (a wood equal in quality to the best of our oak)."—_Holwell, Hist. Events_, &c., i. 200.

1774.—"This continued five _kos_; towards the end there are SĀL and large forest trees."—_Bogle_, in _Markham's Tibet_, 19.

1810.—"The SAUL is a very solid wood ... it is likewise heavy, yet by no means so ponderous as teak; both, like many of our former woods, sink in fresh water."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 69.

SAYER, SYRE, &c., s. Hind. from Arab. _sā'ir_, a word used technically for many years in the Indian accounts to cover a variety of items of taxation and impost, other than the Land Revenue.

The transitions of meaning in Arabic words are (as we have several times had occasion to remark) very obscure; and until we undertook the investigation of the subject for this article (a task in which we are indebted to the kind help of Sir H. Waterfield, of the India Office, one of the busiest men in the public service, but, as so often happens, one of the readiest to render assistance) the obscurity attaching to the word _sayer_ in this sense was especially great.

Wilson, s.v. says: "In its original purport the word signifies moving, walking, or the whole, the remainder; from the latter it came to denote the remaining, or all other, sources of revenue accruing to the Government in addition to the land-tax." In fact, according to this explanation, the application of the term might be illustrated by the ancient story of a German Professor lecturing on botany in the pre-scientific period. He is reported to have said: 'Every plant, gentlemen, is divided into two parts. _This_ is the _root_,—and _this_ is the _rest of it_!' Land revenue was the root, and all else was 'the rest of it.'

Sir C. Trevelyan again, in a passage quoted below, says that the Arabic word has "the same meaning as 'miscellaneous.'" Neither of these explanations, we conceive, _pace tantorum virorum_, is correct.

The term SAYER in the 18th century was applied to a variety of inland imposts, but especially to local and arbitrary charges levied by zemindars and other individuals, with a show of authority, on all goods passing through their estates by land or water, or sold at markets (BAZAR, HAUT, GUNGE) established by them, charges which formed in the aggregate an enormous burden upon the trade of the country.

Now the fact is that in _sā'ir_ two old Semitic forms have coalesced in sound though coming from different roots, viz. (in Arabic) _sair_, producing _sā'ir_, 'walking, current,' and _sā'r_, producing _sā'ir_, 'remainder,' the latter being a form of the same word that we have in the Biblical _Shear-jashub_, 'the remnant shall remain' (_Isaiah_, vii. 3). And we conceive that the true sense of the Indian term was 'current or customary charges'; an idea that lies at the root of sundry terms of the same kind in various languages, including our own _Customs_, as well as the DUSTOORY which is so familiar in India. This interpretation is aptly illustrated by the quotation below from Mr. Stuart's Minute of Feb. 10, 1790.

At a later period it seems probable that some confusion arose with the other sense of _sā'ir_, leading to its use, more or less, for 'et ceteras,' and accounting for what we have indicated above as erroneous explanations of the word.

I find, however, that the _Index and Glossary to the Regulations_, ed. 1832 (vol. iii.), defines: "SAYER. What moves. Variable imports, distinct from land-rent or revenue, consisting of customs, tolls, licenses, duties on merchandise, and other articles of personal moveable property; as well as mixed duties, and taxes on houses, shops, bazars, &c." This of course throws some doubt on the rationale of the Arabic name as suggested above.

In a despatch of April 10, 1771, to Bengal, the Court of Directors drew attention to the private Bazar charges, as "a great detriment to the public collections, and a burthen and oppression to the inhabitants"; enjoining that no _Buzars_ or _Gunges_ should be kept up but such as particularly belonged to the Government. And in such the duties were to be rated in such manner as the respective positions and prosperity of the different districts would admit.

In consequence of these instructions it was ordered in 1773 that "all duties coming under the description of SAYER _Chelluntah_ (H. _chalantā_, 'in transit'), and _Rah-darry_ (RADAREE) ... and other oppressive impositions on the foreign as well as the internal trade of the country" should be abolished; and, to prevent all pretext of injustice, proportional deductions of rent were conceded to the zemindars in the annual collections. Nevertheless the exactions went on much as before, in defiance of this and repeated orders. And in 1786 the Board of Revenue issued a proclamation declaring that any person levying such duties should be subject to corporal punishment, and that the zemindar in whose zemindarry such an offence might be committed, should forfeit his lands.

Still the evil practices went on till 1790, when Lord Cornwallis took up the matter with intelligence and determination. In the preceding year he had abolished all RADAREE duties in Behar and Benares, but the abuses in Bengal Proper seem to have been more swarming and persistent. On June 11, 1790, orders were issued resuming the collection of all duties indicated into the hands of Government; but this was followed after a few weeks (July 28) by an order abolishing them altogether, with some exceptions, which will be presently alluded to. This double step is explained by the Governor-General in a Minute dated July 18: "When I first proposed the resumption of the SAYER from the Landholders, it appeared to me advisable to continue the former collection (the unauthorised articles excepted) for the current year, in order that by the necessary accounts [we might have the means] for making a fair adjustment of the compensation, and at the same time acquire sufficient knowledge of the collections to enable us to enter upon the regulation of them from the commencement of the ensuing year.... The collections appear to be so numerous, and of so intricate a nature, as to preclude the possibility of regulating them all; and as the establishment of new rates for such articles as it might be thought advisable to continue would require much consideration, ... I recommend that, instead of continuing the collection ... for the current year ... all the existing articles of SAYER collection (with the exception of the Abkarry (ABCARREE) ...) be immediately abolished; and that the Collectors be directed to withdraw their officers from the GUNGES, BAZARS and HAUTS," compensation being duly made. The Board of Revenue could then consider on what few articles of luxury in general consumption it might be proper to reimpose a tax.

The Order of July 28 abolished "all duties, taxes, and collections coming under the denomination of SAYER (with the exception of the Government and Calcutta Customs, the duties levied on pilgrims at Gya, and other places of pilgrimage,—the _Abkarry_ ... which is to be collected on account of the Government ... the collections made in the GUNGES, BAZARS and HAUTS situated within the limits of Calcutta, and such collections as are confirmed to the land-holders and the holders of GUNGES &c. by the published Resolutions of June 11, 1790, namely, rent paid for the use of land (and the like) ... or for orchards, pasture-ground, or fisheries sometimes included in the sayer under the denomination of _phulkur_ (Hind. _phalkar_, from _phal_, 'fruit'), _bunkur_ (from Hind. _ban_, 'forest or pasture-ground'), and _julkur_ (Hind. _jalkar_, from _jal_, 'water')...." These Resolutions are printed with Regn. XXVII. of 1793.

By an order of the Board of Revenue of April 28, 1790, correspondence regarding SAYER was separated from 'Land Revenue'; and on the 16th _idem_ the Abkarry was separately regulated.

The amount in the Accounts credited as Land Revenue in Bengal seems to have included both _Sayer_ and _Abkarry_ down to the Accts. presented to Parliament in 1796. In the "Abstract Statement of Receipts and Disbursements of the Bengal Government" for 1793-94, the "Collections under head of SYER and Abkarry" amount to Rs. 10,98,256. In the Accounts, printed in 1799, for 1794-5 to 1796-7, the "Land and SAYER Revenues" are given, but Abkārī is not mentioned. Among the Receipts and Disbursements for 1800-1 appears "SYER Collections, including Abkaree, 7,81,925."

These forms appear to have remained in force down to 1833. In the accounts presented in 1834, from 1828-9, to 1831-2, with Estimate for 1832-3, Land Revenue is given separately, and next to it SYER and Abkaree Revenue. Except that the spelling was altered back to _Sayer_ and _Abkarry_, this remained till 1856. In 1857 the accounts for 1854-5 showed in separate lines,—

Land Revenue, Excise Duties, in Calcutta, SAYER Revenue, Abkarry ditto.

In the accounts for 1861-2 it became—

Land Revenue, SAYER and Miscellaneous, Abkaree,

and in those for 1863-4 SAYER vanished altogether.

The term Sayer has been in use in Madras and Bombay as well as in Bengal. From the former we give an example under 1802; from the latter we have not met with a suitable quotation.

The following entries in the Bengal accounts for 1858-59 will exemplify the application of SAYER in the more recent times of its maintenance:—

_Under Bengal, Behar and Orissa_:

Sale of Trees and Sunken Boats Rs. 555 0 0

_Under Pegu and Martaban Provinces_:

Fisheries Rs. 1,22,874 0 2 Tax on BIRDS' NESTS (q.v.) 7,449 0 0 " on Salt 43,061 3 10 Fees for fruits and gardens 7,287 9 1 Tax on Bees' wax 1,179 8 0 Do. Collections 8,050 0 0 Sale of Government Timbers, &c. 4,19,141 12 8 ---------------- 6,09,043 1 9

_Under the same_:

Sale proceeds of unclaimed and confiscated Timbers, Rs. 146 11 10 Net Salvage on Drift Timbers 2,247 10 0 ------------- 2,394 5 10

c. 1580.—"SĀĪR _az Gangāpat o aṭrāf-i-Hindowi waghaira_ ..." _i.e._ "SAYER from the Ganges ... and the Hindu districts, &c.... 170,800 _dams_."—_Āīn-i-Akbarī_, orig. i. 395, in detailed Revenues of _Sirkar Jannatābād_ or _Gaur_; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 131].

1751.—"I have heard that Ramkissen Seat who lives in Calcutta has carried goods to that place without paying the Muxidavad SYRE chowkey (CHOKY) duties."—_Letter from Nawāb to Prest. Ft. William_, in _Long_, 25.

1788.—"SAIRJAT.—All kinds of taxation besides the land-rent. SAIRS.—Any place or office appointed for the collection of duties or customs."—_The Indian Vocabulary_, 112.

1790.—"Without entering into a discussion of privileges founded on Custom, and of which it is easier to ascertain the abuse than the origin, I shall briefly remark on the Collections of SAYER, that while they remain in the hands of the Zemindars, every effort to free the internal Commerce from the baneful effects of their vexatious impositions must necessarily prove abortive."—_Minute by the Hon. C. Stuart_, dd. Feb. 10, quoted by Lord Cornwallis in his Minute of July 18.

" "The Board last day very humanely and politically recommended unanimously the abolition of the SAYR.

"The statement of Mr. Mercer from Burdwan makes all the SAYR (consisting of a strange medley of articles taxable, not omitting even Hermaphrodites) amount only to 58,000 Rupees...."—_Minute by Mr. Law of the Bd. of Revenue_, forwarded by the Board, July 12.

1792.—"The JUMMA on which a settlement for 10 years has been made is about (current Rupees) 3,01,00,000 ... which is 9,35,691 Rupees less than the Average Collections of the three preceding Years. On this Jumma, the Estimate for 1791-2 is formed, and the SAYER Duties, and some other extra Collections, formerly included in the Land Revenue, being abolished, accounts for the Difference...."—_Heads of Mr. Dundas's Speech on the Finances of the E.I. Company_, June 5, 1792.

1793.—"A Regulation for re-enacting with alterations and modifications, the Rules passed by the Governor General in Council on 11th June and 28th July, 1790, and subsequent dates, for the resumption and abolition of SAYER, or internal Duties and Taxes throughout Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa," &c. "Passed by the Governor General in Council on the 1st May, 1793...."—_Title of Regulation_, XXVII. of 1793.

1802.—"The Government having reserved to itself the entire exercise of its discretion in continuing or abolishing, temporarily or permanently, the articles of revenue included according to the custom and practice of the country, under the several heads of salt and saltpetre—of the SAYER or duties by sea or land—of the ABKARRY ...—of the excise ...—of all takes personal and professional, as well as those derived from markets, fairs and bazaars—of _lakhiraj_ (see LACKERAGE) lands.... The permanent land-tax shall be made exclusively of the said articles now recited."—_Madras Regulation_, XXV. § iv.

1817.—"Besides the land-revenue, some other duties were levied in India, which were generally included under the denomination of SAYER."—_Mill, H. of Br. India_, v. 417.

1863.—"The next head was 'SAYER,' an obsolete Arabic word, which has the same meaning as 'miscellaneous.' It has latterly been composed of a variety of items connected with the Land Revenue, of which the Revenue derived from Forests has been the most important. The progress of improvement has given a value to the Forests which they never had before, and it has been determined ... to constitute the Revenue derived from them a separate head of the Public Accounts. The other Miscellaneous Items of Land Revenue which appeared under 'SAYER,' have therefore been added to Land Revenue, and what remains has been denominated 'Forest Revenue.'"—_Sir C. Trevelyan, Financial Statement_, dd. April 30.

SCARLET. See SUCLAT.

SCAVENGER, s. We have been rather startled to find among the MS. records of the India Office, in certain "_Lists of Persons in the Service of the Right. Honble._ the East India Company, in Fort St. George, _and the other Places on the Coast of_ Choromandell," beginning with Feby. 170½, and in the entries for that year, the following:

"_Fort St. David._

"5. _Trevor Gaines_, Land CUSTOMER and SCAVENGER of Cuddalore, 5th Counc^l....

"6. _Edward Bawgus_, Translator of Country Letters, _Sen. Mercht._

"7. _John Butt_, SCAVENGER and Cornmeeter, Tevenapatam, _Mercht._"

Under 1714 we find again, at Fort St. George:

"_Joseph Smart_, Rentall General and SCAVENGER, 8th of Council,"

and so on, in the entries of most years down to 1761, when we have, for the last time:

"_Samuel Ardley, 7th of Council_, Masulipatam, Land-Customer, Military Storekeeper, Rentall General, and SCAVENGER."

Some light is thrown upon this surprising occurrence of such a term by a reference to _Cowel's Law Dictionary, or The Interpreter_ (published originally in 1607) new ed. of 1727, where we read:

"SCAVAGE, Scavagium. It is otherwise called _Schevage_, _Shewage_, and _Scheauwing_; maybe deduced from the Saxon _Seawian_ (Sceawian?) _Ostendere_, and is a kind of Toll or Custom exacted by Mayors, Sheriffs, &c., of Merchant-strangers, for Wares _shewed_ or offered to Sale within their Precincts, which is prohibited by the Statute 19 H. 7, 8. In a Charter of _Henry_ the Second to the City of _Canterbury_ it is written _Scewinga_, and (in Mon. Ang. 2, per fol. 890 b.) _Sceawing_; and elsewhere I find it in Latin _Tributum Ostensorium_. The City of London still retains the Custom, of which in _An old printed Book of the Customs of London_, we read thus, _Of which Custom halfen del appertaineth to the Sheriffs, and the other halfen del to the Hostys in whose Houses the Merchants been lodged; And it is to wet that_ Scavage _is the Shew by cause that Merchanties_ (sic) _shewn unto the Sheriffs Merchandizes, of the which Customs ought to be taken ere that ony thing thereof be sold, &c._

"SCAVENGER, From the Belgick _Scavan_, to scrape. Two of every Parish within London and the suburbs are yearly chosen into this Office, who hire men called Rakers, and carts, to cleanse the streets, and carry away the Dirt and Filth thereof, mentioned in 14 Car. 2, cap. 2. The Germans call him a _Drecksimon_, from one _Simon_, a noted Scavenger of Marpurg.

* * * * *

"SCHAVALDUS, The officer who collected the Scavage-Money, which was sometimes done with Extortion and great Oppression." (Then quotes Hist. of Durham from Wharton, _Anglia Sacra_, Pt. i. p. 75; "Anno 1311. Schavaldos insurgentes in Episcopatu (Richardus episcopus) fortiter composuit. Aliqui suspendebantur, aliqui extra Episcopatum fugabantur.")

In _Spelman_ also (_Glossarium Archaiologicum_, 1688) we find:—

"_Scavagium._] Tributum quod a mercatoribus exigere solent nundinarum domini, ob licentiam proponendi ibidem venditioni mercimonia, a Saxon (sceawian) id est, Ostendere, inspicere, Angl. SCHEWAGE and SHEWAGE." Spelman has no _Scavenger_ or _Scavager_.

The _scavage_ then was a tax upon goods for sale which were liable to duty, the word being, as Skeat points out, a Law French (or Low Latin?) formation from _shew_. ["From O.F. _escauw-er_, to examine, inspect. O. Sax. _skawon_, to behold; cognate with A.S. _sceawian_, to look at." (_Concise Dict._ s.v.)] And the SCAVAGER or SCAVENGER was originally the officer charged with the inspection of the goods and collection of this tax. Passages quoted below from the _Liber Albus_ of the City of London refer to these officers, and Mr. Riley in his translation of that work (1861, p. 34) notes that they were "Officers whose duty it was originally to take custom upon the _Scavage_, _i.e._ inspection of the opening out, of imported goods. At a later date, part of their duty was to see that the streets were kept clean; and hence the modern word 'SCAVENGER,' whose office corresponds with the _rakyer_ (raker) of former times." [The meaning and derivation of this word have been discussed in _Notes & Queries_, 2 ser. ix. 325; 5 ser. v. 49, 452.]

We can hardly doubt then that the office of the Coromandel SCAVENGER of the 18th century, united as we find it with that of "Rentall General," or of "Land-CUSTOMER," and held by a senior member of the Company's Covenanted Service, must be understood in the older sense of Visitor or Inspector of Goods subject to duties, but (till we can find more light) we should suppose rather duties of the nature of bazar tax, such as at a later date we find classed as SAYER (q.v.), than customs on imports from seaward.

It still remains an obscure matter how the charge of the scavagers or scavengers came to be transferred to the oversight of streets and street-cleaning. That this must have become a predominant part of their duty at an early period is shown by the Scavager's Oath which we quote below from the _Liber Albus_. In _Skinner's Etymologicon_, 1671, the definition is _Collector sordium abrasarum_ (erroneously connecting the word with _shaving_ and scraping), whilst he adds: "_Nostri_ SCAVENGERS vilissimo omnium ministerio sordes et purgamenta urbis auferendi funguntur." In _Cotgrave's English-French Dict._, ed. by Howel, 1673, we have: "SCAVINGER. Boueur. Gadouard"—agreeing precisely with our modern use. Neither of these shows any knowledge of the less sordid office attaching to the name. The same remark applies to Lye's _Junius_, 1743. It is therefore remarkable to find such a _survival_ of the latter sense in the service of the Company, and coming down so late as 1761. It must have begun with the very earliest of the Company's establishments in India, for it is probable that the denomination was even then only a survival in England, due to the Company's intimate connection with the city of London. Indeed we learn from Mr. Norton, quoted below, that the term _scavage_ was still alive within the City in 1829.

1268.—"Walterus Hervy et Willelmus de Dunolmo, Ballivi, ut Custodes ... de Lxxv._l._ vj._s._ & x_d._ de consuetudinibus omnemodarum mercandisarum venientium de partibus transmarinis ad Civitatem praedictam, de quibus consuetudo debetur quae vocatur SCAVAGIUM...."—_Mag. Rot._ 59. Hen. III., extracted in _T. Madox, H. and Ant. of the Exchequer_, 1779, i. 779.

Prior to 1419.—"Et debent ad dictum Wardemotum per Aldermannum et probos Wardae, necnon per juratores, eligi Constabularii, SCAVEGEOURS, Aleconners, Bedelle, et alii Officiarii."—_Liber Albus_, p. 38.

" "SEREMENT DE SCAWAGEOURS. Vous jurrez qe vous surverrez diligientiement qe lez pavimentz danz vostre Garde soient bien et droiturelement reparaillez et nyent enhaussez a nosance dez veysyns; et qe lez chemyns, ruwes, et venelles soient nettez dez fiens et de toutz maners dez ordures, pur honestee de la citee; et qe toutz les chymyneys, fournes, terrailles soient de piere, et suffisantement defensables encontre peril de few; et si vous trovez rien a contraire vous monstrez al Alderman, issint qe l'Alderman ordeigne pur amendement de celle. Et ces ne lerrez—si Dieu vous eyde et lez Saintz."—_Ibid._ p. 313.

1594.—Letter from the Lords of the Council to the Lord Mayor and Aldermen, requesting them to admit John de Cardenas to the office of Collector of SCAVAGE, the reversion of which had ... been granted to him.—_Index_ to the _Remembrancia_ of the C. of London (1878), p. 284.

1607.—Letter from the Lord Mayor to the Lord Treasurer ... enclosing a Petition from the Ward of Aldersgate, complaining that William Court, an inhabitant of that Ward for 8 or 10 years past, refused to undergo the office of SCAVENGER in the Parish, claiming exemption ... being privileged as Clerk to Sir William Spencer, Knight, one of the Auditors of the Court of Exchequer, and praying that Mr. Court, although privileged, should be directed to find a substitute or deputy and pay him.—_Ibid._ 288.

1623.—Letter ... reciting that the City by ancient Charters held ... "the office of Package and SCAVAGE of Strangers' goods, and merchandise carried by them by land or water, out of the City and Liberties to foreign parts, whereby the Customs and Duties due to H.M. had been more duly paid, and a stricter oversight taken of such commodities so exported."—_Remembrancia_, p. 321.

1632.—Order in Council, reciting that a Petition had been presented to the Board from divers Merchants born in London, the sons of Strangers, complaining that the "Packer of London required of them as much fees for Package, Balliage, SHEWAGE, &c., as of Strangers not English-born...."—_Ibid._ 322.

1760.—"Mr. Handle, applying to the Board to have his allowance of SCAVENGER increased, and representing to us the great fatigue he undergoes, and loss of time, which the Board being very sensible of. Agreed we allow him Rs. 20 per month more than before on account of his diligence and assiduity in that post."—_Ft. William Consn._, in _Long_, 245. It does not appear from this what the duties of the scavenger in Mr. Handle's case were.

1829.—"The oversight of customable goods. This office, termed in Latin _supervisus_, is translated in another charter by the words search and surveying, and in the 2nd Charter of Charles I. it is termed the SCAVAGE, which appears to have been its most ancient and common name, and that which is retained to the present day.... The real nature of this duty is not a toll for _showing_, but a toll paid for the _oversight of showing_; and under that name (_supervisus apertionis_) it was claimed in an action of debt in the reign of Charles II.... The duty performed was seeing and knowing the merchandize on which the King's import customs were paid, in order that no concealment, or fraudulent practices ... should deprive the King of his just dues ... (The duty) was well known under the name of SCAVAGE, in the time of Henry III., and it seems at that time to have been a franchise of the commonalty."—_G. Norton, Commentaries on the Hist., &c., of the City of London_, 3rd ed. (1869), pp. 380-381.

Besides the books quoted, see _H. Wedgewood's Etym. Dict._ and _Skeat's_ do., which have furnished useful light, and some references.

SCRIVAN, s. An old word for a clerk or writer, from Port. _escrivão_.

[1616.—"He desired that some English might early on the Morow come to his howse, wher should meete a SCRIUANO and finish that busines."—_Sir T. Roe_, Hak. Soc. i. 173. On the same page "The SCRIUANE of Zulpheckcarcon."]

1673.—"In some Places they write on Cocoe-Leafes dried, and then use an Iron Style, or else on Paper, when they use a Pen made with a Reed, for which they have a Brass Case, which holds them and the Ink too, always stuck at the Girdles of their SCRIVANS."—_Fryer_, 191.

1683.—"Mr. Watson in the Taffaty warehouse without any provocation called me Pittyful Prodigall SCRIVAN, and told me my Hatt stood too high upon my head...."—Letter of _S. Langley_, in _Hedges' Diary_, Sept. 5; [Hak. Soc. i. 108].

SCYMITAR, s. This is an English word for an Asiatic sabre. The common Indian word is _talwār_ (see TULWAUR). We get it through the French _cimiterre_, Ital. _scimeterra_, and according to Marcel Devic originally from Pers. _shamshīr_ (_chimchīr_ as he writes it). This would be still very obscure unless we consider the constant clerical confusion in the Middle Ages between _c_ and _t_, which has led to several metamorphoses of words; of which a notable example is Fr. _carquois_ from Pers. _tīrkash_. _Scimecirra_ representing _shimshīr_ might easily thus become _scimetirra_. But we cannot _prove_ this to have been the real origin. This word (_shamshīr_) was known to Greek writers. Thus:

A.D. 93.—"... Καὶ καθίστησι τὸν πρεσβύτατον παῖδα Μορόβαζον βασιλέα περιθεῖσα τὸ διάδημα καὶ δοῦσα τὸν σημαντῆρα τοὺ πατρὸς δακτύλιον, τήντε σαμψηρὰν ὀνομαζομένην παρ' αὐτοῖς."—_Joseph. Antiqq._ xx. ii. 3.

c. A.D. 114.—"Δῶρα φέρει Τραιανῷ ὑφάσματα σηρικὰ καὶ σαμψήρας αἱ δέ εἰσι σπάθαι βαρβαρικαί."—Quoted in _Suidas Lexicon_, s.v.

1595.—

"... By this SCIMITAR, That slew the Sophy, and a Persian prince That won three fields of Sultan Soliman ..."[238] _Merchant of Venice_, ii. 1.

1610.—"... Anon the Patron starting up, as if of a sodaine restored to life; like a mad man skips into the boate, and drawing a Turkise CYMITER, beginneth to lay about him (thinking that his vessell had been surprised by Pirats), when they all leapt into the sea; and diuing vnder water like so many Diue-dappers, ascended without the reach of his furie."—_Sandys, Relation_, &c., 1615, p. 28.

1614.—"Some days ago I visited the house of a goldsmith to see a SCIMITAR (_scimitarra_) that Nasuhbashá the first vizir, whom I have mentioned above, had ordered as a present to the Grand Signor. Scabbard and hilt were all of gold; and all covered with diamonds, so that little or nothing of the gold was to be seen."—_P. della Valle_, i. 43.

c. 1630.—"They seldome go without their swords (SHAMSHEERS they call them) form'd like a cresent, of pure metall, broad, and sharper than any rasor; nor do they value them, unlesse at one blow they can cut in two an Asinego...."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1638, p. 228.

1675.—"I kept my hand on the Cock of my Carabine; and my Comrade followed a foote pace, as well armed; and our Janizary better than either of us both: but our Armenian had only a SCIMETER."—(Sir) _George Wheler, Journey into Greece_, London, 1682, p. 252.

1758.—"The Captain of the troop ... made a cut at his head with a SCYMETAR which Mr. Lally parried with his stick, and a _Coffree_ (CAFFER) servant who attend him shot the Tanjerine dead with a pistol."—_Orme_, i. 328.

SEACUNNY, s. This is, in the phraseology of the Anglo-Indian marine, a steersman or quartermaster. The word is the Pers. _sukkānī_, from Ar. _sukkān_, 'a helm.'

c. 1580.—"Aos Mocadões, SOCÕES, e Vogas."—_Primor e Honra_, &c. f. 68_v_. ("To the MOCUDDUMS, SEACUNNIES, and oarsmen.")

c. 1590.—"SUKKĀNGĪR, or helmsman. _He_ steers the ship according to the orders of the _Mu'allim_."—_Āīn_, i. 280.

1805.—"I proposed concealing myself with 5 men among the bales of cloth, till it should be night, when the Frenchmen being necessarily divided into two watches might be easily overpowered. This was agreed to ... till daybreak, when unfortunately descrying the masts of a vessel on our weather beam, which was immediately supposed to be our old friend, the sentiments of every person underwent a most unfortunate alteration, and the Nakhoda, and the SOUCAN, as well as the Supercargo, informed me that they would not tell a lie for all the world, even to save their lives; and in short, that they would neither be _airt nor pairt_ in the business."—Letter of _Leyden_, dd. Oct. 4-7, in _Morton's Life_.

1810.—"The gunners and quartermasters ... are Indian Portuguese; they are called SECUNNIS."—_Maria Graham_, 85.

[1855.—"... the SEACUNNIES, or helmsmen, were principally Manilla men."—_Neale, Residence in Siam_, 45.]

SEBUNDY, s. Hind. from Pers. _sihbandī_ (_sih_, 'three'). The _rationale_ of the word is obscure to us. [Platts says it means 'three-monthly or quarterly payment.' The _Madras Gloss._ less probably suggests Pers. _sipāhbandī_ (see SEPOY), 'recruitment.'] It is applied to irregular native soldiery, a sort of militia, or imperfectly disciplined troops for revenue or police duties, &c. Certain local infantry regiments were formerly officially termed _Sebundy_. The last official appearance of the title that we can find is in application to "The _Sebundy_ Corps of Sappers and Miners" employed at Darjeeling. This is in the E.I. Register down to July, 1869, after which the title does not appear in any official list. Of this corps, if we are not mistaken, the late Field-Marshal Lord Napier of Magdala was in charge, as Lieut. Robert Napier, about 1840. An application to Lord Napier, for corroboration of this reminiscence of many years back, drew from him the following interesting note:—

"Captain Gilmore of the (Bengal) Engineers was appointed to open the settlement of Darjeeling, and to raise two companies of SEBUNDY Sappers, in order to provide the necessary labour.

"He commenced the work, obtained some (Native) officers and N.C. officers from the old Bengal Sappers, and enlisted about half of each company.

"The first season found the little colony quite unprepared for the early commencement of the RAINS. All the COOLIES, who did not die, fled, and some of the Sappers deserted. Gilmore got sick; and in 1838 I was suddenly ordered from the extreme border of Bengal—Nyacollee—to relieve him for one month. I arrived somehow, with a pair of PITARAHS as my sole possession.

"Just then, our relations with Nepaul became strained, and it was thought desirable to complete the SEBUNDY Sappers with men from the Border Hills unconnected with Nepaul—Garrows and similar tribes. Through the Political Officer the necessary number of men were enlisted and sent to me.

"When they arrived I found, instead of the 'fair recruits' announced, a number of most unfit men; some of them more or less crippled, or with defective sight. It seemed probable that, by the process known to us in India as _uddlee buddlee_ (see BUDLEE), the original recruits had managed to insert substitutes during the journey! I was much embarrassed as to what I should do with them; but night was coming on, so I encamped them on the newly opened road, the only clear space amid the dense jungle on either side. To complete my difficulty it began to rain, and I pitied my poor recruits! During the night there was a storm—and in the morning, to my intense relief, they had all disappeared!

"In the expressive language of my sergeant, there was not a '_visage_' of the men left.

"The SEBUNDIES were a local corps, designed to furnish a body of labourers fit for mountain-work. They were armed, and expected to fight if necessary. Their pay was 6rs. a month, instead of a Sepoy's 7½. The pensions of the Native officers were smaller than in the regular army, which was a ground of complaint with the Bengal Sappers, who never expected in accepting the new service that they would have lower pensions than those they enlisted for.

"I eventually completed the corps with Nepaulese, and, I think, left them in a satisfactory condition.

"I was for a long time their only sergeant-major. I supplied the Native officers and N.C. officers from India with a good pea-jacket each, out of my private means, and with a little gold-lace made them smart and happy.

"When I visited Darjeeling again in 1872, I found the remnant of my good Sapper officers living as pensioners, and waiting to give me an affectionate welcome.

* * * * *

"My month's acting appointment was turned into four years. I walked 30 miles to get to the place, lived much in hovels and temporary huts thrown up by my Hill-men, and derived more benefit from the climate than from my previous visit to England. I think I owe much practical teaching to the Hill-men, the Hills and the Climate. I learnt the worst the elements could do to me—very nearly—excepting earthquakes! And I think I was thus prepared for any hard work."

c. 1778.—"At Dacca I made acquaintance with my venerable friend John Cowe. He had served in the Navy so far back as the memorable siege of Havannah, was reduced when a lieutenant, at the end of the American War, went out in the Company's military service, and here I found him in command of a regiment of SEBUNDEES, or native militia."—_Hon. R. Lindsay_, in _L. of the Lindsays_, iii. 161.

1785.—"The Board were pleased to direct that in order to supply the place of the SEBUNDY corps, four regiments of Sepoys be employed in securing the collection of the revenues."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 92.

" "One considerable charge upon the Nabob's country was for extraordinary SIBBENDIES, sepoys and horsemen, who appear to us to be a very unnecessary incumbrance upon the revenue."—Append. to _Speech on Nab. of Arcot's Debts_, in _Burke's Works_, iv. 18, ed. 1852.

1796.—"The Collector at Midnapoor having reported the SEBUNDY Corps attached to that Collectorship, Sufficiently Trained in their Exercise; the Regular Sepoys who have been Employed on that Duty are to be withdrawn."—G. O. Feb. 23, in _Suppt._ to _Code of Military Regs._, 1799, p. 145.

1803.—"The employment of these people therefore ... as SEBUNDY is advantageous ... it lessens the number of idle and discontented at the time of general invasion and confusion."—_Wellington, Desp._ (ed. 1837), ii. 170.

1812.—"SEBUNDY, or provincial corps of native troops."—_Fifth Report_, 38.

1861.—"Sliding down Mount Tendong, the summit of which, with snow lying there, we crossed, the SEBUNDY Sappers were employed cutting a passage for the mules; this delayed our march exceedingly."—_Report of Capt. Impey, R.E._, in _Gawler's Sikhim_, p. 95.

SEEDY, s. Hind. _sīdī_; Arab. _saiyid_, 'lord' (whence the _Cid_ of Spanish romantic history), _saiyidī_, 'my lord'; and Mahr. _siddhī_. Properly an honorific name given in Western India to African Mahommedans, of whom many held high positions in the service of the kings of the Deccan. Of these at least one family has survived in princely position to our own day, viz. the Nawāb of Jangīra (see JUNGEERA), near Bombay. The young heir to this principality, Siddhī Ahmad, after a minority of some years, was installed in the Government in Oct., 1883. But the proper application of the word in the ports and on the shipping of Western India is to negroes in general. [It "is a title still applied to holy men in Marocco and the Maghrib; on the East African coast it is assumed by negro and negroid Moslems, _e.g._ Sidi Mubarak Bombay; and 'Seedy boy' is the Anglo-Indian term for a Zanzibar-man" (_Burton, Ar. Nights_, iv. 231).]

c. 1563.—"And among these was an Abyssinian (_Abexim_) called CIDE Meriam, a man reckoned a great cavalier, and who entertained 500 horse at his own charges, and who greatly coveted the city of Daman to quarter himself in, or at the least the whole of its pergunnas (_parganas_—see PERGUNNAH) to devour."—_Couto_, VII. x. 8.

[c. 1610.—"The greatest insult that can be passed upon a man is to call him CISDY—that is to say 'cook.'"—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. i. 173.]

1673.—"An _Hobsy_ or African Coffery (they being preferred here to chief employments, which they enter on by the name of SIDDIES)."—_Fryer_, 147.

" "He being from a _Hobsy Caphir_ made a free Denizen ... (who only in this Nation arrive to great Preferment, being the Frizled Woolly-pated Blacks) under the known style of SYDDIES...."—_Ibid._ 168.

1679.—"The protection which the SIDDEES had given to Gingerah against the repeated attacks of Sevagi, as well as their frequent annoyance of their country, had been so much facilitated by their resort to Bombay, that Sevagi at length determined to compel the English Government to a stricter neutrality, by reprisals on their own port."—_Orme, Fragments_, 78.

1690.—"As he whose Title is _most Christian_, encouraged him who is its principal Adversary to invade the Rights of Christendom, so did Senor Padre _de Pandara_, the Principal Jesuite and in an adjacent Island to _Bombay_, invite the SÍDDY to exterminate all the Protestants there."—_Ovington_, 157.

1750-60.—"These (islands) were formerly in the hands of Angria and the SIDDIES or Moors."—_Grose_, i. 58.

1759.—"The Indian seas having been infested to an intolerable degree by pirates, the Mogul appointed the SIDDEE, who was chief of a colony of Coffrees (CAFFER), to be his Admiral. It was a colony which, having been settled at Dundee-Rajapore, carried on a considerable trade there, and had likewise many vessels of force."—_Cambridge's Account of the War_, &c., p. 216.

1800.—"I asked him what he meant by a SIDDEE. He said a _hubshee_. This is the name by which the Abyssinians are distinguished in India."—_T. Munro_, in _Life_, i. 287.

1814.—"Among the attendants of the Cambay Nabob ... are several Abyssinian and Caffree slaves, called by way of courtesy SEDDEES or Master."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ iii. 167; [2nd ed. ii. 225].

1832.—"I spoke of a SINDHEE" (_Siddhee_) "or _Habshee_, which is the name for an Abyssinian in this country lingo."—_Mem. of Col. Mountain_, 121.

1885.—"The inhabitants of this singular tract (Soopah plateau in N. Canara) were in some parts Mahrattas, and in others of Canarese race, but there was a third and less numerous section, of pure African descent called SIDHIS ... descendants of fugitive slaves from Portuguese settlements ... the same ebony coloured, large-limbed men as are still to be found on the African coast, with broad, good-humoured, grinning faces."—_Gordon S. Forbes, Wild Life in Canara_, &c., 32-33.

[1896.—

"We've shouted on seven-ounce nuggets, We've starved on a SEEDEE boy's pay." _R. Kipling, The Seven Seas._]

SEEMUL, SIMMUL, &c. (sometimes we have seen SYMBOL, and CYMBAL), s. Hind. _semal_ and _sembhal_; [Skt. _śālmali_]. The (so-called) cotton-tree _Bombax Malabaricum_, D.C. (N.O. _Malvaceae_), which occurs sporadically from Malabar to Sylhet, and from Burma to the Indus and beyond. It is often cultivated. "About March it is a striking object with its immense buttressed trunks, and its large showy red flowers, 6 inches in breadth, clustered on the leafless branches. The flower-buds are used as a potherb and the gum as a medicine" (_Punjab Plants_). We remember to have seen a giant of this species near Kishnagarh, the buttresses of which formed chambers, 12 or 13 feet long and 7 or 8 wide. The silky cotton is only used for stuffing pillows and the like. The wood, though wretched in quality for any ordinary purpose, lasts under water, and is commonly the material for the curbs on which wells are built and sunk in Upper India.

[c. 1807.—"... the Salmoli, or SIMUL ... is one of the most gaudy ornaments of the forest or village...."—_Buchanan Hamilton, E. India_, ii. 789.]

SEER, s. Hind. _ser_; Skt. _seṭak_. One of the most generally spread Indian denominations of weight, though, like all Indian measures, varying widely in different parts of the country. And besides the variations of local _ser_ and _ser_ we often find in the same locality a _pakkā_ (PUCKA) and a _kachchhā_ (CUTCHA) ser; a state of things, however, which is human, and not Indian only (see under PUCKA). The _ser_ is generally (at least in upper India) equivalent to 80 _tolas_ or rupee-weights; but even this is far from universally true. The heaviest _ser_ in the _Useful Tables_ (see Thomas's ed. of _Prinsep_) is that called "Coolpahar," equivalent to 123 _tolas_, and weighing 3 lbs. 1 oz. 6¼ dr. avoird.; the lightest is the _ser_ of Malabar and the S. Mahratta country, which is little more than 8 oz. [the Macleod _ser_ of Malabar, introduced in 1802, is of 130 _tolas_; 10 of these weigh 33 _lb._ (_Madras Man._ ii. 516).]

Regulation VII. of the Govt. of India of 1833 is entitled "A Reg. for altering the weight of the Furruckabad Rupee (see RUPEE) and for assimilating it to the legal currency of the Madras and Bombay Presidencies; for adjusting the weight of the Company's sicca Rupee, _and for fixing a standard unit of weight for India_." This is the nearest thing to the establishment of standard weights that existed up to 1870. The preamble says: "It is further convenient to introduce the weight of the Furruckabad Rupee as the unit of a general system of weights for Government transactions throughout India." And Section IV. contains the following:

"The _Tola_ or SICCA weight to be equal to 180 grains troy, and the other denominations or weights to be derived from this unit, according to the following scale:—

8 RUTTIES = 1 Masha = 15 troy grains. 12 Mashas = 1 TOLA = 180 ditto. 80 TOLAS (or sicca weight) = 1 SEER = 2½ lbs. troy. 40 SEERS = 1 _Mun_ or _Bazar_ MAUND = 100 lbs. troy."

Section VI. of the same Regulation says:

"The system of weights and measures (?) described in Section IV. is to be adopted at the mints and assay offices of Calcutta and Saugor respectively in the adjustment and verification of all weights for government or public purposes sent thither for examination."

But this does not go far in establishing a standard unit of weight _for India_: though the weights detailed in § iv. became established for Government purposes in the Bengal Presidency. The _seer_ of this Regulation was thus 14,400 grains troy—2½ lbs. troy, 2.057 lbs. avoirdupois.

In 1870, in the Government of Lord Mayo, a strong movement was made by able and influential men to introduce the metrical system, and an Act was passed called "_The Indian Weights and Measures Act_" (Act XI. of 1870) to pave the way for this. The preamble declares it expedient to provide for the ultimate adoption of an uniform system of weights and measures thoughout British India, and the Act prescribes certain standards, with powers to the Local Governments to declare the adoption of these.

Section II. runs:

"_Standards._—The primary standard of weight shall be called SER, and shall be a weight of metal in the possession of the Government of India, which weight, when weighed in a vacuum, is equal to the weight known in France as the kilogramme des Archives."

Again, Act XXXI. of 1872, called "_The Indian Weights and Measures of Capacity Act_," repeats in substance the same preamble and prescription of standard weight. It is not clear to us what the separate object of this second Act was. But with the death of Lord Mayo the whole scheme fell to the ground. The _ser_ of these Acts would be = 2.2 lbs. avoirdupois, or 0.143 of a pound greater than the 80 tola _ser_.

1554.—"_Porto Grande de Bemgala._—'The MAUND (_mão_) with which they weigh all merchandize is of 40 CERES, each CER 18-2/5 ounces; the said MAUND weighs 46½ _arratels_ (ROTTLE).'"—_A. Nunes_, 37.

1648.—"One CEER weighs 18 _peysen_ ... and makes ¾ pound troy weight."—_Van Twist_, 62.

1748.—"Enfin on verse le tout un SERRE de l'huile."—_Lett. Edif._ xiv. 220.

SEER-FISH, s. A name applied to several varieties of fish, species of the genus _Cybium_. When of the right size, neither too small nor too big, these are reckoned among the most delicate of Indian sea-fish. Some kinds salt well, and are also good for preparing as TAMARIND-FISH. The name is sometimes said to be a corruption of Pers. _sīah_ (qu. Pers. 'black?') but the quotations show that it is a corruption of Port. _serra_. That name would appear to belong properly to the well-known saw-fish (_Pristis_)—see _Bluteau_, quoted below; but probably it may have been applied to the fish now in question, because of the serrated appearance of the rows of finlets, behind the second dorsal and anal fins, which are characteristic of the genus (see _Day's Fishes of India_, pp. 254-256, and plates lv., lvi.).

1554.—"E aos Marinheiros hum PEIXE CERRA par mes, a cada hum."—_A. Nunez, Livro dos Pesos_, 43.

" "To Lopo Vaaz, Mestre of the firearms (_espingardes_), his pay and provisions.... And for his three workmen, at the rate of 2 measures of rice each daily, and half a SEER FISH (_peixe serra_) each monthly, and a maund of firewood each monthly."—_S. Botelho, Tombo_, 235.

1598.—"There is a fish called PIEXE SERRA, which is cut in round pieces, as we cut Salmon and salt it. It is very good."—_Linschoten_, 88; [Hak. Soc. ii. 11].

1720.—"PEYXE SERRA is ordinarily produced in the Western Ocean, and is so called" etc. (describing the _Saw-fish_).... "But in the Sea of the Islands of Quirimba (_i.e._ off Mozambique) there is a different PEYXE SERRA resembling a large corvina,[239] but much better, and which it is the custom to pickle. When cured it seems just like ham."—_Bluteau, Vocab._ vii. 606-607.

1727.—"They have great Plenty of SEER-FISH, which is as savoury as any Salmon or Trout in Europe."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 379; [ed. 1744, i. 382].

[1813.—"... the robal, the SEIR-FISH, the grey mullet ... are very good."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ 2nd ed. i. 36.]

1860.—"Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by far is the SEIR-FISH,[240] a species of Scomber, which is called _Tora-malu_ by the natives. It is in size and form very similar to the salmon, to which the flesh of the female fish, notwithstanding its white colour, bears a very close resemblance, both in firmness and in flavour."—_Tennent's Ceylon_, i. 205.

SEERPAW, s. Pers. through Hind. _sar-ā-pā_—'cap-a-pie.' A complete suit, presented as a _Khilat_ (KILLUT) or dress of honour, by the sovereign or his representative.

c. 1666.—"He ... commanded, there should be given to each of them an embroider'd Vest, a Turbant, and a Girdle of Silk Embroidery, which is that which they call SER-APAH, that is, an Habit from head to foot."—_Bernier_, E.T. 37; [ed. _Constable_, 147].

1673—"Sir George Oxendine ... had a _Collat_ (KILLUT) or SERPAW, a Robe of Honour from Head to Foot, offered him from the Great Mogul."—_Fryer_, 87.

1680.—"Answer is returned that it hath not been accustomary for the Governours to go out to receive a bare _Phyrmaund_ (FIRMAUN), except there come therewith a SERPOW or a Tasheriffe (TASHREEF)."—_Ft. St. Geo. Consn._ Dec. 2, in _N. & E._ No. iii. 40.

1715.—"We were met by Padre Stephanus, bringing two SEERPAWS."—In _Wheeler_, ii. 245.

1727.—"As soon as he came, the King embraced him, and ordered a SERPAW or a royal Suit to be put upon him."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 171 [ed. 1744].

1735.—"The last Nabob (Sadatulla) would very seldom suffer any but himself to send a SEERPAW; whereas in February last Sunta Sahib, Subder Ali Sahib, Jehare Khan and Imaum Sahib, had all of them taken upon them to send distinct SEERPAWS to the President."—In _Wheeler_, iii. 140.

1759.—"Another deputation carried six costly SEERPAWS; these are garments which are presented sometimes by superiors in token of protection, and sometimes by inferiors in token of homage."—_Orme_, i. 159.

SEETULPUTTY, s. A fine kind of mat made especially in Eastern Bengal, and used to sleep on in the cold weather. [They are made from the split stems of the _mukta pata_, _Phrynium dichotomum_, Roxb. (see _Watt, Econ. Dict._ vi. pt. i. 216 _seq._).] Hind. _sītalpaṭṭī_, 'cold-slip.' Williamson's spelling and derivation (from an Arab. word impossibly used, see SICLEEGUR) are quite erroneous.

1810.—"A very beautiful species of mat is made ... especially in the south-eastern districts ... from a kind of reedy grass.... These are peculiarly slippery, whence they are designated 'SEEKUL-PUTTY' (_i.e._ polished sheets).... The principal uses of the 'SEEKUL-PUTTY' are to be laid under the lower sheet of a bed, thereby to keep the body cool."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 41.

[1818.—"Another kind (of mat) the SHĒĒTŬLŬPATĒĒS, laid on beds and couches on account of their coolness, are sold from one roopee to five each."—_Ward, Hindoos_, i. 106.]

1879.—In _Fallon's Dicty._ we find the following Hindi riddle:—

"_Chīnī kā piyālā ṭūṭā, kóī joṛtā nahīn; Mālī jī kā bāg lagā, koī toṛtā nahīn; Sītal-pãṭĭ bichhī, koī sotā nahīn; Rāj-bansī mūā, koī rotā nahīn._"

Which might be rendered:

"A china bowl that, broken, none can join; A flowery field, whose blossoms none purloin; A royal scion slain, and none shall weep; A SĪTALPAṬṬĪ spread where none shall sleep."

The answer is an Egg; the Starry Sky; a Snake (_Rãj-bansī_, 'royal scion,' is a placatory name for a snake); and the Sea.

SEMBALL, s. Malay-Javan. _sāmbil_, _sāmbal_. A spiced condiment, the curry of the Archipelago. [Dennys (_Descr. Dict._ p. 337) describes many varieties.]

1817.—"The most common seasoning employed to give a relish to their insipid food is the _lombock_ (_i.e._ red-pepper); triturated with salt it is called SAMBEL."—_Raffles, H. of Java_, i. 98.

SEPOY, SEAPOY, s. In Anglo-Indian use a native soldier, disciplined and dressed in the European style. The word is Pers. _sipāhī_, from _sipāh_, 'soldiery, an army'; which J. Oppert traces to old Pers. _spāda_, 'a soldier' (_Le peuple et la Langue des Mèdes_, 1879, p. 24). But _Sbah_ is a horseman in Armenian; and sound etymologists connect _sipāh_ with _asp_, 'a horse'; [others with Skt. _padāti_, 'a foot-soldier']. The original word _sipāhī_ occurs frequently in the poems of Amīr Khusrū (c. A.D. 1300), bearing always probably the sense of a 'horse-soldier,' for all the important part of an army then consisted of horsemen. See _spāhī_ below.

The word _sepoy_ occurs in Southern India before we had troops in Bengal; and it was probably adopted from Portuguese. We have found no English example in print older than 1750, but probably an older one exists. The India Office record of 1747 from Fort St. David's is the oldest notice we have found in extant MS. [But see below.]

c. 1300.—"Pride had inflated his brain with wind, which extinguished the light of his intellect, and a few SIPĀHĪS from Hindustan, without any religion, had supported the credit of his authority."—_Amīr Khusrū_, in _Elliot_, iii. 536.

[1665.—"Souldier—SUPPYA and Haddee."—_Persian Gloss._ in _Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p. 99.]

1682.—"As soon as these letters were sent away, I went immediately to Ray Nundelall's to have y^e SEAPY, or Nabob's horseman, consigned to me, with order to see y^e _Perwanna_ put in execution; but having thought better of it, y^e Ray desired me to have patience till tomorrow morning. He would then present me to the Nabob, whose commands to y^e SEAPY and Bulchunds _Vekeel_ would be more powerfull and advantageous to me than his own."—_Hedges, Diary_, Hak. Soc. i. 55, _seq._ Here we see the word still retaining the sense of 'horseman' in India.

[1717.—"A Company of SEPOYS with the colours."—_Yule_, in _ditto_, II. ccclix. On this Sir H. Yule notes: "This is an occurrence of the word SEPOY, in its modern signification, 30 years earlier than any I had been able to find when publishing the A.-I. Gloss. I have one a year earlier, and expect now to find it earlier still."

[1733.—"You are next ... to make a complete survey ... of the number of fighting SEPOYS...."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, ii. 55.]

1737.—"Elle com tota a força desponivel, que eram 1156 soldados pagos em que entraram 281 chegados na não Mercês, e 780 SYPAES ou _lascarins_ (LASCAR), recuperon o territorio."—_Bosquejo das Possesões Portuguezas no Oriente_, &c., _por Joaquim Pedro Celestino Soares_, Lisboa, 1851, p. 58.

1746.—"The Enemy, by the best Intelligence that could be got, and best Judgment that could be formed, had or would have on Shore next Morning, upwards of 3000 _Europeans_, with at least 500 _Coffrys_, and a number of CEPHOYS and Peons."—_Ext. of Diary_, &c., in App. to _A Letter to a Propr. of the E.I. Co._, London, 1750, p. 94.

[1746.—Their strength on shore I compute 2000 Europeans SEAPIAHS and 300 Coffrees."—_Letter from Madras_, Oct. 9, in _Bengal Consultations_. _Ibid._ p. 600, we have SEAPIES.]

1747.—"At a Council of War held at Fort St. David the 25th December, 1747.

Present:— Charles Floyer, Esq., Governor. George Gibson John Crompton William Brown John Holland John Rodolph de Gingens John Usgate Robert Sanderson. * * *

"It is further ordered that Captn. Crompton keep the Detachment under his Command at Cuddalore, in a readiness to march to the CHOULTRY over against the Fort as soon as the Signal shall be made from the Place, and then upon his firing two Muskets, Boats shall be sent to bring them here, and to leave a serjeant at Cuddalore Who shall conduct his SEAPOYS to the Garden Guard, and the Serjeant shall have a Word by which He shall be received at the Garden."—_Original MS. Proceedings_ (in the India Office).

" The Council of Fort St. David write to Bombay, March 16th, "if they could not supply us with more than 300 Europeans, We should be glad of Five or Six Hundred of the best Northern People their way, as they are reported to be much better than ours, and not so liable to Desertion."

In Consn. May 30th they record the arrival of the ships Leven, Warwick, and Ilchester, Princess Augusta, "on the 28th inst., from Bombay, (bringing) us a General from that Presidency,[241] as entered No. 38, advising of having sent us by them sundry stores and a Reinforcement of Men, consisting of 70 European Soldiers, 200 _Topasses_ (TOPAZ), and 100 well-trained SEAPOYS, all of which under the command of Capt. Thomas Andrews, a Good Officer...."

And under July 13th. "... The Reinforcement of SEPOYS having arrived from Tellicherry, which, with those that were sent from Bombay, making a formidable Body, besides what are still expected; and as there is far greater Dependance to be placed on those People than on our own PEONS ... many of whom have a very weakly Appearance, AGREED, that a General Review be now had of them, that all such may be discharged, and only the Choicest of them continued in the Service."—_MS. Records in India Office._

1752.—"... they quitted their entrenchments on the first day of March, 1752, and advanced in order of battle, taking possession of a rising ground on the right, on which they placed 50 Europeans; the front consisted of 1500 SIPOYS, and one hundred and twenty or thirty French."—_Complete Hist. of the War in India_, 1761, pp. 9-10.

1758.—A Tabular Statement (_Mappa_) of the Indian troops, 20th Jan. of this year, shows "Corpo de SIPAES" with 1162 "SIPAES promptos."—_Bosquejo_, as above.

" "A stout body of near 1000 SEPOYS has been raised within these few days."—In _Long_, 134.

[1759.—"Boat rice extraordinary for the Gentoo SEAPOIS...."—_Ibid._ 174.]

1763.—"The Indian natives and Moors, who are trained in the European manner, are called SEPOYS."—_Orme_, i. 80.

1763.—"Major Carnac ... observes that your establishment is loaded with the expense of more Captains than need be, owing to the unnecessarily making it a point that they should be Captains who command the SEPOY Battalions, whereas such is the nature of SEPOYS that it requires a peculiar genius and talent to be qualified for that service, and the Battalion should be given only to such who are so without regard to rank."—_Court's Letter_, of March 9. In _Long_, 290.

1770.—"England has at present in India an establishment to the amount of 9800 European troops, and 54,000 SIPAHIS well armed and disciplined."—_Raynal_ (tr. 1777), i. 459.

1774.—"SIPAI sono li soldati Indiani."—_Della Tomba_, 297.

1778.—"La porta del Ponente della città sì custodiva dalli SIPAIS soldati Indiani radunati da tutte le tribù, e religioni."—_Fra Paolino, Viaggio_, 4.

1780.—"Next morning the SEPOY came to see me.... I told him that I owed him my life.... He then told me that he was not very rich himself, as his pay was only a pagoda and a half a month—and at the same time drew out his purse and offered me a rupee. This generous behaviour, so different to what I had hitherto experienced, drew tears from my eyes, and I thanked him for his generosity, but I would not take his money."—_Hon. J. Lindsay's Imprisonment, Lives of Lindsays_, iii. 274.

1782.—"As to Europeans who run from their natural colours, and enter into the service of the country powers, I have heard one of the best officers the Company ever had ... say that he considered them no otherwise than as so many SEAPOYS; for acting under blacks they became mere blacks in spirit."—_Price, Some Observations_, 95-96.

1789.—

"There was not a captain, nor scarce a SEAPOY, But a Prince would depose, or a Bramin destroy." _Letter of Simpkin the Second_, &c., 8.

1803.—"Our troops behaved admirably; the SEPOYS astonished me."—_Wellington_, ii. 384.

1827.—"He was betrothed to the daughter of a SIPAHEE, who served in the mud-fort which they saw at a distance rising above the jungle."—_Sir W. Scott, The Surgeon's Daughter_, ch. xiii.

1836.—"The native army of the E. I. Company.... Their formation took place in 1757. They are usually called SEPOYS, and are light and short."—In _R. Phillips, A Million of Facts_, 718.

1881.—"As early as A.D. 1592 the chief of Sind had 200 natives dressed and armed like Europeans: these were the first 'SEPOYS.'"—_Burton's Camoens, A Commentary_, ii. 445.

The French write _cipaye_ or _cipai_:

1759.—"De quinze mille CIPAYES dont l'armée est censée composée, j'en compte à peu près huit cens sur la route de Pondichery, chargé de sucre et de poivre et autres marchandises, quant aux Coulis, ils sont tous employés pour le même objet."—_Letter of Lally to the Governor of Pondicherry_, in _Cambridge's Account_, p. 150.

c. 1835-38.—

"Il ne criant ni Kriss ni zagaies, Il regarde l'homme sans fuir, Et rit des balles des CIPAYES Qui rebondissent sur son cuir." _Th. Gautier, L'Hippopotame_.

Since the conquest of Algeria the same word is common in France under another form, viz., _spāhī_. But the _Spāhī_ is totally different from the _sepoy_, and is in fact an irregular horseman. With the Turks, from whom the word is taken, the _spāhī_ was always a horseman.

1554.—"Aderant magnis muneribus praepositi multi, aderant praetoriani equites omnes SPHAI, Garipigi, Ulufagi, Gianizarorum magnus numerus, sed nullus in tanto conventu nobilis nisi ex suis virtutibus et fortibus factis."—_Busbeq, Epistolae_, i. 99.

[1562.—"The SPACHI, and other orders of horsemen."—_J. Shute, Two Comm._ (Tr.) fol. 53 ro. _Stanf. Dict._ where many early instances of the word will be found.]

1672.—"Mille ou quinze cents SPAHIZ, tous bien équippés et bien montés ... terminoient toute ceste longue, magnifique, et pompeuse cavalcade."—_Journal d'Ant. Galland_, i. 142.

1675.—"The other officers are the _sardar_ (SIRDAR), who commands the Janizaries ... the SPAHI _Aga_, who commands the SPAHIES or _Turkish_ Horse."—_Wheeler's Journal_, 348.

[1686.—"I being providentially got over the river before the SPIE employed by them could give them intelligence."—_Hedges, Diary_, Hak. Soc. i. 229.]

1738.—"The Arab and other inhabitants are obliged, either by long custom ... or from fear and compulsion, to give the SPAHEES and their company the _mounah_ ... which is such a sufficient quantity of provision for ourselves, together with straw and barley for our mules and horses."—_Shaw's Travels in Barbary_, ed. 1757, p. xii.

1786.—"Bajazet had two years to collect his forces ... we may discriminate the janizaries ... a national cavalry, the SPAHIS of modern times."—_Gibbon_, ch. lxv.

1877.—"The regular cavalry was also originally composed of tribute children.... The SIPAHIS acquired the same pre-eminence among the cavalry which the janissaries held among the infantry, and their seditious conduct rendered them much sooner troublesome to the Government."—_Finlay, H. of Greece_, ed. 1877, v. 37.

SERAI, SERYE, s. This word is used to represent two Oriental words entirely different.

A. Hind. from Pers. _sarā_, _sarāī_. This means originally an edifice, a palace. It was especially used by the Tartars when they began to build palaces. Hence _Sarāī_, the name of more than one royal residence of the Mongol Khāns upon the Volga, the _Sarra_ of Chaucer. The Russians retained the word from their Tartar oppressors, but in their language _sarai_ has been degraded to mean 'a shed.' The word, as applied to the Palace of the Grand Turk, became, in the language of the Levantine Franks, _serail_ and _serraglio_. In this form, as P. della Valle lucidly explains below, the "striving after meaning" connected the word with Ital. _serrato_, 'shut up'; and with a word _serraglio_ perhaps previously existing in Italian in that connection. [_Seraglio_, according to Prof. Skeat (_Concise Dict._ s.v.) is "formed with suffix _-aglio_ (L. _-aculum_) from Late Lat. _serare_, 'to bar, shut in'—Lat. _sera_, a 'bar, bolt'; Lat. _serere_, 'to join together.'] It is this association that has attached the meaning of 'women's apartments' to the word. _Sarai_ has no such specific sense.

But the usual modern meaning in Persia, and the only one in India, is that of a building for the accommodation of travellers with their pack-animals; consisting of an enclosed yard with chambers round it.

Recurring to the Italian use, we have seen in Italy the advertisement of a travelling menagerie as _Serraglio di Belve_. A friend tells us of an old Scotchman whose ideas must have run in this groove, for he used to talk of 'a _Serragle_ of blackguards.' In the Diary in England of Annibale Litolfi of Mantua the writer says: "On entering the tower there is a _Serraglio_ in which, from grandeur, they keep lions and tigers and cat-lions." (See _Rawdon Brown's Calendar of Papers in Archives of Venice_, vol. vi. pt. iii. 1557-8. App.) [The _Stanf. Dict._ quotes Evelyn as using the word of a place where persons are confined: 1644. "I passed by the Piazza Judea, where their _seraglio_ begins" (_Diary_, ed. 1872, i. 142).]

c. 1584.—"At SARAIUM Turcis palatium principis est, vel aliud amplum aedificium, non a _Czar_[242] voce Tatarica, quae regem significat, dictum; vnde Reineccius SARAGLIAM Turcis vocari putet, ut _regiam_. Nam aliae quoque domus, extra Sultani regiam, nomen hoc ferunt ... vt ampla Turcorum hospitia, sive diversoria publica, quae vulgo _Caravasarias_ (CARAVANSERAY) nostri vocant."—_Leunclavius_, ed. 1650, p. 403.

1609.—"... by it the great SURAY, besides which are diuers others, both in the city and suburbs, wherein diuers neate lodgings are to be let, with doores, lockes, and keys to each."—_W. Finch_, in _Purchas_, i. 434.

1614.—"This term SERRAGLIO, so much used among us in speaking of the Grand Turk's dwelling ... has been corrupted into that form from the word SERAI, which in their language signifies properly 'a palace.'... But since this word _serai_ resembles _serraio_, as a Venetian would call it, or _seraglio_ as we say, and seeing that the palace of the Turk is (_serrato_ or) shut up all round by a strong wall, and also because the women and a great part of the courtiers dwell in it barred up and shut in, so it may perchance have seemed to some to have deserved such a name. And thus the real term SERAI has been converted into SERRAGLIO."—_P. della Valle_, i. 36.

1615.—"Onely from one dayes Journey to another the _Sophie_ hath caused to bee erected certaine kind of great harbours, or huge lodgings (like hamlets) called _caravan_-SARA, or SURROYES, for the benefite of _Caravanes_...."—_De Montfart_, 8.

1616.—"In this kingdome there are no Innes to entertaine strangers, only in great Townes and Cities are faire Houses built for their receit, which they call SARRAY, not inhabited, where any Passenger may haue roome freely, but must bring with him his Bedding, his Cooke, and other necessaries."—_Terry_, in _Purchas_, ii. 1475.

1638.—"Which being done we departed from our SERRAY (or Inne)."—_W. Bruton_, in _Hakl._ v. 49.

1648.—"A great SARY or place for housing travelling folk."—_Van Twist_, 17.

[1754.—"... one of the Sciddees (SEEDY) officers with a party of men were lodged in the SORROY...."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, i. 307.]

1782.—"The stationary tenants of the SERAUEE, many of them women, and some of them very pretty, approach the traveller on his entrance, and in alluring language describe to him the varied excellencies of their several lodgings."—_Forster, Journey_, ed. 1808, i. 86.

1825.—"The whole number of lodgers in and about the SERAI, probably did not fall short of 500 persons. What an admirable scene for an Eastern romance would such an inn as this afford!"—_Heber_, ed. 1844, ii. 122.

1850.—"He will find that, if we omit only three names in the long line of the Delhi Emperors, the comfort and happiness of the people were never contemplated by them; and with the exception of a few SARÁÍS and bridges,—and these only on roads traversed by the imperial camps—he will see nothing in which purely selfish considerations did not prevail."—_Sir H. M. Elliot_, Original Preface to _Historians of India, Elliot_, I. xxiii.

B. A long-necked earthenware (or metal) flagon for water; a GOGLET (q.v.). This is Ar.—P. _ṣurāḥī_. [This is the _doraḳ_ or _ḳulleh_ of Egypt, of which Lane (_Mod. Egypt._ ed. 1871, i. 186 _seq._) gives an account with illustrations.]

c. 1666.—"... my _Navab_ having vouchsafed me a very particular favour, which is, that he hath appointed to give me every day a new loaf of his house, and a SOURAY of the water of _Ganges_ ... SOURAY is that Tin-flagon full of water, which the Servant that marcheth on foot before the Gentleman on horseback, carrieth in his hand, wrapt up in a sleeve of red cloath."—_Bernier_, E.T. 114; [ed. _Constable_, 356].

1808.—"We had some bread and butter, two SURAHEES of water, and a bottle of brandy."—_Elphinstone_, in _Life_, i. 183.

[1880.—"The best known is the gilt silver work of Cashmere, which is almost confined to the production of the water-vessels or SARAIS, copied from the clay goblets in use throughout the northern parts of the Panjab."—_Birdwood, Indust. Arts of India_, 149.]

SERANG, s. A native boatswain, or chief of a LASCAR crew; the skipper of a small native vessel. The word is Pers. _sarhang_, 'a commander or overseer.' In modern Persia it seems to be used for a colonel (see _Wills_, 80).

1599.—"... there set sail two Portuguese vessels which were come to Amacao (MACAO) from the City of Goa, as occurs every year. They are commanded by Captains, with Pilots, quartermasters, clerks, and other officers, who are Portuguese; but manned by sailors who are Arabs, Turks, Indians, and Bengalis, who serve for so much a month, and provide themselves under the direction and command of a chief of their own whom they call the SARANGHI, who also belongs to one of these nations, whom they understand, and recognise and obey, carrying out the orders that the Portuguese Captain, Master, or Pilot may give to the said SARANGHI."—_Carletti, Viaggi_, ii. 206.

1690.—"Indus quem de hoc Ludo consului fuit scriba satis peritus ab officio in nave suâ dictus _le_ SARÀNG, Anglicè BOATSWAIN seú BOSON."—_Hyde, De Ludis Orientt._ in _Syntagma_, ii. 264.

[1822.—"... the ghaut SYRANGS (a class of men equal to the kidnappers of Holland and the crimps of England)...."—_Wallace, Fifteen Years in India_, 256.]

SERAPHIN. See XERAFIN.

SERENDĪB, n.p. The Arabic form of the name of Ceylon in the earlier Middle Ages. (See under CEYLON.)

SERINGAPATAM, n.p. The city which was the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore during the reigns of Hyder Ali and his son Tippoo. Written _Sri-raṅga-paṭṭana_, meaning according to vulgar interpretation 'Vishnu's Town.' But as both this and the other Srirangam (_Seringam_ town and temple, so-called, in the Trichinopoly district) are on islands of the Cauvery, it is possible that _ranga_ stands for _Lanka_, and that the true meaning is 'Holy-Isle-Town.'

[SERPEYCH, s. Pers. _sarpech_, _sarpesh_; an ornament of gold, silver or jewels, worn in front of the turban; it sometimes consists of gold plates strung together, each plate being set with precious stones. Also a band of silk and embroidery worn round the turban.

[1753.—"... a fillet. This they call a SIRPEACH, which is wore round the turban; persons of great distinction generally have them set with precious stones."—_Hanway_, iv. 191.

[1786.—"SURPAISHES." See under CULGEE.

[1813.—"SERPEYCH." See under KILLUT.]

SETT, s. Properly Hind. _seṭh_, which according to Wilson is the same word with the Cheṭṭi (see CHETTY) or _Sheṭṭi_ of the Malabar Coast, the different forms being all from Skt. _śreshṭha_, 'best, or chief,' _śresṭhi_, 'the chief of a corporation, a merchant or banker.' C. P. Brown entirely denies the identity of the S. Indian _sheṭṭi_ with the Skt. word (see CHETTY).

1740.—"The SETS being all present at the Board inform us that last year they dissented to the employment of Fillick Chund (&c.), they being of a different caste; and consequently they could not do business with them."—In _Long_, p. 9.

1757.—"To the SEATS Mootabray and Roopchund the Government of Chandunagore was indebted a million and a half Rupees."—_Orme_, ii. 138 of reprint (Bk. viii.).

1770.—"As soon as an European arrived the Gentoos, who know mankind better than is commonly supposed, study his character ... and lend or procure him money upon bottomry, or at interest. This interest, which is usually 9 per cent. at this, is higher when he is under a necessity of borrowing of the CHEYKS.

"These CHEYKS are a powerful family of Indians, who have, time immemorial, inhabited the banks of the Ganges. Their riches have long ago procured them the management of the bank belonging to the Court...."—_Raynal_, tr. 1777, i. 427. Note that by _Cheyks_ the Abbé means SETTS.

[1883.—"... from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin a security endorsed by the Mathura SETH is as readily convertible into cash as a Bank of England Note in London or Paris."—_F. S. Growse, Mathura_, 14.]

SETTLEMENT, s. In the Land Revenue system of India, an estate or district is said to be _settled_, when instead of taking a quota of the year's produce the Government has agreed with the cultivators, individually or in community, for a fixed sum to be paid at several periods of the year, and not liable to enhancement during the term of years for which the agreement or _settlement_ is made. The operation of arranging the terms of such an agreement, often involving tedious and complicated considerations and enquiries, is known as the process of _settlement_. A _Permanent Settlement_ is that in which the annual payment is fixed in perpetuity. This was introduced in Bengal by Lord Cornwallis in 1793, and does not exist except within that great Province, [and a few districts in the Benares division of the N.W.P., and in Madras.]

[SEVEN PAGODAS, n.p. The Tam. _Mavallipuram_, Skt. _Mahabalipura_, 'the City of the Great Bali,' a place midway between SADRAS and Covelong. But in one of the inscriptions (about 620 A.D.) a King, whose name is said to have been Amara, is described as having conquered the chief of the Mahamalla race. Malla was probably the name of a powerful highland chieftain subdued by the Chalukyans. (See _Crole, Man. of Chingleput_, 92 _seq._). Dr. Oppert (_Orig. Inhabit._, 98) takes the name to be derived from the Malla or Palli race.

SEVEN SISTERS, or BROTHERS. The popular name (Hind. _sāt-bhāī_) of a certain kind of bird, about the size of a thrush, common throughout most parts of India, _Malacocercus terricolor_, Hodgson, 'Bengal babbler' of Jerdon. The latter author gives the native name as _Seven Brothers_, which is the form also given in the quotation below from _Tribes on My Frontier_. The bird is so named from being constantly seen in little companies of about that number. Its characteristics are well given in the quotations. See also _Jerdon's Birds_ (Godwin-Austen's ed., ii. 59). In China certain birds of starling kind are called by the Chinese _pa-ko_, or "Eight Brothers," for a like reason. See _Collingwood's Rambles of a Naturalist_, 1868, p. 319. (See MYNA.)

1878.—"The SEVEN SISTERS pretend to feed on insects, but that is only when they cannot get peas ... sad-coloured birds hopping about in the dust, and incessantly talking whilst they hop."—_Ph. Robinson, In My Indian Garden_, 30-31.

1883.—"... the SATBHAI or 'Seven Brothers' ... are too shrewd and knowing to be made fun of.... Among themselves they will quarrel by the hour, and bandy foul language like fishwives; but let a stranger treat one of their number with disrespect, and the other six are in arms at once.... Each Presidency of India has its own branch of this strange family. Here (at Bombay) they are brothers, and in Bengal they are sisters; but everywhere, like Wordsworth's opinionative child, they are seven."—_Tribes on My Frontier_, 143.

SEVERNDROOG, n.p. A somewhat absurd corruption, which has been applied to two forts of some fame, viz.:

A. _Suvarna-druga_, or _Suwandrug_, on the west coast, about 78 m. below Bombay (Lat. 17° 48′ N.). It was taken in 1755 by a small naval force from Tulajī Angria, of the famous piratical family. [For the commander of the expedition, Commodore James, and his monument on Shooter's Hill, see _Douglas, Bombay and W. India_, i. 117 _seq._]

B. _Savandrug_; a remarkable double hill-fort in Mysore, standing on a two-topped bare rock of granite, which was taken by Lord Cornwallis's army in 1791 (Lat. 12° 55′). [Wilks (_Hist. Sketches_, Madras reprint, i. 228, ii. 232) calls it _Savendy Droog_, and _Savendroog_.]

SEYCHELLE ISLANDS, n.p. A cluster of islands in the Indian Ocean, politically subordinate to the British Government of Mauritius, lying be-between 3° 40′ & 4° 50′ S. Lat., and about 950 sea-miles east of Mombas on the E. African coast. There are 29 or 30 of the Seychelles proper, of which Mahé, the largest, is about 17 m. long by 3 or 4 wide. The principal islands are granitic, and rise "in the centre of a vast plateau of coral" of some 120 m. diameter.

These islands are said to have been visited by Soares in 1506, and were known vaguely to the Portuguese navigators of the 16th century as the Seven Brothers (_Os sete Irmanos_ or _Hermanos_), sometimes Seven Sisters (_Sete Irmanas_), whilst in Delisle's Map of Asia (1700) we have both "les Sept Frères" and "les Sept Sœurs." Adjoining these on the W. or S.W. we find also on the old maps a group called the _Almirantes_, and this group has retained that name to the present day, constituting now an appendage of the Seychelles.

The islands remained uninhabited, and apparently unvisited, till near the middle of the 18th century. In 1742 the celebrated Mahé de la Bourdonnais, who was then Governor of Mauritius and the Isle of Bourbon, despatched two small vessels to explore the islands of this little archipelago, an expedition which was renewed by Lazare Picault, the commander of one of the two vessels, in 1774, who gave to the principal island the name of _Mahé_, and to the group the name of _Iles de Bourdonnais_, for which _Iles Mahé_ (which is the name given in the _Neptune Orientale_ of D'Apres de Manneville, 1775, pp. 29-38, and the charts), seems to have been substituted. Whatever may have been La Bourdonnais' plans with respect to these islands, they were interrupted by his engagement in the Indian campaigns of 1745-46, and his government of Mauritius was never resumed. In 1756 the Sieur Morphey (Murphy?), commander of the frigate _Le Cerf_, was sent by M. Magon, Governor of Mauritius and Bourbon, to take possession of the Island of Mahé. But it seems doubtful if any actual settlement of the islands by the French occurred till after 1769. [See the account of the islands in _Owen's Narrative_, ii. 158 _seqq._]

A question naturally has suggested itself to us as to how the group came by the name of the _Seychelles Islands_; and it is one to which no trustworthy answer will be easily found in English, if at all. Even French works of pretension (_e.g._ the _Dictionnaire de la Rousse_) are found to state that the islands were named after the "Minister of Marine, Herault de Séchelles, who was eminent for his services and his able administration. He was the first to establish a French settlement there." This is quoted from La Rousse; but the fact is that the only man of the name known to fame is the Jacobin and friend of Danton, along with whom he perished by the guillotine. There never was a Minister of Marine so called! The name SÉCHELLES first (so far as we can learn) appears in the _Hydrographie Française_ of Belin, 1767, where in a map entitled _Carte réduite du Canal de Mozambique_ the islands are given as _Les Iles_ SÉCHEYLES, with two enlarged plans _en cartouche_ of the _Port de Sécheyles_. In 1767 also Chev. de Grenier, commanding the _Heure du Berger_, visited the Islands, and in his narrative states that he had with him the chart of Picault, "envoyé par La Bourdonnais pour reconnoître les isles des Sept Frères, _lesquelles ont été depuis nommée iles Mahé et ensuite_ ILES SÉCHELLES." We have not been able to learn by whom the latter name was given, but it was probably by Morphey of the _Cerf_; for among Dalrymple's Charts (pub. 1771), there is a "_Plan of the Harbour adjacent to_ Bat River _on the Island_ Seychelles, _from a French plan made in_ 1756, _published by_ Bellin." And there can be no doubt that the name was bestowed in honour of Moreau de Séchelles, who was _Contrôleur-Général des Finances_ in France in 1754-56, _i.e._ at the very time when Governor Magon sent Capt. Morphey to take possession. One of the islands again is called _Silhouette_, the name of an official who had been _Commissaire du roi près la Compagnie des Indes_, and succeeded Moreau de Séchelles as Controller of Finance; and another is called _Praslin_, apparently after the Duc de Choiseul Praslin who was Minister of Marine from 1766 to 1770.

The exact date of the settlement of the islands we have not traced. We can only say that it must have been between 1769 and 1772. The quotation below from the Abbé Rochon shows that the islands were not settled when he visited them in 1769; whilst that from Capt. Neale shows that they were settled before his visit in 1772. It will be seen that both Rochon and Neale speak of Mahé as "the island Seychelles, or Sécheyles," as in Belin's chart of 1767. It seems probable that the cloud under which La Bourdonnais fell, on his return to France, must have led to the suppression of his name in connection with the group.

The islands surrendered to the English Commodore Newcome in 1794, and were formally ceded to England with Mauritius in 1815. SEYCHELLES appears to be an erroneous English spelling, now however become established. (For valuable assistance in the preceding article we are indebted to the courteous communications of M. James Jackson, Librarian of the _Société de Géographie_ at Paris, and of M. G. Marcel of the _Bibliothèque Nationale_. And see, besides the works quoted here, a paper by M. Elie Pujot, in _L'Explorateur_, vol. iii. (1876) pp. 523-526).

The following passage of Pyrard probably refers to the Seychelles:

c. 1610.—"Le Roy (des Maldives) enuoya par deux foys vn très expert pilote pour aller descouvrir vne certaine isle nommée _pollouoys_, qui leur est presque inconnuë.... Ils disent aussi que le diable les y tourmentoit visiblement, et que pour l'isle elle est fertile en toutes sortes de fruicts, et mesme ils ont opinion que ces gros Cocos medicinaux qui sont si chers-là en viennent.... Elle est sous la hauteur de dix degrés au delà de la ligne et enuiron six vingt lieuës des Maldiues...."—(see COCO-DE-MER).—_Pyrard de Laval_, i. 212. [Also see Mr. Gray's note in Hak. Soc. ed. i. 296, where he explains the word _pollouoys_ in the above quotation as the Malay _pulo_, 'an island,' Malé _Fólávahi_.]

1769.—"The principal places, the situation of which I determined, are the SECHEYLES ISLANDS, the flat of Cargados, the Salha da Maha, the island of Diego Garcia, and the Adu isles. The island SECHEYLES has an exceedingly good harbour.... This island is covered with wood to the very summit of the mountains.... In 1769 when I spent a month here in order to determine its position with the utmost exactness, Secheyles and the adjacent isles were inhabited only by monstrous crocodiles; but a small establishment has since been formed on it for the cultivation of cloves and nutmegs."—_Voyage to Madagascar and the E. Indies by the Abbé Rochon_, E.T., London, 1792, p. liii.

1772.—"The island named SEYCHELLES is inhabited by the French, and has a good harbour.... I shall here deliver my opinion that these islands, where we now are, are the Three Brothers and the adjacent islands ... as there are no islands to the eastward of them in these latitudes, and many to the westward."—_Capt. Neale's Passage from Bencoolen to the Seychelles Islands in the Swift Grab._ In _Dunn's Directory_, ed. 1780, pp. 225, 232.

[1901.—"For a man of energy, perseverance, and temperate habits, SEYCHELLES affords as good an opening as any tropical colony."—_Report of Administrator_, in _Times_, Oct. 2.]

SHA, SAH, s. A merchant or banker; often now attached as a surname. It is Hind. _sāh_ and _sāhu_ from Skt. _sādhu_, 'perfect, virtuous, respectable' '_prudhomme_'). See SOWCAR.

[c. 1809.—"... the people here called Mahajans (MAHAJUN), SAHU, and Bahariyas, live by lending money."—_Buchanan Hamilton, E. India_, ii. 573.]

SHABASH! interj. 'Well done!' 'Bravo!' Pers. _Shā-bāsh_. 'Rex fias!'[243] [Rather _shād-bāsh_, 'Be joyful.']

c. 1610.—"Le Roy fit rencontre de moy ... me disant vn mot qui est commun en toute l'Inde, à savoir SABATZ, qui veut dire grand mercy, et sert aussi à louer vn homme pour quelque chose qu'il a bien fait."—_Pyrard de Laval_, i. 224.

[1843.—"I was awakened at night from a sound sleep by the repeated SAVĀSHES! _wāh! wāhs!_ from the residence of the thanndar."—_Davidson, Travels in Upper India_, i. 209.]

SHABUNDER, s. Pers. _Shāh-bandar_, lit. 'King of the Haven,' Harbour-Master. This was the title of an officer at native ports all over the Indian seas, who was the chief authority with whom foreign traders and ship-masters had to transact. He was often also head of the Customs. Hence the name is of prominent and frequent occurrence in the old narratives. Portuguese authors generally write the word _Xabander_; ours _Shabunder_ or _Sabundar_. The title is not obsolete, though it does not now exist in India; the quotation from Lane shows its recent existence in Cairo, [and the Persians still call their Consuls _Shāh-bandar_ (_Burton, Ar. Nights_, iii. 158)]. In the marine Malay States the _Shābandar_ was, and probably is, an important officer of State. The passages from Lane and from Tavernier show that the title was not confined to seaports. At Aleppo Thevenot (1663) calls the corresponding official, perhaps by a mistake, '_Scheik_ BANDAR' (_Voyages_, iii. 121). [This is the office which King Mihrjān conferred upon Sindbad the Seaman, when he made him "his agent for the port and registrar of all ships that entered the harbour" (_Burton_, iv. 351)].

c. 1350.—"The chief of all the Musulmans in this city (_Kaulam_—see QUILON) is Mahommed SHĀHBANDAR."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 100.

c. 1539.—"This King (of the Batas) understanding that I had brought him a Letter and a Present from the Captain of _Malaca_, caused me to be entertained by the XABANDAR, who is he that with absolute Power governs all the affairs of the Army."—_Pinto_ (orig. cap. xv.), in _Cogan's Transl._ p. 18.

1552.—"And he who most insisted on this was a Moor, XABANDAR of the Guzarates" (at Malacca).—_Castanheda_, ii. 359.

1553.—"A Moorish lord called Sabayo (SABAIO) ... as soon as he knew that our ships belonged to the people of these parts of Christendom, desiring to have confirmation on the matter, sent for a certain Polish Jew who was in his service as SHABANDAR (_Xabandar_), and asked him if he knew of what nation were the people who came in these ships...."—_Barros_, I. iv. 11.

1561.—"... a boatman, who, however, called himself XABANDAR."—_Correa, Lendas_, ii. 80.

1599.—"The SABANDAR tooke off my Hat, and put a Roll of white linnen about my head...."—_J. Davis_, in _Purchas_, i. 12.

[1604.—"SABINDAR." See under KLING.]

1606.—"Then came the SABENDOR with light, and brought the Generall to his house."—_Middleton's Voyage_, E. (4).

1610.—"The SABANDER and the Governor of _Mancock_ (a place scituated by the River)...."—_Peter Williamson Floris_, in _Purchas_, i. 322.

[1615.—"The opinion of the SABINDOUR shall be taken."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 79.]

c. 1650.—"Coming to Golconda, I found that the person whom I had left in trust with my chamber was dead: but that which I observ'd most remarkable, was that I found the door seal'd with two Seals, one being the Cadi's or chief Justice's, the other the SHA-BANDER'S or Provost of the Merchants."—_Tavernier_, E.T. Pt. ii. 136; [ed. _Ball_, ii. 70].

1673.—"The SHAWBUNDER has his Grandeur too, as well as receipt of Custom, for which he pays the King yearly 22,000 _Thomands_."—_Fryer_, 222.

1688.—"When we arrived at Achin, I was carried before the SHABANDER, the chief Magistrate of the City...."—_Dampier_, i. 502.

1711.—"The Duties the Honourable Company require to be paid here on Goods are not above one fifth Part of what is paid to the SHABANDER or Custom-Master."—_Lockyer_, 223.

1726.—Valentyn, v. 313, gives a list of the SJAHBANDARS of Malakka from 1641 to 1725. They are names of Dutchmen.

[1727.—"SHAWBANDAAR." See under TENASSERIM.]

1759.—"I have received a long letter from the Shahzada, in which he complains that you have begun to carry on a large trade in salt, and betel nut, and refuse to pay the duties on those articles ... which practice, if continued, will oblige him to throw up his post of SHAHBUNDER Droga (DAROGA)."—_W. Hastings_ to the Chief at Dacca, in _Van Sittart_, i. 5.

1768.—"... two or three days after my arrival (at Batavia), the landlord of the hotel where I lodged told me he had been ordered by the SHEBANDAR to let me know that my carriage, as well as others, must stop, if I should meet the Governor, or any of the council; but I desired him to acquaint the SHEBANDAR that I could not consent to perform any such ceremony."—_Capt. Carteret_, quoted by transl. of _Stavorinus_, i. 281.

1795.—"The descendant of a Portuguese family, named Jaunsee, whose origin was very low ... was invested with the important office of SHAWBUNDER, or intendant of the port, and receiver of the port customs."—_Symes_, p. 160.

1837.—"The Seyd Mohammad El Mahroockee, the SHAHBENDAR (chief of the Merchants of Cairo) hearing of this event, suborned a common fellah...."—_Lane's Mod. Egyptians_, ed. 1837, i. 157.

SHADDOCK, s. This name properly belongs to the West Indies, having been given, according to Grainger, from that of the Englishman who first brought the fruit thither from the East, and who was, according to Crawfurd, an interloper captain, who traded to the Archipelago about the time of the Revolution, and is mentioned by his contemporary Dampier. The fruit is the same as the POMMELO (q.v.). And the name appears from a modern quotation below to be now occasionally used in India. [Nothing definite seems to be known of this Capt. Shaddock. Mr. R. C. A. Prior (7 ser. _N. & Q._, vii. 375) writes: "Lunan, in '_Hortus Jamaicensis_,' vol. ii. p. 171, says, 'This fruit is not near so large as the shaddock, which received its name from a Capt. Shaddock, who first brought the plant from the East Indies.' The name of the captain is believed to have been Shattock, one not uncommon in the west of Somersetshire. Sloane, in his 'Voyage to Jamaica,' 1707, vol. i. p. 41 says, 'The seed of this was first brought to Barbados by one Capt. Shaddock, commander of an East Indian ship, who touch'd at that island in his passage to England, and left its seed there.'" Watt (_Econ. Dict._ ii. 349) remarks that the Indian vernacular name _Batāvī nībū_, 'Batavian lime,' suggests its having been originally brought from Batavia.]

[1754.—"... pimple-noses (POMMELO), called in the West Indies, CHADOCKS, a very fine large fruit of the citron-kind, but of four or five times its size...."—_Ives_, 19.]

1764.—

"Nor let thy bright impatient flames destroy The golden SHADDOCK, the forbidden fruit...."—_Grainger_, Bk. I.

1803.—"The SHADDOCK, or pumpelmos (POMMELO), often grows to the size of a man's head."—_Percival's Ceylon_, 313.

[1832.—"Several trays of ripe fruits of the season, viz., kurbootahs (SHADOCK), kabooza (melons)...."—_Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Observations_, i. 365.]

1878.—"... the splendid SHADDOCK that, weary of ripening, lays itself upon the ground and swells at ease...."—_In My Indian Garden_, 50.

[1898.—

"He has stripped my rails of the SHADDOCK frails and the green unripened pine." _R. Kipling, Barrack Room Ballads_, p. 130.]

SHADE (TABLE-SHADE, WALL-SHADE), s. A glass guard to protect a candle or simple oil-lamp from the wind. The oldest form, in use at the beginning of the last century, was a tall glass cylinder which stood on the table, the candlestick and candle being placed bodily within in. In later days the universal form has been that of an inverted dome fitting into the candlestick, which has an annular socket to receive it. The _wall-shade_ is a bracket attached to the wall, bearing a candle or cocoa-nut oil lamp, protected by such a shade. In the wine-drinking days of the earlier part of last century it was sometimes the subject of a challenge, or forfeit, for a man to empty a wall-shade filled with claret. The second quotation below gives a notable description of a captain's outfit when taking the field in the 18th century.

1780.—"Borrowed last Month by a Person or Persons unknown, out of a private Gentleman's House near the Esplanade, a very elegant Pair of Candle SHADES. Whoever will return the same will receive a reward of 40 _Sicca Rupees_.—N.B. The Shades have private marks."—_Hicky's Bengal Gazette_, April 8.

1789.—"His tent is furnished with a good large bed, mattress, pillow, &c., a few camp-stools or chairs, a folding table, a pair of SHADES for his candles, six or seven trunks with table equipage, his stock of linen (at least 24 shirts); some dozens of wine, brandy, and gin; tea, sugar, and biscuit; and a hamper of live poultry and his milch-goat."—_Munro's Narrative_, 186.

1817.—"I am now finishing this letter by candle-light, with the help of a handkerchief tied over the SHADE."—_T. Munro_, in _Life_, i. 511.

[1838.—"We brought carpets, and chandeliers, and WALL SHADES (the great staple commodity of Indian furniture), from Calcutta...."—_Miss Eden, Up the Country_, 2nd ed. i. 182.]

SHAGREEN, s. This English word,—French _chagrin_; Ital. _zigrino_; Mid. High Ger. _Zager_,—comes from the Pers. _saghrī_, Turk. _ṣāghrī_, meaning properly the croupe or quarter of a horse, from which the peculiar granulated leather, also called _sāghrī_ in the East, was originally made. Diez considers the French (and English adopted) _chagrin_ in the sense of vexation to be the same word, as certain hard skins prepared in this way were used as files, and hence the word is used figuratively for gnawing vexation, as (he states) the Ital. _lima_ also is (_Etym. Worterbuch_, ed. 1861, ii. 240). He might have added the figurative origin of _tribulation_. [This view is accepted by the _N.E.D._; but Prof. Skeat (_Concise Dict._) denies its correctness.]

1663.—"... à Alep ... on y travaille aussi bien qu'à Damas le SAGRI, qui est ce qu'on appelle CHAGRIN en France, mais l'on en fait une bien plus grande quantité en Perse.... Le SAGRI sa fait de croupe d'âne," &c.—_Thevenot, Voyages_, iii. 115-116.

1862.—"SAGHREE, or _Keemookt_, Horse or Ass-Hide."—_Punjab Trade Report_, App. ccxx.; [For an account of the manufacture of _kimukht_, see _Hoey, Mon. on Trades and Manufactures of N. India_, 94.]

SHAITAN, Ar. 'The Evil One; Satan.' _Shaitān kā bhāī_, 'Brother of the Arch-Enemy,' was a title given to Sir C. Napier by the Amīrs of Sind and their followers. He was not the first great English soldier to whom this title had been applied in the East. In the romance of _Cœur de Lion_, when Richard entertains a deputation of Saracens by serving at table the head of one of their brethren, we are told:

"Every man sat stylle and pokyd othir; They saide: 'This is the _Develys brothir_, That sles our men, and thus hem eetes...."

[c. 1630.—"But a Mountebank or Impostor is nick-named SHITAN-Tabib, _i.e._ the Devil's Chirurgion."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p. 304.

1753.—"God preserve me from the SCHEITHAN Alragim."—_Hanway_, iii. 90.]

1863.—"Not many years ago, an eccentric gentleman wrote from Sikkim to the Secretary of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, stating that, on the snows of the mountains there were found certain mysterious footsteps, _more than 30 or 40 paces asunder_, which the natives alleged to be SHAITAN'S. The writer at the same time offered, if Government would give him leave of absence for a certain period, etc., to go and trace the author of these mysterious vestiges, and thus this strange creature would be discovered _without any expense to Government_. The notion of catching SHAITAN _without any expense to Government_ was a sublime piece of Anglo-Indian tact, but the offer was not accepted."—_Sir H. Yule, Notes to Friar Jordanus_, 37.

SHALEE, SHALOO, SHELLA, SALLO, &c., s. We have a little doubt as to the identity of all these words; the two latter occur in old works as names of cotton stuffs; the first two (Shakespear and Fallon give _sālū_) are names in familiar use for a soft twilled cotton stuff, of a Turkey-red colour, somewhat resembling what we call, by what we had judged to be a modification of the word, _shaloon_. But we find that Skeat and other authorities ascribe the latter word to a corruption of _Chalons_, which gave its name to certain stuffs, apparently bed-coverlets of some sort. Thus in Chaucer:

"With shetes and with CHALONS faire yspredde."—_The Reve's Tale._

On which Tyrwhitt quotes from the _Monasticon_, "... _aut pannos pictos qui vocantur_ CHALONS _loco lectisternii_." See also in _Liber Albus_:

"La charge de CHALOUNS et draps de Reynes...."—p. 225, also at p. 231.

c. 1343.—"I went then to _Shāliyāt_ (near Calicut—see CHALIA) a very pretty town, where they make the stuffs (qu. SHĀLĪ?) that bear its name."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 109.

[It is exceedingly difficult to disentangle the meanings and derivations of this series of words. In the first place we have SALOO, Hind. _sālū_, the Turkey-red cloth above described; a word which is derived by Platts from Skt. _śālū_, 'a kind of astringent substance,' and is perhaps the same word as the Tel. _sālū_, 'cloth.' This was originally an Indian fabric, but has now been replaced in the bazars by an English cloth, the art of dyeing which was introduced by French refugees who came over after the Revolution (see 7 ser. _N. & Q._ viii. 485 _seq._). See PIECE-GOODS, SALOOPAUTS.

[c. 1590.—"SÁLU, per piece, 3 R. to 2 M."—_Āīn_, i. 94.

[1610.—"SALLALLO, blue and black."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 72.

[1672.—"SALLOOS, made at Gulcundah, and brought from thence to Surat, and go to England."—In _Birdwood, Report on Old Records_, 62.

[1896.—"SALU is another fabric of a red colour prepared by dyeing English cloth named _mārkīn_ ('American') in the _āl_ dye, and was formerly extensively used for turbans, curtains, borders of female coats and female dress."—_Muhammad Hadi, Mon. on Dyes_, 34.

Next we have SHELAH, which may be identical with Hind. _selā_, which Platts connects with Skt. _chela_, _chaila_, 'a piece of cloth,' and defines as "a kind of scarf or mantle (of silk, or lawn, or muslin; usually composed of four breadths depending from the shoulders loosely over the body: it is much worn and given as a present, in the Dakkhan); silk turban." In the Deccan it seems to be worn by men (_Herklots, Qanoon-e-Islam_, Madras reprint, 18). The _Madras Gloss._ gives SHEELAY, Mal. _shīla_, said to be from Skt. _chīra_, 'a strip of cloth,' in the sense of clothes; and SULLAH, Hind. _sela_, 'gauze for turbans.'

[c. 1590.—"SHELAH, from the Dek'han, per piece, ½ to 2 M."—_Āīn_, i. 95.

[1598.—"CHEYLA," in _Linschoten_, i. 91.

[1800.—"SHILLAS, or thin white muslins.... They are very coarse, and are sometimes striped, and then called _Dupattas_ (see DOOPUTTY)."—_Buchanan, Mysore_, ii. 240.]

1809.—"The SHALIE, a long piece of coloured silk or cotton, is wrapped round the waist in the form of a petticoat, which leaves part of one leg bare, whilst the other is covered to the ancle with long and graceful folds, gathered up in front, so as to leave one end of the SHALIE to cross the breast, and form a drapery, which is sometimes thrown over the head as a veil."—_Maria Graham_, 3. [But, as Sir H. Yule suggested, in this form the word may represent SAREE.]

1813.—"Red SHELLAS or SALLOES...."—_Milburne_, i. 124.

[ " "His SHELA, of fine cloth, with a silk or gold thread border...."—_Trans. Lit. Soc. Bo._ iii. 219 _seq._

[1900.—"SELA _Dupatta_—worn by men over shoulders, tucked round waist, ends hanging in front ... plain body and borders richly ornamented with gold thread; white, yellow, and green; worn in full dress, sometimes merely thrown over shoulders, with the ends hanging in front from either shoulder."—_Yusuf Ali, Mon. on Silk_, 72.

The following may represent the same word, or be perhaps connected with P.—H. _chilla_, 'a selvage, gold threads in the border of a turban, &c.'

[1610.—"TSYLE, the corge, Rs. 70."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 72.]

1615.—"320 pieces red ZELAS."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 129. The same word is used by _Cocks, Diary_, Hak. Soc. i. 4.

SHAMA, s. Hind. _shāmā_ [Skt. _syāma_, 'black, dark-coloured.'] A favourite song-bird and cage-bird, _Kitta cincla macrura_, Gmel. "In confinement it imitates the notes of other birds, and of various animals, with ease and accuracy" (_Jerdon_). The long tail seems to indicate the identity of this bird rather than the _mainā_ (see MYNA) with that described by Aelian. [Mr. M‘Crindle (_Invasion of India_, 186) favours the identification of the bird with the _Mainā_.]

c. A.D. 250.—"There is another bird found among the Indians, which is of the size of a starling. It is particoloured; and in imitating the voice of man it is more loquacious and clever than a parrot. But it does not readily bear confinement, and yearning for liberty, and longing for intercourse with its kind, it prefers hunger to bondage with fat living. The Macedonians who dwell among the Indians, in the city of Bucephala and thereabouts ... call the bird κερκίων ('Taily'); and the name arose from the fact that the bird twitches his tail just like a wagtail."—_Aelian, de Nat. Anim._ xvi. 3.

SHAMAN, SHAMANISM, s. These terms are applied in modern times to superstitions of the kind that connects itself with exorcism and "devil-dancing" as their most prominent characteristic, and which are found to prevail with wonderful identity of circumstance among non-Caucasian races over parts of the earth most remote from one another; not only among the vast variety of Indo-Chinese tribes, but among the Dravidian tribes of India, the Veddahs of Ceylon, the races of Siberia, and the red nations of N. and S. America. "Hinduism has assimilated these 'prior superstitions of the sons of Tur,' as Mr. Hodgson calls them, in the form of Tantrika mysteries, whilst, in the wild performance of the Dancing Dervishes at Constantinople, we see, perhaps, again, the infection of Turanian blood breaking out from the very heart of Mussulman orthodoxy" (see _Notes to Marco Polo_, Bk. II. ch. 50). The characteristics of Shamanism is the existence of certain sooth-sayers or medicine-men, who profess a special art of dealing with the mischievous spirits who are supposed to produce illness and other calamities, and who invoke these spirits and ascertain the means of appeasing them, in trance produced by fantastic ceremonies and convulsive dancings.

The immediate origin of the term is the title of the spirit-conjuror in the Tunguz language, which is _shaman_, in that of the Manchus becoming _saman_, pl. _samasa_. But then in Chinese _Sha-măn_ or _Shi-măn_ is used for a Buddhist ascetic, and this would seem to be taken from the Skt. _śramana_, Pali _samana_. Whether the Tanguz word is in any way connected with this or adopted from it, is a doubtful question. W. Schott, who has treated the matter elaborately (_Über den Doppelsinn des Wortes_ Schamane _und über den tungusichen_ Schamanen-_Cultus am Hofe der Mandju Kaisern_, Berlin Akad. 1842), finds it difficult to suppose any connection. We, however, give a few quotations relating to the two words in one series. In the first two the reference is undoubtedly to Buddhist ascetics.

c. B.C. 320.—"Τοὺς δὲ Σαρμάνας, τοὺς μὲν ἐντιμοτάτους Ὑλοβίους φησὶν ὀνομάζεσθαι, ζῶντας ἐν ταῖς ὕλαις ἀπὸ φύλλων καὶ καρπῶν ἀγρίων, ἐσθῆτας δ' ἔχειν ἀπὸ φλοῖων δενδρέιων, ἀφροδισίων χωρὶς καὶ οἴνου."—From _Megasthenes_, in _Strabo_, xv.

c. 712.—"All the SAMANÍS assembled and sent a message to Bajhrá, saying, "We are _násik_ devotees. Our religion is one of peace and quiet, and fighting and slaying is prohibited, as well as all kinds of shedding of blood."—_Chach Náma_, in _Elliot_, i. 158.

1829.—"_Kami_ is the Mongol name of the spirit-conjuror or sorcerer, who before the introduction of Buddhism exercised among the Mongols the office of Sacrificer and Priest, as he still does among the Tunguzes, Manjus, and other Asiatic tribes.... In Europe they are known by the Tunguz name SCHAMAN; among the Manjus as SAMAN, and among the Tibetans as _Hlaba_. The Mongols now call them with contempt and abhorrence _Böh_ or _Böghe_, _i.e._ 'Sorcerer,' 'Wizard,' and the women who give themselves to the like fooleries _Udugun_."—_I. J. Schmidt, Notes to Sanang Setzen_, p. 416.

1871.—"Among Siberian tribes, the SHAMANS select children liable to convulsions as suitable to be brought up to the profession, which is apt to become hereditary with the epileptic tendencies it belongs to."—_Tylor, Primitive Culture_, ii. 121.

SHAMBOGUE, s. Canar. _shāna-_ or _sāna-bhoga_; _shanāya_, 'allowance of grain paid to the village accountant,' Skt. _bhoga_, 'enjoyment.' A village clerk or accountant.

[c. 1766.—"... this order to be enforced in the accounts by the SHANBAGUE."—_Logan, Malabar_, iii. 120.

[1800.—"SHANABOGA, called SHANBOGUE by corruption, and CURNUM by the Musulmans, is the village accountant."—_Buchanan's Mysore_, i. 268.]

1801.—"When the whole KIST is collected, the SHANBOGUE and potail (see PATEL) carry it to the teshildar's cutcherry."—_T. Munro, in Life_, i. 316.

SHAMEEANA, SEMIANNA, s. Pers. _shamiyāna_ or _shāmiyāna_ [very doubtfully derived from Pers. _shāh_, 'king,' _miyāna_, 'centre'], an awning or flat tent-roof, sometimes without sides, but often in the present day with CANAUTS; sometimes pitched like a porch before a large tent; often used by civil officers, when on tour, to hold their court or office proceedings _coram populo_, and in a manner generally accessible. [In the early records the word is used for a kind of striped calico.]

c. 1590.—"The SHĀMYĀNAH-awning is made of various sizes, but never more than of 12 yards square."—_Āīn_, i. 54.

[1609.—"A sort of Calico here called SEMIJANES are also in abundance, it is broader than the Calico."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 29.]

[1613.—"The Hector having certain chueckeros (CHUCKER) of fine SEMIAN chowters."—_Ibid._ i. 217. In _Foster_, iv. 239, SEMANES.]

1616.—"... there is erected a throne foure foote from the ground in the Durbar Court from the backe whereof, to the place where the King comes out, a square of 56 paces long, and 43 broad was rayled in, and covered with fair SEMIAENES or Canopies of Cloth of Gold, Silke, or Velvet ioyned together, and sustained with Canes so covered."—_Sir T. Roe_, in _Purchas_, i.; Hak. Soc. i. 142.

[1676.—"We desire you to furnish him with all things necessary for his voyage, ... with bridle and sadle, SEMEANOES, canatts (CANAUT)...."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, i. 89.]

1814.—"I had seldom occasion to look out for gardens or pleasure grounds to pitch my tent or erect my SUMMINIANA or SHAMYANA, the whole country being generally a garden."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ ii. 455; 2nd ed. ii. 64. In ii. 294 he writes SHUMEEANA].

1857.—"At an early hour we retired to rest. Our beds were arranged under large canopies, open on all sides, and which are termed by the natives 'SHAMEANAHS.'"—_M. Thornhill, Personal Adventures_, 14.

SHAMPOO, v. To knead and press the muscles with the view of relieving fatigue, &c. The word has now long been familiarly used in England. The Hind. verb is _chāmpnā_, from the imperative of which, _chāmpō_, this is most probably a corruption, as in the case of BUNOW, PUCKEROW, &c. The process is described, though not named, by Terry, in 1616: "Taking thus their ease, they often call their Barbers, who tenderly gripe and smite their Armes and other parts of their bodies instead of exercise, to stirre the bloud. It is a pleasing wantonnesse, and much valued in these hot climes." (In _Purchas_, ii. 1475). The process was familiar to the Romans under the Empire, whose slaves employed in this way were styled _tractator_ and _tractatrix_. [Perhaps the earliest reference to the practice is in Strabo (_McCrindle, Ancient India_, 72).] But with the ancients it seems to have been allied to vice, for which there is no ground that we know in the Indian custom.

1748.—"SHAMPOOING is an operation not known in Europe, and is peculiar to the Chinese, which I had once the curiosity to go through, and for which I paid but a trifle. However, had I not seen several China merchants SHAMPOOED before me, I should have been apprehensive of danger, even at the sight of all the different instruments...." (The account is good, but too long for extract.)—_A Voyage to the E. Indies in 1747 and 1748._ London, 1762, p. 226.

1750-60.—"The practice of CHAMPING, which by the best intelligence I could gather is derived from the Chinese, may not be unworthy

## particularizing, as it is little known to the modern

Europeans...."—_Grose_, i. 113. This writer quotes _Martial_, iii. Ep. 82, and _Seneca_, Epist. 66, to show that the practice was known in ancient Rome.

1800.—"The Sultan generally rose at break of day: after being CHAMPOED, and rubbed, he washed himself, and read the Koran for an hour."—_Beatson, War with Tippoo_, p. 159.

[1810.—"SHAMPOEING may be compared to a gentle kneading of the whole person, and is the same operation described by the voyagers to the Southern and Pacific ocean."—_Wilks, Hist. Sketches_, Madras reprint, i. 276.]

" "Then whilst they fanned the children, or CHAMPOOED them if they were restless, they used to tell stories, some of which dealt of marvels as great as those recorded in the 1001 Nights."—_Mrs. Sherwood, Autobiog._ 410.

" "That considerable relief is obtained from SHAMPOING, cannot be doubted; I have repeatedly been restored surprisingly from severe fatigue...."—_Williamson, V. M._ ii. 198.

1813.—"There is sometimes a voluptuousness in the climate of India, a stillness in nature, an indescribable softness, which soothes the mind, and gives it up to the most delightful sensations: independent of the effects of opium, CHAMPOING, and other luxuries indulged in by oriental sensualists."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ i. 35; [2nd ed. i. 25.]

SHAN, n.p. The name which we have learned from the Burmese to apply to the people who call themselves the _great T'ai_, kindred to the Siamese, and occupying extensive tracts in Indo-China, intermediate between Burma, Siam, and China. They are the same people that have been known, after the Portuguese, and some of the early R. C. Missionaries, as LAOS (q.v.); but we now give the name an extensive signification covering the whole race. The Siamese, who have been for centuries politically the most important branch of this race, call (or did call themselves—see De la Loubère, who is very accurate) _T'ai-Noe_ or 'Little T'ai,' whilst they applied the term _T'ai-Yai_, or 'Great T'ai,' to their northern kindred or some part of these;[244] sometimes also calling the latter _T'ai-güt_, or the 'Ta'i left behind.' The T'ai or Shan are certainly the most numerous and widely spread race in Indo-China, and innumerable petty Shan States exist on the borders of Burma, Siam, and China, more or less dependent on, or tributary to, their powerful neighbours. They are found from the extreme north of the Irawadi Valley, in the vicinity of Assam, to the borders of Camboja; and in nearly all we find, to a degree unusual in the case of populations politically so segregated, a certain homogeneity in language, civilisation, and religion (Buddhist), which seems to point to their former union in considerable States.

One branch of the race entered and conquered Assam in the 13th century, and from the name by which they were known, _Ahom_ or _Aham_, was derived, by the frequent exchange of aspirant and sibilant, the name, just used, of the province itself. The most extensive and central Shan State, which occupied a position between Ava and Yunnan, is known in the Shan traditions as Mung-_Mau_, and in Burma by the Buddhisto-classical name of _Kauśāmbi_ (from a famous city of that name in ancient India) corrupted by a usual process into _Ko-Shan-pyi_ and interpreted to mean 'Nine-Shan-States.' Further south were those T'ai States which have usually been called LAOS, and which formed several considerable kingdoms, going through many vicissitudes of power. Several of their capitals were visited and their ruins described by the late Francis Garnier, and the cities of these and many smaller States of the same race, all built on the same general quadrangular plan, are spread broadcast over that part of Indo-China which extends from Siam north of Yunnan.

Mr. Cushing, in the Introduction to his _Shan Dictionary_ (Rangoon, 1881), divides the Shan family by dialectic indications into the _Ahoms_, whose language is now extinct, the _Chinese Shan_ (occupying the central territory of what was _Mau_ or Kauśāmbi), the _Shan_ (_Proper_, or Burmese Shan), _Laos_ (or Siamese Shan), and Siamese.

The term SHAN is borrowed from the Burmese, in whose peculiar orthography the name, though pronounced _Shān_, is written _rham_. We have not met with its use in English prior to the Mission of Col. Symes in 1795. It appears in the map illustrating his narrative, and once or twice in the narrative itself, and it was frequently used by his companion, F. Buchanan, whose papers were only published many years afterwards in various periodicals difficult to meet with. It was not until the Burmese war of 1824-1826, and the active investigation of our Eastern frontier which followed, that the name became popularly known in British India. The best notice of the Shans that we are acquainted with is a scarce pamphlet by Mr. Ney Elias, printed by the Foreign Dept. of Calcutta in 1876 (_Introd. Sketch of the Hist. of the Shans, &c._). [The ethnology of the race is discussed by J. G. Scott, _Upper Burma Gazetteer_, i. pt. i. 187 _seqq._ Also see _Prince Henri d'Orleans, Du Tonkin aux Indes_, 1898; _H. S. Hallett, Among the Shans_, 1885, and _A Thousand Miles on an Elephant_, 1890.]

Though the name as we have taken it is a Burmese oral form, it seems to be essentially a genuine ethnic name for the race. It is applied in the form SAM by the Assamese, and the Kakhyens; the Siamese themselves have an obsolete SIẼM (written _Sieyam_) for themselves, and SIENG (_Sieyang_) for the Laos. The former word is evidently the _Sien_, which the Chinese used in the compound _Sien-lo_ (for Siam,—see _Marco Polo_, 2nd ed. Bk. iii. ch. 7, note 3), and from which we got, probably through a Malay medium, our SIAM (q.v.). The Burmese distinguish the Siamese Shans as _Yudia_ (see JUDEA) Shans, a term perhaps sometimes including Siam itself. Symes gives this (through Arakanese corruption) as 'Yoodra-Shaan,' and he also (no doubt improperly) calls the Manipūr people 'Cassay Shaan' (see CASSAY).

1795.—"These events did not deter Shanbuan from pursuing his favourite scheme of conquest to the westward. The fertile plains and populous towns of Munnipoora and the CASSAY SHAAN, attracted his ambition."—_Symes_, p. 77.

" "Zemee (see JANGOMAY), Sandapoora, and many districts of the YOODRA SHAAN to the eastward, were tributary, and governed by CHOBWAS, who annually paid homage to the Birman king."—_Ibid._ 102.

" "SHAAN, or SHAN, is a very comprehensive term given to different nations, some independent, others the subjects of the greater states."—_Ibid._ 274.

c. 1818.—"... They were assisted by many of the _Zaboà_ (see CHOBWA) or petty princes of the SCIAM, subject to the Burmese, who, wearied by the oppressions and exactions of the Burmese Mandarins and generals, had revolted, and made common cause with the enemies of their cruel masters.... The war which the Burmese had to support with these enemies was long and disastrous ... instead of overcoming the SCIAM (they) only lost day by day the territories ... and saw their princes range themselves ... under the protection of the King of Siam."—_Sangermano_, p. 57.

1861.—

"Fie, Fie! Captain Spry! You are surely in joke With your wires and your trams, Going past all the SHAMS With branches to _Bam-you_ (see BAMO), and end in A-SMOKE." _Ode on the proposed Yunnan Railway._

_Bhamo_ and _Esmok_ were names constantly recurring in the late Capt. Spry's railway projects.

SHANBAFF, SINABAFF, &c., s. Pers. _shānbāft_. A stuff often mentioned in the early narratives as an export from Bengal and other parts of India. Perhaps indeed these names indicate two different stuffs, as we do not know what they were, except that (as mentioned below) the _sinabaff_ was a fine white stuff. _Sīnabāff_ is not in Vuller's _Lexicon_. _Shānabāf_ is, and is explained as _genus panni grossioris, sic descripta_ (E. T.): "A very coarse and cheap stuff which they make for the sleeves of _ḳabās_ (see CABAYA) for sale."—_Bahār-i-'Ajam._ But this cannot have been the character of the stuffs sent by Sultan Mahommed Tughlak (as in the first quotation) to the Emperor of China. [Badger (quoted by _Birdwood, Report on Old Records_, 153) identifies the word with _sīna-bāfta_, 'China-woven' cloths.]

1343.—"When the aforesaid present came to the Sultan of India (from the Emp. of China) ... in return for this present he sent another of greater value ... 100 pieces of SHĪRĪNBĀF, and 500 pieces of SHĀNBĀF."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 3.

1498.—"The overseer of the Treasury came next day to the Captain-Major, and brought him 20 pieces of white stuff, very fine, with gold embroidery which they call _beyramies_ (BEIRAMEE), and other 20 large white stuffs, very fine, which were named SINABAFOS...."—_Correa_, E.T. by _Ld. Stanley_, 197.

[1508.—See under ALJOFAR.]

1510.—"One of the Persians said: 'Let us go to our house, that is, to Calicut.' I answered, 'Do not go, for you will lose these fine SINABAPH' (which were pieces of cloth we carried)."—_Varthema_, 269.

1516.—"The quintal of this sugar was worth two ducats and a half in Malabar, and a good SINABÁFFO was worth two ducats."—_Barbosa_, 179.

[ " "Also they make other stuffs which they call _Mamonas_ (_Maḥmūdīs_?), others _duguazas_ (_dogazīs_?), others _chautares_ (see CHOWTARS, under PIECE-GOODS), others SINABAFAS, which last are the best, and which the Moors hold in most esteem to make shirts of."—_Ibid._, Lisbon ed. 362.]

SHASTER, s. The Law books or Sacred Writings of the Hindus. From Skt. _śāstra_, 'a rule,' a religious code, a scientific treatise.

1612.—"... They have many books in their Latin.... Six of these they call XASTRA, which are the bodies; eighteen which they call _Purána_ (POORANA), which are the limbs."—_Couto_, V. vi. 3.

1630.—"... The Banians deliver that this book, by them called the SHASTER, or the Book of their written word, consisted of these three tracts."—_Lord's Display_, ch. viii.

1651.—In _Rogerius_, the word is everywhere misprinted IASTRA.

1717.—"The six SASTRANGÓL contain all the Points and different Ceremonies in Worship...."—_Phillips's Account_, 40.

1765.—"... at the capture of _Calcutta_, A.D. 1756, I lost many curious _Gentoo_ manuscripts, and among them two very correct and valuable copies of the _Gentoo_ SHASTAH."—_J. Z. Holwell, Interesting Hist. Events_, &c., 2d ed., 1766, i. 3.

1770.—"The SHASTAH is looked upon by some as a commentary on the _vedam_, and by others as an original work."—_Raynal_ (tr. 1777), i. 50.

1776.—"The occupation of the Bramin should be to read the _Beids_, and other SHASTERS."—_Halhed, Gentoo Code_, 39.

[SHASTREE, s. Hind. _śāstrī_ (see SHASTER). A man of learning, one who teaches any branch of Hindu learning, such as law.

[1824.—"Gungadhur SHASTREE, the minister of the Baroda state, ... was murdered by Trimbuckjee under circumstances which left no doubt that the deed was perpetrated with the knowledge of Bajerow."—_Malcolm, Central India_, 2nd ed. i. 307.]

SHAWL, s. Pers. and Hind. _shāl_, also _doshāla_, 'a pair of shawls.' The Persian word is perhaps of Indian origin, from Skt. _śavala_, 'variegated.' Sir George Birdwood tells us that he has found among the old India records "Carmania SHELLS" and "Carmania SHAWOOLS," meaning apparently _Kermān shawls_. He gives no dates unfortunately. [In a book of 1685 he finds "SHAWLES Carmania" and "Carmania Wooll"; in one of 1704, "CHAWOOLS" (_Report on Old Records_, 27, 40). Carmania goats are mentioned in a letter in _Forrest, Bombay Letters_, i. 140.] In Meninski (published in 1680) _shāl_ is defined in a way that shows the humble sense of the word originally:

"Panni viliores qui partim albi, partim cineritii, partim nigri esse solent ex lana et pillis caprinis; hujusmodi pannum seu telam injiciunt humeris Dervisii ... instar stolae aut pallii." To this he adds, "Datur etiam sericea ejusmodi tela, fere instar nostri multitii, sive simplicis sive duplicati." For this the 2nd edition a century later substitutes: "_Shāl-i-Hindī_" (Indian shawl). "Tela _sericea_ subtilissima ex India adferri solita."

c. 1590.—"In former times SHAWLS were often brought from Kashmír. People folded them in four folds, and wore them for a very long time.... His Majesty encourages in every possible way the (_shāl-bāfī_) manufacture of SHAWLS in Kashmír. In Lahór also there are more than 1000 workshops."—_Āīn_ i. 92. [Also see ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 349, 355.]

c. 1665.—"Ils mettent sur eux a toute saison, lorsqu'ils sortent, une CHAL, qui est une maniere de toilette d'une laine très-fine qui se fait a Cachmìr. Ces CHALS ont environ deux aunes (the old French _aune_, nearly 47 inches English) de long sur une de large. On les achete vingt-cinq ou trente écus si elles sont fines. Il y en a même qui coûtent cinquante écus, mais ce sont les très-fines."—_Thevenot_, v. 110.

c. 1666.—"Ces CHALES sont certaines pièces d'étoffe d'une aulne et demie de long, et d'une de large ou environ, qui sont brodées aux deux bouts d'une espèce de broderie, faite au métier, d'un pied ou environ de large.... J'en ai vu de ceux que les _Omrahs_ font faire exprès, qui coutoient jusqu'à cent cinquante Roupies; des autres qui sont de cette laine du pays, je n'en ai pas vu qui passaient 50 Roupies."—_Bernier_, ii. 280-281; [ed. _Constable_, 402].

1717.—"... Con tutto ciò preziosissime nobilissime e senza comparazione magnifiche sono le tele che si chiamano SCIAL, si nella lingua Hindustana, come ancora nella lingua Persiana. Tali SCIAL altro non sono, che alcuni manti, che si posano sulla testa, e facendo da man destra, e da man sinistra scendere le due metà, con queste si cinge...."—_MS. Narrative of Padre Ip. Desideri._

[1662.—"Another rich Skarf, which they call SCHAL, made of a very fine stuff."—_J. Davies, Ambassador's Trav._, Bk. vi. 235, _Stanf. Dict._]

1727.—"When they go abroad they wear a SHAWL folded up, or a piece of White Cotton Cloth lying loose on the Top of their Heads."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 50; [SHAUL in ed. 1744, ii. 49].

c. 1760.—"Some SHAWLS are manufactured there.... Those coming from the province of Cachemire on the borders of Tartary, being made of a peculiar kind of silky hair, that produces from the loom a cloth beautifully bordered at both ends, with a narrow flowered selvage, about two yards and a half long, and a yard and a half wide ... and according to the price, which is from ten pounds and upwards to fifteen shillings, join, to exquisite fineness, a substance that renders them extremely warm, and so pliant that the fine ones are easily drawn through a common ring on the finger."—_Grose_, i. 118.

1781.—Sonnerat writes CHALLES. He says: "Ces étoffes (faites avec la laine des moutons de Tibet) surpassent nos plus belles soieries en finesse."—_Voyage_, i. 52.

It seems from these extracts that the large and costly shawl, woven in figures over its whole surface, is a modern article. The old shawl, we see, was from 6 to 8 feet long, by about half that breadth; and it was most commonly white, with only a _border_ of figured weaving at each end. In fact what is now called a RAMPOOR CHUDDER when made with figured ends is probably the best representation of the old shawl.

SHEEAH, SHIA, s. Arab. _shī'a_, _i.e._ 'sect.' A follower (more properly the followers collectively) of the Mahommedan 'sect,' or sects rather, which specially venerate 'Ali, and regard the Imāms (see IMAUM), his descendants, as the true successors to the Caliphate. The Persians (since the accession of the 'SOPHY' dynasty, (q.v.)) are _Shī'as_, and a good many of the Moslems in India. The sects which have followed more or less secret doctrines, and the veneration of hereditary quasi-divine heads, such as the Karmathites and Ismaelites of Musulman history, and the modern BOHRAS (see BORA) and "Mulāḥis," may generally be regarded as _Shī'a_. [See the elaborate article on the sect in _Hughes, Dict. of Islām_, 572 _seqq._]

c. 1309.—"... dont encore il est ainsi, que tuit cil qui croient en la loy Haali dient que cil qui croient en la loy Mahommet sont mescréant; et aussi tuit cil qui croient en la loy Mahommet dient que tuit cil qui croient en la loy Haali sont mescréant."—_Joinville_, 252.

1553.—"Among the Moors have always been controversies ... which of the four first Caliphs was the most legitimate successor to the Caliphate. The Arabians favoured Bubac, Homar, and Otthoman, the Persians (_Parseos_) favoured Alle, and held the others for usurpers, and as holding it against the testament of Mahamed ... to the last this schism has endured between the Arabians and the Persians. The latter took the appellation XIÁ, as much as to say 'Union of one Body,' and the Arabs called them in reproach _Raffady_ [_Rāfiḍī_, a heretic (lit. 'deserter')], as much as to say 'People astray from the Path,' whilst they call themselves ÇUNY (see SUNNEE), which is the contrary."—_Barros_, II. x. 6.

1620.—"The Sonnite adherents of tradition, like the Arabs, the Turks, and an infinite number of others, accept the primacy of those who actually possess it. The Persians and their adherents who are called _Shias_ (SCIAI), _i.e._ 'Sectaries,' and are not ashamed of the name, believe in the primacy of those who have only claimed it (without possessing it), and obstinately contend that it belongs to the family of Alì only."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 75; [conf. Hak. Soc. i. 152].

1626.—"He is by Religion a Mahumetan, descended from Persian Ancestors, and retaineth their opinions, which differing in many points from the Turkes, are distinguished in their Sectes by tearmes of SEAW and _Sunnee_."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 995.

1653.—"Les Persans et _Keselbaches_ (KUZZILBASH) se disent SCHAÌ ... si les Ottomans estoient SCHAÌS, ou de la Secte de Haly, les Persans se feroient _Sonnis_ qui est la Secte des Ottomans."—_De la Boullaye-le-Gouz_, ed. 1657, 106.

1673.—"His Substitute here is a CHIAS Moor."—_Fryer_, 29.

1798.—"In contradistinction to the _Soonis_, who in their prayers cross their hands on the lower part of the breast, the SCHIAHS drop their arms in straight lines."—_G. Forster, Travels_, ii. 129.

1805.—"The word SH'EEAH, or SHEEUT, properly signifies a troop or sect ... but has become the distinctive appellation of the followers of Aly, or all those who maintain that he was the first legitimate _Khuleefah_, or successor to Moohummad."—_Baillie, Digest of Mah. Law_, II. xii.

1869.—"La tolerance indienne est venue diminuer dans l'Inde le fanatisme Musulman. Là _Sunnites_ et SCHIITES n'ont point entre eux cette animosité qui divise les Turcs et les Persans ... ces deux sectes divisent les musulmans de l'Inde; mais comme je viens de dire, elles n'excitent généralement entre eux aucune animosité."—_Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Mus._, p. 12.

SHEERMAUL, s. Pers.—Hind. _shīrmāl_, a cake made with flour, milk and leaven; a sort of _brioche_. [The word comes from Pers. _shīr_, 'milk,' _māl_, 'crushing.' Riddell (_Domest. Econ._ 461) gives a receipt for what he calls "_Nauna Sheer Mhal_," _nān_ being Pers., 'bread.']

[1832.—"The dishes of meetah (_miṭhā_, 'sweet') are accompanied with the many varieties of bread common to Hindoostaun, without leaven, as SHEAH-MAUL, _bacherkaunie_ (BAKIR-KHANI), _chapaatie_ (CHUPATTY), &c.; the first two have milk and ghee mixed with the flour, and nearly resemble our pie-crust."—_Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Observations_, i. 101.

[SHEIKH, s. Ar. _shaikh_; an old man, elder, chief, head of an Arab tribe. The word should properly mean one of the descendants of tribes of genuine Arab descent, but at the present day, in India, it is often applied to converts to Islam from the lower Hindu tribes. For the use of the word in the sense of a saint, see under PEER.

[1598.—"Lieftenant (which the Arabians called ZEQUEN)."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 24.

[1625.—"They will not haue them iudged by any Custome, and they are content that their XEQUE doe determine them as he list."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, ii. 1146.

1727.—"... but if it was so, that he (Abraham) was their SHEEK, as they alledge, they neither follow him in Morals or Religion."—_A. Hamilton_, ed. 1744, i. 37.

[1835.—"Some parents employ a SHEYKH or fikee to teach their boys at home."—_Lane, Mod. Egypt._, ed. 1871, i. 77.]

SHERBET, s. Though this word is used in India by natives in its native (Arab. and Pers.) form _sharbat_,[245] 'draught,' it is not a word now specially in Anglo-Indian use. The Arabic seems to have entered Europe by several different doors. Thus in Italian and French we have _sorbetto_ and _sorbet_, which probably came direct from the Levantine or Turkish form _shurbat_ or _shorbat_; in Sp. and Port. we have _xarabe_, _axarabe_ (_ash-sharāb_, the standard Ar. _sharāb_, 'wine or any beverage'), and _xarope_, and from these forms probably Ital. _sciroppo_, _siroppo_, with old French _ysserop_ and mod. French _sirop_; also English _syrup_, and more directly from the Spanish, _shrub_. Mod. Span. again gets, by reflection from French or Italian, _sorbete_ and _sîrop_ (see _Dozy_, 17, and _Marcel Devic_, s.v. _sirop_). Our _sherbet_ looks as if it had been imported direct from the Levant. The form _shrāb_ is applied in India to all wines and spirits and prepared drinks, _e.g._ Port-_shraub_, Sherry-_shraub_, LALL-SHRAUB, Brandy-_shraub_, Beer-_shraub_.

c. 1334.—"... They bring cups of gold, silver, and glass, filled with sugar-candy-water; _i.e._ syrup diluted with water. They call this beverage SHERBET" (_ash-shurbat_).—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 124.

1554.—"... potio est gratissima praesertim ubi multa nive, quae Constantinopoli nullo tempore deficit, fuerit refirgerata, _Arab_ SORBET vocant, hoc est, potionem Arabicam."—_Busbeq._ Ep. i. p. 92.

1578.—"The physicians of the same country use this XARAVE (of tamarinds) in bilious and ardent fevers."—_Acosta_, 67.

c. 1580.—"Et saccharo potum jucundissimum parant quem SARBET vocant."—_Prosper Alpinus_, Pt. i. p. 70.

1611.—"In Persia there is much good wine of grapes which is called XARÀB in the language of the country."—_Teixeira_, i. 16.

c. 1630.—"Their liquor may perhaps better delight you; 'tis faire water, sugar, rose-water, and juyce of Lemons mixt, call'd SHERBETS or ZERBETS, wholsome and potable."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1638, p. 241.

1682.—"The Moores ... dranke a little milk and water, but not a drop of wine; they also dranke a little SORBET, and _jacolatt_ (see JOCOLE)."—_Evelyn's Diary_, Jan 24.

1827.—"On one occasion, before Barak-el-Hadgi left Madras, he visited the Doctor, and partook of his SHERBET, which he preferred to his own, perhaps because a few glasses of rum or brandy were usually added to enrich the compound."—_Sir W. Scott, The Surgeon's Daughter_, ch. x.

1837.—"The Egyptians have various kinds of SHERBETS.... The most common kind (called simply SHURBÁT or SHURBÁT _sook'har_ ...) is merely sugar and water ... lemonade (_ley'moónáteh_, or SHARÁB _el-leymoón_) is another."—_Lane, Mod. Egypt._, ed. 1837, i. 206.

1863.—"The Estate overseer usually gave a dance to the people, when the most dissolute of both sexes were sure to be present, and to indulge too freely in the SHRUB made for the occasion."—_Waddell, 29 Years in the W. Indies_, 17.

SHEREEF, s. Ar. _sharīf_, 'noble.' A dignitary descended from Mahommed.

1498.—"The ambassador was a white man who was XARIFE, as much as to say a _creligo_" (_i.e._ _clerigo_).—_Roteiro_, 2nd ed. 30.

[1672.—"SCHIERIFI." See under CASIS.

[c. 1666.—"The first (embassage) was from the CHERIF of Meca...."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 133.

1701.—"... y^e SHREIF of Judda...."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, i. 232.]

SHERISTADAR, s. The head ministerial officer of a Court, whose duty it is to receive plaints, and see that they are in proper form and duly stamped, and generally to attend to routine business. Properly H.—P. from _sar-rishtā-dār_ or _sarishta-dār_, 'register-keeper.' _Sar-rishtā_, an office of registry, literally means 'head of the string.' C. P. Brown interprets _Sarrishtadār_ as "he who holds the end of the string (on which puppets dance)"—satirically, it may be presumed. Perhaps 'keeper of the clue,' or 'of the file' would approximately express the idea.

1786.—(With the object of establishing) "the officers of the CANONGOE'S Department upon its ancient footing, altogether independent of the Zemindars ... and to prevent confusion in the time to come.... For these purposes, and to avail ourselves as much as possible of the knowledge and services of Mr. James Grant, we have determined on the institution of an office well-known in this country under the designation of Chief SERRISHTADAR, with which we have invested Mr. Grant, to act in that capacity under your Board, and also to attend as such at your deliberations, as well as at our meetings in the Revenue Department."—_Letter from G. G. in C. to Board of Revenue_, July 19 (Bengal Rev. Regulation xix.).

1878.—"Nowadays, however, the SERISHTADAR'S signature is allowed to authenticate copies of documents, and the Assistant is thus spared so much drudgery."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. 117.

[SHEVAROY HILLS, n.p. The name applied to a range of hills in the Salem district of Madras. The origin of the name has given rise to much difference of opinion. Mr. Lefanu (_Man. of Salem_, ii. 19 _seq._) thinks that the original name was possibly _Sivarayan_, whence the German name _Shivarai_ and the English SHEVAROYS; or that _Sivarayan_ may by confusion have become _Sherarayan_, named after the Raja of _Sera_; lastly, he suggests that it comes from _sharpu_ or _sharvu_, 'the slope or declivity of a hill,' and _vay_, 'a mouth, passage, way.' This he is inclined to accept, regarding _Shervarayan_ or _Sharvayrayan_, as 'the cliff which dominates (_rayan_) the way (_vay_) which leads through or under the declivity (_sharvu_).' The _Madras Gloss._ gives the Tam. form of the name as _Shervarayanmalai_, from _Sheran_, 'the Chera race,' _irayan_, 'king,' and _malai_, 'mountain.'

[1823.—"Mr. Cockburn ... had the kindness to offer me the use of a bungalow on the SHERVARAYA hills...."—_Hoole, Missions in Madras_, 282.

[SHIBAR, SHIBBAR, s. A kind of coasting vessel, sometimes described as a great PATTAMAR. Molesworth (_Mahr. Dict._ s.v.) gives _shibāṛ_ which, in the usual dictionary way, he defines as 'a ship or large vessel of a

## particular description.' The _Bombay Gazetteer_ (x. 171) speaks of the

_'shibādi_, a large vessel, from 100 to 300 tons, generally found in the Ratnagiri sub-division ports'; and in another place (xiii. Pt. ii. 720) says that it is a large vessel chiefly used in the Malabar trade, deriving the name from Pers. _shāhī-bār_, 'royal-carrier.'

[1684.—"The Mucaddam (MOCUDDUM) of this SHIBAR bound for Goa."—_Yule_, in _Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. II. clxv.; also see clxxxiv.

[1727.—"... the other four were GRABS or Gallies, and SHEYBARS, or half Gallies."—_A. Hamilton_, ed. 1744, i. 134.

[1758.—"... then we cast off a boat called a large SEEBAR, bound to Muscat...."—_Ives_, 196.]

SHIGRAM, s. A Bombay and Madras name for a kind of hack palankin carriage. The camel-_shigram_ is often seen on roads in N. India. The name is from Mahr. _śīghr_, Skt. _śīghra_, 'quick or quickly.' A similar carriage is the _Jutkah_, which takes its name from Hind. _jhaṭkā_, 'swift.'

[1830.—At Bombay, "In heavy coaches, lighter landaulets, or singular-looking SHIGRAMPOES, might be seen bevies of British fair ..."—_Mrs. Elwood, Narr._ ii. 376.

[1875.—"As it is, we have to go ... 124 miles in a dak gharri, bullock SHIGRAM, or mail-cart...."—_Wilson, Abode of Snow_, 18.]

SHIKAR, s. Hind. from Pers. _shikār_, 'la chasse'; sport (in the sense of shooting and hunting); game.

c. 1590.—"_Āīn_, 27. _Of Hunting_ (orig. _Āīn-i_-SHIKĀR). Superficial worldly observers see in killing an animal a sort of pleasure, and in their ignorance stride about, as if senseless, on the field of their passions. But deep enquirers see in hunting a means of acquisition of knowledge.... This is the case with His Majesty."—_Āīn_, i. 282.

1609-10.—"SYKARY, which signifieth, seeking, or hunting."—_W. Finch_, in _Purchas_, i. 428.

1800.—"250 or 300 horsemen ... divided into two or three small parties, supported by our infantry, would give a proper SHEKAR; and I strongly advise not to let the Mahratta boundary stop you in the pursuit of your game."—_Sir A. Wellesley_ to _T. Munro_, in _Life of Munro_, iii. 117.

1847.—"Yet there is a charm in this place for the lovers of SHIKAR."—_Dry Leaves from Young Egypt_, 3.

[1859.—"Although the jungles literally swarm with tigers, a SHICKAR, in the Indian sense of the term, is unknown."—_Oliphant, Narr. of Mission_, i. 25.]

1866.—"May I ask what has brought you out to India, Mr. Cholmondeley? Did you come out for SHIKAR, eh?"—_Trevelyan, The Dawk Bungalow_, in _Fraser_, lxxiii. 222.

In the following the word is wrongly used in the sense of SHIKAREE.

[1900.—"That so experienced a SHIKAR should have met his death emphasises the necessity of caution."—_Field_, Sept. 1.]

SHIKAREE, SHEKARRY, s. Hind. _shikārī_, a sportsman. The word is used in three ways:

A. As applied to a native expert, who either brings in game on his own account, or accompanies European sportsmen as guide and aid.

[1822.—"SHECARRIES are generally Hindoos of low cast, who gain their livelihood entirely by catching birds, hares, and all sorts of animals."—_Johnson, Sketches of Field Sports_, 25.]

1879.—"Although the province (Pegu) abounds in large game, it is very difficult to discover, because there are no regular SHIKAREES in the Indian acceptation of the word. Every village has its local SHIKAREE, who lives by trapping and killing game. Taking life as he does, contrary to the principles of his religion, he is looked upon as damned by his neighbours, but that does not prevent their buying from him the spoils of the chase."—_Pollok, Sport in Br. Burmah_, &c., i. 13.

B. As applied to the European sportsman himself: _e.g._ "Jones is well known as a great _Shikaree_." There are several books of sporting adventure written _circa_ 1860-75 by Mr. H. A. Leveson under the name of 'The Old SHEKARRY.'

[C. A shooting-boat used in the Cashmere lakes.

[1875.—"A SHIKĀRĪ is a sort of boat, that is in daily use with the English visitors; a light boat manned, as it commonly is, by six men, it goes at a fast pace, and, if well fitted with cushions, makes a comfortable conveyance. A _bandūqī_ (see BUNDOOK) _shikāri_ is the smallest boat of all; a shooting punt, used in going after wild fowl on the lakes."—_Drew, Jummoo_, &c., 181.]

SHIKAR-GĀH, s. Pers. A hunting ground, or enclosed preserve. The word has also a technical application to patterns which exhibit a variety of figures and groups of animals, such as are still woven in brocade at Benares, and in shawl-work in Kashmir and elsewhere (see _Marco Polo_, Bk. I. ch. 17, and notes). [The great areas of jungle maintained by the Amīrs of Sind and called _Shikārgāhs_ are well known.

[1831.—"Once or twice a month when they (the Ameers) are all in good health, they pay visits to their different SHIKARGAHS or preserves for game."—_J. Burnes, Visit to the Court of Sinde_, 103.]

SHIKHÓ, n. and v. Burmese word. The posture of a Burmese in presence of a superior, _i.e._ kneeling with joined hands and bowed head in an attitude of worship. Some correspondence took place in 1883, in consequence of the use of this word by the then Chief Commissioner of British Burma, in an official report, to describe the attitude used by British envoys at the Court of Ava. The statement (which was grossly incorrect) led to remonstrance by Sir Arthur Phayre. The fact was that the envoy and his party sat on a carpet, but the attitude had no analogy whatever to that of _shikho_, though the endeavour of the Burmese officials was persistent to involve them in some such degrading attitude. (See KOWTOW.)

1855.—"Our conductors took off their shoes at the gate, and the Woondouk made an ineffectual attempt to induce the Envoy to do likewise. They also at four different places, as we advanced to the inner gate, dropt on their knees and SHIKHOED towards the palace."—_Yule, Mission to Ava_, 82.

1882.—"Another ceremony is that of SHEKHOING to the spire, the external emblem of the throne. All Burmans must do this at each of the gates, at the foot of the steps, and at intervals in between...."—_The Burman, His Life and Notions_, ii. 206.

SHINBIN, SHINBEAM, &c., s. A term in the Burmese teak-trade; apparently a corruption from Burm. _shīn-byīn_. The first monosyllable (_shīn_) means 'to put together side by side,' and _byīn_, 'plank,' the compound word being used in Burmese for 'a thick plank used in constructing the side of a ship.' The _shinbin_ is a thick plank, about 15″ wide by 4″ thick, and running up to 25 feet in length (see _Milburn_, i. 47). It is not sawn, but split from green trees.

1791.—"Teak Timber for sale, consisting of

Duggis (see DUGGIE). SHINBEENS. Coma planks (?). Maguire planks (?) Joists and Sheathing Boards." _Madras Courier_, Nov. 10.

SHINKALI, SHIGALA, n.p. A name by which the City and Port of CRANGANORE (q.v.) seems to have been known in the early Middle Ages. The name was probably formed from Tiruvan-_jiculam_, mentioned by Dr. Gundert below. It is perhaps the Gingaleh of Rabbi Benjamin in our first quotation; but the data are too vague to determine this, though the position of that place seems to be in the vicinity of Malabar.

c. 1167.—"GINGALEH is but three days distant by land, whereas it requires a journey of fifteen days to reach it by the sea; this place contains about 1,000 Israelites."—_Benjamin of Tudela_, in _Wright's Early Travels_, p. 117.

c. 1300.—"Of the cities on the shore (of Malībār) the first is SINDÁBÚR (Goa), then Faknúr (see BACANORE), then the country of Manjarúr (see MANGALORE) ... then CHINKALĪ (or _Jinkalī_), then Kúlam (see QUILON)."—_Rashīduddīn_, see _J. R. As. Soc._, N.S., iv. pp. 342, 345.

c. 1320.—"Le pays de Manîbâr, appelè pays du Poivre, comprend les villes suivantes.

* * * * *

"La ville de SHINKLI, dont la majeure partie de la population est composée de Juifs.

"KAULAM est la dernière ville de la côte de Poivre."—_Shemseddin Dimishqui_, by _Mehren_ (Cosmographie du Moyen Age), p. 234.

c. 1328.—"... there is one very powerful King in the country where the pepper grows, and his kingdom is called Molebar. There is also the King of SINGUYLI...."—_Fr. Jordanus_, p. 40.

1330.—"And the forest in which the pepper groweth extendeth for a good 18 days' journey, and in that forest there be two cities, the one whereof is called Flandrina (see PANDARANI), and the other CYNGILIN...."—_Fr. Odoric_, in _Cathay_, &c., 75-76.

c. 1330.—"Etiam Shâliyât (see CHALIA) et SHINKALA urbes Malabaricae sunt, quarum alteram Judaei incolunt...."—_Abulfeda_, in _Gildemeister_, 185.

c. 1349.—"And in the second India, which is called Mynibar, there is CYNKALI, which signifieth Little India" (Little China) "for _Kali_ is 'little.'"—_John Marignolli_, in _Cathay_, &c., 373.

1510.—"SCIGLA alias et Chrongalor vocatur, ea quam Cranganorium dicimus Malabariae urbem, ut testatur idem Jacobus Indiarum episcopus ad calcem Testamenti Novi ab ipso exarati anno Graecorum 1821, Christi 1510, et in fine Epistolarum Pauli, Cod. Syr. Vat. 9 et 12."—In _Assemani, Diss. de Syr. Nest._, pp. 440, 732.

1844.—"The place (Codungalur) is identified with _Tiruvan_-JICULAM river-harbour, which Cheraman Perumal is said to have declared the best of the existing 18 harbours of Kerala...."—_Dr. Gundert_, in _Madras Journal_, xiii. 120.

" "One _Kerala Ulpatti_ (_i.e._ legendary history of Malabar) of the Nasrani, says that their forefathers ... built Codangalur, as may be learned from the granite inscription at the northern entrance of the _Tiruvan_-JICULAM temple...."—_Ibid._ 122.

SHINTOO, SINTOO, s. Japanese _Shintau_, 'the Way of the Gods.' The primitive relation of Japan. It is described by Faria y Sousa and other old writers, but the name does not apparently occur in those older accounts, unless it be in the _Seuto_ of Couto. According to Kaempfer the philosophic or Confucian sect is called in Japan _Siuto_. But that hardly seems to fit what is said by Couto, and his _Seuto_ seems more likely to be a mistake for _Sento_. [See Lowell's articles on _Esoteric Shintoo_, in _Proc. As. Soc. Japan_, 1893.]

1612.—"But above all these idols they adore one SEUTÓ, of which they say that it is the substance and principle of All, and that its abode is in the Heavens."—_Couto_, V. viii. 12.

1727.—"Le SINTO qu'on appelle aussi Sinsju et Kamimitsi, est le Culte des Idoles, établi anciennement dans le pays. Sin et Kami sont les noms des Idoles qui font l'object de ce Culte. Siu (_sic_) signifie la Foi, ou la Religion. Sinsja et au pluriel Sinsju, ce sont les personnes qui professent cette Religion."—_Kaempfer, Hist. de Japon_, i. 176; [E.T. 204].

1770.—"Far from encouraging that gloomy fanaticism and fear of the gods, which is inspired by almost all other religions, the XINTO sect had applied itself to prevent, or at least to moderate that disorder of the imagination."—_Raynal_ (E.T. 1777), i. 137.

1878.—"The indigenous religion of the Japanese people, called in later times by the name of SHINTAU or Way of the Gods, in order to distinguish it from the way of the Chinese moral philosophers, and the way of Buddha, had, at the time when Confucianism and Buddhism were introduced, passed through the earliest stages of development."—_Westminster Rev._, N.S., No. cvii. 29.

[SHIRAZ, n.p. The wine of Shiraz was much imported and used by Europeans in India in the 17th century, and even later.

[1627.—"SHERAZ then probably derives it self either from _sherab_ which in the _Persian_ Tongue signifies a Grape here abounding ... or else from _sheer_ which in the Persian signifies Milk."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p. 127.

[1685.—"... three Chests of SIRASH wine...."—_Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. iv. 109, and see ii. 148.

[1690.—"Each Day there is prepar'd (at Surrat) a Publick Table for the Use of the President and the rest of the Factory.... The Table is spread with the choicest Meat Surrat affords ... and equal plenty of generous SHERASH and ARAK PUNCH...."—_Ovington_, 394.

[1727.—"SHYRASH is a large City on the Road, about 550 Miles from _Gombroon_."—_A. Hamilton_, ed. 1744, i. 99.

[1813.—"I have never tasted this (pomegranate wine), nor any other Persian wine, except that of SCHIRAZ, which, although much extolled by poets, I think inferior to many wines in Europe."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ 2nd ed. i. 468.]

SHIREENBAF, s. Pers. _Shīrīnbāf_, 'sweet-woof.' A kind of fine cotton stuff, but we cannot say more precisely what.

c. 1343.—"... one hundred pieces of SHĪRĪNBĀF...."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 3.

[1609.—"SERRIBAFF, a fine light stuff or cotton whereof the Moors make their CABAYES or clothing."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 29.]

1673.—"... SIRING chintz, Broad Baftas...."—_Fryer_, 88.

SHISHAM. See under SISSOO.

SHISHMUHULL, s. Pers. _shīsha-maḥal_, lit. 'glass apartment' or palace. This is or was a common appendage of native palaces, viz. a hall or suite of rooms lined with mirror and other glittering surfaces, usually of a gimcrack aspect. There is a place of exactly the same description, now gone to hideous decay, in the absurd Villa Palagonia at Bagheria near Palermo.

1835.—"The SHĪSHA-MAHAL, or house of glass, is both curious and elegant, although the material is principally pounded talc and looking-glass. It consists of two rooms, of which the walls in the interior are divided into a thousand different panels, each of which is filled up with raised flowers in silver, gold, and colours, on a ground-work of tiny convex mirrors."—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 365.

SHOE OF GOLD (or of Silver). The name for certain ingots of precious metal, somewhat in the form of a Chinese shoe, but more like a boat, which were formerly current in the trade of the Far East. Indeed of silver they are still current in China, for Giles says: "The common name among foreigners for the Chinese silver ingot, which bears some resemblance to a native shoe. May be of any weight from 1 oz. and even less, to 50 and sometimes 100 oz., and is always stamped by the assayer and banker, in evidence of purity" (_Gloss. of Reference_, 128). [In Hissar the Chinese silver is called _sillī_ from the slabs (_sil_) in which it is sold (_Maclagan, Mon. on Gold and Silver Work in Punjab_, p. 5).] The same form of ingot was probably the _bālish_ (or _yāstok_) of the Middle Ages, respecting which see _Cathay_, &c., 115, 481, &c. Both of these latter words mean also 'a cushion,' which is perhaps as good a comparison as either 'shoe' or 'boat.' The word now used in C. Asia is _yambū_. There are cuts of the gold and silver ingots in Tavernier, whose words suggest what is probably the true origin of the popular English name, viz. a corruption of the Dutch _Goldschuyt_.

1566.—"... valuable goods exported from this country (China) ... are first, a quantity of gold, which is carried to India, in LOAVES in the shape of BOATS...."—_C. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 391b.

1611.—"Then, I tell you, from China I could load ships with CAKES OF GOLD fashioned like BOATS, containing, each of them, roundly speaking, 2 marks weight, and so each cake will be worth 280 pardaos."—_Couto, Dialogo do Soldado Pratico_, p. 155.

1676.—"The Pieces of Gold mark'd Fig. 1, and 2, are by the Hollanders called GOLTSCHUT, that is to say, a Boat of Gold, because they are in the form of a Boat. Other Nations call them Loaves of Gold.... The Great Pieces come to 12 hundred Gilders of _Holland_ Money, and thirteen hundred and fifty Livres of our Money."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 8.

1702.—"Sent the Moolah to be delivered the Nabob, Dewan, and Buxie 48 China Oranges ... but the Dewan bid the Moolah write the Governor for a hundred more that he might send them to Court; which is understood to be One Hundred SHOES OF GOLD, or so many thousand pagodas or rupees."—In _Wheeler_, i. 397.

1704.—"Price Currant, July, 1704, (at Malacca) ... GOLD, _China_, in SHOOS 94 Touch."—_Lockyer_, 70.

1862.—"A silver ingot '_Yambu_' weighs about 2 (Indian) _seers_ ... = 4 lbs., and is worth 165 Co.'s rupees. _Koomoosh_, also called '_Yambucha_,' or small silver ingot, is worth 33 Rs. ... 5 _yambuchas_, being equal to 1 _yambu_. There are two descriptions of '_yambucha_'; one is a square piece of silver, having a Chinese stamp on it; the other ... in the form of a boat, has no stamp. The _Yambu_ is _in the form of a boat_, and has a Chinese stamp on it."—_Punjab Trade Report_, App. ccxxvi.-xxviii. 1.

1875.—"The _yámbú_ or _kúrs_ is a silver ingot something the shape of a deep boat with projecting bow and stern. The upper surface is lightly hollowed, and stamped with a Chinese inscription. It is said to be pure silver, and to weigh 50 (Cashghar) _ser_ = 30,000 grains English."—Report of _Forsyth's Mission to Kashghar_, 494.

[1876.—"... he received his pay in Chinese _yambs_ (gold coins), at the rate of 128 rubles each, while the real commercial value was only 115 rubles."—_Schuyler, Turkistan_, ii. 322.

[1901.—A piece of Chinese SHOE MONEY, value 10 taels, was exhibited before the Numismatic Society.—_Athenaeum_, Jan. 26, p. 118. Perhaps the largest specimen known of Chinese "boat-money" was exhibited. It weighed 89½ ounces troy, and represented 50 taels, or £8, 8_s._ 0_d._ English.—_Ibid._ Jan. 25, 1902, p. 120].

SHOE-FLOWER, s. A name given in Madras Presidency to the flower of the _Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis_, L. It is a literal translation of the Tam. _shapāttupu_, Singh. _sappattumala_, a name given because the flowers are used at Madras to blacken shoes. The Malay name _Kempang sapatu_ means the same. Voigt gives SHOE-FLOWER as the English name, and adds: "Petals astringent, used by the Chinese to blacken their shoes (?) and eyebrows" (_Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensis_, 116-7); see also _Drury_, s.v. The notion of the Chinese blackening their shoes is surely an error, but perhaps they use it to blacken leather for European use.

[1773.—"The flower (_Trepalta_, or _Morroock_) (which commonly by us is called SHOE-FLOWER, because used to black our shoes) is very large, of a deep but beautiful crimson colour."—_Ives_, 475.]

1791.—"La nuit suivante ... je joignis aux pavots ... une fleur de FOULE SAPATTE, qui sert aux cordonniers à teindre leurs cuirs en noir."—_B. de St. Pierre, Chaumière Indienne._ This _foule-sapatte_ is apparently some quasi Hindustani form of the name (_phul-sabāt_?) used by the Portuguese.

SHOE-GOOSE, s. This ludicrous corruption of the Pers. _siyāh-gosh_, lit. 'black-ear,' _i.e._ lynx (_Felis Caracal_) occurs in the passage below from A. Hamilton. [The corruption of the same word by the _Times_, below, is equally amusing.]

[c. 1330.—"... ounces, and another kind something like a greyhound, having only the ears black, and the whole body perfectly white, which among these people is called SIAGOIS."—_Friar Jordanus_, 18.]

1727.—"Antelopes, Hares and Foxes, are their wild game, which they hunt with Dogs, Leopards, and a small fierce creature called by them a SHOE-GOOSE."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 124; [ed. 1744, i. 125].

1802.—"... between the cat and the lion, are the ... SYAGUSH, the lynx, the tiger-cat...."—_Ritson, Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food_, 12.

1813.—"The Moguls train another beast for antelope-hunting called the SYAH-GUSH, or black-ears, which appears to be the same as the caracal, or Russian lynx."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ i. 277; [2nd ed. i. 175 and 169].

[1886.—"In 1760 a Moor named Abdallah arrived in India with a 'SHAH GOEST' (so spelt, evidently a SHAWL GOAT) as a present for Mr. Secretary Pitt."—_Account of I. O. Records_, in _Times_, Aug. 3.]

SHOKE, s. A hobby, a favourite pursuit or whim. Ar.—_shauḳ_.

1796.—"This increased my SHOUQ ... for soldiering, and I made it my study to become a proficient in all the Hindostanee modes of warfare."—_Mily. Mem. of Lt.-Col. J. Skinner_, i. 109.

[1866.—"One Hakim has a SHOUKH for turning everything _ooltapoolta_."—_Confessions of an Orderly_, 94.]

SHOLA, s. In S. India, a wooded ravine; a thicket. Tam. _sholāi_.

1862.—"At daylight ... we left the Sisipara bungalow, and rode for several miles through a valley interspersed with SHOLAS of rhododendron trees."—_Markham, Peru and India_, 356.

1876.—"Here and there in the hollows were little jungles; SHOLAS, as they are called."—_Sir M. E. Grant-Duff, Notes of Indian Journey_, 202.

SHOOCKA, s. Ar.—H. _shuḳḳa_ (properly 'an oblong strip'), a letter from a king to a subject.

1787.—"I have received several melancholy SHUKHAS from the King (of Dehli) calling on me in the most pressing terms for assistance and support."—_Letter of Lord Cornwallis_, in _Corresp._ i. 307.

SHOOLDARRY, s. A small tent with steep sloping roof, two poles and a ridge-piece, and with very low side walls. The word is in familiar use, and is habitually pronounced as we have indicated. But the first dictionary in which we have found it is that of Platts. This author spells the word _chholdārī_, identifying the first syllable with _jhol_, signifying 'puckering or bagging.' In this light, however, it seems possible that it is from _jhūl_ in the sense of a bag or wallet, viz. a tent that is crammed into a bag when carried. [The word is in Fallon, with the rather doubtful suggestion that it is a corruption of the English '_soldier's_' tent. See PAWL.]

1808.—"I have now a SHOALDARREE for myself, and a long _paul_ (see PAWL) for my people."—_Elphinstone_, in _Life_, i. 183.

[1869.—"... the men in their SULDARIS, or small single-roofed tents, had a bad time of it...."—_Ball, Jungle Life_, 156.]

SHRAUB, SHROBB, s. Ar. _sharāb_; Hind. _sharāb_, _shrāb_, 'wine.' See under SHERBET.

SHROFF, s. A money-changer, a banker. Ar. _ṣarrāf_, _ṣairafi_, _ṣairaf_. The word is used by Europeans in China as well as in India, and is there applied to the experts who are employed by banks and mercantile firms to check the quality of the dollars that pass into the houses (see _Giles_ under next word). Also SHROFFAGE, for money-dealer's commission. From the same root comes the Heb. _sōrēf_, 'a goldsmith.' Compare the figure in _Malachi_, iii. 3: "He shall sit as a refiner and purifier of silver; and he shall purify the sons of Levi." Only in Hebrew the goldsmith tests metal, while the _ṣairaf_ tests _coins_. The Arab poet says of his mare: "Her forefeet scatter the gravel every midday, as the dirhams are scattered at their testing by the _ṣairaf_" (W. R. S.)

1554.—"_Salaries of the officers of the Custom Houses, and other charges for these which the Treasurers have to pay_.... Also to the XARRAFO, whose charge it is to see to the money, two _pardaos_ a month, which make for a year seven thousand and two hundred _reis_."—_Botelho, Tombo_, in _Subsidios_, 238.

1560.—"There are in the city many and very wealthy ÇARAFOS who change money."—_Tenreiro_, ch. i.

1584.—"5 TANGAS make a _seraphin_ (see XERAFINE) of gold; but if one would change them into _basaruchies_ (see BUDGROOK) he may have 5 tangas and 16 _basaruchies_, which ouerplus they call CERAFAGIO...."—_Barret_, in _Hakl._ ii. 410.

1585.—"This present year, because only two ships came to Goa, (the _reals_) have sold at 12 per cent. of XARAFAGGIO (shroffage), as this commission is called, from the word XARAFFO, which is the title of the banker."—_Sassetti_, in _De Gubernatis, Storia_, p. 203.

1598.—"There is in every place of the street exchangers of money, by them called XARAFFOS, which are all christian Jewes."—_Linschoten_, 66; [Hak. Soc. i. 231, and see 244.]

c. 1610.—"Dans ce Marché ... aussi sont les changeurs qu'ils nomment CHERAFES, dont il y en a en plusieurs autres endroits; leurs boutiques sont aux bouts des ruës et carrefours, toutes couuertes de monnoye, dont ils payent tribut au Roy."—_Pyrard de Laval_, ii. 39; [Hak. Soc. ii. 67].

[1614.—"... having been borne in hand by our SARAFES to pay money there."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 282. The "SHERIFF of Bantam" (_ibid._ iv. 7) may perhaps be a SHROFF, but compare SHEREEF.]

1673.—"It could not be improved till the Governor had released the SHROFFS or Bankers."—_Fryer_, 413.

1697-8.—"In addition to the cash and property which they had got by plunder, the enemy fixed two _lacs_ of rupees as the price of the ransom of the prisoners.... To make up the balance, the SARRÁFS and merchants of Nandurbár were importuned to raise a sum, small or great, by way of loan. But they would not consent."—_Kháfí Khán_, in _Elliot_, vii. 362.

1750.—"... the Irruption of the _Morattoes_ into _Carnatica_, was another event that brought several eminent SHROFFS and wealthy Merchants into our Town; insomuch, that I may say, there was hardly a SHROFF of any Note, in the _Mogul_ empire but had a House in it; in a word, _Madrass_ was become the Admiration of all the Country People, and the Envy of all our _European_ Neighbours."—_Letter to a Proprietor of the E. I. Co._ 53-54.

1809.—"I had the satisfaction of hearing the Court order them (_i.e._ Gen. Martin's executors) to pay two lacs and a half to the plaintiff, a SHROFF of Lucknow."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 243.

[1891.—"The banker in Persia is looked on simply as a small tradesman—in fact the business of the SEROF is despised."—_Wills, in the Land of the Lion and the Sun_, 192].

SHROFF, TO, v. This verb is applied properly to the sorting of different rupees or other coins, so as to discard refuse, and to fix the various amounts of discount or _agio_ upon the rest, establishing the value in standard coin. Hence figuratively 'to sift,' choosing the good (men, horses, facts, or what not) and rejecting the inferior.

[1554.—(See under BATTA, B.)]

1878.—"SHROFFING schools are common in Canton, where teachers of the art keep bad dollars for the purpose of exercising their pupils; and several works on the subject have been published there, with numerous illustrations of dollars and other foreign coins, the methods of scooping out silver and filling up with copper or lead, comparisons between genuine and counterfeit dollars, the difference between native and foreign milling, etc., etc."—_Giles, Glossary of Reference_, 129.

1882.—(The COMPRADORE) "derived a profit from the process of SHROFFING which (the money received) underwent before being deposited in the Treasury."—_The Fankwae at Canton_, 55.

SHRUB, s. See under SHERBET.

SHULWAURS, s. Trousers, or drawers rather, of the Oriental kind, the same as PYJAMMAS, LONG-DRAWERS, or MOGUL-BREECHES (qq.v.). The Persian is _shalwār_, which according to Prof. Max Müller is more correctly _shulvār_, from _shul_, 'the thigh,' related to Latin _crus_, _cruris_, and to Skt. _kshura_ or _khura_, 'hoof' (see _Pusey_ on _Daniel_, 570). Be this as it may, the Ar. form is _sirwāl_ (vulg. _sharwāl_), pl. _sarāwīl_, [which Burton (_Arab. Nights_, i. 205) translates 'bag-trousers' and 'petticoat-trousers,' "the latter being the divided skirt of the future."] This appears in the ordinary editions of the Book of Daniel in Greek, as σαράβαρα, and also in the Vulgate, as follows: "Et capillus capitis eorum non esset adustus, et SARABALA eorum non fuissent immutata, et odor ignis non transisset per eos" (iii. 27). The original word is _sarbālīn_, pl. of _sarbāla_. Luther, however, renders this _Mantel_; as the A.V. also does by _coats_; [the R.V. _hosen_]. On this Prof. Robertson-Smith writes:

"It is not certain but that Luther and the A.V. are right. The word _sarbālīn_ means 'cloak' in the Gemara; and in Arabic _sirbāl_ is 'a garment, a coat of mail.' Perhaps quite an equal weight of scholarship would now lean (though with hesitation) towards the cloak or coat, and against the breeches theory.

"The Arabic word occurs in the Traditions of the Prophet (_Bokhāri_, vii. 36).

"Of course it is certain that σαράβαρα comes from the Persian, but not through Arabic. The Bedouins did not wear trowsers in the time of Ammianus, and don't do so now.

"The ordinary so-called LXX. editions of Daniel contain what is really the post-Christian version of Theodotion. The true LXX. text has ὑποδήματα.

"It may be added that Jerome says that both Aquila and Symmachus wrote _saraballa_." [The _Encycl. Biblica_ also prefers the rendering of the A.V. (i. 607), and see iii. 2934.]

The word is widely spread as well as old; it is found among the Tartars of W. Asia as _jālbār_, among the Siberians and Bashkirds as _sālbār_, among the Kalmaks as _shālbūr_, whilst it reached Russia as _sharawari_, Spain as _zaraguelles_, and Portugal as _zarelos_. A great many Low Latin variations of the word will be found in Ducange, _serabula_, _serabulla_, _sarabella_, _sarabola_, _sarabura_, and more! [And Crawfurd (_Desc. Dict._ 124) writes of Malay dress: "Trowsers are occasionally used under the _sarung_ by the richer classes, and this portion of dress, like the imitation of the turban, seems to have been borrowed from the Arabs, as is implied by its Arabic name, _sarual_, corrupted _saluwar_."]

In the second quotation from Isidore of Seville below it will be seen that the word had in some cases been interpreted as 'turbans.'

A.D. (?).—"Καὶ ἐθεώρουν τοῦς ἄνδρας ὅτι οὐκ ἐκυρίευσε τὸ πῦρ τοῦ σώματος αὐτῶν καὶ ἡ θρὶξ τῆς κεφαλῆς αὐτῶν οὐκ ἐφλογίσθη καὶ τα σαράβαρα αὐτῶν οὐκ ἠλλοιώθη, καὶ ὀσμὴ πυρὸς οὐκ ἦν ἐν αὐτοῖς."—Gr. Tr. of _Dan._ iii. 27.

c. A.D. 200.—"Ἐν δὲ τοῖς Σκύθαις Ἀντιφάνης ἔφη Σαράβαρα καὶ χιτῶνας πάντας ἐνδεδυκότας."—_Julius Pollux, Onomast._ vii. 13, sec. 59.

c. A.D. 500.—"Σαράβαρα, τὰ περὶ τὰς κνῆμιδας (sic) ἐνδύματα."—_Hesychius_, s.v.

c. 636.—"SARABARA sunt fluxa ac sinuosa vestimenta de quibus legitur in Daniele.... Et Publius: Vt quid ergo in ventre tuo Parthi SARABARA suspenderunt? Apud quosdam autem SARABARAE quaedã capitum tegmina nuncupantur qualia videmus in capite Magorum picta."—_Isidorus Hispalensis, Orig. et Etym._, lib. xix., ed. 1601, pp. 263-4.

c. 1000?—"Σαράβαρα,—ἐσθὴς Περσική ἔνιοι δὲ λέγουσι βρακία."—_Suidas_, s.v.

which may be roughly rendered:

"A garb outlandish to the Greeks, Which some call SHALWĀRS, some call Breeks!"

c. 900.—"The deceased was unchanged, except in colour. They dressed him then with SARĀWĪL, overhose, boots, a _ḳurṭak_ and _khaftān_ of gold-cloth, with golden buttons, and put on him a golden cap garnished with sable."—_Ibn Foszlān_, in _Fraehn_, 15.

c. 1300.—"Disconsecratur altare eorum, et oportet reconciliari per episcopum ... si intraret ad ipsum aliquis qui non esset Nestorius; si intraret eciam ad ipsum quicumque sine SORRABULIS vel capite cooperto."—_Ricoldo of Monte Croce_, in _Peregrinatores Quatuor_, 122.

1330.—"Haec autem mulieres vadunt discalceatae portantes SARABULAS usque ad terram."—_Friar Odoric_, in _Cathay_, &c., App. iv.

c. 1495.—"The first who wore SARĀWĪL was Solomon. But in another tradition it is alleged that Abraham was the first."—The '_Beginnings_,' by _Soyuti_, quoted by _Fraehn_, 113.

1567.—"Portauano braghesse quasi alla turchesca, et anche SALUARĪ."—_C. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. f. 389.

1824.—"... tell me how much he will be contented with? Can I offer him five _Tomauns_, and a pair of crimson SHULWAURS?"—_Hajji Baba_, ed. 1835, p. 179.

1881.—"I used to wear a red shirt and velveteen SHAROVARY, and lie on the sofa like a gentleman, and drink like a Swede."—_Ten Years of Penal Servitude in Siberia_, by _Fedor Dostoyeffski_, E.T. by Maria v. Thilo, 191.

SIAM, n.p. This name of the Indo-Chinese Kingdom appears to come to us through the Malays, who call it _Siyăm_. From them we presume the Portuguese took their Reyno de _Sião_ as Barros and Couto write it, though we have in Correa _Siam_ precisely as we write it. Camões also writes _Syão_ for the kingdom; and the statement of De la Loubère quoted below that the Portuguese used Siam as a national, not a geographical, expression cannot be accepted in its generality, accurate as that French writer usually is. It is true that both Barros and F. M. Pinto use _os Siames_ for the nation, and the latter also uses the adjective form _o reyno Siame_. But he also constantly says _rey de Sião_. The origin of the name would seem to be a term SIEN, or _Siam_, identical with SHAN (q.v.). "The kingdom of Siam is known to the Chinese by the name _Sien-lo_.... The supplement to Matwanlin's _Encyclopædia_ describes _Sien-lo_ as on the seaboard, to the extreme south of Chen-ching (or Cochin China). 'It originally consisted of two kingdoms, SIEN and _Lo-hoh_. The Sien people are the remains of a tribe which in the year (A.D. 1341) began to come down upon the Lo-hoh and united with the latter into one nation.'" See _Marco Polo_, 2nd ed., Bk. iii. ch. 7, note 3. The considerations there adduced indicate that the _Lo_ who occupied the coast of the Gulf before the descent of the _Sien_, belonged to the Laotian Shans, _Thainyai_, or Great T'ai, whilst the _Sien_ or Siamese Proper were the _T'ai Noi_, or Little T'ai. (See also SARNAU.) ["The name _Siam_ ... whether it is 'a barbarous Anglicism derived from the Portuguese or Italian word _Sciam_,' or is derived from the Malay _Sayam_, which means 'brown.'"—_J. G. Scott, Upper Burma Gazetteer_, i. pt. i. 205.]

1516.—"Proceeding further, quitting the kingdom of Peeguu, along the coast over against Malaca there is a very great kingdom of pagans which they call Danseam (of ANSEAM); the king of which is a pagan also, and a very great lord."—_Barbosa_ (Lisbon, Acad.), 369. It is difficult to interpret this _An_SEAM, which we find also in C. Federici below in the form ASION. But the _An_ is probably a Malay prefix of some kind. [Also see ANSYANE in quotation from the same writer under MALACCA.]

c. 1522.—"The king (of Zzuba) answered him that he was welcome, but that the custom was that all ships which arrived at his country or port paid tribute, and it was only 4 days since that a ship called the Junk of CIAMA, laden with gold and slaves, had paid him his tribute, and to verify what he said, he showed them a merchant of the said CIAMA, who had remained there to trade with the gold and slaves."—_Pigafetta_, Hak. Soc. 85.

" "All these cities are constructed like ours, and are subject to the king of SIAM, who is named Siri Zacebedera, and who inhabits Iudia (see JUDEA)."—_Ibid._ 156.

1525.—"In this same Port of Pam (Pahang), which is in the kingdom of SYAM, there was another junk of Malaqua, the captain whereof was Alvaro da Costaa, and it had aboard 15 Portuguese, at the same time that in Joatane (Patane) they seized the ship of Andre de Bryto, and the junk of Gaspar Soarez, and as soon as this news was known they laid hands on the junk and the crew and the cargo; it is presumed that the people were killed, but it is not known for certain."—_Lembrança das Cousas da India_, 6.

1572.—

"Vês Pam, Patâne, reinos e a longura De SYĀO, que estes e outros mais sujeita; Olho o rio Menão que se derrama Do grande lago, que Chiamay se chiama." _Camões_, x. 25.

By Burton:

"See Pam, Patane and in length obscure, SIAM that ruleth all with lordly sway; behold Menam, who rolls his lordly tide from source Chiámái called, lake long and wide."

c. 1567.—"Va etiandio ogn'anno per l'istesso Capitano (di Malacca) vn nauilio in ASION, a caricare di _Verzino_" (Brazilwood).—_Ces. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 396.

" "Fu già SION vna grandissima Città e sedia d'Imperio, ma l'anno MDLXVII fu pressa dal Re del Pegu, qual caminando per terra quattro mesi di viaggio, con vn esercito d'vn million, e quattro cento mila uomini da guerra, la venne ad assediare ... e lo so io percioche mi ritrouai in Pegù sei mesi dopo la sua partita."—_Ibid._

1598.—"... The King of SIAN at this time is become tributarie to the king of Pegu. The cause of this most bloodie battaile was, that the king of SIAN had a white Elephant."—_Linschoten_, p. 30; [Hak. Soc. i. 102. In ii. 1 SION].

[1611.—"We have news that the Hollanders were in SHIAN."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 149.]

1688.—"The Name of SIAM is unknown to the _Siamese_. 'Tis one of those words which the _Portugues_ of the _Indies_ do use, and of which it is very difficult to discover the Original. They use it as the Name of the Nation and not of the Kingdom: And the Names of _Pegu_, _Lao_, _Mogul_, and most of the Names which we give to the Indian Kingdoms, are likewise National Names."—_De la Loubère_, E.T. p. 6.

SICCA, s. As will be seen by reference to the article RUPEE, up to 1835 a variety of rupees had been coined in the Company's territories. The term _sicca_ (_sikkā_, from Ar. _sikka_, 'a coining die,'—and 'coined money,'—whence Pers. _sikka zadan_, 'to coin') had been applied to newly coined rupees, which were at a BATTA or premium over those worn, or assumed to be worn, by use. In 1793 the Government of Bengal, with a view to terminating, as far as that Presidency was concerned, the confusion and abuses engendered by this system, ordered that all rupees coined for the future should bear the impress of the 19th year of Shāh 'Alam (the "Great Mogul" then reigning), and this rupee, "19 _San_ SIKKAH," 'struck in the 19th year,' was to be the legal tender in "Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa. This rupee, which is the Sicca of more recent monetary history, weighed 192 grs. troy, and then contained 176.13 grs. of pure silver. The "Company's Rupee," which introduced uniformity of coinage over British India in 1835, contained only 165 grs. silver. Hence the _Sicca_ bore to the Company's Rupee (which was based on the old Farrukhābād rupee) the proportion of 16:15 nearly. The _Sicca_ was allowed by Act VII. of 1833 to survive as an exceptional coin in Bengal, but was abolished as such in 1836. It continued, however, a ghostly existence for many years longer in the form of certain Government Book-debts in that currency. (See also CHICK.)

1537.—"... Sua senhoria avia d'aver por bem que as SIQUAS das moedas corressem em seu nome per todo o Reino do Guzerate, asy em Dio como nos otros luguares que forem del Rey de Portuguall."—_Treaty of Nuno da Cunha with Nizamamede Zamom (Mahommed Zamam) concerning Cambaya_, in _Botelho, Tombo_, 225.

1537.—"... e quoanto á moeda ser chapada de sua _sita_ (read SICA) pois já lhe concedia."—_Ibid._ 226.

[1615.—"... CECAUS of Amadavrs which goeth for eighty-six _pisas_ (see PICE)...."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 87.]

1683.—"Having received 25,000 Rupees SICCAS for Rajamaul."—_Hedges, Diary_, April 4; [Hak. Soc. i. 75].

1705.—"Les roupies SICCA valent à Bengale 39 sols."—_Luillier_, 255.

1779.—"In the 2nd Term, 1779, on Saturday, March 6th: Judgment was pronounced for the plaintiff. Damages fifty thousand SICCA RUPEES."

" "... 50,000 SICCA RUPEES are equal to five thousand one hundred and nine pounds, two shillings and elevenpence sterling, reckoning according to the weight and fineness of the silver."—_Notes of Mr. Justice Hyde_ on the case _Grand v. Francis_, in _Echoes of Old Calcutta_, 243. [To this Mr. Busteed adds: "Nor does there seem to be any foundation for the other time-honoured story (also repeated by Kaye) in connection with this judgment, viz., the alleged interruption of the Chief Justice, while he was delivering judgment, by Mr. Justice Hyde, with the eager suggestion or reminder of 'SICCAS, SICCAS, Brother Impey,' with the view of making the damages as high at the awarded figure as possible. Mr. Merivale says that he could find no confirmation of the old joke.... The story seems to have been first promulgated in a book of 'Personal Recollections' by John Nicholls, M.P., published in 1822."—_Ibid._ 3rd ed. 229].

1833.— * * *

"III.—The weight and standard of the Calcutta _sicca_ rupee and its sub-divisions, and of the Furruckabad rupee, shall be as follows:—

_Weight._ _Fine._ _Alloy._ Grains. Grains. Grains. Calcutta SICCA rupee 192 176 16

"IV.—The use of the SICCA weight of 179.666 grains, hitherto employed for the receipt of bullion at the Mint, being in fact the weight of the Moorshedabad rupee of the old standard ... shall be discontinued, and in its place the following unit to be called the TOLA (q.v.) shall be introduced."—_India Regulation VII._ of 1833.

[SICKMAN, s. adj. The English _sick man_ has been adopted into Hind. sepoy patois as meaning 'one who has to go to hospital,' and generally _sikmān ho jānā_ means 'to be disabled.'

[1665.—"That SICKMAN Chaseman."—In _Yule, Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. II. cclxxx.

[1843.—"... my hired cart was broken—(or, in the more poetical garb of the sepahee, 'SEEK MĀN _hogya_,' _i.e._ become a sick man)."—_Davidson, Travels_, i. 251.]

SICLEEGUR, s. Hind. _ṣaiḳalgar_, from Ar. _ṣaiḳal_, 'polish.' A furbisher of arms, a sword-armourer, a sword- or knife-grinder. [This, in Madras, is turned into CHICKLEDAR, Tel. _chikili-darudu_.]

[1826.—"My father was a SHIEKUL-GHUR, or sword-grinder."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, i. 216.]

SIKH, SEIKH, n.p. Panjābi-Hind. _Sikh_, 'a disciple,' from Skt. _Śishya_; the distinctive name of the disciples of Nānak Shāh who in the 16th century established that sect, which eventually rose to warlike predominance in the Punjab, and from which sprang Ranjīt Singh, the founder of the brief Kingdom of Lahore.

c. 1650-60.—"The Nanac-Panthians, who are known as composing the nation of the SIKHS, have neither idols, nor temples of idols...." (Much follows.)—_Dabistān_, ii. 246.

1708-9.—"There is a sect of infidels called _Gurú_ (see GOOROO), more commonly known as SIKHS. Their chief, who dresses as a fakír, has a fixed residence at Láhore.... This sect consists principally of _Játs_ and _Khatrís_ of the Panjáb and of other tribes of infidels. When Aurangzeb got knowledge of these matters, he ordered these deputy _Gurús_ to be removed and the temples to be pulled down."—_Khāfī Khān_, in _Elliot_, vii. 413.

1756.—"April of 1716, when the Emperor took the field and marched towards Lahore, against the SYKES, a nation of Indians lately reared to power, and bearing mortal enmity to the Mahomedans."—_Orme_, ii. 22. He also writes SIKES.

1781.—"Before I left _Calcutta_, a gentleman with whom I chanced to be discoursing of that sect who are distinguished from the worshippers of _Brăhm_, and the followers of MAHOMMED by the appellation SEEK, informed me that there was a considerable number of them settled in the city of _Patna_, where they had a College for teaching the tenets of their philosophy."—_Wilkins_, in _As. Res._ i. 288.

1781-2.—"In the year 1128 of the Hedjra" (1716) "a bloody action happened in the plains of the Pendjab, between the SYCS and the Imperialists, in which the latter, commanded by Abdol-semed-Khan, a famous Viceroy of that province, gave these inhuman freebooters a great defeat, in which their General, Benda, fell into the victors' hands.... He was a SYC by profession, that is one of those men attached to the tenets of Guru-Govind, and who from their birth or from the moment of their admission never cut or shave either their beard or whiskers or any hair whatever of their body. They form a particular Society as well as a sect, which distinguishes itself by wearing almost always blue cloaths, and going armed at all times...." &c.—_Seir Mutaqherin_, i. 87.

1782.—"News was received that the SEIKS had crossed the Jumna."—_India Gazette_, May 11.

1783.—"Unhurt by the SICQUES, tigers, and thieves, I am safely lodged at Nourpour."—_Forster, Journey_, ed. 1808, i. 247.

1784.—"The SEEKHS are encamped at the distance of 12 cose from the Pass of Dirderry, and have plundered all that quarter."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 13.

1790.—"Particulars relating to the seizure of Colonel Robert Stewart by the SICQUES."—_Calc. Monthly Register_, &c., i. 152.

1810.—Williamson (_V.M._) writes SEEKS.

The following extract indicates the prevalence of a very notable error:—

1840.—"Runjeet possesses great personal courage, a quality in which the SIHKS (_sic_) are supposed to be generally deficient."—_Osborne, Court and Camp of Runjeet Singh_, 83.

We occasionally about 1845-6 saw the word written by people in Calcutta, who ought to have known better, SHEIKS.

SILBOOT, SILPET, SLIPPET, s. Domestic Hind. corruptions of 'slipper.' The first is an instance of "striving after meaning" by connecting it in some way with 'boot.' [The Railway 'sleeper' is in the same way corrupted into _silīpat_.]

SILLADAR, adj. and s. Hind. from Pers. _silaḥ-dār_, 'bearing or having arms,' from Ar. _silaḥ_, 'arms.' [In the _Arabian Nights_ (_Burton_, ii. 114) it has the primary sense of an 'armour-bearer.'] Its Anglo-Indian application is to a soldier, in a regiment of irregular cavalry, who provides his own arms and horse; and sometimes to regiments composed of such men—"a corps of SILLADAR Horse." [See Irvine, _The Army of the Indian Moghuls_, (_J. R. As. Soc._, July 1896, p. 549).]

1766.—"When this intelligence reached the Nawaub, he leaving the whole of his troops and baggage in the same place, with only 6000 stable horse, 9000 SILLAHDĀRS, 4000 regular infantry, and 6 guns ... fell bravely on the Mahrattas...."—_Mir Hussein Ali, H. of Hydur Naik_, 173.

1804.—"It is my opinion, that the arrangement with the Soubah of the Deccan should be, that the whole of the force ... should be SILLADAR horse."—_Wellington_, iii. 671.

1813.—"Bhàou ... in the prosecution of his plan, selected Malhar Row Holcar, a SILLEDAR or soldier of fortune."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ iii. 349.

[SILLAPOSH, s. An armour-clad warrior; from Pers. _silaḥ_, 'body armour,' _posh_, Pers. _poshīdan_, 'to wear.'

[1799.—"The SILLAH POSH or body-guard of the Rajah (of Jaipur)."—_W. Francklin, Mil. Mem. of Mr. George Thomas_, ed. 1805, p. 165.

[1829.—"... he stood two assaults, in one of which he slew thirty SILLEHPOSH, or men in armour, the body-guard of the prince."—_Tod, Annals_, Calcutta reprint, ii. 462.]

SILMAGOOR, s. Ship Hind. for 'sail-maker' (_Roebuck_).

SIMKIN, s. Domestic Hind. for champagne, of which it is a corruption; sometimes SAMKĪN.

1853.—"'The dinner was good, and the iced SIMKIN, Sir, delicious.'"—_Oakfield_, ii. 127.

SIND, SCINDE, &c., n.p. The territory on the Indus below the Punjab. [In the early inscriptions the two words _Sindhu-Sauvīra_ are often found conjoined, the latter probably part of Upper Sind (see _Bombay Gazetteer_, i. pt. i. 36).] The earlier Mahommedans hardly regarded Sind as part of India, but distinguished sharply between _Sind_ and _Hind_, and denoted the whole region that we call India by the copula 'Hind and Sind.' We know that originally these were in fact but diverging forms of one word; the aspirant and sibilant tending in several parts of India (including the extreme east—compare ASSAM, _Ahom_—and the extreme west), as in some other regions, to exchange places.

c. 545.—"Σινδοῦ, Ὄρροθα, Καλλιάνα, Σιβὼρ καὶ Μαλὲ πέντε ἐμπόρια ἔχουσα."—_Cosmas_, lib. xi.

770.—"Per idem tempus quingenti circiter ex Mauris, SINDIS, et Chazaris servi in urbe Haran rebellarunt, et facto agmine regium thesaurum diripere tentarunt."—_Dionysii Patriarchae Chronicon_, in _Assemani_, ii. 114. But from the association with the Khazars, and in a passage on the preceding page with Alans and Khazars, we may be almost certain that these _Sindi_ are not Indian, but a Sarmatic people mentioned by Ammianus (xxii. 8), Valerius Flaccus (vi. 86), and other writers.

c. 1030.—"SIND and her sister (_i.e._ _Hind_) trembled at his power and vengeance."—_Al 'Utbi_, in _Elliot_, ii. 32.

c. 1340.—"Mohammed-ben-Iousouf Thakafi trouva dans la province de SIND quarante behar (see BAHAR) d'or, et chaque behar comprend 333 _mann_."—_Shihābuddīn Dimishḳī_, in _Not. et Ext._ xiii. 173.

1525.—"_Expenses of Melyquyaz_ (_i.e._ Malik Āyāz of Diu):—1,000 foot soldiers (_lasquarys_), viz., 300 Arabs, at 40 and 50 _fedeas_ each; also 200 _Coraçones_ (Khorāsānīs) at the wage of the Arabs; also 200 Guzarates and CYMDES at 25 to 30 _fedeas_ each; also 30 Rumes at 100 _fedeas_ each; 120 _Fartaquys_ at 50 _fedeas_ each. Horse soldiers (_Lasquarys a quaualo_), whom he supplies with horses, 300 at 70 _fedeas_ a month...."—_Lembrança_, p. 37. The preceding extract is curious as showing the comparative value put upon Arabs, Khorāsānīs (qu. Afghāns?), Sindīs, Rūmīs (_i.e._ Turks), Fartakīs (Arabs of Hadramaut?), &c.

1548.—"And the rent of the shops (_buticas_) of the Guzaratis of CINDY, who prepare and sell parched rice (_avel_), paying 6 bazarucos (see BUDGROOK) a month."—_Botelho, Tombo_, 156.

1554.—"Towards the Gulf of Chakad, in the vicinity of SIND."—_Sidi' Ali_, in _J. As._ Ser. I. tom. ix. 77.

1583.—"The first citie of India ... after we had passed the coast of ZINDI is called Diu."—_Fitch_, in _Hakl._ p. 385.

1584.—"Spicknard from ZINDI and Lahor."—_W. Barret_, in _Hakl._ ii. 412.

1598.—"I have written to the said Antonio d'Azevedo on the ill treatment experienced by the Portuguese in the kingdom of CIMDE."—King's Letter to Goa, in _Archiv. Port. Orient._ Fascic. iii. 877.

[1610.—"TZINDE, are silk cloths with red stripes."—_Danvers, Letters_, i. 72.]

1611.—"_Cuts-nagore_, a place not far from the River of ZINDE."—_N. Downton_, in _Purchas_, i. 307.

1613.—"... considering the state of destitution in which the fortress of Ormuz had need be,—since it had no other resources but the revenue of the custom-house, and there could now be returning nothing, from the fact that the ports of Cambaia and SINDE were closed, and that no ship had arrived from Goa in the current monsoon of January and February, owing to the news of the English ships having collected at Suratte...."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 379.

[c. 1665.—"... he (Dara) proceeded towards SCIMDY, and sought refuge in the fortress of _Tatabakar_...."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 71.]

1666.—"De la Province du SINDE ou SINDY ... que quelques-uns nomment le Tatta."—_Thevenot_, v. 158.

1673.—"... Retiring with their ill got Booty to the Coasts of SINDU."—_Fryer_, 218.

1727.—"SINDY is the westmost Province of the Mogul's Dominions on the Sea-coast, and has Larribunder (see LARRY-BUNDER) to its Mart."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 114; [ed. 1744, i. 115].

c. 1760.—"SCINDY, or Tatta."—_Grose_, i. 286.

SINDĀBŪR, SANDĀBŪR, n.p. This is the name by which Goa was known to the old Arab writers. The identity was clearly established in _Cathay and the Way Thither_, pp. 444 and ccli. We will give the quotations first, and then point out the grounds of identification.

A.D. 943.—"Crocodiles abound, it is true, in the _ajwān_ or bays formed by the Sea of India, such as that of ṢINDĀBŪRA in the Indian Kingdom of Bāghira, or in the bay of Zābaj (see JAVA) in the dominion of the Maharāj."—_Maṣ'ūdī_, i. 207.

1013.—"I have it from Ābū Yūsaf bin Muslim, who had it from Ābū Bakr of Fasā at Ṣaimūr, that the latter heard told by Mūsa the ṢINDĀBŪRĪ: 'I was one day conversing with the Ṣaḥib of ṢINDĀBŪR, when suddenly he burst out laughing.... It was, said he, because there is a lizard on the wall, and it said, 'There is a guest coming to-day.... Don't you go till you see what comes of it.' So we remained talking till one of his servants came in and said 'There is a ship of Oman come in.' Shortly after, people arrived, carrying hampers with various things, such as cloths, and rose-water. As they opened one, out came a long lizard, which instantly clung to the wall and went to join the other one. It was the same person, they say, who enchanted the crocodiles in the estuary of ṢINDĀBŪR, so that now they hurt nobody."—_Livre des Merveilles de l'Inde. V. der Lith et Devic_, 157-158.

c. 1150.—"From the city of Barūh (Barūch, _i.e._ BROACH) following the coast, to SINDĀBŪR 4 days.

"SINDĀBŪR is on a great inlet where ships anchor. It is a place of trade, where one sees fine buildings and rich bazars."—_Edrisi_, i. 179. And see _Elliot_, i. 89.

c. 1300.—"Beyond Guzerat are Konkan and Tána; beyond them the country of Malibár.... The people are all Samanís (Buddhists), and worship idols. Of the cities on the shore the first is SINDABŪR, then Faknūr, then the country of Manjarūr, then the country of Hílí...."—_Rashīduddīn_, in _Elliot_, i. 68.

c. 1330.—"A traveller states that the country from SINDĀPŪR to Hanāwar towards its eastern extremity joins with Malabar...."—_Abulfeda_, Fr. tr., II. ii. 115. Further on in his Tables he jumbles up (as Edrisi has done) SINDĀPŪR with Sindān (see ST. JOHN).

" "The heat is great at Aden. This is the port frequented by the people of India; great ships arrive there from Cambay, Tāna, Kaulam, Calicut, Fandarāina, Shāliyāt, Manjarūr, Fākanūr, Hanaur, SANDĀBŪR, et cetera."—_Ibn Batuta_, ii. 177.

c. 1343-4.—"Three days after setting sail we arrived at the Island of SANDĀBŪR, within which there are 36 villages. It is surrounded by an inlet, and at the time of ebb the water of this is fresh and pleasant, whilst at flow it is salt and bitter. There are in the island two cities, one ancient, built by the pagans; the second built by the Musulmans when they conquered the island the first time.... We left this island behind us and anchored at a small island near the mainland, where we found a temple, a grove, and a tank of water...."—_Ibid._ iv. 61-62.

1350, 1375.—In the Medicean and the Catalan maps of those dates we find on the coast of India CINTABOR and CHINTABOR respectively, on the west coast of India.

c. 1554.—"_24th Voyage: from_ GUVAH-SINDĀBŪR to _Aden_. If you start from GUVAH-SINDĀBŪR at the end of the season, take care not to fall on Cape Fāl," &c.—_Mohit_, in _J.A.S.B._ v. 564.

The last quotation shows that Goa was known even in the middle of the 16th century to Oriental seamen as Goa-Sindābūr, whatever Indian name the last part represented; probably, from the use of the _ṣwād_ by the earlier Arab writers, and from the CHINTABOR of the European maps, _Chandāpur_ rather than _Sundāpur_. No Indian name like this has yet been recovered from inscriptions as attaching to Goa; but the Turkish author of the Mohit supplies the connection, and Ibn Batuta's description even without this would be sufficient for the identification. His description, it will be seen, is that of a delta-island, and Goa is the only one partaking of that character upon the coast. He says it contained 36 villages; and Barros tells us that Goa Island was known to the natives as _Tīsvāḍī_, a name signifying "Thirty villages." (See SALSETTE.) Its vicinity to the island where Ibn Batuta proceeded to anchor, which we have shown to be ANCHEDIVA (q.v.), is another proof. Turning to Rashīduddīn, the order in which he places SINDĀBŪR, Faknūr (BACCANORE), Manjarūr (MANGALORE), Hīlī (MT. D'ELY), is perfectly correct, if for Sindābūr we substitute Goa. The passage from Edrisi and one indicated from Abulfeda only show a confusion which has misled many readers since.

SINGALESE, CINGHALESE, n.p. Native of Ceylon; pertaining to Ceylon. The word is formed from _Siṉhala_, 'Dwelling of Lions,' the word used by the natives for the Island, and which is the origin of most of the names given to it (see CEYLON). The explanation given by De Barros and Couto is altogether fanciful, though it leads them to notice the curious and obscure fact of the introduction of Chinese influence in Ceylon during the 15th century.

1552.—"That the Chinese (_Chijs_) were masters of the Choromandel Coast, of part of Malabar, and of this Island of Ceylon, we have not only the assertion of the Natives of the latter, but also evidence in the buildings, names, and language that they left in it ... and because they were in the vicinity of this Cape Galle, the other people who lived from the middle of the Island upwards called those dwelling about there CHINGÁLLA, and their language the same, as much as to say the language, or the people of the CHINS OF GALLE."—_Barros_, III. ii. 1.

1583.—(The Cauchin Chineans) "are of the race of the CHINGALAYS, which they say are the best kinde of all the Malabars."—_Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 397.

1598.—"... inhabited with people called CINGALAS...."—_Linschoten_, 24; [Hak. Soc. i. 77; in i. 81, CHINGALAS].

c. 1610.—"Ils tiennent donc que ... les premiers qui y allerent, et qui les peuplerent (les Maldives) furent ... les CINGALLES de l'Isle de Ceylan."—_Pyrard de Laval_, i. 185; [Hak. Soc. i. 105, and see i. 266].

1612.—Couto, after giving the same explanation of the word as Barros, says: "And as they spring from the Chins, who are the falsest heathen of the East ... so are they of this island the weakest, falsest, and most tricky people in all India, insomuch that, to this day, you never find faith or truth in a CHINGALLA."—V. i. 5.

1681.—"The CHINGŪLEYS are naturally a people given to sloth and laziness: if they can but anyways live, they abhor to work."...—_Knox_, 32.

SINGAPORE, SINCAPORE, n.p. This name was adopted by Sir Stamford Raffles in favour of the city which he founded, February 23, 1819, on the island which had always retained the name since the Middle Ages. This it derived from _Siṉhapura_, Skt. 'Lion-city,' the name of a town founded by Malay or Javanese settlers from Sumatra, probably in the 14th century, and to which Barros ascribes great commercial importance. The Indian origin of the name, as of many other names and phrases which survive from the old Indian civilisation of the Archipelago, had been forgotten, and the origin which Barros was taught to ascribe to it is on a par with his etymology of SINGALESE quoted in the preceding article. The words on which his etymology is founded are no doubt Malay: _singah_, 'to tarry, halt, or lodge,' and _pora-pora_, 'to pretend'; and these were probably supposed to refer to the temporary occupation of Sinhapura, before the chiefs who founded it passed on to Malacca. [It may be noted that Dennys (_Desc. Dict._ s.v.) derives the word from _singha_, 'a place of call,' and _pura_, 'a city.' In Dalboquerque's _Comm._ Hak. Soc. iii. 73, we are told: "Singapura, whence the city takes its name, is a channel through which all the shipping of those parts passes, and signifies in his Malay language, '_treacherous delay_.'" See quotation from Barros below.]

The settlement of Hinduized people on the site, if not the name, is probably as old as the 4th century, A.D., for inscriptions have been found there in a very old character. One of these, on a rock at the mouth of the little river on which the town stands, was destroyed some 40 or 50 years ago for the accommodation of some wretched bungalow.

The modern Singapore and its prosperity form a monument to the patriotism, sagacity, and fervid spirit of the founder. According to an article in the _Geogr. Magazine_ (i. 107) derived from Mr. Archibald Ritchie, who was present with the expedition which founded the colony, Raffles, after consultation with Lord Hastings, was about to establish a settlement for the protection and encouragement of our Eastern trade, in the Nicobar Islands, when his attention was drawn to the superior advantages of Singapore by Captains Ross and Crawford of the Bombay Marine, who had been engaged in the survey of those seas. Its great adaptation for a mercantile settlement had been discerned by the shrewd, if somewhat vulgar, Scot, Alexander Hamilton, 120 years earlier. It seems hardly possible, we must however observe, to reconcile the _details_ in the article cited, with the letters and facts contained in the _Life of Raffles_; though probably the latter had, at some time or other, received information from the officers named by Mr. Ritchie.

1512.—"And as the enterprise was one to make good booty, everybody was delighted to go on it, so that they were more than 1200 men, the soundest and best armed of the garrison, and so they were ready incontinently, and started for the Strait of CINCAPURA, where they were to wait for the junks."—_Correa_, ii. 284-5.

1551.—"Sed hactenus Deus nobis adsit omnibus. Amen. Anno post Christum natum, MDLI. _Ex Freto_ SYNCAPURANO."—_Scti. Franc. Xaverii_ Epistt. Pragae, 1667, Lib. III. viii.

1553.—"Anciently the most celebrated settlement in this region of Malaca was one called CINGAPURA, a name which in their tongue means 'pretended halt' (_falsa dimora_); and this stood upon a point of that country which is the most southerly of all Asia, and lies, according to our graduation, in half a degree of North Latitude ... before the foundation of Malaca, at this same CINGAPURA ... flocked together all the navigators of the Seas of India from West and East...."—_Barros_, II. vi. 1. [The same derivation is given in the _Comm. of Dalboquerque_, Hak. Soc. iii. 73.]

1572.—

"Mas na ponta da terra CINGAPURA Verás, onde o caminho as naos se estreita; Daqui, tornando a costa á Cynosura, Se incurva, e para a Aurora se endireita." _Camões_, x. 125.

By Burton:

"But on her Lands-end throned see CINGAPÚR, where the wide sea-road shrinks to narrow way: Thence curves the coast to face the Cynosure, and lastly trends Aurora-wards its lay."

1598.—"... by water the coast stretcheth to the Cape of SINGAPURA, and from thence it runneth upwards [inwards] againe...."—_Linschoten_, 30; [Hak. Soc. i. 101].

1599.—"In this voyage nothing occurred worth relating, except that, after passing the Strait of SINCAPURA, situated in one degree and a half, between the main land and a variety of islands ... with so narrow a channel that from the ship you could jump ashore, or touch the branches of the trees on either side, our vessel struck on a shoal."—_Viaggi di Carletti_, ii. 208-9.

1606.—"The 5th May came there 2 Prows from the King of Johore, with the Shahbander (SHABUNDER) of SINGAPOERA, called Siri Raja Nagara...."—_Valentijn_, v. 331.

1616.—"Found a Dutch man-of-war, one of a fleet appointed for the siege of Malaca, with the aid of the King of Acheen, at the entrance of the Straits of SINGAPORE."—_Sainsbury_, i. 458.

1727.—"In anno 1703 I called at _Johore_ on my Way to China, and he treated me very kindly, and made me a Present of the Island of SINCAPURE, but I told him it could be of no use to a private Person, tho' a proper Place for a Company to settle a Colony in, lying in the Center of Trade, and being accommodated with good Rivers and safe Harbours, so conveniently situated that all Winds served Shipping, both to go out and come in."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 98; [ed. 1744, ii. 97].

1818.—"We are now on our way to the eastward, in the hope of doing something, but I much fear the Dutch have hardly left us an inch of ground.... My attention is principally turned to Johore, and you must not be surprised if my next letter to you is dated from the site of the ancient city of SINGAPURA."—_Raffles_, Letter to Marsden, dated _Sandheads_, Dec. 12.

SINGARA, s. Hind. _singhārā_, Skt. _sriṇgāttaka_, _sriṇga_, 'a horn.' The caltrop or water-chestnut; _Trapa bispinosa_, Roxb. (N.O. _Haloragaceae_).

[c. 1590.—The _Āīn_ (ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 65) mentions it as one of the crops on which revenue was levied in cash.

[1798.—In Kashmīr "many of them ... were obliged to live on the Kernel of the SINGERAH, or water-nut...."—_Forster, Travels_, ii. 29.

[1809.—Buchanan-Hamilton writes SINGGHARA.—_Eastern India_, i. 241.]

1835.—"Here, as in most other parts of India, the tank is spoiled by the water-chestnut, SINGHARA (_Trapa bispinosa_), which is everywhere as regularly planted and cultivated in fields under a large surface of water, as wheat or barley is in the dry plains.... The nut grows under the water after the flowers decay, and is of a triangular shape, and covered with a tough brown integument adhering strongly to the kernel, which is wholly esculent, and of a fine cartilaginous texture. The people are very fond of these nuts, and they are carried often upon bullocks' backs two or three hundred miles to market."—_Sleeman, Rambles_, &c. (1844), i. 101; [ed. _Smith_, i. 94.]

1839.—"The nuts of the _Trapa bispinosa_, called SINGHARA, are sold in all the Bazaars of India; and a species called by the same name, forms a considerable portion of the food of the inhabitants of Cashmere, as we learn from Mr. Forster [_loc. cit._] that it yields the Government 12,000_l._ of revenue; and Mr. Moorcroft mentions nearly the same sum as Runjeet Sing's share, from 96,000 to 128,000 ass-loads of this nut, yielded by the Lake of Oaller."—_Royle, Him. Plants_, i. 211.

SIPAHSELAR, s. A General-in-chief; Pers. _sipāh-sālār_, 'army-leader,' the last word being the same as in the title of the late famous Minister-Regent of Hyderabad, Sir Sālār Jang, _i.e._ 'the leader in war.'

c. 1000-1100.—"Voici quelle étoit alors la gloire et la puissance des Orpélians dans le royaume. Ils possédoient la charge de SBASALAR, ou de généralissime de toute la Georgie. Tous les officiers du palais étoient de leur dependance."—_Hist. of the Orpélians_, in _St. Martin, Mem. sur l'Arménie_, ii. 77.

c. 1358.—"At 16 my father took me by the hand, and brought me to his own Monastery. He there addressed me: 'My boy, our ancestors from generation to generation have been commanders of the armies of the Jagtay and the Berlas family. The dignity of (SEPAH SALAR) Commander-in-Chief has now descended to me, but as I am tired of this world ... I mean therefore to resign my public office...."—_Autob. Mem. of Timour_, E.T. p. 22.

1712.—"Omnibus illis superior est ... SIPAH SALAAR, sive _Imperator Generalis_ Regni, Praesidem dignitate excipiens...."—_Kaempfer, Amoen. Exot._ 73.

1726.—A letter from the Heer Van Maatzuiker "to His Highness Chan Chanaan, SAPPERSELAAR, Grand Duke, and General in Chief of the Great Mogol in Assam, Bengal, &c."—_Valentijn_, v. 173.

1755.—"After the SIPAHSALAR Hydur, by his prudence and courage, had defeated the Mahrattas, and recovered the country taken by them, he placed the government of Seringaputtun on a sure and established basis...."—_Meer Hussein Ali Khan, H. of Hydur Naik_, O. T. F. p. 61.

[c. 1803.—In a collection of native letters, the titles of Lord Lake are given as follows: "_Ashja-ul-Mulk Khān Daurān_, General Gerard Lake Bahādur, SIPAHSALAR-i-kishwar-i-Hind," "Valiant of the Kingdom, Lord of the Cycle, Commander-in-chief of the Territories of Hindustan."—_North Indian Notes and Queries_, iv. 17.]

SIRCAR, s. Hind. from Pers. _sar-kār_, 'head (of) affairs.' This word has very divers applications; but its senses may fall under three heads.

A. The State, the Government, the Supreme authority; also 'the Master' or head of the domestic government. Thus a servant, if asked 'Whose are those horses?' in replying 'They are the _sarkār's_,' may mean according to circumstances, that they are Government horses, or that they belong to his own master.

B. In Bengal the word is applied to a domestic servant who is a kind of house-steward, and keeps the accounts of household expenditure, and makes miscellaneous purchases for the family; also, in merchants' offices, to any native accountant or native employed in making purchases, &c.

C. Under the Mahommedan Governments, as in the time of the Mogul Empire, and more recently in the Deccan, the word was applied to certain extensive administrative divisions of territory. In its application in the Deccan it has been in English generally spelt CIRCAR (q.v.).

A.—

[1759.—"... there is no separation between your Honour ... and this SIRCAR...."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, ii. 129.]

1800.—"Would it not be possible and proper to make people pay the CIRCAR according to the exchange fixed at Seringapatam?"—_Wellington_, i. 60.

[1866.—"... the SIRKAR Buhadoor gives me four rupees a month...."—_Confessions of an Orderly_, 43.]

B.—

1777.—"There is not in any country in the world, of which I have any knowledge, a more pernicious race of vermin in human shape than are the numerous cast of people known in Bengal by the appellation of SIRCARS; they are educated and trained to deceive."—_Price's Tracts_, i. 24.

1810.—"The SIRCAR is a genius whose whole study is to handle money, whether receivable or payable, and who contrives either to confuse accounts, when they are adverse to his view, or to render them most expressively intelligible, when such should suit his purpose."—_Williamson, V.M._ i. 200.

1822.—"One morning our SIRCAR, in answer to my having observed that the articles purchased were highly priced, said, 'You are my father and my mother, and I am your poor little child. I have only taken 2 annas in the rupee dustoorie'" (DUSTOOR).—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 21-22.

1834.—"'And how the deuce,' asked his companion, 'do you manage to pay for them?' 'Nothing so easy,—I say to my SIRKAR: 'Baboo, go pay for that horse 2000 rupees, and it is done, Sir, as quickly as you could dock him.'"—_The Baboo and Other Tales_, i. 13.

C.—

c. 1590.—"In the fortieth year of his majesty's reign, his dominions consisted of 105 SIRCARS, subdivided into 2737 kusbahs" (CUSBA), "the revenue of which he settled for ten years at 3 ARRIBS, 62 CRORE, 97 LACKS, 55,246 DAMS" (q.v. 3,62,97,55,246 _dāms_ = about 9 millions sterling).—_Ayeen_, E.T. by Gladwin, 1800, ii. 1; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 115.]

SIRDAR, s. Hind. from Pers. _sardār_, and less correctly _sirdār_, 'leader, a commander, an officer'; a chief, or lord; the head of a set of palankin-bearers, and hence the '_sirdār-bearer_,' or elliptically 'the _Sirdār_,' is in Bengal the style of the valet or body-servant, even when he may have no others under him (see BEARER). [SIRDĀR is now the official title of the Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian army; SIRDĀR _Bahādur_ is an Indian military distinction.]

[c. 1610.—"... a captain of a company, or, as they call it, a SARDARE."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. i. 254.

[1675.—"SARDAR." See under SEPOY.]

1808.—"I, with great difficulty, knocked up some of the villagers, who were nearly as much afraid as Christie's Will, at the visit of a SIRDĀR" (here an _officer_).—_Life of Leyden._

[c. 1817.—"... the bearers, with their SIRDAUR, have a large room with a verandah before it."—_Mrs. Sherwood, Last Days of Boosy_, 63.]

1826.—"Gopee's father had been a SIRDAR of some consequence."—_Pandurang Hari_, 174; [ed. 1873, i. 252].

SIRDRÁRS, s. This is the name which native valets (BEARER) give to common drawers (underclothing). A friend (Gen. R. Maclagan, R.E.) has suggested the origin, which is doubtless "short drawers" in contradistinction to LONG-DRAWERS, or PYJAMAS (qq.v.). A common bearer's pronunciation is _sirdrāj_; as a chest of drawers is also called 'DRĀJ _kā almairā_' (see ALMYRA).

SIRKY, s. Hind. _sirkī_. A kind of unplatted matting formed by laying the fine cylindrical culms from the upper part of the _Saccharum sara_, Roxb. (see SURKUNDA) side by side, and binding them in single or double layers. This is used to lay under the thatch of a house, to cover carts and palankins, to make CHICKS (q.v.) and table-mats, and for many other purposes of rural and domestic economy.

1810.—"It is perhaps singular that I should have seen SEERKY in use among a group of gypsies in Essex. In India these itinerants, whose habits and characters correspond with this intolerable species of banditti, invariably shelter themselves under SEERKY."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 490.

[1832.—"... neat little huts of SIRRAKEE, a reed or grass, resembling bright straw."—_Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Observations_, i. 23.]

SIRRIS, s. Hind. _siris_, Skt. _shirisha_, _shri_, 'to break,' from the brittleness of its branches; the tree _Acacia Lebbek_, Benth., indigenous in S. India, the Sātpura range, Bengal, and the sub-Himālayan tract; cultivated in Egypt and elsewhere. A closely kindred sp., _A. Julibrissin_, Boivin, affords a specimen of scientific 'Hobson-Jobson'; the specific name is a corruption of _Gulāb-reshm_, 'silk-flower.'

1808.—"Quelques anneés après le mort de Dariyaî, des charpentiers ayant abattu un arbre de SERIS, qui croissoit auprès de son tombeau, le coupèrent en plusieurs pièces pour l'employer à des constructions. Tout-à-coup une voix terrible se fit entendre, la terre se mit à trembler et le tronc de cet arbre se releva de lui-même. Les ouvriers épouvantés s'enfuirent, et l'arbre ne tarda pas à reverdir."—_Afsōs, Arāyish-i-Mahfil_, quoted by _Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Mus._ 88.

[c. 1890.—

"An' it fell when SIRRIS-shaws were sere, And the nichts were long and mirk." _R. Kipling, Departmental Ditties, The Fall of Jock Gillespie_.]

SISSOO, SHISHAM, s. Hind. _sīsū_, _sīsūn_, _shīsham_, Skt. _śinśapā_; Ar. _sāsam_, _sāsim_; the tree _Dalbergia Sissoo_, Roxb. (N.O. _Leguminosae_) and its wood. This is excellent, and valuable for construction, joinery, boat- and carriage-building, and furniture. It was the favourite wood for gun-carriages as long as the supply of large timber lasted. It is now much cultivated in the Punjab plantations. The tree is indigenous in the sub-Himālayan tracts; and believed to be so likewise in Beluchistan, Guzerat, and Central India. Another sp. of _Dalbergia_ (_D. latifolia_) affords the BLACK WOOD (q.v.) of S. and W. India. There can be little doubt that one or more of these species of _Dalbergia_ afforded the _sesamine_ wood spoken of in the _Periplus_, and in some old Arabic writers. A quotation under BLACK WOOD shows that this wood was exported from India to Chaldaea in remote ages. Sissoo has continued in recent times to be exported to Egypt, (see _Forskal_, quoted by _Royle, Hindu Medicine_, 128). Royle notices the resemblance of the Biblical _shittim_ wood to _shīsham_.

c. A.D. 80.—"... Thither they are wont to despatch from Barygaza (BROACH) to both these ports of Persia, great vessels with brass, and timbers, and beams of teak (ξύλων σαγαλίνων καὶ δοκῶν) ... and logs of SHĪSHAM (φαλάγγων σασαμίνων)...."—_Periplus, Maris Erythr._, cap. 36.

c. 545.—"These again are passed on from Sielediba to the marts on this side, such as Malé, where the pepper is grown, and Kalliana, whence are exported brass, and SHĪSHAM logs (σησαμίνα ξύλα), and other wares."—_Cosmas_, lib. xi.

? before 1200.—

"There are the wolf and the parrot, and the peacock, and the dove, And the plant of Zinj, and al-SĀSIM, and pepper...." Verses on India by _Abu'l-ḍhal'i, the Sindi_, quoted by _Kazvīnī_, in _Gildemeister_, p. 218.

1810.—"SISSOO grows in most of the great forests, intermixed with SAUL.... This wood is extraordinarily hard and heavy, of a dark brown, inclining to a purple tint when polished."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 71.

1839.—"As I rode through the city one day I saw a considerable quantity of timber lying in an obscure street. On examining it I found it was SHĪSHAM, a wood of the most valuable kind, being not liable to the attacks of white ants."—_Dry Leaves from Young Egypt_, ed. 1851, p. 102.

SITTING-UP. A curious custom, in vogue at the Presidency towns more than a century ago, and the nature of which is indicated by the quotations. Was it of Dutch origin?

1777.—"Lady Impey SITS UP with Mrs. Hastings; _vulgo_ toad-eating."—_Ph. Francis's Diary_, quoted in _Busteed, Echoes of Old Calcutta_, 124; [3rd ed. 125].

1780.—"When a young lady arrives at Madras, she must, in a few days afterwards SIT UP to receive company, attended by some beau or master of the ceremonies, which perhaps continues for a week, or until she has seen all the fair sex, and gentlemen of the settlement."—_Munro's Narr._, 56.

1795.—"You see how many good reasons there are against your scheme of my taking horse instantly, and hastening to throw myself at the lady's feet; as to the other, of proxy, I can only agree to it under certain conditions.... I am not to be forced to SIT UP, and receive male or female visitors.... I am not to be obliged to deliver my opinion on patterns for caps or petticoats for any lady...."—_T. Munro to his Sister_, in _Life_, i. 169.

1810.—"Among the several justly exploded ceremonies we may reckon that ... of 'SITTING UP.'... This 'SITTING UP,' as it was termed, generally took place at the house of some lady of rank or fortune, who, for three successive nights, threw open her mansion for the purpose of receiving all ... who chose to pay their respects to such ladies as might have recently arrived in the country."—_Williamson, V.M._ i. 113.

SITTRINGY, s. Hind. from Ar. _shiṭranjī_, _shaṭranjī_, and that from Pers. _shaṭrang_, 'chess,' which is again of Skt. origin, _chaturanga_, 'quadripartite' (see SADRAS). A carpet of coloured cotton, now usually made in stripes, but no doubt originally, as the name implies, in chequers.

1648.—"... Een andere soorte van slechte Tapijten die mẽ noemt CHITRENGA."—_Van Twist_, 63.

1673.—"They pull off their Slippers, and after the usual SALAMS, seat themselves in CHOULTRIES, open to some TANK of purling Water; commonly spread with Carpets or SITURNGEES."—_Fryer_, 93.

[1688.—"2 CITTERENGEES."—In _Yule, Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. cclxv.]

1785.—"To be sold by public auction ... the valuable effects of Warren Hastings, Esquire ... carpets and SITTRINGEES."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 111.

SIWALIK, n.p. This is the name now applied distinctively to that outer range of tertiary hills which in various parts of the Himālaya runs parallel to the foot of the mountain region, separated from it by valleys known in Upper India as _dūns_ (see DHOON). But this special and convenient sense (D) has been attributed to the term by modern Anglo-Indian geographers only. Among the older Mahommedan historians the term _Siwālikh_ is applied to a territory to the west of and perhaps embracing the Aravalli Hills, but certainly including specifically Nagore (_Nāgaur_) and Mandāwar the predecessor of modern Jodhpūr, and in the vicinity of that city. This application is denoted by (A).

In one or two passages we find the application of the name (Siwālikh) extending a good deal further south, as if reaching to the vicinity of Mālwā. Such instances we have grouped under (B). But it is possible that the early application (A) habitually extended thus far.

At a later date the name is applied to the Himālaya; either to the range in its whole extent, as in the passages from _Chereffedin_ (Sharīffuddīn 'Ali of Yezd) and from Baber; sometimes with a possible limitation to that part of the mountains which overlooks the Punjab; or, as the quotation from Rennell indicates, with a distinction between the less lofty region nearest the plains, and the Alpine summits beyond, Siwālik applying to the former only.

The true Indian form of the name is, we doubt not, to be gathered from the occurrence, in a list of Indian national names, in the _Vishnu Purāna_, of the SAIVĀLAS. But of the position of these we can only say that the nations, with whom the context immediately associates them, seem to lie towards the western part of Upper India. (See _Wilson's Works, Vishnu Purāna_, ii. 175.) The popular derivation of Siwālik as given in several of the quotations below, is from _sawalākh_, 'One lākh and a quarter'; but this is of no more value than most popular etymologies.

We give numerous quotations to establish the old application of the term, because this has been somewhat confused in Elliot's extracts by the interpolated phrase 'SIWÁLIK _Hills_,' where it is evident from Raverty's version of the _Ṭabaḳāt-i-Nāṣirī_ that there is no such word as _Hills_ in the original.

We have said that the special application of the term to the detached sub-Himālayan range is quite modern. It seems in fact due to that very eminent investigator in many branches of natural science, Dr. Hugh Falconer; at least we can find no trace of it before the use of the term by him in papers presented to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. It is not previously used, so far as we can discover, even by Royle; nor is it known to Jacquemont, who was intimately associated with Royle and Cautley, at Sahāranpūr, very shortly before Falconer's arrival there. Jacquemont (_Journal_, ii. 11) calls the range: "la première chaine de montagnes que j'appellerai _les montagnes de Dehra_." The first occurrence that we can find is in a paper by Falconer on the 'Aptitude of the Himālayan Range for the Culture of the Tea Plant,' in vol. iii. of the _J. As. Soc. Bengal_, which we quote below. A year later, in the account of the _Sivatherium_ fossil, by Falconer and Cautley, in the _As. Researches_, we have a fuller explanation of the use of the term _Siwālik_, and its alleged etymology.

It is probable that there may have been some real legendary connection of the hills in the vicinity with the name of _Śiva_. For in some of the old maps, such as that in Bernier's _Travels_, we find _Siba_ given as the name of a province about Hurdwār; and the same name occurs in the same connection in the Mem. of the Emperor Jahāngīr (_Elliot_, vi. 382). [On the connection of Siva worship with the lower Himālaya, see _Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer_, ii. 743.]

A.—

1118.—"Again he rebelled, and founded the fortress of Nāghawr, in the territory of SIWĀLIKH, in the neighbourhood of Bīrah(?)."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Nāṣirī_, E.T. by _Raverty_, 110.

1192.—"The seat of government, Ajmīr, with the whole of the SIWĀLIKH [territory], such as (?) Hānsi, Sursutī, and other tracts, were subjugated."—_Ibid._ 468-469.

1227.—"A year subsequent to this, in 624 H., he (Sultan Iyaltimish) marched against the fort of Manḍawar within the limits of the SIWĀLIKH [territory], and its capture, likewise the Almighty God facilitated for him."—_Ibid._ 611.

c. 1247.—"... When the Sultan of Islam, Nāṣir-ud Dunyā-wa-ud-Dīn, ascended the throne of sovereignty ... after Malik Balban had come [to Court?] he, on several occasions made a request for Uchchah together with Multan. This was acquiesced in, under the understanding that the SIWĀLIKH [territory] and Nāg-awr should be relinquished by him to other Maliks...."—_Ibid._ 781.

1253.—"When the new year came round, on Tuesday, the 1st of the month of Muḥarram, 651 H., command was given to Ulugh Khān-i-A'z̤am ... to proceed to his fiefs, the territory of SIWĀLIKH and Hānsī."—_Ibid._ 693.

1257.—"Malik Balban ... withdrew (from Dehli), and by way of the SIWĀLIKH [country], and with a slight retinue, less than 200 or 300 in number, returned to Uchchah again."—_Ibid._ 786.

1255.—"When the royal tent was pitched at Talh-pat, the [contingent] forces of the SIWĀLIKH [districts], which were the fiefs of Ulugh Khān-i-A'z̤am, had been delayed ... (he) set out for Hānsī ... (and there) issued his mandate, so that, in the space of 14 days, the troops of the SIWĀLIKH, Hānsī, Sursutī, Jīnd [Jhīnd], and Barwālah ... assembled...."—_Ibid._ 837.

1260.—"Ulugh Khān-i-A'z̤am resolved upon making a raid upon the Koh-pāyah [hill tracts of Mewāt] round about the capital, because in this ... there was a community of obdurate rebels, who, unceasingly, committed highway robbery, and plundered the property of Musalmāns ... and destruction of the villages in the districts of Harīānah, the SIWĀLIKH, and Bhīānah, necessarily followed their outbreaks."—_Ibid._ 850.

1300-10.—"The Mughals having wasted the SIWÁLIK, had moved some distance off. When they and their horses returned weary and thirsty to the river, the army of Islám, which had been waiting for them some days, caught them as they expected...."—_Ziā-uddīn Barnī_, in _Elliot_, iii. 199.

B.—

c. 1300.—"Of the cities on the shore the first is Sandabúr, then Faknúr, then the country of Manjarúr, then the country of (Fandarainá), then Jangli (Jinkali), then Kúlam.... After these comes the country of SAWÁLAK, which comprises 125,000 cities and villages. After that comes Málwála" (but in some MSS. _Málwá_).—_Rashīduddīn_, in _Elliot_, i. 68. _Rashīduddīn_ has got apparently much astray here, for he brings in the Siwālik territory at the far end of Malabar. But the mention of Mālwā as adjoining is a probable indication of the true position. (Elliot imagines here some allusion to the Maldives and Laccadives. All in that way that seems possible is that Rashīduddīn may have heard of the Maldives and made some jumble between them and Mālwā). And this is in a manner confirmed by the next quotation from a Portuguese writer who places the region inland from Guzerat.

1644.—"It confines ... on the east with certain kingdoms of heathen, which are called SAUALACCA _prabatta_ (Skt. _parvata_), as much as to say 120,000 mountains."—_Bocarro, MS._

C.—

1399.—"Le Détroit de Coupelé est situé au pied d'une montagne par où passe le Gange, et à quinze milles plus haut que ce Détroit il y a une pierre en forme de Vache, de laquelle sort la source de ce grand Fleuve; c'est la cause pour laquelle les Indous adorent cette pierre, et dans tous les pays circonvoisins jusques à une année de chemin, ils se tournent pour prier du côté de ce Détroit et de cette Vache de pierre.... Cependant on eut avis que dans la montagne de SOÜALEC, qui est une des plus considerables de l'Inde, et qui s'étend dans le deux tiers de ce grand Empire, il s'étoit assemblé un grand nombre d'Indiens qui cherchoient à nous faire insulte."—_H. de Timur-Bec_, par _Chereffedin Ali d'Yezd_ (Fr. Tr. by _Petis de la Croix_), Delf, 1723, iii. ch. xxv.-xxvi.

1528.—"The northern range of hills has been mentioned ... after leaving Kashmîr, these hills contain innumerable tribes and states, pergannahs and countries, and extend all the way to Bengal and the shores of the Great Ocean.... The chief trade of the inhabitants of these hills is in musk-bags, the tails of the mountain cow, saffron, lead, and copper. The natives of Hind call these hills SEWÂLIK-_Parbat_. In the language of Hind SAWALÂK means a lak and a quarter (or 125,000), and _Parbat_ means a _hill_, that is, the 125,000 hills. On these hills the snow never melts, and from some parts of Hindustán, such as Lahore, Sehrend, and Sambal, it is seen white on them all the year round."—_Baber_, p. 313.

c. 1545.—"_Sher Sháh's dying regrets._

"On being remonstrated with for giving way to low spirits, when he had done so much for the good of the people during his short reign, after earnest solicitation, he said, 'I have had three or four desires on my heart, which still remain without accomplishment.... One is, I wished to have depopulated the country of Roh, and to have transferred its inhabitants to the tract between the Niláb and Lahore, including the hills below Nindūna as far as the SIWÁLIK.'"—_Táríkh-Khán Jahán Lodí_, in _Elliot_, v. 107-8. Nindūna was on Balnāth, a hill over the Jelam (compare _Elliot_, ii. 450-1).

c. 1547-8.—"After their defeat the Níázís took refuge with the Ghakkars, in the hill-country bordering on Kashmír. Islám Sháh ... during the space of two years was engaged in constant conflicts with the Ghakkars, whom he desired to subdue.... Skirting the hills he went thence to Múrín (?), and all the Rájás of the SIWÁLIK presented themselves.... Parsurám, the Rájá of Gwálior, became a staunch servant of the King ... Gwálior is a hill, which is on the right hand towards the South, amongst the hills, as you go to Kángra and Nagarkot." (See NUGGURCOTE).—_Táríkh-i-Dáúdí_, in _Elliot_, iv. 493-4.

c. 1555.—"The Imperial forces encountered the Afghans near the SIWÁLIK mountains, and gained a victory which elicited gracious marks of approval from the Emperor. Sikandar took refuge in the mountains and jungles.... Rájá Rám Chand, Rájá of Nagarkot, was the most renowned of all the Rájás of the hills, and he came and made his submission."—_Ṭabaḳát-i-Akbarí_, in _Elliot_, v. 248.

c. 1560.—"The Emperor (Akbar) then marched onwards towards the SIWÁLIK hills, in pursuit of the Khán-Khánán. He reached the neighbourhood of Talwára, a district in the Siwálik, belonging to Rájá Gobind Chand.... A party of adventurous soldiers dashed forward into the hills, and surrounding the place put many of the defenders to the sword."—_Ibid._ 267.

c. 1570.—"Husain Khán ... set forth from Lucknow with the design of breaking down the idols, and demolishing the idol temples. For false reports of their unbounded treasures had come to his ears. He proceeded through Oudh, towards the SIWÁLIK hills.... He then ravaged the whole country, as far as the _Kasbah_ of Wajráíl, in the country of Rájá Ranka, a powerful _zamíndár_, and from that town to Ajmír which is his capital."—_Badáúni_, in _Elliot_, iv. 497.

1594-5.—"The force marched to the SIWÁLIK hills, and the _Bakhshí_ resolved to begin by attacking Jammú, one of the strongest forts of that country."—_Akbar Náma_, in _Elliot_, v. 125.

c. " "Rám Deo ... returned to Kanauj ... after that he marched into the SIWÁLIK hills, and made all the zamíndárs tributary. The Rájá of Kamáún ... came out against Rám Deo and gave him battle."—_Firishta's Introduction_, in _Elliot_, vi. 561.

1793.—"Mr. Daniel, with a party, also visited Sirinagur the same year [1789]: ... It is situated in an exceedingly deep and very narrow valley; formed by Mount SEWALICK,[246] the northern boundary of Hindoostan, on the one side; and the vast range of snowy mountains of HIMMALEH or IMAUS, on the other; and from the report of the natives, it would appear, that the nearest part of the base of the latter (on which snow was actually falling in the month of May), was not more than 14 or 15 G. miles in direct distance to the N. or N.E. of Sirinagur town.

"In crossing the mountains of SEWALICK, they met with vegetable productions, proper to the temperate climates."—_Rennell's Mem._, ed. 1793, pp. [368-369].

D.—

1834.—"On the flank of the great range there is a line of low hills, the SEWALIK, which commence at Roopur, on the Satlej, and run down a long way to the south, skirting the great chain. In some places they run up to, and rise upon, the Himálayas; in others, as in this neighbourhood (Seháranpur), they are separated by an intermediate valley. Between the Jumna and Ganges they attain their greatest height, which Capt. Herbert estimates at 2,000 feet above the plains at their foot, or 3,000 above the sea. Seháranpur is about 1,000 feet above the sea. About 25 miles north are the SEWÁLIK hills."—_Falconer_, in _J.A.S.B._ iii. 182.

1835.—"We have named the fossil _Sivatherium_ from _Siva_ the Hindu god, and θηρίον, _bellua_. The SIVÁLIK, or Sub-Himalayan range of hills, is considered, in the Hindu mythology, as the _Lútiah_ or edge of the roof of SIVA'S dwelling on the Himálaya, and hence they are called the _Siva-ala_ or _Sib-ala_, which by an easy transition of sound became the SEWÁLIK of the English.

"The fossil has been discovered in a tract which may be included in the SEWÁLIK range, and we have given the name of Sivatherium to it, to commemorate the remarkable formation, so rich in new animals. Another derivation of the name of the hills, as explained by the _Mahant_, or High Priest at Dehra, is as follows:—

"SEWÁLIK, a corruption of _Siva-wála_, a name given to the tract of mountains between the Jumna and Ganges, from having been the residence of ISWARA SIVA and his son GANES."—_Falconer and Cautley_, in _As. Res._, xix. p. 2.

1879.—"These fringing ranges of the later formations are known generally as the Sub-Himalayas. The most important being the SIWÁLIK hills, a term especially applied to the hills south of the Deyra Dún, but frequently employed in a wider sense."—_Medlicott and Blanford, Man. of the Geology of India, Intro._ p. x.

[1899.—Even so late as this year the old inaccurate etymology of the word appears: "The term SHEWALIC is stated by one of the native historians to be a combination of two Hindee words '_sewa_' and '_lae_' (_sic_), the word '_sewa_' signifying one and a quarter, and the word '_lae_' being the term which expresses the number of one hundred thousand."—_Thornhill, Haunts and Hobbies_, 213.]

SKEEN, s. Tib. _skyin_. The Himalayan Ibex; (_Capra Sibirica_, Meyer). [See _Blanford, Mammalia_, 503.]

SLAVE. We cannot now attempt a history of the former tenure of slaves in British India, which would be a considerable work in itself. We only gather a few quotations illustrating that history.

1676.—"Of three Theeves, two were executed and one made a SLAVE. We do not approve of putting any to death for theft, nor that any of our own nation should be made a SLAVE, a word that becomes not an Englishman's mouth."—_The Court to Ft. St. Geo._, March 7. In _Notes and Exts._ No. i. p. 18.

1682.—"... making also proclamation by beat of drum that if any SLAVE would run away from us he should be free, and liberty to go where they pleased."—_Hedges, Diary_, Oct. 14; [Hak. Soc. i. 38].

[ " "There being a great number of SLAVES yearly exported from this place, to ye great grievance of many persons whose Children are very commonly stollen away from them, by those who are constant traders in this way, the Agent, &c., considering the Scandall that might accrue to ye Government, &c., the great losse that many parents may undergoe by such actions, have order'd that noe more SLAVES be sent off the shoare again."—_Pringle, Diary, Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. i. 70.]

1752.—"Sale of SLAVES ... Rs. 10 : 1 : 3."—Among Items of Revenue. In _Long_, 34.

1637.—"We have taken into consideration the most effectual and speedy method for supplying our settlements upon the WEST COAST with SLAVES, and we have therefore fixed upon two ships for that purpose ... to proceed from hence to Madagascar to purchase as many as can be procured, and the said ships conveniently carry, who are to be delivered by the captains of those ships to our agents at Fort Marlborough at the rate of £15 a head."—_Court's Letter_ of Dec. 8. In _Long_, 293.

1764.—"That as an inducement to the Commanders and Chief Mates to exert themselves in procuring as large a number of SLAVES as the Ships can conveniently carry, and to encourage the Surgeons to take proper care of them in the passage, there is to be allowed 20 shillings for every _slave_ shipped at Madagascar, to be divided, viz., 13s. 4d. a head to the Commander, and 6s. 8d. to the Chief Mate, also for every one delivered at Fort Marlborough the Commander is to be allowed the further sum of 6s. 8d. and the Chief Mate 3s. 4d. The Surgeon is likewise to be allowed 10s. for each SLAVE landed at Fort Marlborough."—_Court's Letter_, Feb. 22. In _Long_, 366.

1778.—Mr. Busteed has given some curious extracts from the charge-sheet of the Calcutta Magistrate in this year, showing SLAVES and SLAVE-GIRLS, of Europeans, Portuguese, and Armenians, sent to the magistrate to be punished with the rattan for running away and such offences.—_Echoes of Old Calcutta_, 117 _seqq._ [Also see extracts from newspapers, &c., in _Carey, Good Old Days_, ii. 71 _seqq._].

1782.—"On Monday the 29th inst. will be sold by auction ... a bay Buggy Horse, a Buggy and Harness ... some cut Diamonds, a quantity of China Sugarcandy ... a quantity of the best Danish Claret ... deliverable at Serampore; two SLAVE GIRLS about 6 years old; and a great variety of other articles."—_India Gazette_, July 27.

1785.—"Malver. Hair-dresser from Europe, proposes himself to the ladies of the settlement to dress hair daily, at two gold mohurs per month, in the latest fashion, with gauze flowers, &c. He will also instruct the SLAVES at a moderate price."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 119. This was surely a piece of slang. Though we hear occasionally, in the advertisements of the time, of slave boys and girls, the domestic servants were not usually of that description.

1794.—"50 Rupees Reward for Discovery.

"RUN OFF about four Weeks ago from a Gentleman in Bombay, A Malay SLAVE called Cambing or Rambing. He stole a Silk Purse, with 45 Venetians, and some Silver Buttons...."—_Bombay Courier_, Feb. 22.

SLING, SELING, n.p. This is the name used in the Himalayan regions for a certain mart in the direction of China which supplies various articles of trade. Its occurrence in Trade Returns at one time caused some discussion as to its identity, but there can be no doubt that it is Si-ning (Fu) in Kan-su. The name SLING is also applied, in Ladak and the Punjab, to a stuff of goat's wool made at the place so called.

c. 1730.—"Kokonor is also called _Tzongombo_, which means blue lake.... The Tibetans pretend that this lake belongs to them, and that the limits of Tibet adjoin those of the town of SHILIN or SHILINGH."—_P. Orazio della Penna_, E.T. in _Markham's Tibet_, 2d ed. 314.

1774.—"The natives of Kashmir, who like the Jews of Europe, or the Armenians in the Turkish Empire, scatter themselves over the Eastern kingdoms of Asia ... have formed extensive establishments at Lhasa and all the principal towns in the country. Their agents, stationed on the coast of Coromandel, in Bengal, Benares, Nepal, and Kashmir, furnish them with the commodities of these different countries, which they dispose of in Tibet, or forward to their associates at SELING, a town on the borders of China."—_Bogle's Narrative_, in _Markham's Tibet_, 124.

1793.—"... it is certain that the product of their looms (_i.e._ of Tibet and Nepaul) is as inconsiderable in quantity as it is insignificant in quality. The _Joos_ (read TOOS) or flannel procured from the former, were it really a fabric of Tibet, would perhaps be admitted as an exception to the latter part of this observation; but the fact is that it is made at SILING, a place situated on the western borders of China."—_Kirkpatrick's Acc. of Nepaul_ (1811), p. 134.

1854.—"_List of Chinese Articles brought to India_.... SILING, a soft and silky woollen of two kinds—1. _Shirún._ 2. _Gorún._"—_Cunningham's Ladak_, 241-2.

1862.—"SLING is a '_Pushmina_' (fine wool) cloth, manufactured of goat-wool, taken from Karashaihr and Urumchi, and other districts of Turkish China, in a Chinese town called SLING."—_Punjab Trade Report_, App. p. ccxxix.

1871.—"There were two Calmucks at Yârkand, who had belonged to the suite of the Chinese Ambân.... Their own home they say is ZILM" (qu. _Zilin_?) "a country and town distant 1½ month's journey from either Aksoo or Khoten, and at an equal distance in point of time from Lhassa.... ZILM possesses manufactures of carpets, horse-trappings, pen-holders, &c.... This account is confirmed by the fact that articles such as those described are imported occasionally into Ladák, under the name of ZILM or ZIRM goods.

"Now if the town of ZILM is six weeks journey from either Lhassa or Aksoo, its position may be guessed at."—_Shaw, Visits to High Tartary_, 38.

SLOTH, s. In the usual way of transferring names which belong to other regions, this name is sometimes applied in S. India to the Lemur (_Loris gracilis_, Jerdon).

SNAKE-STONE, s. This is a term applied to a substance, the application of which to the part where a snake-bite has taken effect, is supposed to draw out the poison and render it innocuous. Such applications are made in various parts of the Old and New Worlds. The substances which have this reputation are usually of a porous kind, and when they have been chemically examined have proved to be made of charred bone, or the like. There is an article in the 13th vol. of the _Asiatic Researches_ by Dr. J. Davy, entitled _An Analysis of the Snake-Stone_, in which the results of the examination of three different kinds, all obtained from Sir Alex. Johnstone, Chief Justice of Ceylon, is given. (1) The first kind was of round or oval form, black or brown in the middle, white towards the circumference, polished and somewhat lustrous, and pretty enough to be sometimes worn as a neck ornament; easily cut with a knife, but not scratched by the nail. When breathed on it emitted an earthy smell, and when applied to the tongue, or other moist surface, it adhered firmly. This kind proved to be of bone partially calcined. (2) We give below a quotation regarding the second kind. (3) The third was apparently a BEZOAR, (q.v.), rather than a snake-stone. There is another article in the _As. Res._ xvi. 382 _seqq._ by Captain J. D. Herbert, on _Zehr Mohereh, or_ SNAKE-STONE. Two kinds are described which were sold under the name given (_Zahr muhra_, where _zahr_ is 'poison,' _muhra_, 'a kind of polished shell,' 'a bead,' applied to a species of bezoar). Both of these were mineral, and not of the class we are treating of.

c. 1666.—"C'est dans cette Ville de Diu que se font les PIERRES DE COBRA si renommées: elles sont composées de racines qu'on brûle, et dont on amasse les cendres pour les mettre avec une sorte de terre qu'ils ont, et les brûler encore une fois avec cette terre; et après cela on en fait la pâte dont ces Pierres sont formées.... Il faut faire sortir avec une éguille, un peu de sang de la plaie, y appliquer la Pierre, et l'y laisser jusqu'à ce qu'elle tombe d'elle même."—_Thevenot_, v. 97.

1673.—"Here are also those Elephant Legged St. _Thomeans_, which the unbiassed Enquirers will tell you chances to them two ways: By the Venom of a certain Snake, by which the _Jaugies_ (see JOGEE) or Pilgrims furnish them with a Factitious Stone (which we call a SNAKE-STONE), and is a Counter-poyson of all deadly Bites; if it stick, it attracts the Poyson; and put into Milk it recovers itself again, leaving its virulency therein, discovered by its Greenness."—_Fryer_, 53.

c. 1676.—"There is the SERPENT'S STONE not to be forgot, about the bigness of a _double_ (doubloon?); and some are almost oval, thick in the middle and thin about the sides. The Indians report that it is bred in the head of certain Serpents. But I rather take it to be a story of the Idoloter's Priests, and that the Stone is rather a composition of certain Drugs.... If the Person bit be not much wounded, the place must be incis'd; and the Stone being appli'd thereto, will not fall off till it has drawn all the poison to it: To cleanse it you must steep it in Womans-milk, or for want of that, in Cows-milk.... There are two ways to try whether the SERPENT-STONE be true or false. The first is, by putting the Stone in your mouth, for there it will give a leap, and fix to the Palate. The other is by putting it in a glass full of water; for if the Stone be true, the water will fall a boyling, and rise in little bubbles...."—_Tavernier_, E.T., Pt. ii. 155; [ed. _Ball_, ii. 152]. Tavernier also speaks of another SNAKE-STONE alleged to be found behind the hood of the Cobra: "This Stone being rubb'd against another Stone, yields a slime, which being drank in water," &c. &c.—_Ibid._

1690.—"The thing which he carried ... is a Specific against the Poison of Snakes ... and therefore obtained the name of SNAKE-STONE. It is a small artificial Stone.... The Composition of it is Ashes of burnt Roots, mixt with a kind of Earth, which is found at Diu...."—_Ovington_, 260-261.

1712.—"PEDRA DE COBRA: ita dictus lapis, vocabulo a Lusitanis imposito, adversus viperarum morsus praestat auxilium, externè applicatus. In serpente, quod vulgò credunt, non invenitur, sed arte secretâ fabricatur à Brahmanis. Pro dextro et felici usu, oportet adesse geminos, ut cum primus veneno saturatus vulnusculo decidit, alter surrogari illico in locum possit.... Quo ipso feror, ut istis lapidibus nihil efficaciæ inesse credam, nisi quam actuali frigiditate suâ, vel absorbendo praestant."—_Kaempfer, Amoen. Exot._ 395-7.

1772.—"Being returned to Roode-Zand, the much celebrated SNAKE-STONE (_Slange-steen_) was shown to me, which few of the farmers here could afford to purchase, it being sold at a high price, and held in great esteem. It is imported from the _Indies_, especially from Malabar, and cost several, frequently 10 or 12, rix dollars. It is round, and convex on one side, of a black colour, with a pale ash-grey speck in the middle, and tubulated with very minute pores.... When it is applied to any part that has been bitten by a serpent, it sticks fast to the wound, and extracts the poison; as soon as it is saturated, it falls off of itself...."—_Thunberg, Travels_, E.T. i. 155 (_A Journey into Caffraria_).

1796.—"Of the remedies to which cures of venomous bites are often ascribed in India, some are certainly not less frivolous than those employed in Europe for the bite of the viper; yet to infer from thence that the effects of the poison cannot be very dangerous, would not be more rational than to ascribe the recovery of a person bitten by a COBRA DE CAPELLO, to the application of a SNAKE-STONE, or to the words muttered over the patient by a Bramin."—_Patrick Russell, Account of Indian Serpents_, 77.

1820.—"Another kind of SNAKE-STONE ... was a small oval body, smooth and shining, externally black, internally grey; it had no earthy smell when breathed on, and had no absorbent or adhesive power. By the person who presented it to Sir Alexander Johnstone it was much valued, and for adequate reason if true, 'it had saved the lives of four men.'"—_Dr. Davy_, in _As. Res._ xiii. 318.

1860.—"The use of the _Pamboo-Kaloo_, or SNAKE-STONE, as a remedy in cases of wounds by venomous serpents, has probably been communicated to the Singhalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island from the Coast of Coromandel; and more than one well-authenticated instance of its successful application has been told to me by persons who had been eye-witnesses."... (These follow.) "... As to the SNAKE-STONE itself, I submitted one, the application of which I have been describing, to Mr. Faraday, and he has communicated to me, as the result of his analysis, his belief that it is 'a piece of charred bone which has been filled with blood, perhaps several times, and then charred again.'... The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when instantaneously applied, may be sufficiently porous and absorbent to extract the venom from the recent wound, together with a portion of the blood, before it has had time to be carried into the system...."—_Tennent, Ceylon_, i. 197-200.

1861.—"'Have you been bitten?' 'Yes, Sahib,' he replied, calmly; 'the last snake was a vicious one, and it has bitten me. But there is no danger,' he added, extracting from the recesses of his mysterious bag a small piece of white stone. This he wetted, and applied to the wound, to which it seemed to adhere ... he apparently suffered no ... material hurt. I was thus effectually convinced that snake-charming is a real art, and not merely clever conjuring, as I had previously imagined. These so-called SNAKE STONES are well known throughout India."—_Lt.-Col. T. Lewin, A Fly on the Wheel_, 91-92.

1872.—"With reference to the SNAKE-STONES, which, when applied to the bites, are said to absorb and suck out the poison, ... I have only to say that I believe they are perfectly powerless to produce any such effect ... when we reflect on the quantity of poison, and the force and depth with and to which it is injected ... and the extreme rapidity with which it is hurried along in the vascular system to the nerve centres, I think it is obvious that the application of one of these stones can be of little use in a real bite of a deadly snake, and that a belief in their efficacy is a dangerous delusion."—_Fayrer, Thanatophidia of India_, pp. 38, 40.

[1880.—"It is stated that in the pouch-like throat appendages of the older birds (ADJUTANTS), the fang of a snake is sometimes to be found. This, if rubbed above the place where a poisonous snake has bitten a man, is supposed to prevent the venom spreading to the vital parts of the body. Again, it is believed that a so-called 'SNAKE-STONE' is contained within the head of the adjutant. This, if applied to a snake-bite, attaches itself to the punctures, and extracts all the venom...."—_Ball, Jungle Life_, 82.]

SNEAKER, s. A large cup (or small basin) with a saucer and cover. The native servants call it _sīnīgar_. We had guessed that it was perhaps formed in some way from _ṣīnī_ in the sense of 'china-ware,' or from the same word, used in Ar. and Pers., in the sense of 'a salver' (see CHINA, s.). But we have since seen that the word is not only in Grose's _Lexicon Balatronicum_, with the explanation 'a small bowl,' but is also in _Todd_: 'A small vessel of drink.' A _sneaker of punch_ is a term still used in several places for a small bowl; and in fact it occurs in the _Spectator_ and other works of the 18th century. So the word is of genuine English origin; no doubt of a semi-slang kind.

1714.—"Our little burlesque authors, who are the delight of ordinary readers, generally abound in these pert phrases, which have in them more vivacity than wit. I lately saw an instance of this kind of writing, which gave me so truly an idea of it, that I could not forbear begging a copy of the letter....

"Past 2 o'clock and a frosty morning.

"DEAR JACK,

"I have just left the Right Worshipful and his myrmidons about a SNEAKER of 5 gallons. The whole magistracy was pretty well disguised before I gave them the slip."

_The Spectator_, No. 616.

1715.—

"Hugh Peters is making A SNEAKER within For Luther, Buchanan, John Knox, and Calvin; And when they have toss'd off A brace of full bowls, You'll swear you ne'er met With honester souls." _Bp. Burnett's Descent into Hell._ In _Political Ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries_. Annotated by _W. W. Wilkins_, 1860, ii. 172.

1743.—"Wild ... then retired to his seat of contemplation, a night-cellar, where, without a single farthing in his pocket, he called for a SNEAKER of punch, and placing himself on a bench by himself, he softly vented the following soliloquy."—_Fielding, Jonathan Wild_, Bk. ii. ch. iv.

1772.—"He received us with great cordiality, and entreated us all, five in number, to be seated in a bungalow, where there were only two broken chairs. This compliment we could not accept of; he then ordered five SNEAKERS of a mixture which he denominated punch."—Letter in _Forbes, Or. Mem._ iv. 217.

[SNOW RUPEE, s. A term in use in S. India, which is an excellent example of a corruption of the 'Hobson-Jobson' type. It is an Anglo-Indian corruption of the Tel. _tsanauvu_, 'authority, currency.']

SOFALA, n.p. Ar. _Sufāla_, a district and town of the East African coast, the most remote settlement towards the south made upon that coast by the Arabs. The town is in S. Lat. 20° 10′, more that 2° south of the Zambesi delta. The territory was famous in old days for the gold produced in the interior, and also for iron. It was not visited by V. da Gama either in going or returning.

c. 1150.—"This section embraces the description of the remainder of the country of SOFĀLA.... The inhabitants are poor, miserable, and without resources to support them except iron; of this metal there are numerous mines in the mountains of SOFĀLA. The people of the islands ... come hither for iron, which they carry to the continent and islands of India ... for although there is iron in the islands and in the mines of that country, it does not equal the iron of SOFĀLA."—_Edrisi_, i. 65.

c. 1220.—"SOFĀLA is the most remote known city in the country of the Zenj ... wares are carried to them, and left by the merchants who then go away, and coming again find that the natives have laid down the price [they are willing to give] for every article beside it.... _Sofālī_ gold is well-known among the Zenj merchants."—_Yāḳūt, Mu'jam al-Buldān_, s.v.

In his article on the gold country, Yāḳūt describes the kind of dumb trade in which the natives decline to come face to face with the merchants at greater length. It is a practice that has been ascribed to a great variety of uncivilized races; _e.g._ in various parts of Africa; in the extreme north of Europe and of Asia; in the Clove Islands; to the Veddas of Ceylon, to the Poliars of Malabar, and (by Pliny, surely under some mistake) to the Seres or Chinese. See on this subject a note in _Marco Polo_, Bk. iv. ch. 21; a note by _Mr. De B. Priaulx_, in _J. R. As. Soc._, xviii. 348 (in which several references are erroneously printed); _Tennent's Ceylon_, i. 593 _seqq._; _Rawlinson's Herodotus_, under Bk. iv. ch. 196.

c. 1330.—"SOFĀLA is situated in the country of the Zenj. According to the author of the _Kánún_, the inhabitants are Muslim. Ibn Ṡayd says that their chief means of subsistence are the extraction of gold and of iron, and that their clothes are of leopard-skin."—_Abulfeda_, Fr. Tr. i. 222.

" "A merchant told me that the town of SOFĀLA is a half month's march distant from Culua (QUILOA), and that from SOFĀLA to Yūfī (Nūfī) ... is a month's march. From Yūfī they bring gold-dust to SOFĀLA."—_Ibn Batuta_, ii. 192-3.

1499.—"Coming to Mozambique (_i.e._ Vasco and his squadron on their return) they did not desire to go in because there was no need, so they kept their course, and being off the coast of ÇOFALA, the pilots warned the officers that they should be alert and ready to strike sail, and at night they should keep their course, with little sail set, and a good look-out, for just thereabouts there was a river belonging to a place called ÇOFALA, whence there sometimes issued a tremendous squall, which tore up trees and carried cattle and all into the sea...."—_Correa, Lendas_, i. 134-135.

1516.—"... at xviii. leagues from them there is a river, which is not very large, whereon is a town of the Moors called SOFALA, close to which town the King of Portugal has a fort. These Moors established themselves there a long time ago on account of the great trade in gold, which they carry on with the Gentiles of the mainland."—_Barbosa_, 4.

1523.—"Item—that as regards all the ships and goods of the said Realm of Urmuz, and its ports and vassals, they shall be secure by land and by sea, and they shall be as free to navigate where they please as vassals of the King our lord, save only that they shall not navigate inside the Strait of Mecca, nor yet to ÇOFFALA and the ports of that coast, as that is forbidden by the King our lord...."—Treaty of _Dom Duarto de Menezes_, with the _King of Ormuz_, in _Botelho, Tombo_, 80.

1553.—"Vasco da Gama ... was afraid that there was some gulf running far inland, from which he would not be able to get out. And this apprehension made him so careful to keep well from the shore that he passed without even seeing the town of ÇOFALA, so famous in these parts for the quantity of gold which the Moors procured there from the Blacks of the country by trade...."—_Barros_, I. iv. 3.

1572.—

"... Fizemos desta costa algum desvio Deitando para o pégo toda a armada: Porque, ventando Noto manso e frio, Não nos apanhasse a agua da enseada, Que a costa faz alli daquella banda, Donde a rica SOFALA o ouro manda." _Camões_, v. 73.

By Burton:

"off from the coast-line for a spell we stood, till deep blue water 'neath our kelsons lay; for frigid Notus, in his fainty mood, was fain to drive us leewards to the Bay made in that quarter by the crookèd shore, whence rich SOFÁLA sendeth golden ore."

1665.—

"Mombaza and Quiloa and Melind, And SOFALA, thought Ophir, to the realm Of Congo, and Angola farthest south." _Paradise Lost_, xi. 399 _seqq._

Milton, it may be noticed, misplaces the accent, reading _Sófala_.

1727.—"Between _Delagoa_ and _Mosambique_ is a dangerous Sea-coast, it was formerly known by the names of SUFFOLA and _Cuama_, but now by the _Portuguese_, who know that country best, is called _Sena_."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 8 [ed. 1744].

SOLA, vulg. SOLAR, s. This is properly Hind. _sholā_, corrupted by the Bengālī inability to utter the shibboleth, to _solā_, and often again into _solar_ by English people, led astray by the usual "striving after meaning." _Sholā_ is the name of the plant _Aeschynomene aspera_, L. (N.O. _Leguminosae_), and is particularly applied to the light pith of that plant, from which the light thick Sola TOPEES, or pith hats, are made. The material is also used to pad the roofs of palankins, as a protection against the sun's power, and for various minor purposes, _e.g._ for slips of tinder, for making models, &c. The word, until its wide diffusion within the last 45 years, was peculiar to the Bengal Presidency. In the Deccan the thing is called _bhenḍ_, Mahr. _bhenḍa_, and in Tamil _neṭṭi_, ['breaking with a crackle.'] SOLAR hats are now often advertised in London. [Hats made of elder pith were used in S. Europe in the early 16th century. In Albert Dürer's _Diary in the Netherlands_ (1520-21) we find: "Also Tomasin has given me a plaited hat of elder-pith" (_Mrs. Heaton, Life of Albrecht Dürer_, 269). Miss Eden, in 1839, speaks of Europeans wearing "broad white feather hats to keep off the sun" (_Up the Country_, ii. 56). Illustrations of the various shapes of Sola hats used in Bengal about 1854 will be found in _Grant, Rural Life in Bengal_, 105 _seq._]

1836.—"I stopped at a fisherman's, to look at the curiously-shaped floats he used for his very large and heavy fishing-nets; each float was formed of eight pieces of SHOLĀ, tied together by the ends.... When this light and spongy pith is wetted, it can be cut into thin layers, which pasted together are formed into hats; Chinese paper appears to be made of the same material."—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 100.

1872.—"In a moment the flint gave out a spark of fire, which fell into the SOLÁ; the sulphur match was applied; and an earthen lamp...."—_Govinda Samanta_, i. 10.

1878.—"My SOLAR topee (pith hat) was whisked away during the struggle."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. 164.

1885.—"I have slipped a pair of galoshes over my ordinary walking-boots; and, with my SOLAR TOPEE (or sun helmet) on, have ridden through a mile of deserted streets and thronged bazaars, in a grilling sunshine."—_A Professional Visit in Persia, St. James's Gazette_, March 9.

[SOMBA, SOMBAY, s. A present. Malay _sambah-an_.

[1614.—"SOMBAY or presents."—_Foster, Letters_, ii. 112.

[1615.—"... concluded rather than pay the great SOMBA of eight hundred reals."—_Ibid._ iv. 43.]

SOMBRERO, s. Port. _sumbreiro_. In England we now understand by this word a broad-brimmed hat; but in older writers it is used for an _umbrella_. SUMMERHEAD is a name in the Bombay Arsenal (as M.-Gen. Keatinge tells me) for a great umbrella. I make no doubt that it is a corruption (by 'striving after meaning') of SOMBREIRO, and it is a capital example of HOBSON-JOBSON.

1503.—"And the next day the Captain-Major before daylight embarked armed with all his people in the boats, and the King (of Cochin) in his boats which they call _tones_ (see DONEY) ... and in the _tone_ of the King went his SOMBREIROS, which are made of straw, of a diameter of 4 palms, mounted on very long canes, some 3 or 4 fathoms in height. These are used for state ceremonial, showing that the King is there in person, as it were his pennon or royal banner, for no other lord in his realm may carry the like."—_Correa_, i. 378.

1516.—"And besides the page I speak of who carries the sword, they take another page who carries a SOMBREIRO with a stand to shade his master, and keep the rain off him; and some of these are of silk stuff finely wrought, with many fringes of gold, and set with stones and seed pearl...."—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. 298.

1553.—"At this time Dom Jorge discerned a great body of men coming towards where he was standing, and amid them a SOMBREIRO on a lofty staff, covering the head of a man on horseback, by which token he knew it to be some noble person. This SOMBREIRO is a fashion in India coming from China, and among the Chinese no one may use it but a gentleman, for it is a token of nobility, which we may describe as a one-handed _pallium_ (having regard to those which we use to see carried by four, at the reception of some great King or Prince on his entrance into a city)...."—_Barros_, III. x. 9. Then follows a minute description of the SOMBREIRO or UMBRELLA.

[1599.—"... a great broad SOMBRERO or shadow in their hands to defend them in the Summer from the Sunne, and in the Winter from the Raine."—_Hakl._ II. i. 261 (_Stanf. Dict._).

[1602.—In his character of D. Pedro Mascarenhas, the Viceroy, Couto says he was anxious to change certain habits of the Portuguese in India: "One of these was to forbid the tall SOMBREIROS for warding off the rain and sun, to relieve men of the expence of paying those who carried them; he himself did not have one, but used a woollen umbrella with small cords (?), which they called for many years _Mascarenhas_. Afterwards finding the sun intolerable and the rain immoderate, he permitted the use of tall umbrellas, on the condition that private slaves should bear them, to save the wages of the Hindus who carry them, and are called BOYS DE SOMBREIRO (see BOY)."—_Couto_, Dec. VII. Bk. i. ch. 12.]

c. 1630.—"Betwixt towns men usually travel in Chariots drawn by Oxen, but in Towns upon PALAMKEENS, and with SOMBREROS _de Sol_ over them."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1665, p. 46.

1657.—"A costé du cheval il y a un homme qui esvente _Wistnou_, afin qu'il ne reçoive point d'incommodité soit par les mouches, ou par la chaleur; et à chaque costé on porte deux ZOMBREIROS, afin que le Soleil ne luise pas sur luy...."—_Abr. Roger_, Fr. Tr. ed. 1670, p. 223.

1673.—"None but the Emperor have a SUMBRERO among the _Moguls_."—_Fryer_, 36.

1727.—"The _Portuguese_ ladies ... sent to beg the Favour that he would pick them out some lusty _Dutch_ men to carry their _Palenqueens_ and SOMERERAS or Umbrellas."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 338; [ed. 1744, i. 340].

1768-71.—"Close behind it, followed the heir-apparent, on foot, under a SAMBREEL, or sunshade, of state."—_Stavorinus_, E.T. i. 87.

[1845.—"No open umbrellas or SUMMER-HEADS allowed to pass through the gates."—_Public Notice on Gates of Bombay Town_, in _Douglas, Glimpses of Old Bombay_, 86.]

SOMBRERO, CHANNEL OF THE, n.p. The channel between the northern part of the Nicobar group, and the southern part embracing the Great and Little Nicobar, has had this name since the early Portuguese days. The origin of the name is given by A. Hamilton below. The indications in C. Federici and Hamilton are probably not accurate. They do not agree with those given by Horsburgh.

1566.—"Si passa per il CANALE di Nicubar, ouero per quello DEL SOMBRERO, li quali son per mezzo l'isola di Sumatra...."—_C. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 391.

1727.—"The Islands off this Part of the Coast are the _Nicobars_.... The northernmost Cluster is low, and are called the _Carnicubars_.... The middle Cluster is fine champain Ground, and all but one, well inhabited. They are called the SOMERERA Islands, because on the South End of the largest Island, is an Hill that resembleth the top of an Umbrella or SOMERERA."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 68 [ed. 1744].

1843.—"SOMBRERO CHANNEL, bounded on the north by the Islands of Katchull and Noncowry, and by Merve or Passage Island on the South side, is very safe and about seven leagues wide."—_Horsburgh_, ed. 1843, ii. 59-60.

SONAPARANTA, n.p. This is a quasi-classical name, of Indian origin, used by the Burmese Court in State documents and formal enumerations of the style of the King, to indicate the central part of his dominions; Skt. _Suvarna_ (Pali _Sona_) _prānta_ (or perhaps _aparānta_), 'golden frontier-land,' or something like that. There can be little doubt that it is a survival of the names which gave origin to the _Chrysē_ of the Greeks. And it is notable, that the same series of titles embraces _Tambadīpa_ ('Copper Island' or Region) which is also represented by the _Chalcitis_ of Ptolemy. [Also see J. G. Scott, _Upper Burma Gazetteer_, i. pt. i. 103.]

(Ancient).—"There were two brothers resident in the country called SUNÁPARANTA, merchants who went to trade with 500 wagons...."—_Legends of Gotama Buddha_, in _Hardy's Manual of Buddhism_, 259.

1636.—"All comprised within the great districts ... of Tsa-Koo, Tsa-lan, Laygain, Phoung-len, Kalé, and Thoung-thwot is constituted the Kingdom of THUNA-PARANTA. All within the great districts of Pagán, Ava, Penya, and Myen-Zain, is constituted the Kingdom of TAMPADEWA...." (&c.)—From an _Inscription at the Great Pagoda_ of Khoug-Mhoo-dau, near Ava; from the _MS. Journal of Major H. Burney_, accompanying a Letter from him, dated 11th September, 1830, in the Foreign Office, Calcutta. Burney adds: "The Ministers told me that by THUNAPARANTA they mean all the countries to the northward of Ava, and by TAMPADEWA all to the southward. But this inscription shows that the Ministers themselves do not exactly understand what countries are comprised in THUNAPARANTA and TĀMPA-DEWA."

1767.—"The King despotick; of great Merit, of great Power, Lord of the Countries THONAPRONDAH, TOMPDEVAH, and CAMBOJA, Sovereign of the Kingdom of BURAGHMAGH (BURMA), the Kingdom of SIAM and Hughen (?), and the Kingdom of CASSAY."—Letter from the _King of Burma_, in _Dalrymple, Or. Rep._ i. 106.

1795.—"The Lord of Earth and Air, the Monarch of extensive Countries, the Sovereign of the Kingdoms of SONAHPARINDÁ, TOMBADEVA ... etc...."—Letter from _the King_ to _Sir John Shore_, in _Symes_, 487.

1855.—"His great, glorious and most excellent Majesty, who reigns over the Kingdoms of THUNAPARANTA, TAMPADEEVA, and all the great umbrella-wearing chiefs of the Eastern countries, the King of the Rising Sun, Lord of the Celestial Elephants, and Master of many white Elephants, and great Chief of Righteousness...."—_King's_ Letter to the _Governor-General_ (Lord Dalhousie), Oct. 2, 1855.

SONTHALS, n.p. Properly _Santāls_, [the name being said to come from a place called _Saont_, now Silda in Mednipur, where the tribe remained for a long time (_Dalton, Descr. Eth._ 210-11)]. The name of a non-Aryan people belonging to the Kolarian class, extensively settled in the hilly country to the west of the Hoogly R. and to the south of Bhāgalpur, from which they extended to Balasore at interval, sometimes in considerable masses, but more generally much scattered. The territory in which they are chiefly settled is now formed into a separate district called Santāl Parganas, and sometimes _Santalia_. Their settlement in this tract is, however, quite modern; they have emigrated thither from the S.W. In Dr. F. Buchanan's statistical account of Bhāgalpur and its Hill people the Santāls are not mentioned. The earliest mention of this tribe that we have found is in Mr. Sutherland's Report on the Hill People, which is printed in the Appendix to Long. No date is given there, but we learn from Mr. Man's book, quoted below, that the date is 1817. [The word is, however, much older than this. Forbes (_Or. Mem._ ii. 374 _seq._) gives an account taken from Lord Teignmouth of witch tests among the SOONTAAR.

[1798.—"... amongst a wild and unlettered tribe, denominated SOONTAAR, who have reduced the detection and trial of persons suspected of witchcraft to a system."—_As. Res._ iv. 359.]

1817.—"For several years many of the industrious tribes called SONTHURS have established themselves in these forests, and have been clearing and bringing into cultivation large tracts of lands...."—_Sutherland's Report_, quoted in _Long_, 569.

1867.—"This system, indicated and proposed by Mr. Eden,[247] was carried out in its integrity under Mr. George Yule, C.B., by whose able management, with Messrs. Robinson and Wood as his deputies, the SONTHALS were raised from misery, dull despair, and deadly hatred of the government, to a pitch of prosperity which, to my knowledge, has never been equalled in any other part of India under the British rule. The Regulation Courts, with their horde of leeches in the shape of badly paid, and corrupt Amlah (OMLAH) and pettifogging MOOKTEARS, were abolished, and in their place a Number of active English gentlemen, termed Assistant Commissioners, and nominated by Mr. Yule, were set down among the SONTHALS, with a Code of Regulations drawn up by that gentleman, the pith of which may be summed up as follows:—

"'To have no medium between the SONTHAL and the HAKIM, _i.e._ Assistant Commissioner.

"'To patiently hear any complaint made by the SONTHAL from his own mouth, without any written petition or charge whatever, and without any AMLAH or Court at the time.

"'To carry out all criminal work by the aid of the villagers themselves, who were to bring in the accused, with the witnesses, to the HAKIM, who should immediately attend to their statements, and punish them, if found guilty, according to the tenor of the law.'

"These were some of the most important of the golden rules carried out by men who recognised the responsibility of their situation; and with an adored chief, in the shape of Yule, for their ruler, whose firm, judicious, and gentlemanly conduct made them work with willing hearts, their endeavours were crowned with a success which far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine...."—_Sonthalia and the Sonthals_, by _E. G. Man_, Barrister-at-Law, &c. Calcutta, 1867, pp. 125-127.

SOODRA, SOODER, s. Skt. _śudra_, [usually derived from root _śuć_, 'to be afflicted,' but probably of non-Aryan origin]. The (theoretical) Fourth Caste of the Hindus. In South India, there being no claimants of the 2nd or 3rd classes, the highest castes among the (so-called) _Śudras_ come next after the Brahmans in social rank, and _śudra_ is a note of respect, not of the contrary as in Northern India.

1630.—"The third Tribe or Cast, called the SHUDDERIES."—_Lord, Display_, &c., ch. xii.

1651.—"La quatrième lignée est celle des SOUDRAES; elle est composée du commun peuple: cette lignée a sous soy beaucoup et diverses familles, dont une chacune prétend surpasser l'autre...."—_Abr. Roger_, Fr. ed. 1670, p. 8.

[c. 1665.—"The fourth caste is called CHARADOS or SOUDRA."—_Tavernier_, ed. _Ball_, ii. 184.

[1667.—"... and fourthly, the tribe of SEYDRA, or artisans and labourers."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 325.]

1674.—"The ... CHUDRER (these are the Nayres)."—_Faria y Sousa_, ii. 710.

1717.—"The Brahmens and the _Tschuddirers_ are the proper persons to satisfy your Enquiries."—_Phillips, An Account of the Religion_, &c., 14.

1858.—"Such of the Aborigines as yet remained were formed into a fourth class, the ÇUDRA, a class which has no rights, but only duties."—_Whitney, Or. and Ling. Studies_, ii. 6.

1867.—"A Brahman does not stand aloof from a SOUDRA with a keener pride than a Greek Christian shows towards a Copt."—_Dixon, New America_, 7th ed. i. 276.

SOOJEE, SOOJY, s. Hind. _sūjī_, [which comes probably from Skt. _śuci_, 'pure']; a word curiously misinterpreted "the coarser part of pounded wheat") by the usually accurate Shakespear. It is, in fact, the fine flour, made from the heart of the wheat, used in India to make bread for European tables. It is prepared by grinding between two millstones which are not in close contact. [_Sūjī_ "is a granular meal obtained by moistening the grain overnight, then grinding it. The fine flour passes through a coarse sieve, leaving the SUJI and bran above. The latter is got rid of by winnowing, and the round, granular meal or SUJI, composed of the harder pieces of the grain, remains" (_Watt, Econ. Dict._ VI. pt. iv. 167).] It is the _semolina_ of Italy. Bread made from this was called in Low Latin _simella_; Germ. _Semmelbrödchen_, and old English _simnel-cakes_. A kind of porridge made with _soojee_ is often called _soojee_ simply. (See ROLONG.)

1810.—"Bread is not made of flour, but of the heart of the wheat, which is very fine, ground into what is called SOOJY.... SOOJY is frequently boiled into 'stirabout' for breakfast, and eaten with milk, salt, and butter; though some of the more zealous may be seen to moisten it with porter."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 135-136.

1878.—"SUJEE flour, ground coarse, and water."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. 213.

SOORKY, s. Pounded brick used to mix with lime to form a hydraulic mortar. Hind. from Pers. _surkhī_, 'red-stuff.'

c. 1770.—"The terrace roofs and floors of the rooms are laid with fine pulverized stones, which they call ZURKEE; these are mixed up with lime-water, and an inferior kind of molasses, and in a short time grow as hard and as smooth, as if the whole were one large stone."—_Stavorinus_, E.T. i. 514.

1777.—"The inquiry verified the information. We found a large group of miserable objects confined by order of Mr. Mills; some were simply so; some under sentence from him to beat SALKEY."—_Report of Impey and others_, quoted in _Stephen's Nuncomar and Impey_, ii. 201.

1784.—"One lack of 9-inch bricks, and about 1400 maunds of SOORKY."—_Notifn._ in _Seton-Karr_, i. 34; see also ii. 15.

1811.—"The road from Calcutta to Baracpore ... like all the Bengal roads it is paved with bricks, with a layer of SULKY, or broken bricks over them."—_Solvyns, Les Hindous_, iii. The word is misused as well as miswritten here. The substance in question is KHOA (q.v.).

SOORMA, s. Hind. from Pers. _surma_. Sulphuret of antimony, used for the purpose of darkening the eyes, _kuḥl_ of the Arabs, the _stimmi_ and _stibium_ of the ancients. With this Jezebel "painted her eyes" (2 _Kings_, ix. 30; _Jeremiah_, iv. 30 R.V.) "With it, I believe, is often confounded the sulphuret of lead, which in N. India is called _soormee_ (_ee_ is the feminine termination in Hindust.), and used as a substitute for the former: a mistake not of recent occurrence only, as Sprengel says, '_Distinguit vero Plinius marem a feminâ_'" (_Royle_, on _Ant. of Hindu Medicine_, 100). [See _Watt, Econ. Dict._ i. 271.]

[1766.—"The powder is called by them SURMA; which they pretend refreshes and cools the eye, besides exciting its lustre, by the ambient blackness."—_Grose_, 2nd ed. ii. 142.]

[1829.—"SOORMA, or the oxide of antimony, is found on the western frontier."—_Tod, Annals_, Calcutta reprint, i. 13.

[1832.—"SULMAH—A prepared permanent black dye, from antimony...."—_Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Observations_, ii. 72.]

SOOSIE, s. Hind. from Pers. _sūsī_. Some kind of silk cloth, but we know not what kind. [Sir G. Birdwood (_Industr. Arts_, 246) defines _sūsīs_ as "fine-coloured cloths, made chiefly at Battala and Sialkote, striped in the direction of the warp with silk, or cotton lines of a different colour, the cloth being called _dokanni_ [_dokhānī_], 'in two stripes' if the stripe has two lines, if three, _tinkanni_ [_tīnkhānī_], and so on." In the Punjab it is 'a striped stuff used for women's trousers. This is made of fine thread, and is one of the fabrics in which English thread is now largely used' (_Francis, Mon. on Cotton Manufactures_, 7). A silk fabric of the same name is made in the N.W.P., where it is classed as a variety of _chārkhāna_, or check (_Yusuf Ali, Mon. on Silk_, 93). Forbes Watson (_Textile Manufactures_, 85) speaks of _Sousee_ as chiefly employed for trousering, being a mixture of cotton and silk. The word seems to derive its origin from _Susa_, the Biblical _Shushan_, the capital of Susiana or Elam, and from the time of Darius I. the chief residence of the Achaemenian kings. There is ample evidence to show that fabrics from Babylon were largely exported in early times. Such was perhaps the "Babylonish garment" found at Ai (_Josh._ vii. 21), which the R.V. marg. translates as a "mantle of Shinar". This a writer in Smith's _Dict. of the Bible_ calls "robes trimmed with valuable furs, or the skins themselves ornamented with embroidery" (i. 452). These Babylonian fabrics have been often described (see _Layard, Nineveh and Babylon_, 537; _Maspero, Dawn of Civ._, 470, 758; _Encycl. Bibl._ ii. 1286 _seq._; _Frazer, Pausanias_, iii. 545 _seq._). An early reference to this old trade in costly cloths will be found in the quotation from the _Periplus_ under CHINA, which has been discussed by Sir H. Yule (_Introd._ to _Gill, River of Golden Sand_, ed. 1883, p. 88 _seq._). This _Sūsī_ cloth appears in a log of 1746 as SOACIE, and was known to the Portuguese in 1550 as SOAJES (_J. R. As. Soc._, Jan. 1900, p. 158.)]

[1667.—"... 2 patch of ye finest with what colours you thinke handsome for my own wear Chockoles and SUSAES."—In _Yule, Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. cclxii.

[1690.—"It (Suratt) is renown'd ... for SOOSEYS...."—_Ovington_, 218.

[1714-20.—In an inventory of Sir J. Fellowes: "A SUSA window-curtain."—2nd ser. _N. & Q._ vi. 244.]

1784.—"Four cassimeers of different colours; Patna dimity, and striped SOOSIES."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 42.

SOPHY, n.p. The name by which the King of Persia was long known in Europe—"The _Sophy_," as the Sultan of Turkey was "The Turk" or "Grand Turk," and the King of Delhi the "Great Mogul." This title represented _Sūfī_, _Safavī_, or _Safī_, the name of the dynasty which reigned over Persia for more than two centuries (1449-1722, nominally to 1736). The first king of the family was Isma'il, claiming descent from 'Ali and the Imāms, through a long line of persons of saintly reputation at Ardebil. The surname of Sūfī or Safī assumed by Isma'il is generally supposed to have been taken from Shaikh Safī-ud-dīn, the first of his more recent ancestors to become famous, and who belonged to the class of Sūfīs or philosophic devotees. After Isma'il the most famous of the dynasty was Shāh Abbās (1585-1629).

c. 1524.—"Susiana, quae est Shushan Palatium illud regni SOPHII."—_Abraham Peritsol_, in _Hyde, Syntagma Dissertt._ i. 76.

1560.—"De que o SUFI foy contente, e mandou gente em su ajuda."—_Terceiro_, ch. i.

" "Quae regiones nomine Persiae ei regnantur quem Turcae _Chislibas_, nos SOPHI vocamus."—_Busbeq. Epist._ iii. (171).

1561.—"The Queenes Maiesties _Letters to the great_ SOPHY _of Persia, sent by_ M. Anthonie Ienkinson.

"Elizabetha Dei gratia Angliae Franciae et Hiberinae Regina, &c. Potentissimo et inuictissimo Principi, Magno SOPHI Persarum, Medorum, Hircanorum, Carmanorum, Margianorum, populorum cis et vltra Tygrim fluuium, et omnium intra Mare Caspium et Persicum Sinum nationum atque Gentium Imperatori salutem et rerum prosperarum foelicissimum incrementum."—In _Hakl._ i. 381.

[1568.—"The King of Persia (whom here we call the great SOPHY) is not there so called, but is called the Shaugh. It were dangerous to call him by the name of SOPHY, because that SOPHY in the Persian tongue is a beggar, and it were as much as to call him The great beggar."—_Geffrey Ducket_, _ibid._ i. 447.]

1598.—"And all the Kings continued so with the name of Xa, which in Persia is a King, and Ishmael is a proper name, whereby Xa Ismael, and Xa Thamas are as much as to say King Ismael, and King Thamas, and of the Turkes and Rumes are called SUFFY or SOFFY, which signifieth a great Captaine."—_Linschoten_, ch. xxvii.; [Hak. Soc. i. 173].

1601.—"_Sir Toby._ Why, man, he's a very devil: I have not seen such a firago....

"They say, he has been fencer to the SOPHY."—_Twelfth Night_, III. iv.

[c. 1610.—"This King or SOPHY, who is called the Great Chaa."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. ii. 253.]

1619.—"Alla porta di Sciah SOFÌ, si sonarono nacchere tutto il giorno: ed insomma tutta la città e tutto il popolo andò in allegrezza, concorrendo infinita gente alla meschita di Schia SOFÌ, a far _Gratiarum

## actionem_."—_P. della Valle_, i. 808.

1626.—

"Were it to bring the Great Turk bound in chains Through France in triumph, or to couple up The SOPHY and great Prester-John together; I would attempt it." _Beaum. & Fletch., The Noble Gentleman_, v. 1.

c. 1630.—"Ismael at his Coronation proclaim'd himself King of _Persia_ by the name of _Pot-shaw_ (PADSHAW)-_Ismael_-SOPHY. Whence that word SOPHY was borrowed is much controverted. Whether it be from the Armenian idiom, signifying Wooll, of which the Shashes are made that ennobled his new order. Whether the name was from SOPHY his grandsire, or from the Greek word _Sophos_ imposed upon _Aydar_ at his conquest of _Trebizond_ by the Greeks there, I know not. Since then, many have called the Kings of Persia SOPHY'S: but I see no reason for it; since _Ismael's_ son, grand and great grandsons Kings of _Persia_ never continued that name, till this that now reigns, whose name indeed is _Soffee_, but casuall."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1638, 286.

1643.—"Y avoit vn Ambassadeur Persien qui auoit esté enuoyé en Europe de la part du Grand SOPHY Roy de Perse."—_Mocquet, Voyages_, 269.

1665.—

"As when the Tartar from his Russian foe, By Astracan, over the snowy plains Retires; or Bactrian SOPHY, from the horns Of Turkish crescent, leaves all waste beyond The realm of Aladule, in his retreat To Tauris or Casbeen...." _Paradise Lost_, x. 431 _seqq._

1673.—"But the SUFFEE'S Vicar-General is by his Place the Second Person in the Empire, and always the first Minister of State."—_Fryer_, 338.

1681.—"La quarta parte comprehende el Reyno de Persia, cuyo Señor se llama en estos tiempos, el Gran SOPHI."—_Martinez, Compendio_, 6.

1711.—"In Consideration of the Company's good Services ... they had half of the Customs of _Gombroon_ given them, and their successors, by a Firman from the SOPHI or Emperor."—_Lockyer_, 220.

1727.—"The whole Reign of the last _Sophi_ or King, was managed by such Vermin, that the _Ballowches_ and _Mackrans_ ... threw off the Yoke of Obedience first, and in full Bodies fell upon their Neighbours in _Caramania_."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 108; [ed. 1744, i. 105].

1815.—"The SUFFAVEAN monarchs were revered and deemed holy on account of their descent from a saint."—_Malcolm, H. of Pers._ ii. 427.

1828.—"It is thy happy destiny to follow in the train of that brilliant star whose light shall shed a lustre on Persia, unknown since the days of the earlier SOOFEES."—_J. B. Fraser, The Kuzzilbash_, i. 192.

SOUBA, SOOBAH, s. Hind. from Pers. _ṣūba_. A large Division or Province of the Mogul Empire (_e.g._ the _Ṣūbah_ of the Deccan, the _Ṣūbah_ of Bengal). The word is also frequently used as short for _Sūbadār_ (see SOUBADAR), 'the Viceroy' (over a _ṣūba_). It is also "among the Maraṭhas sometimes applied to a smaller division comprising from 5 to 8 _ṭarafs_" (_Wilson_).

c. 1594.—"In the fortieth year of his majesty's reign, his dominions consisted of 105 SIRCARS.... The empire was then parcelled into 12 grand divisions, and each was committed to the government of a SOOBADAR ... upon which occasion the Sovereign of the world distributed 12 Lacks of beetle. The names of the SOOBAHS were Allahabad, Agra, Owdh, Ajmeer, Ahmedabad, Bahar, Bengal, Dehly, Cabul, Lahoor, Multan, and Malwa: when his majesty conquered Berar, Khandeess, and Ahmednagur, they were formed into three SOOBAHS, increasing the number to 15."—_Ayeen_, ed. _Gladwin_, ii. 1-5; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 115].

1753.—"Princes of this rank are called SUBAHS. _Nizam al muluck_ was SUBAH of the _Decan_ (or Southern) provinces.... The Nabobs of _Condanore_, _Cudapah_, _Carnatica_, _Yalore_, &c., the Kings of _Tritchinopoly_, _Mysore_, _Tanjore_, are subject to this SUBAH-ship. Here is a subject ruling a larger empire than any in Europe, excepting that of the Muscovite."—_Orme, Fragments_, 398-399.

1760.—"Those Emirs or Nabobs, who govern great Provinces, are stiled SUBAHS, which imports the same as Lord-Lieutenants or Vice-Roys."—_Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal_, p. 6.

1763.—"From the word SOUBAH, signifying a province, the Viceroy of this vast territory (the Deccan) is called SOUBAHDAR, and by the Europeans improperly SOUBAH."—_Orme_, i. 35.

1765.—"Let us have done with this ringing of changes upon SOUBAHS; there's no end to it. Let us boldly dare to be SOUBAH ourselves...."—_Holwell, Hist. Events_, &c., i. 183.

1783.—"They broke their treaty with him, in which they stipulated to pay 400,000_l._ a year to the SUBAH of Bengal."—_Burke's Speech on Fox's India Bill, Works_, iii. 468.

1804.—"It is impossible for persons to have behaved in a more shuffling manner than the SOUBAH'S servants have...."—_Wellington_, ed. 1837, iii. 11.

1809.—"These (pillars) had been removed from a sacred building by Monsieur Dupleix, when he assumed the rank of SOUBAH."—_Lord Valentia_, i. 373.

1823.—"The Delhi Sovereigns whose vast empire was divided into SOUBAHS, or Governments, each of which was ruled by a SOUBAHDAR or Viceroy."—_Malcolm, Cent. India_, i. 2.

SOUBADAR, SUBADAR, s. Hind. from Pers. _ṣūbadār_, 'one holding a _ṣūba_' (see SOUBA).

A. The Viceroy, or Governor of a _ṣūba_.

B. A local commandant or chief officer.

C. The chief native officer of a company of Sepoys; under the original constitution of such companies, its actual captain.

A. See SOUBA.

B.—

1673.—"The SUBIDAR of the Town being a Person of Quality ... he (the Ambassador) thought good to give him a Visit."—_Fryer_, 77.

1805.—"The first thing that the SUBIDAR of Vire Rajendra Pettah did, to my utter astonishment, was to come up and give me such a shake by the hand, as would have done credit to a Scotsman."—Letter in _Leyden's Life_, 49.

C.—

1747.—"14th September.... Read the former from Tellicherry adviseing that ... in a day or two they shall despatch another SUBIDAR with 129 more Sepoys to our assistance."—MS. _Consultations at Fort St. David_, in _India Office_.

1760.—"One was the SUBAHDAR, equivalent to the Captain of a Company."—_Orme_, iii. 610.

c. 1785.—"... the SUBAHDARS or commanding officers of the black troops."—_Carraccioli, L. of Clive_, iii. 174.

1787.—"A Troop of Native Cavalry on the present Establishment consists of 1 European Subaltern, 1 European Serjeant, 1 SUBIDAR, 3 JEMADARS, 4 HAVILDARS, 4 Naiques (NAIK), 1 Trumpeter, 1 Farrier, and 68 Privates."—_Regns. for the Hon. Comp.'s Black Troops on the Coast of Coromandel_, &c., p. 6.

[SOUDAGUR, s. P.—H. _saudāgar_, Pers. _saudā_, 'goods for sale'; a merchant, trader; now very often applied to those who sell European goods in civil stations and cantonments.

[1608.—"... and kill the merchants (SODAGARES mercadores)."—_Livras das Moncoẽs_, i. 183.

[c. 1809.—"The term SOUDAGUR, which implies merely a principal merchant, is here (Behar) usually given to those who keep what the English of India call EUROPE shops; that is, shops where all sorts of goods imported from Europe, and chiefly consumed by Europeans, are retailed."—_Buchanan, Eastern India_, i. 375.

[c. 1817.—"This sahib was a very rich man, a SOUDAGUR...."—_Mrs. Sherwood, Last Days of Boosy_, 84.]

SOURSOP, s.

A. The fruit _Anona muricata_, L., a variety of the CUSTARD APPLE. This kind is not well known on the Bengal side of India, but it is completely naturalised at Bombay. The terms _soursop_ and _sweetsop_ are, we believe, West Indian.

B. In a note to the passage quoted below, Grainger identifies the _soursop_ with the _suirsack_ of the Dutch. But in this, at least as regards use in the East Indies, there is some mistake. The latter term, in old Dutch writers on the East, seems always to apply to the Common JACK fruit, the 'sourjack,' in fact, as distinguished from the superior kinds, especially the _champada_ of the Malay Archipelago.

A.—

1764.—

"... a neighbouring hill Which Nature to the SOURSOP had resigned." _Grainger_, Bk. 2.

B.—

1659.—"There is another kind of tree (in Ceylon) which they call SURSACK ... which has leaves like a laurel, and bears its fruit, not like other trees on twigs from the branches, but on the trunk itself...." &c.—_Saar_, ed. 1672, p. 84.

1661.—Walter Schulz says that the famous fruit Jaka was called by the Netherlanders in the Indies SOORSACK.—p. 236.

1675.—"The whole is planted for the most part with coco-palms, mangoes, and SUURSACKS."—_Ryklof van Goens_, in _Valentijn, Ceylon_, 223.

1768-71.—"The SURSAK-tree has a fruit of a similar kind with the durioon (DURIAN), but it is not accompanied by such a fetid smell."—_Stavorinus_, E.T. i. 236.

1778.—"The one which yields smaller fruit, without seed, I found at Columbo, Gale, and several other places. The name by which it is properly known here is the _Maldivian_ SOUR SACK, and its use here is less universal than that of the other sort, which ... weighs 30 or 40 lbs."—_Thunberg_, E.T. iv. 255.

[1833.—"Of the eatable fruited kinds above referred to, the most remarkable are the SWEETSOP, SOUR SOP, and cherimoyer...."—_Penny Cycl._ ii. 54.]

SOWAR, SUWAR, s. Pers. _sawār_, 'a horseman.' A native cavalry soldier; a mounted orderly. In the Greek provinces in Turkey, the word is familiar in the form σουβάρις, pl. σουβαρίδες, for a mounted gendarme. [The regulations for _suwārs_ in the Mogul armies are given by _Blochmann_, _Āīn_, i. 244 _seq._]

1824-5.—"... The SOWARS who accompanied him."—_Heber_, Orig. i. 404.

1827.—"Hartley had therefore no resource save to keep his eye steadily fixed on the lighted match of the SOWAR ... who rode before him."—_Sir W. Scott, The Surgeon's Daughter_, ch. xiii.

[1830.—"... Meerza, an ASSWAR well known on the Collector's establishment."—_Or. Sport. Mag._ reprint 1873, i. 390.]

SOWAR, SHOOTER-, s. Hind. from Pers. _shutur-sawār_, the rider of a dromedary or swift camel. Such riders are attached to the establishment of the Viceroy on the march, and of other high officials in Upper India. The word _sowar_ is quite misused by the Great Duke in the passage below, for a camel-_driver_, a sense it never has. The word written, or intended, may however have been SURWAUN (q.v.)

[1815.—"As we approached the camp his oont-SURWARS (camel-riders) went ahead of us."—_Journal, Marquess of Hastings_, i. 337.]

1834.—"I ... found a fresh horse at Sufter Jung's tomb, and at the Kutub (COOTUB) a couple of riding camels and an attendant SHUTUR SUWAR."—_Mem. of Col. Mountain_, 129.

[1837.—"There are twenty SHOOTER SUWARS (I have not an idea how I ought to spell those words), but they are native soldiers mounted on swift camels, very much _trapped_, and two of them always ride before our carriage."—_Miss Eden, Up the Country_, i. 31.]

1840.—"Sent a SHUTA SARWAR (camel driver) off with an express to Simla."—_Osborne, Court and Camp of Runj. Singh_, 179.

1842.—"At Peshawur, it appears by the papers I read last night, that they have camels, but no SOWARS, or drivers."—Letter of _D. of Wellington_, in _Indian Administration of Ld. Ellenborough_, 228.

1857.—"I have given general notice of the SHUTUR SOWAR going into Meerut to all the Meerut men."—_H. Greathed's Letters during Siege of Delhi_, 42.

SOWARRY, SUWARREE, s. Hind. from Pers. _sawārī_. A cavalcade, a cortège of mounted attendants.

1803.—"They must have tents, elephants, and other SEWARY; and must have with them a sufficient body of troops to guard their persons."—_A. Wellesley_, in _Life of Munro_, i. 346.

1809.—"He had no SAWARRY."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 388.

1814.—"I was often reprimanded by the Zemindars and native officers, for leaving the SUWARREE, or state attendants, at the outer gate of the city, when I took my evening excursion."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ iii. 420; [2nd ed. ii. 372].

[1826.—"The 'ASWARY,' or suite of Trimbuckje, arrived at the palace."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, i. 119.]

1827.—"Orders were given that on the next day all should be in readiness for the SOWARREE, a grand procession, when the Prince was to receive the Begum as an honoured guest."—_Sir Walter Scott, The Surgeon's Daughter_, ch. xiv.

c. 1831.—"Je tâcherai d'éviter toute la poussière de ces immenses SOWARRIS."—_Jacquemont, Corresp._ ii. 121.

[1837.—"The Raja of Benares came with a very magnificent SURWARREE of elephants and camels."—_Miss Eden, Up the Country_, i. 35.]

SOWARRY CAMEL, s. A swift or riding camel. See SOWAR, SHOOTER-.

1835.—"'I am told you dress a camel beautifully,' said the young Princess, 'and I was anxious to ... ask you to instruct my people how to attire a SAWĀRĪ CAMEL.' This was flattering me on a very weak point: there is but one thing in the world that I perfectly understand, and that is how to dress a camel."—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 36.

SOWCAR, s. Hind. _sāhūkār_; alleged to be from Skt. _sādhu_, 'right,' with the Hind. affix _kār_, 'doer'; Guj. Mahr. _sāvakār_. A native banker; corresponding to the CHETTY of S. India.

1803.—"You should not confine your dealings to one SOUCAR. Open a communication with every SOUCAR in Poonah, and take money from any man who will give it you for bills."—_Wellington, Desp._, ed. 1837, ii. 1.

1826.—"We were also SAHOUKARS, and granted bills of exchange upon Bombay and Madras, and we advanced moneys upon interest."—_Pandurang Hari_, 174; [ed. 1873, i. 251].

[In the following the word is confounded with SOWAR:

[1877.—"It was the habit of the SOWARS, as the goldsmiths are called, to bear their wealth upon their persons."—_Mrs. Guthrie, My Year in an Indian Fort_, i. 294.]

SOY, s. A kind of condiment once popular. The word is Japanese _si-yau_ (a young Japanese fellow-passenger gave the pronunciation clearly as _sho-yu_.—A. B.), Chin. _shi-yu_. [Mr. Platts (9 ser. _N. & Q._ iv. 475) points out that in Japanese as written with the native character _soy_ would not be _siyau_, but _siyau-yu_; in the Romanised Japanese this is simplified to _shoyu_ (colloquially this is still further reduced, by dropping the final vowel, to _shoy_ or _soy_). Of this monosyllable only the _so_ represents the classical _siyau_; the final consonant (_y_) is a relic of the termination _yu_. The Japanese word is itself derived from the Chinese, which at Shanghai is _sze-yu_, at Amoy, _si-iu_, at Canton, _shi-yau_, of which the first element means 'salted beans,' or other fruits, dried and used as condiments; the second element merely means 'oil.'] It is made from the beans of a plant common in the Himālaya and E. Asia, and much cultivated, viz. _Glycine Soja_, Sieb. and Zucc. (_Soya hispida_, Moench.), boiled down and fermented. [In India the bean is eaten in places where it is cultivated, as in Chutia Nāgpur (_Watt, Econ. Dict._ iii. 510 _seq._)]

1679.—"... Mango and SAIO, two sorts of sauces brought from the East Indies."—_Journal of John Locke_, in _Ld. King's Life of L._, i. 249.

1688.—"I have been told that SOY is made with a fishy composition, and it seems most likely by the Taste; tho' a Gentleman of my Acquaintance who was very intimate with one that sailed often from Tonquin to Japan, from whence the true _Soy_ comes, told me that it was made only with Wheat and a sort of Beans mixt with Water and Salt."—_Dampier_, ii. 28.

1690.—"... SOUY, the choicest of all Sawces."—_Ovington_, 397.

1712.—"Hoc legumen in coquinâ Japonicâ utramque replet paginam; ex eo namque conficitur: tum puls _Miso_ dicta, quae ferculis pro consistentiâ, et butyri loco additur, butyrum enim hôc coelô res ignota est; tum SOOJU dictum embamma, quod nisi ferculis, certè frictis et assatis omnibus affunditur."—_Kaempfer, Amoen. Exot._ p. 839.

1776.—An elaborate account of the preparation of Soy is given by _Thunberg, Travels_, E.T. iv. 121-122; and more briefly by Kaempfer on the page quoted above.

[1900.—"Mushrooms shred into small pieces, flavoured with _shoyu_" (SOY).—_Mrs. Frazer, A Diplomatist's Wife in Japan_, i. 238.]

SPIN, s. An unmarried lady; popular abbreviation of 'Spinster.' [The Port. equivalent _soltera_ (_soltiera_) was used in a derogatory sense (_Gray_, note on _Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. ii. 128).]

SPONGE-CAKE, s. This well-known form of cake is called throughout Italy _pane di Spagna_, a fact that suggested to us the possibility that the English name is really a corruption of _Spanish-cake_. The name in Japan tends to confirm this, and must be our excuse for introducing the term here.

1880.—"There is a cake called _kasateira_ resembling SPONGE-CAKE.... It is said to have been introduced by the Spaniards, and that its name is a corruption of _Castilla_."—_Miss Bird's Japan_, i. 235.

SPOTTED-DEER, s. _Axis maculatus_ of Gray; [_Cervus axis_ of Blanford (_Mammalia_, 546)]; Hind. _chītal_, Skt. _chitra_, 'spotted.'

1673.—"The same Night we travelled easily to Megatana, using our Fowling-Pieces all the way, being here presented with Rich Game, as Peacocks, Doves, and Pigeons, _Chitrels_, or SPOTTED DEER."—_Fryer_, 71.

[1677.—"SPOTTED DEARE we shall send home, some by y^e Europe ships, if they touch here."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, i. 140.]

1679.—"There being conveniency in this place for ye breeding up of SPOTTED DEER, which the Hon'ble Company doe every yeare order to be sent home for His Majesty, it is ordered that care be taken to breed them up in this Factory (Madapollam), to be sent home accordingly."—_Ft. St. George Council_ (on Tour), 16th April, in _Notes and Exts., Madras_, 1871.

1682.—"This is a fine pleasant situation, full of great shady trees, most of them _Tamarins_, well stored with peacocks and SPOTTED DEER like our fallow-deer."—_Hedges, Diary_, Oct. 16; [Hak. Soc. i. 39].

SQUEEZE, s. This is used in Anglo-Chinese talk for an illegal exaction. It is, we suppose, the translation of a Chinese expression. It corresponds to the _malatolta_ of the Middle Ages, and to many other slang phrases in many tongues.

1882.—"If the licence (of the Hong merchants) ... was costly, it secured to them uninterrupted and extraordinary pecuniary advantages; but on the other hand it subjected them to 'calls' or 'SQUEEZES' for contributions to public works, ... for the relief of districts suffering from scarcity ... as well as for the often imaginary ... damage caused by the overflowing of the 'Yangtse Keang' or the 'Yellow River.'"—_The Fankwae at Canton_, p. 36.

STATION, s. A word of constant recurrence in Anglo-Indian colloquial. It is the usual designation of the place where the English officials of a district, or the officers of a garrison (not in a fortress) reside. Also the aggregate society of such a place.

[1832.—"The nobles and gentlemen are frequently invited to witness a 'STATION ball.'..."—_Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, Observations_, i. 196.]

1866.—

"And if I told how much I ate at one Mofussil STATION, I'm sure 'twould cause at home a most extraordinary sensation." _Trevelyan, The Dawk Bungalow_, in _Fraser_, lxxiii. p. 391.

" "Who asked the STATION to dinner, and allowed only one glass of SIMKIN to each guest."—_Ibid._ 231.

STEVEDORE, s. One employed to stow the cargo of a ship and to unload it. The verb _estivar_ [Lat. _stipare_] is used both in Sp. and Port. in the sense of stowing cargo, implying originally to pack close, as to press wool. _Estivador_ in the sense of a wool-packer only is given in the Sp. Dictionaries, but no doubt has been used in every sense of _estivar_. See _Skeat_, s.v.

STICK-INSECT, s. The name commonly applied to certain orthopterous insects, of the family _Phasmidae_, which have the strongest possible resemblance to dry twigs or pieces of stick, sometimes 6 or 7 inches in length.

1754.—"The other remarkable animal which I met with at _Cuddalore_ was the ANIMATED STALK, of which there are different kinds. Some appear like dried straws tied together, others like grass...."—_Ives_, 20.

1860.—"The STICK-INSECT.—The _Phasmidae_ or spectres ... present as close a resemblance to small branches, or leafless twigs, as their congeners do to green leaves...."—_Tennent, Ceylon_, i. 252.

[STICKLAC, s. LAC encrusted on sticks, which in this form is collected in the jungles of Central India.

[1880.—"Where, however, there is a regular trade in STICK-LAC, the propagation of the insect is systematically carried on by those who wish for a certain and abundant crop."—_Ball, Jungle Life_, 308.]

STINK-WOOD, s. _Foetidia Mauritiana_, Lam., a myrtaceous plant of Mauritius, called there _Bois puant_. "At the Carnival in Goa, one of the sports is to drop bits of this STINK-WOOD into the pockets of respectable persons."—_Birdwood_ (MS.).

STRIDHANA, STREEDHANA, s. Skt. _stri-dhana_, 'women's property.' A term of Hindu Law, applied to certain property belonging to a woman, which follows a law of succession different from that which regulates other property. The term is first to be found in the works of Jones and Colebrooke (1790-1800), but has recently been introduced into European scientific treatises. [See Mayne, _Hindu Law_, 541 _seqq._]

1875.—"The settled property of a married woman ... is well known to the Hindoos under the name of STRIDHAN."—_Maine, Early Institutions_, 321.

STUPA. See TOPE.

SUÁKIN, n.p. This name, and the melancholy victories in its vicinity, are too familiar now to need explanation. Arab. _Sawákin_.

c. 1331.—"This very day we arrived at the island of SAWĀKIN. It is about 6 miles from the mainland, and has neither drinkable water, nor corn, nor trees. Water is brought in boats, and there are cisterns to collect rain water...."—_Ibn Batuta_, ii. 161-2.

1526.—"The Preste continued speaking with our people, and said to Don Rodrigo that he would have great pleasure and complete contentment, if he saw a fort of ours erected in Macuha, or in ÇUAQUEM, or in Zyla."—_Correa_, iii. 42; [see _Dalboquerque, Comm._ ii. 229].

[c. 1590.—"... thence it (the sea) washes both Persia and Ethiopia where are Dahlak and SUAKIN, and is called (the Gulf of) Omán and the Persian Sea."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 121.]

SUCKER-BUCKER, n.p. A name often given in N. India to Upper Sind, from two neighbouring places, viz., the town of _Sakhar_ on the right bank of the Indus, and the island fortress of _Bakkar_ or _Bhakkar_ in the river. An alternative name is _Roree-Bucker_, from _Rohrī_, a town opposite Bakkar, on the left bank, the name of which is probably a relic of the ancient town of _Arōr_ or _Alōr_, though the site has been changed since the Indus adopted its present bed. [See _McCrindle, Invasion of India_, 352 _seqq._]

c. 1333.—"I passed 5 days at Lāharī ... and quitted it to proceed to BAKĀR. They thus call a fine town through which flows a canal derived from the river Sind."—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 114-115.

1521.—Shah Beg "then took his departure for BHAKKAR, and after several days' marching arrived at the plain surrounding SAKHAR."—_Turkhān Nāma_, in _Elliot_, i. 311.

1554.—"After a thousand sufferings we arrived at the end of some days' journey, at Siāwan (_Sehwan_), and then, passing by Patara and Darilja, we entered the fortress of BAKR."—_Sidi 'Ali_, p. 136.

[c. 1590.—"BHAKKAR (Bhukkar) is a notable fortress; in ancient chronicles it is called Mamṣúrah."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 327.]

1616.—"BUCKOR, the Chiefe Citie, is called BUCKOR SUCCOR."—_Terry_, [ed. 1777, p. 75].

1753.—"Vient ensuite BUKOR, ou comme il est écrit dans la Géographie Turque, PEKER, ville située sur une colline, entre deux bras de l'Indus, qui en font une île ... la géographie ... ajoute que _Louhri_ (_i.e._ Rori) est une autre ville située vis-à-vis de cette île du côté meridional, et que SEKAR, autrement SUKOR, est en même position du còté septentrional."—_D'Anville_, p. 37.

SUCKET, s. Old English. Wright explains the word as 'dried sweetmeats or sugar-plums.' Does it not in the quotations rather mean _loaf-sugar_? [Palmer (_Folk Etymol._ 378) says that the original meaning was a 'slice of melon or gourd,' Ital. _zuccata_, 'a kind of meat made of Pumpions or Gourdes' (Florio) from _zucca_, 'a gourd or pumpkin,' which is a shortened form of _cucuzza_, a corruption of Lat. _cucurbita_ (_Diez_). This is perhaps the same word which appears in the quotation from Linschoten below, where the editor suggests that it is derived from Mahr. _sukaṭa_, 'slightly dried, desiccated,' and Sir H. Yule suggests a corruption of H. _sonṭh_, 'dried ginger.']

[1537.—"... packed in a fraile, two little barrels of SUCKAT...."—_Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ xii. pt. i. 451.]

1584.—"White SUCKET from Zindi" (_i.e._ Sind) "Cambaia, and China."—_Barret_, in _Hakl._ ii. 412.

[1598.—"Ginger by the Arabians, Persians and Turkes is called Gengibil (see GINGER), in Gusurate, Decan, and Bengala, when it is fresh and green Adrac, and when dried SUKTE."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. ii. 79.]

c. 1620-30.—

"... For this, This Candy wine, three merchants were undone; These SUCKETS brake as many more." _Beaum. and Fletch., The Little French Lawyer_, i. 1.

SUCLÁT, SACKCLOTH, &c., s. Pers. _saḳallāṭ_, _saḳallaṭ_, _saḳlaṭīn_, _saḳlāṭūn_, applied to certain woollen stuffs, and particularly now to European broadcloth. It is sometimes defined as _scarlet_ broad cloth; but though this colour is frequent, it does not seem to be essential to the name. [_Scarlet_ was the name of a material long before it denoted a colour. In the Liberate Roll of 14 Hen. III. (1230, quoted in _N. & Q._ 8 ser. i. 129) we read of _sanguine scarlet_, brown, red, white and scarlet _coloris de Marble_.] It has, however, been supposed that our word _scarlet_ comes from some form of the present word (see _Skeat_, s.v. _Scarlet_).[248] But the fact that the Arab. dictionaries give a form _saḳirlāṭ_ must not be trusted to. It is a modern form, probably taken from the European word, [as according to Skeat, the Turkish _iskerlat_ is merely borrowed from the Ital. _scarlatto_].

The word is found in the medieval literature of Europe in the form _siclatoun_, a term which has been the subject of controversy both as to etymology and to exact meaning (see _Marco Polo_, Bk. i. ch. 58, _notes_). Among the conjectures as to etymology are a derivation from Ar. _ṣaḳl_, 'polishing' (see SICLEEGUR); from Sicily (Ar. _Ṣiḳiliya_); and from the Lat. _cyclas_, _cycladatus_. In the Arabic _Vocabulista_ of the 13th century (Florence, 1871), SIḲLAṬŪN is translated by _ciclas_. The conclusion come to in the note on _Marco Polo_, based, partly but not entirely, on the modern meaning of _saḳallāṭ_, was that _saḳlāṭūn_ was probably a light woollen texture. But Dozy and De Jong give it as _étoffe de_ soie, _brochée d'or_, and the passage from Edrisi supports this undoubtedly. To the north of India the name _suklāt_ is given to a stuff imported from the borders of China.

1040.—"The robes were then brought, consisting of valuable frocks of SAKLÁTÚN of various colours...."—_Baihaki_, in _Elliot_, ii. 148.

c. 1150.—"Almeria (_Almarīa_) was a Musulman city at the time of the Moravidae. It was then a place of great industry, and reckoned, among others, 800 silk looms, where they manufactured costly robes, brocades, the stuffs known as SAḲLĀṬŪN _Isfahānī_ ... and various other silk tissues."—_Edrisi_ (Joubert), ii. 40.

c. 1220.—"Tabrīz. The chief city of Azarbaijān.... They make there the stuffs called _'attābī_ (see TABBY), SIḲLĀṬŪN, _Khiṭābī_, fine satins and other textures which are exported everywhere."—_Yāḳūt_, in _Barbier de Meynard_, i. 133.

c. 1370?—

"His heer, his berd, was lyk saffroun That to his girdel raughte adoun Hise shoos of Cordewane, Of Brugges were his hosen broun His Robe was of SYKLATOUN That coste many a Jane." _Chaucer, Sir Thopas_, 4 (_Furnival_, Ellesmere Text).

c. 1590.—"SUḲLĀṬ-_i-Rūmī o Farangī o Purtagālī_"

(Broadcloth of Turkey, of Europe, and of Portugal)....—_Āīn_ (orig.) i. 110. Blochmann renders '_Scarlet_ Broadcloth' (see above). [The same word, _suḳlāṭī_, is used later on of 'woollen stuffs' made in Kashmīr (_Jarrett, Āīn_, ii. 355).]

1673.—"_Suffahaun_ is already full of London Cloath, or SACKCLOATH _Londre_, as they call it."—_Fryer_, 224.

" "His Hose of London SACKCLOTH of any Colour."—_Ibid._ 391.

[1840.—"... his simple dress of SOOKLAAT and flat black woollen cap...."—_Lloyd, Gerard, Narr._ i. 167.]

1854.—"List of Chinese articles brought to India.... SUKLAT, a kind of camlet made of camel's hair."—_Cunningham's Ladak_, 242.

1862.—"In this season travellers wear garments of sheep-skin with sleeves, the fleecy side inwards, and the exterior covered with SOOKLAT, or blanket."—_Punjab Trade Report_, 57.

" "BROADCLOTH (Europe), ('SUKLAT,' 'Mahoot')."—_Ibid._ _App._ p. ccxxx.

SUDDEN DEATH. Anglo-Indian slang for a fowl served as a spatchcock, the standing dish at a dawk-bungalow in former days. The bird was caught in the yard, as the traveller entered, and was on the table by the time he had bathed and dressed.

[c. 1848.—"'SUDDEN DEATH' means a young chicken about a month old, caught, killed, and grilled at the shortest notice."—_Berncastle, Voyage to China_, i. 193.]

SUDDER, adj., but used as s. Literally 'chief,' being Ar. _ṣadr_. This term had a technical application under Mahommedan rule to a chief Judge, as in the example quoted below. The use of the word seems to be almost confined to the Bengal Presidency. Its principal applications are the following:

A. SUDDER BOARD. This is the 'Board of Revenue,' of which there is one at Calcutta, and one in the N.W. Provinces at Allahabad. There is a Board of Revenue at Madras, but not called 'SUDDER Board' there.

B. SUDDER COURT, _i.e._ 'Sudder ADAWLUT' (_ṣadr 'adālat_). This was till 1862, in Calcutta and in the N.W.P., the chief court of appeal from the MOFUSSIL or District Courts, the Judges being members of the Bengal Civil Service. In the year named the Calcutta Sudder Court was amalgamated with the Supreme Court (in which English Law had been administered by English Barrister-Judges), the amalgamated Court being entitled the _High Court of Judiciary_. A similar Court also superseded the Sudder Adawlut in the N.W.P.

C. SUDDER AMEEN, _i.e._ chief AMEEN (q.v.). This was the designation of the second class of native Judge in the classification which was superseded in Bengal by Act XVI. of 1868, in Bombay by Act XIV. of 1869, and in Madras by

## Act III. of 1873. Under that system the highest rank of native Judge was

PRINCIPAL SUDDER AMEEN; the 2nd rank, SUDDER AMEEN; the 3rd, MOONSIFF. In the new classification there are in Bengal Subordinate Judges of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade, and Munsiffs (see MOONSIFF) of 4 grades; in Bombay, Subordinate Judges of the 1st class in 3 grades, and 2nd class in 4 grades; and in Madras Subordinate Judges in 3 grades, and Munsiffs in 4 grades.

D. SUDDER STATION. The chief station of a district, viz. that where the Collector, Judge, and other chief civil officials reside, and where their Courts are.

c. 1340.—"The ṢADR-_Jihān_ ('Chief of the Word') _i.e._ the ḲAḌĪ-_al-Kuḍāt_ ('Judge of Judges') (CAZEE) ... possesses ten townships, producing a revenue of about 60,000 TANKAS. He is also called ṢADR-AL-_Islām_."—_Shihābuddīn Dimishkī_, in _Notes et Exts._ xiii. 185.

SUFEENA, s. Hind. _safīna_. This is the native corr. of _subpoena_. It is shaped, but not much distorted, by the existence in Hind. of the Ar. word _safīna_ for 'a blank-book, a note-book.'

SUGAR, s. This familiar word is of Skt. origin. _Sarkara_ originally signifies 'grit or gravel,' thence crystallised sugar, and through a Prakrit form _sakkara_ gave the Pers. _shakkar_, the Greek σάκχαρ and σάκχαρον, and the late Latin _saccharum_. The Ar. is _sukkar_, or with the article _as-sukkar_, and it is probable that our modern forms, It. _zucchero_ and _succhero_, Fr. _sucre_, Germ. _Zucker_, Eng. _sugar_, came as well as the Sp. _azucar_, and Port. _assucar_, from the Arabic direct, and not through Latin or Greek. The Russian is _sakhar_; Polish _zukier_; Hung. _zukur_. In fact the ancient knowledge of the product was slight and vague, and it was by the Arabs that the cultivation of the sugar-cane was introduced into Egypt, Sicily, and Andalusia. It is possible indeed, and not improbable, that palm-sugar (see JAGGERY) is a much older product than that of the cane. [This is disputed by Watt (_Econ. Dict._ vi. pt. i. p. 31), who is inclined to fix the home of the cane in E. India.] The original habitat of the cane is not known; there is only a slight and doubtful statement of Loureiro, who, in speaking of Cochin-China, uses the words "habitat et colitur," which may imply its existence in a wild state, as well as under cultivation, in that country. De Candolle assigns its earliest production to the country extending from Cochin-China to Bengal.

Though, as we have said, the knowledge which the ancients had of sugar was very dim, we are disposed greatly to question the thesis, which has been so confidently maintained by Salmasius and later writers, that the original _saccharon_ of Greek and Roman writers was not sugar but the siliceous concretion sometimes deposited in bamboos, and used in medieval medicine under the name TABASHEER (q.v.) (where see a quotation from Royle, taking the same view). It is just possible that Pliny in the passage quoted below may have jumbled up two different things, but we see no sufficient evidence even of this. In White's Latin Dict. we read that by the word _saccharon_ is meant (not sugar but) "a sweet juice distilling from the joints of the bamboo." This is nonsense. There is no such sweet juice distilled from the joints of the bamboo; nor is the substance _tabashīr_ at all sweet. On the contrary it is slightly bitter and physicky in taste, with no approach to sweetness. It is a hydrate of silica. It could never have been called "honey" (see Dioscorides and Pliny below); and the name of _bamboo-sugar_ appears to have been given it by the Arabs merely because of some resemblance of its concretions to lumps of sugar. [The same view is taken in the _Encycl. Brit._ 9th ed. xxii. 625, quoting _Not. et Extr._, xxv. 267.] All the erroneous notices of σάκχαρον seem to be easily accounted for by lack of knowledge; and they are exactly paralleled by the loose and inaccurate stories about the origin of camphor, of lac, and what-not, that may be found within the boards of this book.

In the absence or scarcity of sugar, honey was the type of sweetness, and hence the name of _honey_ applied to sugar in several of these early extracts. This phraseology continued down to the Middle Ages, at least in its application to uncrystallised products of the sugar-cane, and analogous substances. In the quotation from Pegolotti we apprehend that his three kinds of honey indicate honey, treacle, and a syrup or treacle made from the sweet pods of the carob-tree.

Sugar does not seem to have been in early Chinese use. The old Chinese books often mention _shi-mi_ or 'stone-honey' as a product of India and Persia. In the reign of Taitsung (627-650) a man was sent to Gangetic India to learn the art of sugar-making; and Marco Polo below mentions the introduction from Egypt of the further art of refining it. In India now, _Chīnī_ (CHEENY) (Chinese) is applied to the whiter kinds of common sugar; _Miṣrī_ (MISREE) or Egyptian, to sugar-candy; loaf-sugar is called _ḳand_.

c. A.D. 60.—

"Quâque ferens rapidum diviso gurgite fontem Vastis Indus aquis mixtum non sentit Hydaspen: Quique bibunt tenerâ dulcis ab arundine succos...." _Lucan_, iii. 235.

" "Aiunt inveniri apud Indos mel in arundinum foliis, quod aut nos illius cœli, aut ipsius arundinis humor dulcis et pinguis gignat."—_Seneca, Epist._ lxxxiv.

c. A.D. 65.—"It is called σάκχαρον, and is a kind of honey which solidifies in India, and in Arabia Felix; and is found upon canes, in its substance resembling salt, and crunched by the teeth as salt is. Mixed with water and drunk, it is good for the belly and stomach, and for affections of the bladder and kidneys."—_Dioscorides, Mat. Med._ ii. c. 104.

c. A.D. 70.—"SACCHARON et Arabia fert, sed laudatius India. Est autem mel in harundinibus collectum, cummium modo candidum, dentibus fragile, amplissimum nucis abellanae magnitudine, ad medicinae tantum usum."—_Plin. Hist. Nat._ xii. 8.

c. 170.—"But all these articles are hotter than is desirable, and so they aggravate fevers, much as wine would. But _oxymeli_ alone does not aggravate fever, whilst it is an active purgative.... Not undeservedly, I think, that SACCHARUM may also be counted among things of this quality...."—_Galen, Methodus Medendi_, viii.

c. 636.—"In Indicis stagnis nasci arundines calamique dicuntur, ex quorum radicibus expressum suavissimum succum bibunt. Vnde et Varro ait:

Indica non magno in arbore crescit arundo; Illius et lentis premitur radicibus humor, Dulcia qui nequeant succo concedere mella." _Isidori Hispalensis Originum_, Lib. xvii. cap. vii.

c. 1220.—"Sunt insuper in Terra (Sancta) _canamellae_ de quibus ZUCCHARA ex compressione eliquatur."—_Jacobi Vitriaci, Hist. Jherosolym_, cap. lxxxv.

1298.—"Bangala est une provence vers midi.... Il font grant merchandie, car il ont espi e galanga e gingiber e SUCCARE et de maintes autres chieres espices."—_Marco Polo_, Geog. Text, ch. cxxvi.

1298.—"Je voz di que en ceste provences" (Quinsai or Chekiang) "naist et se fait plus SUCAR que ne fait en tout le autre monde, et ce est encore grandissime vente."—_Ibid._ ch. cliii.

1298.—"And before this city" (a place near Fu-chau) "came under the Great Can these people knew not how to make fine SUGAR (_zucchero_); they only used to boil and skim the juice, which, when cold, left a black paste. But after they came under the Great Can some men of Babylonia" (_i.e._ of Cairo) "who happened to be at the Court proceeded to this city and taught the people to refine SUGAR with the ashes of certain trees."—_Idem,_ in _Ramusio_, ii. 49.

c. 1343.—"In Cyprus the following articles are sold by the hundred-weight (_cantara di peso_) and at a price in besants: Round pepper, sugar in powder (_polvere di_ ZUCCHERO) ... sugars in loaves (ZUCCHERI _in pani_), bees' honey, sugar-cane honey, and carob-honey (_mele d'ape_, _mele di cannameli_, _mele di carrube_)...."—_Pegolotti_, 64.

" "Loaf sugars are of several sorts, viz. ZUCCHERO _muchhera_, _caffettino_, and _bambillonia_; and _musciatto_, and _dommaschino_; and the _mucchera_ is the best sugar there is; for it is more thoroughly boiled, and its paste is whiter, and more solid, than any other sugar; it is in the form of the _bambillonia_ sugar like this Δ; and of this _mucchara_ kind but little comes to the west, because nearly the whole is kept for the mouth and for the use of the Soldan himself.

"ZUCCHERO _caffettino_ is the next best after the _muccara_ ...

"ZUCCHERO _Bambillonia_ is the best next after the best _caffettino_.

"ZUCCHERO _musciatto_ is the best after that of _Bambillonia_.

* * * * *

"ZUCCHERO _chandi_, the bigger the pieces are, and the whiter, and the brighter, so much is it the better and finer, and there should not be too much small stuff.

"Powdered sugars are of many kinds, as of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of the Cranco of Monreale, and of Alexandria; and they are all made originally in entire loaves; but as they are not so thoroughly done, as the other sugars that keep their loaf shape ... the loaves tumble to pieces, and return to powder, and so it is called powdered sugar ..." (and a great deal more).—_Ibid._ 362-365. We cannot interpret most of the names in the preceding extract. _Bambillonia_ is 'Sugar of Babylon,' _i.e._ of Cairo, and _Dommaschino_ of Damascus. _Mucchera_ (see CANDY (SUGAR), the second quotation), _Caffettino_, and _Musciatto_, no doubt all represent Arabic terms used in the trade at Alexandria, but we cannot identify them.

c. 1345.—"J'ai vu vendre dans le Bengale ... un _rithl_ (ROTTLE) de sucre (AL-SUKKAR), poids de Dihly, pour quatre drachmes."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 211.

1516.—"Moreover they make in this city (Bengala, _i.e._ probably Chittagong) much and good white cane SUGAR (AÇUQUERE _branco de canas_), but they do not know how to consolidate it and make loaves of it, so they wrap up the powder in certain wrappers of raw hide, very well stitched up; and make great loads of it, which are despatched for sale to many parts, for it is a great traffic."—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. 362.

[1630.—"Let us have a word or two of the prices of SUGER and SUGER CANDY."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, i. 5.]

1807.—"Chacun sait que par effet des regards de Farid, des monceaux de terre se changeaient en sucre. Tel est le motif du surnom de SCHAKAR _ganj_, 'tresor de sucre' qui lui a été donné."—_Arāish-i-Maḥfil_, quoted by _Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Mus._ 95. (This is the saint, Farīd-uddīn Shakarganj (d. A.D. 1268) whose shrine is at _Pāk Pattan_ in the Punjab.) [See _Crooke, Popular Religion_, &c. i. 214 _seqq._]

1810.—"Although the sugar cane is supposed by many to be indigenous in India, yet it has only been within the last 50 years that it has been cultivated to any great extent.... Strange to say, the only sugar-candy used until that time" (20 years before the date of the book) "was received from China; latterly, however, many gentlemen have speculated deeply in the manufacture. We now see sugar-candy of the first quality manufactured in various places of Bengal, and I believe that it is at least admitted that the raw sugars from that quarter are eminently good."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 133.

SULTAN, s. Ar. _sulṭān_, 'a Prince, a Monarch.' But this concrete sense is, in Arabic, post-classical only. The classical sense is abstract 'dominion.' The corresponding words in Hebrew and Aramaic have, as usual, _sh_ or _s_. Thus _sholṭān_ in Daniel (_e.g._ vi. 26—"in the whole dominion of my kingdom") is exactly the same word. The concrete word, corresponding to _sulṭān_ in its post-classical sense, is _shallīṭ_, which is applied to Joseph in Gen. xlii. 6—"governor." So Saladin (Yūsuf Salāh-ad-dīn) was not the first Joseph who was _sultan_ of Egypt. ["In Arabia it is a not uncommon proper name; and as a title it is taken by a host of petty kinglets. The Abbaside Caliphs (as Al-Wásik ...) formerly created these Sultans as their regents. Al Tá'i bi'llah (A.D. 974) invested the famous Sabuktagin with the office ... Sabuktagin's son, the famous Mahmúd of the Ghaznavite dynasty in 1002, was the first to adopt 'Sultán' as an independent title some 200 years after the death of Harún-al-Rashíd" (_Burton, Arab. Nights_, i. 188.)]

c. 950.—"Ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς Βασιλείας Μιχαὴλ τοῦ ὑιοῦ Θεοφίλου ἀνῆλθεν ἀπὸ Ἀφρικῆς στόλος λϛʹ κομπαρίων, ἔχων κεφαλὴν τὸν τε Σολδανὸν καὶ τὸν Σάμαν καὶ τὸν Καλφοῦς, καὶ ἐχειρώσαντο διαφόρους πόλεις τῆς Δαλματίας."—_Constant. Porphyrog., De Thematibus_, ii. Thēma xi.

c. 1075 (written c. 1130).—"... οἳ καὶ καθελόντες Πέρσας τε καὶ Σαρακηνοὺς αὐτοὶ κύριοι τῆς Περσίδος γεγόνασι σουλτάνον τὸν Στραγγολίπιδα[249] ὀνομάσαντες, ὅπερ σημαίνει παρ' αὐτοῖς Βασιλεὺς καὶ παντοκράτωρ."—_Nicephorus Bryennius, Comment._ i. 9.

c. 1124.—"De divitiis SOLDANI mira referunt, et de incognitis speciebus quas in oriente viderunt. SOLDANUS dicitur quasi _solus dominus_, quia cunctis praeest Orientis principibus."—_Ordericus Vitalis, Hist. Eccles._ Lib. xi. In Paris ed. of _Le Prevost_, 1852, iv. 256-7.

1165.—"Both parties faithfully adhered to this arrangement, until it was interrupted by the interference of Sanjar-Shah ben Shah, who governs all Persia, and holds supreme power over 45 of its Kings. This prince is called in Arabic SULTAN ul-Fars-al-Khabir (supreme commander of Persia)."—_R. Benjamin_, in _Wright_, 105-106.

c. 1200.—"Endementres que ces choses coroient einsi en Antioche, li message qui par Aussiens estoient alé au SOUDAN de Perse por demander aide s'en retournoient."—_Guillaume de Tyr_, Old Fr. Tr. i. 174.

1298.—"Et quaint il furent là venus, adonc Bondocdaire qe SOLDAN estoit de Babelonie vent en Armenie con grande host, et fait grand domajes por la contrée."—_Marco Polo_, Geog. Text, ch. xiii.

1307.—"Post quam vero Turchi occupaverunt terrã illã et habitaverũt ibidem, elegerũt dominũ super eos, et illum vocaverunt SOLDÃ quod idem est quod rex in idiomate Latinorũ."—_Haitoni Armeni de Tartaris Liber_, cap. xiii. in _Novus Orbis_.

1309.—"En icelle grant paour de mort où nous estiens, vindrent à nous jusques à treize ou quatorze dou consoil dou SOUDAN, trop richement appareillé de dras d'or et de soie, et nous firent demander (par un frere de l'Ospital qui savoit sarrazinois), de par le SOUDAN, se nous vorriens estre delivre, et nous deimes que oil, et ce pooient il bien savoir."—_Joinville, Credo_. Joinville often has SOUDANC, and sometimes SAUDANC.

1498.—"Em este lugar e ilha a que chamão Moncobiquy estava hum senhor a que elles chamavam COLYYTAM que era como visorrey."—_Roteiro de V. da Gama_, 26.

c. 1586.—

"Now Tamburlaine the mighty SOLDAN comes, And leads with him the great Arabian King." _Marlowe, Tamb. the Great_, iv. 3.

[1596.—

"... this scimitar That slew the Sophy and a Persian prince That won three fields of SULTAN Solyman." _Merchant of Venice_, II. i. 26.]

SUMATRA.

A. n.p. This name has been applied to the great island since about A.D. 1400. There can be no reasonable doubt that it was taken from the very similar name of one of the maritime principalities upon the north coast of the island, which seems to have originated in the 13th century. The seat of this principality, a town called _Samudra_, was certainly not far from PASEI, the _Pacem_ of the early Portuguese writers, the _Passir_ of some modern charts, and probably lay near the inner end of the Bay of Telo Samawe (see notes to _Marco Polo_, 2nd ed. ii. 276 _seqq._). This view is corroborated by a letter from C. W. J. Wenniker (_Bijdragen tot de Taal-Land-en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie_, ser. iv. vol. 6. (1882), p. 298) from which we learn that in 1881 an official of Netherlands India, who was visiting Pasei, not far from that place, and on the left bank of the river (we presume the river which is shown in maps as entering the Bay of Telo Samawe near Pasei) came upon a _kampong_, or village, called Samudra. We cannot doubt that this is an indication of the site of the old capital.

The first mention of the name is probably to be recognised in SAMARA, the name given in the text of Marco Polo to one of the kingdoms of this coast, intervening between _Basma_, or Pacem, and Dagroian or Dragoian, which last seems to correspond with Pedir. This must have been the position of Samudra, and it is probable that _d_ has disappeared accidentally from Polo's _Samara_. Malay legends give trivial stories to account for the etymology of the name, and others have been suggested; but in all probability it was the Skt. _Samudra_, the 'sea.' [See _Miscellaneous Papers relating to Indo-China_, 2nd ser. ii. 50; Leyden, _Malay Annals_, 65.] At the very time of the alleged foundation of the town a kingdom was flourishing at Dwāra Samudra in S. India (see DOOR SUMMUND).

The first authentic occurrence of the name is probably in the Chinese annals, which mention, among the Indian kingdoms which were prevailed on to send tribute to Kublai Khan, that of _Sumutala_. The chief of this State is called in the Chinese record _Tu-han-pa-ti_ (_Pauthier, Marc Pol_, 605), which seems to exactly represent the Malay words TUAN-_Pati_, 'Lord Ruler.'

We learn next from Ibn Batuta that at the time of his visit (about the middle of the 14th century) the State of _Sumuṭra_, as he calls it, had become important and powerful in the Archipelago; and no doubt it was about that time or soon after, that the name began to be applied by foreigners to the whole of the great island, just as _Lamori_ had been applied to the same island some centuries earlier, from _Lāmbrī_, which was then the State and port habitually visited by ships from India. We see that the name was so applied early in the following century by Nicolo Conti, who was in those seas apparently c. 1420-30, and who calls the island _Shamuthera_. Fra Mauro, who derived much information from Conti, in his famous World-Map, calls the island _Isola Siamotra_ or _Taprobane_. The confusion with _Taprobane_ lasted long.

When the Portuguese first reached those regions Pedir was the leading State upon the coast, and certainly no State _known_ as Samudra or Sumatra then continued to exist. Whether the _city_ continued to exist, even in decay, is obscure. The _Āīn_, quoted below, refers to the "port of Sumatra," but this may have been based on old information. Valentijn seems to recognise the existence of a place called _Samudra_ or _Samotdara_, though it is not entered in his map. A famous mystic theologian who flourished under the great King of Achīn, Iskandar Muda, and died in 1630, bore the name of Shamsuddīn Shamatrānī, which seems to point to a place called Shamatra as his birthplace. And a distinct mention of "the island of Samatra" as named from "a city of this northern part" occurs in the _soi-disant_ "Voyage which Juan Serano made when he fled from Malacca" in 1512, published by Lord Stanley of Alderley at the end of his translation of Barbosa. This man, on leaving Pedir and going down the coast, says: "I drew towards the south and south-east direction, and reached to another country and city which is called Samatra," and so on. Now this indicates the position in which the city of Sumatra must really have been, if it continued to exist. But, though this passage is not, all the rest of the narrative seems to be mere plunder from Varthema. Unless, indeed, the plunder was the other way; for there is reason to believe that Varthema never went east of Malabar.

There is, however, a like intimation in a curious letter respecting the Portuguese discoveries, written from Lisbon in 1515, by a German, Valentino Moravia (the same probably who published a Portuguese version of Marco Polo, at Lisbon, in 1502) and who shows an extremely accurate conception of Indian geography. He says: "The greatest island is that called by Marco Polo the Venetian Java Minor, and at present it is called SUMOTRA from a port of the said island" (see in _De Gubernatis, Viagg. Ital._ 391).

It is probable that before the Portuguese epoch the adjoining States of Pasei and Sumatra had become united. Mr. G. Phillips, of the Consular Service in China, was good enough to send to one of the present writers, when engaged on Marco Polo, a copy of an old Chinese chart showing the northern coast of the island, and this showed the town of Sumatra (_Sumantala_). It seemed to be placed in the Gulf of Pasei, and very near where Pasei itself still exists. An extract of a Chinese account "of about A.D. 1413" accompanied the map. This was fundamentally the same as that quoted below from Groeneveldt. There was a village at the mouth of the river called _Talu-mangkin_ (qu. Telu-Samawe?). A curious passage also will be found below, extracted by the late M. Pauthier from the great Chinese _Imperial Geography_, which alludes to the disappearance of Sumatra from knowledge.

We are quite unable to understand the doubts that have been thrown upon the derivation of the name, given to the island by foreigners, from that of the kingdom of which we have been speaking (see the letter quoted above from the _Bijdragen_).

1298.—"So you must know that when you leave the Kingdom of Basma (_Pacem_) you come to another Kingdom called SAMARA on the same Island."—_Marco Polo_, Bk. iii. ch. 10.

c. 1300.—"Beyond it (_Lāmūrī_, or _Lāmbrī_, near Achīn) lies the country of SŪMŪTRA, and beyond that Darband Niās, which is a dependency of Java."—_Rashīduddīn_, in _Elliot_, i. 71.

c. 1323.—"In this same island, towards the south, is another Kingdom by name SUMOLTRA, in which is a singular generation of people."—_Odoric_, in _Cathay_, &c., i. 277.

c. 1346.—"... after a voyage of 25 days we arrived at the island of Jāwa" (_i.e._ the Java Minor of Marco Polo, or Sumatra). "... We thus made our entrance into the capital, that is to say into the city of SUMUTHRA. It is large and handsome, and is encompassed with a wall and towers of timber."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 228-230.

1416.—"SUMATRA [Su-men-ta-la]. This country is situated on the great road of western trade. When a ship leaves Malacca for the west, and goes with a fair eastern wind for five days and nights, it first comes to a village on the sea-coast called _Ta-lu-man_; and anchoring here and going south-east for about 10 _li_ (3 miles) one arrives at the said place.

"This country has no walled city. There is a large brook running out into the sea, with two tides every day; the waves at the mouth of it are very high, and ships continually founder there...."—Chinese work, quoted by _Groeneveldt_, p. 85.

c. 1430.—"He afterwards went to a fine city of the island Taprobana, which island is called by the natives SCIAMUTHERA."—_Conti_, in _India in XVth. Cent._, 9.

1459.—"Isola SIAMOTRA."—_Fra Mauro._

1498.—"... CAMATARRA is of the Christians; it is distant from Calicut a voyage of 30 days with a good wind."—_Roteiro_, 109.

1510.—"Wherefore we took a junk and went towards SUMATRA to a city called Pider."—_Varthema_, 228.

1522.—"... We left the island of Timor, and entered upon the great sea called Lant Chidol, and taking a west-south-west course, we left to the right and the north, for fear of the Portuguese, the island of ZUMATRA, anciently called Taprobana; also Pegu, Bengala, Urizza, Chelim (see KLING) where are the Malabars, subjects of the King of NARSINGA."—_Pigafetta_, Hak. Soc. 159.

1572.—

"Dizem, que desta terra, co' as possantes Ondas o mar intrando, dividio A nobre ilha SAMATRA, que já d'antes Juntas ambas a gente antigua vio: Chersoneso foi dita, e das prestantes Veas d'ouro, que a terra produzio, Aurea por epithéto lhe ajuntaram Alguns que fosse Ophir imaginarám." _Camões_, x. 124.

By Burton:

"From this Peninsula, they say, the sea parted with puissant waves, and entering tore SAMATRA'S noble island, wont to be joined to the Main as seen by men of yore. 'Twas callèd Chersonese, and such degree it gained by earth that yielded golden ore, they gave a golden epithet to the ground: Some be who fancy Ophir here was found."

c. 1590.—"The _zabád_ (_i.e._ civet) which is brought from the harbour town of _Sumatra_, from the territory of Áchín, goes by the name of _Sumatra zabád_ (chūn az bandar-i SĀMATRĀĪ az muẓāfat-i Achīn awurdand, SĀMATRĀĪ goyand)."—_Āīn, Blochmann_, i. 79, (orig. i. 93). [And see a reference to Lámri in _Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, iii. 48.]

1612.—"It is related that Raja _Shaher-ul-Nawi_ (see SARNAU) was a sovereign of great power, and on hearing that SAMADRA was a fine and flourishing land he said to his warriors—which of you will take the Rajah of Samadra?"—_Sijara Malayu_, in _J. Ind. Archip._ v. 316.

c. **.—"SOU-MEN-T'ALA est située au sud-ouest de _Tchen-tching_ (la Cochin _Chine_) ... jusqu'à la fin du règne de _Tching-tsou_ (in 1425), ce roi ne cessa d'envoyer son tribut à la cour. Pendant les années _wen-hi_ (1573-1615) ce royaume se partagea en deux, dont le nouveau se nomma _A-tchí_.... Par la suite on n'en entendit plus parler."—_Grande Geog. Impériale_, quoted by _Pauthier_, _Marc Pol_, 567.

B.—

SUMATRA, s. Sudden squalls, precisely such as are described by Lockyer and the others below, and which are common in the narrow sea between the Malay Peninsula and the island of Sumatra, are called by this name.

1616.—"... it befel that the galliot of Miguel de Macedo was lost on the Ilha Grande of Malaca (?), where he had come to anchor, when a SAMATRA arose that drove him on the island, the vessel going to pieces, though the crew and most part of what she carried were saved."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 626.

1711.—"Frequent squalls ... these are often accompanied with Thunder and Lightning, and continue very fierce for Half an Hour, more or less. Our English Sailors call them SUMATRAS, because they always meet with them on the Coasts of this Island."—_Lockyer_, 56.

1726.—"At Malacca the streights are not above 4 Leagues broad; for though the opposite shore on SUMATRA is very low, yet it may easily be seen on a clear Day, which is the Reason that the Sea is always as smooth as a Mill-pond, except it is ruffled with Squalls of Wind, which seldom come without Lightning, Thunder, and Rain, and though they come with great Violence, yet they are soon over, not often exceeding an Hour."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 79, [ed. 1744].

1843.—"SUMATRAS, or squalls from the S. Westward, are often experienced in the S.W. Monsoon.... SUMATRAS generally come off the land during the first part of the night, and are sometimes sudden and severe, accompanied with loud thunder, lightning, and rain."—_Horsburgh_, ed. 1843, ii. 215.

[SUMJAO, v. This is properly the imp. of the H. verb _samjhānā_, 'to cause to know, warn, correct,' usually with the implication of physical coercion. Other examples of a similar formation will be found under PUCKEROW.

[1826.—"... in this case they apply themselves to SUMJAO, the defendant."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, ii. 170.]

[SUMPITAN, s. The Malay blowing-tube, by means of which arrows, often poisoned, are discharged. The weapon is discussed under SARBATANE. The word is Malay _sumpītan_, properly 'a narrow thing,' from _sumpit_, 'narrow, strait.' There is an elaborate account of it, with illustrations, in _Ling Roth, Natives of Sarawak and Br. N. Borneo_, ii. 184 _seqq._ Also see _Scott, Malayan Words_, 104 _seqq._

[c. 1630.—"SEMPITANS." See under UPAS.

[1841.—"In advancing, the SUMPITAN is carried at the mouth and elevated, and they will discharge at least five arrows to one compared with a musket."—_Brooke_, in _Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes_, i. 261.

[1883.—"Their (the Samangs') weapon is the SUMPITAN, a blow-gun, from which poisoned arrows are expelled."—_Miss Bird, The Golden Chersonese_, 16.]

SUNDA, n.p. The western and most mountainous part of the island of Java, in which a language different from the proper Javanese is spoken, and the people have many differences of manners, indicating distinction of race. In the 16th century, Java and Sunda being often distinguished, a common impression grew up that they were separate islands; and they are so represented in some maps of the 16th century, just as some medieval maps, including that of Fra Mauro (1459), show a like separation between England and Scotland. The name Sunda is more properly indeed that of the people than of their country. The Dutch call them _Sundanese_ (Soendanezen). The Sunda country is considered to extend from the extreme western point of the island to Cheribon, _i.e._ embracing about one-third of the whole island of Java. Hinduism appears to have prevailed in the Sunda country, and held its ground longer than in "Java," a name which the proper Javanese restrict to their own part of the island. From this country the sea between Sumatra and Java got from Europeans the name of the Straits of Sunda. Geographers have also called the great chain of islands from Sumatra to Timor "the Sunda Islands."

[Mr. Whiteway adds: "There was another Sunda near Goa, but above the Ghāts, where an offspring of the Vijāyanagara family ruled. It was founded at the end of the 16th century, and in the 18th the Portuguese had much to do with it, till Tippoo Sultān absorbed it, and the ruler became a Portuguese pensioner."]

1516.—"And having passed Samatara towards Java there is the island of SUNDA, in which there is much good pepper, and it has a king over it, who they say desires to serve the King of Portugal. They ship thence many slaves to China."—_Barbosa_, 196.

1526.—"Duarte Coelho in a ship, along with the galeot and a foist, went into the port of ÇUNDA, which is at the end of the island of Çamatra, on a separate large island, in which grows a great quantity of excellent pepper, and of which there is a great traffic from this port to China, this being in fact the most important merchandize exported thence. The country is very abundant in provisions, and rich in groves of trees, and has excellent water, and is peopled with Moors who have a Moorish king over them."—_Correa_, iii. 92.

1553.—"Of the land of Jaüa we make two islands, one before the other, lying west and east as if both on one parallel.... But the Jaos themselves do not reckon two islands of Jaoa, but one only, of the length that has been stated ... about a third in length of this island towards the west constitutes SUNDA, of which we have now to speak. The natives of that part consider their country to be an island divided from Jaüa by a river, little known to our navigators, called by them Chiamo or Chenano, which cuts off right from the sea,[250] all that third part of the land in such a way that when these natives define the limits of Jaüa they say that on the west it is bounded by the Island of SUNDA, and separated from it by this river Chiamo, and on the east by the island of Bale, and that on the north they have the island of Madura, and on the south the unexplored sea ..." &c.—_Barros_, IV. i. 12.

1554.—"The information we have of this port of Calapa, which is the same as ÇUMDA, and of another port called _Bocaa_, these two being 15 leagues one from the other, and both under one King, is to the effect that the supply of pepper one year with another will be xxx thousand quintals,[251] that is to say, xx thousand in one year, and x thousand the next year; also that it is very good pepper, as good as that of Malauar, and it is purchased with cloths of Cambaya, Bengalla, and Choromandel."—_A. Nunez_, in _Subsidios_, 42.

1566.—"SONDA, vn Isola de' Mori appresso la costa della Giava."—_Ces. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 391_v_.

c. 1570.—

"Os SUNDAS e Malaios con pimenta, Con massa, e noz ricos Bandanezes, Com roupa e droga Cambaia a opulenta, E com cravo os longinquos Maluguezes." _Ant. de Abreu, Desc. de Malaca._

1598.—Linschoten does not recognize the two islands. To him Sunda is only a place in Java:—

"... there is a straight or narrow passage betweene _Sumatra_ and _Iaua_, called the straight of SUNDA, of a place so called, lying not far from thence within the Ile of _Iaua_.... The principall hauen in the Iland is SUNDA Calapa,[252] whereof the straight beareth the name; in this place of SŨDA there is much Pepper."—p. 34.

SUNDERBUNDS, n.p. The well-known name of the tract of intersecting creeks and channels, swampy islands, and jungles, which constitutes that part of the Ganges Delta nearest the sea. The limits of the region so-called are the mouth of the Hoogly on the west, and that of the Megna (_i.e._ of the combined great Ganges and Brahmaputra) on the east, a width of about 220 miles. The name appears not to have been traced in old native documents of any kind, and hence its real form and etymology remain uncertain. _Sundara-vana_, 'beautiful forest'; _Sundarī-vana_, or _-ban_, 'forest of the _Sundarī_ tree'; _Chandra-ban_, and _Chandra-band_, 'moon-forest' or 'moon-embankment'; _Chanda-bhanda_, the name of an old tribe of salt-makers;[253] _Chandra dīp-ban_ from a large zemindary called Chandra-dīp in the Bakerganj district at the eastern extremity of the Sunderbunds; these are all suggestions that have been made. Whatever be the true etymology, we doubt if it is to be sought in _sundara_ or _sundarī_. [As to the derivation from the _Sundarī_ tree which is perhaps most usually accepted, Mr. Beveridge (_Man. of Bakarganj_, 24, 167, 32) remarks that this tree is by no means common in many parts of the Bakarganj Sunderbunds; he suggests that the word means 'beautiful wood' and was possibly given by the Brahmans.] The name has never (except in one quotation below) been in English mouths, or in English popular orthography, _Soonderbunds_, but _Sunderbunds_, which implies (in correct transliteration) an original _sandra_ or _chandra_, not _sundara_. And going back to what we conjecture may be an early occurrence of the name in two Dutch writers, we find this confirmed. These two writers, it will be seen, both speak of a famous SANDERY, or _Santry_, Forest in Lower Bengal, and we should be more positive in our identification were it not that in Van der Broucke's map (1660) which was published in Valentijn's _East Indies_ (1726) this Sandery Forest is shown on the _west_ side of the Hoogly R., in fact about due west of the site of Calcutta, and a little above a place marked as _Basanderi_, located near the exit into the Hoogly of what represents the old Saraswati R., which enters the former at Sānkrāl, not far below the Botanical Gardens, and 5 or 6 miles below Fort William. This has led Mr. Blochmann to identify the _Sanderi Bosch_ with the old Mahall _Basandhari_ which appears in the _Āīn_ as belonging to the Sirkār of Sulīmānābād (_Gladwin's Ayeen_, ii. 207, _orig._ i. 407; _Jarrett_, ii. 140; _Blochm._ in _J.A.S.B._ xlii. pt. i. p. 232), and which formed one of the original "xxiv. Pergunnas."[254] Undoubtedly this is the _Basanderi_ of V. den Broucke's map; but it seems possible that some confusion between _Basanderi_ and Bosch Sandery (which would be _Sandarban_ in the vernacular) may have led the map-maker to misplace the latter. We should gather from Schulz[255] that he passed the Forest of Sandry about a Dutch mile below Sankral, which he mentions. But his statement is so nearly identical with that in Valentijn that we apprehend they have no _separate_ value. Valentijn, in an earlier page, like Bernier, describes the Sunderbunds as the resort of the Arakan pirates, but does not give a name (p. 169).

1661.—"We got under sail again" (just after meeting the Arakan pirates) "in the morning early, and went past the FOREST OF SANTRY, so styled because (as has been credibly related) Alexander the Great with his mighty army was hindered by the strong rush of the ebb and flood at this place, from advancing further, and therefore had to turn back to Macedonia."—_Walter Schulz_, 155.

c. 1666.—"And thence it is" (from piratical raids of the Mugs, &c.) "that at present there are seen in the mouth of the _Ganges_, so many fine Isles quite deserted, which were formerly well peopled, and where no other Inhabitants are found but wild Beasts, and especially Tygers."—_Bernier_, E.T. 54; [ed. _Constable_, 442].

1726.—"This (Bengal) is the land wherein they will have it that Alexander the Great, called by the Moors, whether Hindostanders or Persians, _Sulthaan Iskender_, and in their historians _Iskender Doulcarnain_, was ... they can show you the exact place where King Porus held his court. The natives will prate much of this matter; for example, that in front of the SANDERIE-WOOD (_Sanderie Bosch_, which we show in the map, and which they call properly after him _Iskenderie_) he was stopped by the great and rushing streams."—_Valentijn_, v. 179.

1728.—"But your petitioners did not arrive off SUNDERBUND WOOD till four in the evening, where they rowed backward and forward for six days; with which labour and want of provisions three of the people died."—_Petition of Sheik Mahmud Ameen and others_, to Govr. of Ft. St. Geo., in _Wheeler_, iii. 41.

1764.—"On the 11th Bhaudan, whilst the Boats were at Kerma in SOONDERBUND, a little before daybreak, Captain Ross arose and ordered the MANJEE to put off with the BUDGEROW...."—_Native Letter regarding Murder of Captain John Ross by a Native Crew._ In _Long_, 383. This instance is an exception to the general remark made above that the English popular orthography has always been _Sunder_, and not _Soonder-bunds_.

1786.—"If the Jelinghy be navigable we shall soon be in Calcutta; if not, we must pass a second time through the SUNDARBANS."—Letter of _Sir W. Jones_, in _Life_, ii. 83.

" "A portion of the SUNDERBUNDS ... for the most part overflowed by the tide, as indicated by the original Hindoo name of CHUNDERBUND, signifying mounds, or offspring of the moon."—_James Grant_, in App. to _Fifth Report_, p. 260. In a note Mr. Grant notices the derivation from "Soondery wood," and "Soonder-ban," 'beautiful wood,' and proceeds: "But we adhere to our own etymology rather ... above all, because the richest and greatest part of the SUNDERBUNDS is still comprized in the ancient Zemindarry pergunnah of _Chunder deep_, or lunar territory."

1792.—"Many of these lands, what is called the SUNDRA BUNDS, and others at the mouth of the Ganges, if we may believe the history of Bengal, was formerly well inhabited."—_Forrest, V. to Mergui_, Pref. p. 5.

1793.—"That part of the delta bordering on the sea, is composed of a labyrinth of rivers and creeks, ... this tract known by the name of the Woods, or SUNDERBUNDS, is in extent equal to the principality of Wales."—_Rennell, Mem. of Map of Hind._, 3rd ed., p. 359.

1853.—"The scenery, too, exceeded his expectations; the terrible forest solitude of the SUNDERBUNDS was full of interest to an European imagination."—_Oakfield_, i. 38.

[SUNGAR, s. Pers. _sanga_, _sang_, 'a stone.' A rude stone breastwork, such as is commonly erected for defence by the Afrīdīs and other tribes on the Indian N.W. frontier. The word has now come into general military use, and has been adopted in the S. African war.

[1857.—"... breastworks of wood and stone (_murcha_ and SANGA respectively)...."—_Bellew, Journal of Mission_, 127.

[1900.—"Conspicuous SUNGARS are constructed to draw the enemy's fire."—_Pioneer Mail_, March 16.]

The same word seems to be used in the Hills in the sense of a rude wooden bridge supported by stone piers, used for crossing a torrent.

[1833.—"Across a deep ravine ... his Lordship erected a neat SANGAH, or mountain bridge of pines."—_Mundy, Pen and Pencil Sketches_, ed. 1858, p. 117.

[1871.—"A SUNGHA bridge is formed as follows: on either side the river piers of rubble masonry, laced with cross-beams of timber, are built up; and into these are inserted stout poles, one above the other in successively projecting tiers, the interstices between the latter being filled up with cross-beams," &c.—_Harcourt, Himalayan Districts of Kooloo_, p. 67 _seq._]

SUNGTARA, s. Pers. _sangtara_. The name of a kind of orange, probably from _Cintra_. See under ORANGE a quotation regarding the fruit of Cintra, from Abulfeda.

c. 1526.—"The SENGTEREH ... is another fruit.... In colour and appearance it is like the citron (_Tāranj_), but the skin of the fruit is smooth."—_Baber_, 328.

c. 1590.—"Sirkar Silhet is very mountainous.... Here grows a delicious fruit called SOONTARA (_sūntara_) in colour like an orange, but of an oblong form."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 10; [_Jarrett_ (ii. 124) writes SÚNTARAH].

1793.—"The people of this country have infinitely more reason to be proud of their oranges, which appear to me to be very superior to those of Silhet, and probably indeed are not surpassed by any in the world. They are here called _Santôla_, which I take to be a corruption of SENGTERRAH, the name by which a similar species of orange is known in the Upper Provinces of India."—_Kirkpatrick's Nepaul_, 129.

1835.—"The most delicious oranges have been procured here. The rind is fine and thin, the flavour excellent; the natives call them 'CINTRA.'"—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 99.

SUNN, s. Beng. and Hind. _san_, from Skt. _śaṇa_; the fibre of the _Crotalaria juncea_, L. (N.O. _Leguminosae_); often called Bengal, or Country, hemp. It is of course in no way kindred to true hemp, except in its economic use. In the following passage from the _Āīn_ the reference is to the _Hibiscus canabinus_ (see _Watt, Econ. Dict._ ii. 597).

[c. 1590.—"Hemp grows in clusters like a nosegay.... One species bears a flower like the cotton-shrub, and this is called in Hindostan, SUN-_paut_. It makes a very soft rope."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 89; in _Blochmann_ (i. 87) _Pat_SAN.]

1838.—"SUNN ... a plant the bark of which is used as hemp, and is usually sown around cotton fields."—_Playfair, Taleef-i-Shereef_, 96.

[SUNNEE, SOONNEE, s. Ar. _sunnī_, which is really a Pers. form and stands for that which is expressed by the Ar. _Ahlu's-Sunnah_, 'the people of the Path,' a 'Traditionist.' The term applied to the large Mahommedan sect who acknowledge the first four Khalīfahs to have been the rightful descendants of the Prophet, and are thus opposed to the SHEEAHS. The latter are much less numerous than the former, the proportion being, according to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt's estimate, 15 millions Shiahs to 145 millions of Sunnis.

[c. 1590.—"The Mahommedans (of Kashmīr) are partly SUNNIES, and others of the sects of Aly and Noorbukhshy; and they are frequently engaged in wars with each other."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 125; ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 352.

[1623.—"The other two ... are SONNI, as the Turks and Moghol."—_P. della Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 152.

[1812.—"A fellow told me with the gravest face, that a lion of their own country would never hurt a SHEYAH ... but would always devour a SUNNI."—_Morier, Journey through Persia_, 62.]

SUNNUD, s. Hind. from Ar. _sanad_. A diploma, patent, or deed of grant by the government of office, privilege, or right. The corresponding Skt.—H. is _śāsana_.

[c. 1590.—"A paper authenticated by proper signatures is called a SUNNUD...."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, i. 214; ed. _Blochmann_, i. 259.]

1758.—"They likewise brought SUNNUDS, or the commission for the nabobship."—_Orme_, _Hist._, ed. 1803, ii. 284.

1759.—"That your Petitioners, being the Bramins, &c. ... were permitted by SUNNUD from the President and Council to collect daily alms from each shop or doocan (DOOCAUN) of this place, at 5 cowries per diem."—In _Long_, 184.

1776.—"If the path to and from a House ... be in the Territories of another Person, that Person, who always hath passed to and fro, shall continue to do so, the other Person aforesaid, though he hath a Right of Property in the Ground, and hath an attested SUNNUD thereof, shall not have Authority to cause him any Let or Molestation."—_Halhed, Code_, 100-101.

1799.—"I enclose you SUNNUDS for pension for the KILLADAR of Chittledroog."—_Wellington_, i. 45.

1800.—"I wished to have traced the nature of landed property in Soondah ... by a chain of SUNNUDS up to the 8th century."—_Sir T. Munro_, in _Life_, i. 249.

1809.—"This SUNNUD is the foundation of all the rights and privileges annexed to a Jageer (JAGHEER)."—_Harrington's Analysis_, ii. 410.

SUNYÁSEE, s. Skt. _sannyāsī_, lit. 'one who resigns, or abandons,' _scil._ 'wordly affairs'; a Hindu religious mendicant. The name of Sunnyásee was applied familiarly in Bengal, c. 1760-75, to a body of banditti claiming to belong to a religious fraternity, who, in the interval between the decay of the imperial authority and the regular establishment of our own, had their head-quarters in the forest-tracts at the foot of the Himālaya. From these they used to issue periodically in large bodies, plundering and levying exactions far and wide, and returning to their asylum in the jungle when threatened with pursuit. In the days of Nawāb Mīr Kāsim 'Ali (1760-64) they were bold enough to plunder the city of Dacca; and in 1766 the great geographer James Rennell, in an encounter with a large body of them in the territory of Koch (see COOCH) Bihār, was nearly cut to pieces. Rennell himself, five years later, was employed to carry out a project which he had formed for the suppression of these bands, and did so apparently with what was considered at the time to be success, though we find the depredators still spoken of by W. Hastings as active, two or three years later.

[c. 200 A.D.—"Having thus performed religious acts in a forest during the third portion of his life, let him become a SANNYASI for the fourth portion of it, abandoning all sensual affection."—_Manu_, vi. 33.

[c. 1590.—"The fourth period is SANNYÁSA, which is an extraordinary state of austerity that nothing can surpass.... Such a person His Majesty calls SANNYÁSÍ."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, iii. 278.]

1616.—"Sunt autem SANASSES apud illos Brachmanes quidam, sanctimoniae opinione habentes, ab hominum scilicet consortio semoti in solitudine degentes et nonnunquã totũ nudi corpus in publicũ prodeuntes."—_Jarric, Thes._ i. 663.

1626.—"Some (an vnlearned kind) are called SANNASES."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 549.

1651.—"The SANYASYS are people who set the world and worldly joys, as they say, on one side. These are indeed more precise and strict in their lives than the foregoing."—_Rogerius_, 21.

1674.—"SANIADE, or SANIASI, is a dignity greater than that of Kings."—_Faria y Sousa, Asia Port._ ii. 711.

1726.—"The SAN-YASÉS are men who, forsaking the world and all its fruits, betake themselves to a very strict and retired manner of life."—_Valentijn, Choro._ 75.

1766.—"The SANASHY Faquirs (part of the same Tribe which plundered Dacca in Cossim Ally's Time[256]) were in arms to the number of 7 or 800 at the Time I was surveying Báár (a small Province near Boutan), and had taken and plundered the Capital of that name within a few Coss of my route.... I came up with Morrison immediately after he had defeated the SANASHYS in a pitched Battle.... Our Escorte, which were a few Horse, rode off, and the Enemy with drawn Sabres immediately surrounded us. Morrison escaped unhurt, Richards, my Brother officer, received only a slight Wound, and fought his Way off; my Armenian Assistant was killed, and the Sepoy Adjutant much wounded.... I was put in a Palankeen, and Morrison made an attack on the Enemy and cut most of them to Pieces. I was now in a most shocking Condition indeed, being deprived of the Use of both my Arms, ... a cut of a Sable (_sic_) had cut through my right Shoulder Bone, and laid me open for nearly a Foot down the Back, cutting thro' and wounding some of my Ribs. I had besides a Cut on the left Elbow wh^{ch} took off the Muscular part of the breadth of a Hand, a Stab in the Arm, and a large Cut on the head...."—MS. Letter from _James Rennell_, dd. August 30, in possession of his grandson _Major Rodd_.

1767.—"A body of 5000 SINNASSES have lately entered the Sircar Sarong country; the Phousdar sent two companies of Sepoys after them, under the command of a serjeant ... the SINNASSES stood their ground, and after the Sepoys had fired away their ammunition, fell on them, killed and wounded near 80, and put the rest to flight...."—Letter to _President at Ft. William_, from _Thomas Rumbold, Chief at Patna_, dd. April 20, in _Long_, p. 526.

1773.—"You will hear of great disturbances committed by the SINASSIES, or wandering Fackeers, who annually infest the provinces about this time of the year, in pilgrimage to Juggernaut, going in bodies of 1000 and sometimes even 10,000 men."—Letter of _Warren Hastings_, dd. February 2, in _Gleig_, i. 282.

" "At this time we have five battalions of Sepoys in pursuit of them."—Do. do., March 31, in _Gleig_, i. 294.

1774.—"The history of these people is curious.... They ... rove continually from place to place, recruiting their numbers with the healthiest children they can steal.... Thus they are the stoutest and most active men in India.... Such are the SENASSIES, the gypsies of Hindostan."—Do. do., dd. August 25, in _Gleig_, 303-4. See the same vol., also pp. 284, 296-7-8, 395.

1826.—"Being looked upon with an evil eye by many persons in society, I pretended to bewail my brother's loss, and gave out my intention of becoming a SUNYASSE, and retiring from the world."—_Pandurang Hari_, 394; [ed. 1873, ii. 267; also i. 189].

SUPÁRA, n.p. The name of a very ancient port and city of Western India; in Skt. _Sūrpāraka_,[257] popularly Supāra. It was near Wasāi (_Baçaim_ of the Portuguese—see (1) BASSEIN)—which was for many centuries the chief city of the Konkan, where the name still survives as that of a well-to-do town of 1700 inhabitants, the channel by which vessels in former days reached it from the sea being now dry. The city is mentioned in the _Mahābhārata_ as a very holy place, and in other old Sanskrit works, as well as in cave inscriptions at Kārlī and Nāsik, going back to the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Christian era. Excavations affording interesting Buddhist relics, were made in 1882 by Mr. (now Sir) J. M. Campbell (see his interesting notice in _Bombay Gazetteer_, xiv. 314-342; xvi. 125) and Pundit Indrajī Bhagwānlāl. The name of Supāra is one of those which have been plausibly connected, through _Sophir_, the Coptic name of India, with the _Ophir_ of Scripture. Some Arab writers call it the Sofāla of India.

c. A.D. 80-90.—"Τοπικὰ δὲ ἐμπόρια κατὰ τὸ ἐξῆς κείμενα ἀπὸ Βαρυγάζων, Σούππαρα, καὶ Καλλιένα πόλις ..."—_Periplus_, § 52, ed. _Fabricii_.

c. 150.—

"Ἀριακῆς Σαδινῶν Σουπάρα ... Γοάριος ποταμοῦ ἐκβολαι ... Δοῦγγα ... Βήνδα ποταμοῦ ἐκβολαί ... Σίμυλλα ἐμπόριον καὶ ἄκρα...." _Ptolemy_, VII. i. f. § 6.

c. 460.—"The King compelling Wijayo and his retinue, 700 in number, to have the half of their heads shaved, and having embarked them in a vessel, sent them adrift on the ocean.... Wijayo himself landed at the port of SUPPÂRAKA...."—_The Mahawanso_, by _Turnour_, p. 46.

c. 500.—"Σουφείρ, χώρα, ἐν ᾗ οἱ πολύτιμοι λίθοι, καὶ ὁ χρυσός, ἐν Ἰνδίᾳ."—_Hesychius_, s.v.

c. 951.—"Cities of Hind ... Kambáya, SUBÁRÁ, Sindán."—_Istakhri_, in _Elliot_, i. 27.

A.D. 1095.—"The Mahâmândalîka, the illustrious Anantadêva, the Emperor of the Koṅkan (CONCAN), has released the toll mentioned in this copper-grant given by the Sîlâras, in respect of every cart belonging to two persons ... which may come into any of the ports, Sri Sthânaka (TANA), as well as Nâgapur, SURPÂRAKA, Chemuli (CHAUL) and others, included within the Koṅkan Fourteen Hundred...."—_Copper-Plate Grant_, in _Ind. Antiq._ ix. 38.

c. 1150.—"SÚBÁRA is situated 1½ mile from the sea. It is a populous busy town, and is considered one of the entrepôts of India."—_Edrisi_, in _Elliot_, i. 85.

1321.—"There are three places where the Friars might reap a great harvest, and where they could live in common. One of these is SUPERA, where two friars might be stationed; and a second is in the district of Parocco (BROACH), where two or three might abide; and the third is Columbus (QUILON)."—Letter of _Fr. Jordanus_, in _Cathay_, &c., 227.

c. 1330.—"SUFÂLAH Indica. Birunio nominatur SÛFÂRAH.... De eo nihil commemorandum inveni."—_Abulfeda_, in _Gildemeister_, 189.

1538.—"Rent of the _caçabe_ (CUSBAH), of ÇUPARA ... 14,122 _fedeas_."—_S. Bothelho, Tombo_, 175.

1803.—Extract from a letter dated Camp SOOPARA, March 26, 1803.

"We have just been paying a formal visit to his highness the peishwa," &c.—In _Asiatic Annual Reg._ for 1803, _Chron._ p. 99.

1846.—"SOPARA is a large place in the Agasee mahal, and contains a considerable Mussulman population, as well as Christian and Hindoo ... there is a good deal of trade; and grain, salt, and garden produce are exported to Guzerat and Bombay."—_Desultory Notes_, by _John Vaupell, Esq._, in _Trans. Bo. Geog. Soc._ vii. 140.

SUPREME COURT. The designation of the English Court established at Fort William by the Regulation Act of 1773 (13 Geo. III. c. 63), and afterwards at the other two Presidencies. Its extent of jurisdiction was the subject of acrimonious controversies in the early years of its existence; controversies which were closed by 21 Geo. III. c. 70, which explained and defined the jurisdiction of the Court. The use of the name came to an end in 1862 with the establishment of the 'High Court,' the bench of which is occupied by barrister judges, judges from the Civil Service, and judges promoted from the native bar.

The Charter of Charles II., of 1661, gave the Company certain powers to administer the laws of England, and that of 1683 to establish Courts of Judicature. That of Geo. I. (1726) gave power to establish at each Presidency Mayor's Courts for civil suits, with appeal to the Governor and Council, and from these, in cases involving more than 1000 PAGODAS, to the King in Council. The same charter constituted the Governor and Council of each Presidency a Court for trial of all offences except high treason. Courts of Requests were established by charter of Geo. II., 1753. The Mayor's Court at Madras and Bombay survived till 1797, when (by 37 Geo. III. ch. 142) a Recorder's Court was instituted at each. This was superseded at Madras by a Supreme Court in 1801, and at Bombay in 1823.

SURA, s. TODDY (q.v.), _i.e._ the fermented sap of several kinds of palm, such as coco, palmyra, and wild-date. It is the Skt. _sura_, 'vinous liquor,' which has passed into most of the vernaculars. In the first quotation we certainly have the word, though combined with other elements of uncertain identity, applied by Cosmas to the milk of the coco-nut, perhaps making some confusion between that and the fermented sap. It will be seen that Linschoten applies _sura_ in the same way. Bluteau, curiously, calls this a _Caffre_ word. It has in fact been introduced from India into Africa by the Portuguese (see _Ann. Marit._ iv. 293).

c. 545.—"The Argell" (_i.e._ _Nargil_, or NARGEELA, or coco-nut) "is at first full of very sweet water, which the Indians drink, using it instead of wine. This drink is called _Rhonco_-SURA,[258] and is exceedingly pleasant."—_Cosmas_, in _Cathay_, &c., clxxvi.

[1554.—"CURA." See under ARRACK.]

1563.—"They grow two qualities of palm-tree, one kind for the fruit, and the other to give ÇURA."—_Garcia_, f. 67.

1578.—"SURA, which is, as it were, _vino mosto_."—_Acosta_, 100.

1598.—"... in that sort the pot in short space is full of water, which they call SURA, and is very pleasant to drinke, like sweet whay, and somewhat better."—_Linschoten_, 101; [Hak. Soc. ii. 48].

1609-10.—"... A goodly country and fertile ... abounding with Date Trees, whence they draw a liquor, called _Tarree_ (TODDY) or SURE...."—_W. Finch_, in _Purchas_, i. 436.

1643.—"Là ie fis boire mes mariniers de telle sorte que peu s'en falut qu'ils ne renuersassent notre almadie ou batteau: Ce breuvage estoit du SURA, qui est du vin fait de palmes."—_Mocquet, Voyages_, 252.

c. 1650.—"Nor could they drink either Wine, or SURY, or Strong Water, by reason of the great Imposts which he laid upon them."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 86; [ed. _Ball_, i. 343].

1653.—"Les Portugais appelent ce _tari_ ou vin des Indes, SOURE ... de cette liqueur le singe, et la grande chauue-souris ... sont extremement amateurs, aussi bien que les Indiens Mansulmans (_sic_), Parsis, et quelque tribus d'Indou...."—_De la Boullaye-le-Gouz_, ed. 1657, 263.

SURAT, n.p. In English use the name of this city is accented _Surátt_; but the name is in native writing and parlance generally _Sŭrăt_. In the _Āīn_, however (see below), it is written _Sūrat_; also in _Ṣādiḳ Isfahānī_ (p. 106). Surat was taken by Akbar in 1573, having till then remained a part of the falling Mahommedan kingdom of Guzerat. An English factory was first established in 1608-9, which was for more than half a century the chief settlement of the English Company in Continental India. The transfer of the Chiefs to Bombay took place in 1687.

We do not know the origin of the name. Various legends on the subject are given in Mr. (now Sir J.) Campbell's _Bombay Gazetteer_ (vol. ii.), but none of them have any probability. The ancient Indian _Saurāshṭra_ was the name of the Peninsula of Guzerat or Kattywar, or at least of the maritime part of it. This latter name and country is represented by the differently spelt and pronounced _Sōrath_ (see SŪRATH). Sir Henry Elliot and his editor have repeatedly stated the opinion that the names are identical. Thus: "The names 'Surat' and 'Sūrath' are identical, both being derived from the Sankrit _Suráshtra_; but as they belong to different places a distinction in spelling has been maintained. 'Surat' is the city; 'Súrath' is a _pránt_ or district of Kattiwar, of which Junágarh is the chief town" (_Elliot_, v. 350; see also 197). Also: "The Sanskrit _Suráshtra_ and _Gurjjara_ survive in the modern names _Surat_ and _Guzerat_, and however the territories embraced by the old terms have varied, it is hard to conceive that Surat was not in Suráshtra nor Guzerat in Gurjjara. All evidence goes to prove that the old and modern names applied to the same places. Thus Ptolemy's _Surastrene_ comprises Surat...." (_Dowson_ (?) _ibid._ i. 359). This last statement seems distinctly erroneous. Surat is in Ptolemy's Λάρικη, not in Συραστρηνή, which represents, like Saurāshtra, the peninsula. It must remain doubtful whether there was any connection between the names, or the resemblance was accidental. It is possible that continental Surat may have originally had some name implying its being the place of passage to _Saurāshtra_ or Sorath.

Surat is not a place of any antiquity. There are some traces of the existence of the name ascribed to the 14th century, in passages of uncertain value in certain native writers. But it only came to notice as a place of any importance about the very end of the 15th century, when a rich Hindu trader, Gopi by name, is stated to have established himself on the spot, and founded the town. The way, however, in which it is spoken of by Barbosa previous to 1516 shows that the rise of its prosperity must have been rapid.

[_Surat_ in English slang is equivalent to the French _Rafiot_, in the sense of 'no great shakes,' an adulterated article of inferior quality (_Barrére_, s.v. _Rafiot_). This perhaps was accounted for by the fact that "until lately the character of Indian cotton in the Liverpool market stood very low, and the name '_Surats_,' the description under which the cotton of this province is still included, was a byword and a general term of contempt" (_Berar Gazetteer_, 226 _seq._).]

1510.—"Don Afonso" (de Noronha, nephew of Alboquerque) "in the storm not knowing whither they went, entered the Gulf of Cambay, and struck upon a shoal in front of ÇURRATE. Trying to save themselves by swimming or on planks many perished, and among them Don Afonso."—_Correa_, ii. 29.

1516.—"Having passed beyond the river of Reynel, on the other side there is a city which they call ÇURATE, peopled by Moors, and close upon the river; they deal there in many kinds of wares, and carry on a great trade; for many ships of Malabar and other parts sail thither, and sell what they bring, and return loaded with what they choose...."—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. 280.

1525.—"The corjaa (CORGE) of cotton cloths of ÇURYATE, of 14 yards each, is worth ... 250 _fedeas_."—_Lembrança_, 45.

1528.—"Heytor da Silveira put to sea again, scouring the Gulf, and making war everywhere with fire and sword, by sea and land; and he made an onslaught on ÇURRATE and Reynel, great cities on the sea-coast, and sacked them, and burnt part of them, for all the people fled, they being traders and without a garrison...."—_Correa_, iii. 277.

1553.—"Thence he proceeded to the bar of the river Tapty, above which stood two cities the most notable on that gulf. The first they call SURAT, 3 leagues from the mouth, and the other Reiner, on the opposite side of the river and half a league from the bank.... The latter was the most sumptuous in buildings and civilisation, inhabited by warlike people, all of them Moors inured to maritime war, and it was from this city that most of the foists and ships of the King of Cambay's fleet were furnished. SURAT again was inhabited by an unwarlike people whom they call Banyans, folk given to mechanic crafts, chiefly to the business of weaving cotton cloths."—_Barros_, IV. iv. 8.

1554.—"So saying they quitted their rowing-benches, got ashore, and started for SURRAT."—_Sidi 'Ali_, p. 83.

1573.—"Next day the Emperor went to inspect the fortress.... During his inspection some large mortars and guns attracted his attention. Those mortars bore the name of Sulaimání, from the name of Sulaimán Sultán of Turkey. When he made his attempt to conquer the ports of Gujarát, he sent these ... with a large army by sea. As the Turks ... were obliged to return, they left these mortars.... The mortars remained upon the sea-shore, until Khudáwand Khán built the fort of SURAT, when he placed them in the fort. The one which he left in the country of SÚRATH was taken to the fort of Junágarh by the ruler of that country."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Akbarī_, in _Elliot_, v. 350.

c. 1590.—"SŪRAT is among famous ports. The river Taptī runs hard by, and at seven coss distance joins the salt sea. Rānīr on the other side of the river is now a port dependent on SŪRAT, but was formerly a big city. The ports of Khandevī and Balsār are also annexed to SŪRAT. Fruit, and especially the ANANĀS, is abundant.... The sectaries of Zardasht, emigrant from Fārs, have made their dwelling here; they revere the Zhand and Pazhand and erect their _dakhmas_ (or places for exposing the dead).... Through the carelessness of the agents of Government and the commandants of the troops (_sipah-salārān_, SIPAH SELAR), a considerable tract of this Sirkār is at present in the hands of the Frank, _e.g._ Daman, Sanjān (ST. JOHN'S), Tārāpūr, Māhim, and Basai (see (1) BASSEIN), that are both cities and forts."—_Āin_, orig. i. 488; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 243].

[1615.—"To the Right Honourable Sir Thomas Roe ... these in ZURATT."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 196.]

1638.—"Within a League of the Road we entred into the River upon which SURAT is seated, and which hath on both sides a very fertile soil, and many fair gardens, with pleasant Country-houses, which being all white, a colour which it seems the _Indians_ are much in love with, afford a noble prospect amidst the greenness whereby they are encompassed. But the River, which is the _Tapte_ ... is so shallow at the mouth of it, that Barks of 70 or 80 Tun can hardly come into it."—_Mandelslo_, p. 12.

1690.—"SURATT is reckon'd the most fam'd Emporium of the _Indian_ Empire, where all Commodities are vendible.... And the River is very commodious for the Importation of Foreign Goods, which are brought up to the City in Hoys and Yachts, and Country Boats."—_Ovington_, 218.

1779.—"There is some report that he (Gen. Goddard) is gone to _Bender_-SOURET ... but the truth of this God knows."—_Seir Mutaq._ iii. 328.

SURATH, more properly SŌRATH, and SŌRETH, n.p. This name is the legitimate modern form and representative of the ancient Indian _Saurāshṭra_ and Greek _Syrastrēnē_, names which applied to what we now call the Kattywar Peninsula, but especially to the fertile plains on the sea-coast. ["Suráshṭra, the land of the Sus, afterwards Sanskritized into Sauráshṭra the Goodly Land, preserves its name in SORATH the southern part of Káthiáváḍa. The name appears as _Suráshṭra_ in the _Mahábhárata_ and Pánini's _Gaṇapátha_, in Rudradáman's (A.D. 150) and Skandagupta's (A.D. 456) Girnár inscriptions, and in several Valabhi copper-plates. Its Prákrit form appears as _Suraṭha_ in the Násik inscription of Gotamiputra (A.D. 150) and in later Prákrit as _Suraṭhṭha_ in the _Tirthakalpa_ of Jinapra-bhásuri of the 13th or 14th century. Its earliest foreign mention is perhaps Strabo's _Saraostus_ and Pliny's _Oratura_" (_Bombay Gazetteer_, i. pt. i. 6)]. The remarkable discovery of one of the great inscriptions of Aśoka (B.C. 250) on a rock at Girnār, near Junāgarh in Saurāshtra, shows that the dominion of that great sovereign, whose capital was at Pataliputra (Παλιμβόθρα) or PATNA, extended to this distant shore. The application of the modern form Sūrath or Sōrath has varied in extent. It is now the name of one of the four _prānts_ or districts into which the peninsula is divided for political purposes, each of these _prānts_ containing a number of small States, and being partly managed, partly controlled by a Political Assistant. Sorath occupies the south-western portion, embracing an area of 5,220 sq. miles.

c. A.D. 80-90.—"Ταύτης τὰ μὲν μεσόγεια τῇ Σκυθίᾳ συνορίζοντα Ἀβιρία καλεῖται, τὰ δὲ παραθαλάσσια Συραστρήνη."—_Periplus_, § 41.

c. 150.—

"Συραστρηνῆς, * * * Βαρδάξημα πόλις ... Συράστρα κώμη ... Μονόγλωσσον ἐμπόριον...." _Ptolemy_, VII. i. 2-3.

" "Πάλιν ἡ μὲν παρὰ τὸ λοιπὸν μέρος του Ἰνδοῦ πασα καλεῖται κοινῶς μὲν ... Ἰνδοσκυθία

* * * * * *

καὶ ἡ περὶ τὸν Κάνθι κόλπον ... Συραστρηνή."—_Ibid._ 55.

c. 545.—"Εἰσὶν οὐν τὰ λαμπρὰ ἐμπόρια τῆς Ἰνδικῆς ταῦτα, Σινδοῦ, Ὀῤῥοθα, Καλλιάνα, Σιβὼρ, ἡ Μαλὲ, πέντε ἐμπόρια ἔχουσα βάλλοντα τὸ πέπερι."—_Cosmas_, lib. xi. These names may be interpreted as SIND, SORATH, CALYAN, CHOUL (?), MALABAR.

c. 640.—"En quittant le royaume de _Fa-la-pi_ (Vallabhi), il fit 500 _li_ à l'ouest, et arriva au royaume de _Sou-la-tch'a_ (SOURÂCHTRA).... Comme ce royaume se trouve sur le chemin de la mer occidentale, tous les habitans profitent des avantages qu'offre la mer; ils se livrent au négoce, et à un commerce d'échange."—_Hiouen-Thsang_, in _Pèl. Bouddh._, iii. 164-165.

1516.—"Passing this city and following the sea-coast, you come to another place which has also a good port, and is called ÇURATI MANGALOR,[259] and here, as at the other, put in many vessels of Malabar for horses, grain, cloths, and cottons, and for vegetables and other goods prized in India, and they bring hither coco-nuts, Jagara (JAGGERY), which is sugar that they make drink of, emery, wax, cardamoms, and every other kind of spice, a trade in which great gain is made in a short time."—_Barbosa_, in _Ramusio_, i. f. 296.

1573.—See quotation of this date under preceding article, in which both the names SURAT and SŪRATH, occur.

1584.—"After his second defeat Muzaffar Gujarátí retreated by way of Champánír, Bírpúr, and Jhaláwar, to the country of SÚRATH, and rested at the town of Gondal, 12 _kos_ from the fort of Junágarh.... He gave a lac of _Mahmúdís_ and a jewelled dagger to Amín Khán Ghorí, ruler of SÚRATH, and so won his support."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Akbarí_, in _Elliot_, v. 437-438.

c. 1590.—"Sircar _Surat_ (SŪRATH) was formerly an independent territory; the chief was of the Ghelolo tribe, and commanded 50,000 cavalry, and 100,000 infantry. Its length from the port of Ghogeh (GOGO) to the port of Aramroy (_Arāmrāī_) measures 125 _cose_; and the breadth from Sindehar (_Sirdhār_), to the port of DIU, is a distance of 72 _cose_."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 73; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 243].

1616.—"7 SORET, the chief city, is called _Janagar_; it is but a little Province, yet very rich; it lyes upon Guzarat; it hath the Ocean to the South."—_Terry_, ed. 1665, p. 354.

SURKUNDA, s. Hind. _sarkanḍā_, [Skt. _śara_, 'reed-grass,' _kāṇḍa_, 'joint, section']. The name of a very tall reed-grass, _Saccharum Sara_, Roxb., perhaps also applied to _Saccharum procerum_, Roxb. These grasses are often tall enough in the riverine plains of Eastern Bengal greatly to overtop a tall man standing in a howda on the back of a tall elephant. It is from the upper part of the flower-bearing stalk of _surkunda_ that SIRKY (q.v.) is derived. A most intelligent visitor to India was led into a curious mistake about the name of this grass by some official, who ought to have known better. We quote the passage. ——'s story about the main branch of a river channel probably rests on no better foundation.

1875.—"As I drove yesterday with ——, I asked him if he knew the scientific name of the tall grass which I heard called tiger-grass at Ahmedabad, and which is very abundant here (about Lahore). I think it is a _saccharum_, but am not quite sure. 'No,' he said, 'but the people in the neighbourhood call it SIKUNDER'S GRASS, as they still call the main branch of a river 'Sikander's channel.' Strange, is it not?—how that great individuality looms through history."—_Grant Duff, Notes of an Indian Journey_, 105.

SURPOOSE, s. Pers. _sar-posh_, 'head-cover,' [which again becomes corrupted into our _Tarboosh_ (_tarbūsh_), and '_Tarbrush_' of the wandering Briton]. A cover, as of a basin, dish, hooka-bowl, &c.

1829.—"Tugging away at your hookah, find no smoke; a thief having purloined your silver CHELAM (see CHILLUM) and SURPOOSE."—_Mem. of John Shipp_, ii. 159.

SURRAPURDA, s. Pers. _sarā-parda_. A canvas screen surrounding royal tents or the like (see CANAUT).

1404.—"And round this pavilion stood an enclosure, as it were, of a town or castle made of silk of many colours, inlaid in many ways, with battlements at the top, and with cords to strain it outside and inside, and with poles inside to hold it up.... And there was a gateway of great height forming an arch, with doors within and without made in the same fashion as the wall ... and above the gateway a square tower with battlements: however fine the said wall was with its many devices and artifices, the said gateway, arch and tower, was of much more exquisite work still. And this enclosure they call ZALAPARDA."—_Clavijo_, s. cxvi.

c. 1590.—"The SARÁPARDAH was made in former times of coarse canvass, but his Majesty has now caused it to be made of carpeting, and thereby improved its appearance and usefulness."—_Āīn_, i. 54.

[1839.—"The camp contained numerous enclosures of SERRAPURDAHS or canvass skreens...."—_Elphinstone, Caubul_, 2nd ed. i. 101.]

SURRINJAUM, s. Pers. _saranjām_, lit. 'beginning-ending.' Used in India for 'apparatus,' 'goods and chattels,' and the like. But in the Mahratta provinces it has a special application to grants of land, or rather assignments of revenue, for special objects, such as keeping up a contingent of troops for service; to civil officers for the maintenance of their state; or for charitable purposes.

[1823.—"It was by accident I discovered the deed for this tenure (for the support of troops), which is termed SERINJAM. The Pundit of Dhar shewed some alarm; at which I smiled, and told him that his master had now the best tenure in India...."—_Malcolm, Central India_, 2nd ed. i. 103.]

[1877.—"Government ... did not accede to the recommendation of the political agent immediately to confiscate his SARINGAM, or territories."—_Mrs. Guthrie_, _My Year in an Indian Fort_, i. 166.]

SURRINJAUMEE, GRAM, s. Hind. _grām-saranjāmī_; Skt. _grāma_, 'a village,' and _saranjām_ (see SURRINJAUM); explained in the quotation.

1767.—"GRAM-SERENJAMMEE, or peons and pykes stationed in every village of the province to assist the farmers in the collections, and to watch the villages and the crops on the ground, who are also responsible for all thefts within the village they belong to ... (Rs.) 1,54,521 : 14."—_Revenue Accounts of Burdwan._ In _Long_, 507.

SURROW, SEROW, &c., s. Hind. _sarāo_. A big, odd, awkward-looking antelope in the Himālaya, 'something in appearance between a jackass and a _Tahir_' (TEHR or Him. wild goat).—_Col. Markham_ in _Jerdon_. It is _Nemorhoedus bubalina_, Jerdon; [_N. bubalinus_, Blanford (_Mammalia_, 513)].

SURWAUN, s. Hind. from Pers. _sārwān_, _sārbān_, from _sār_ in the sense of camel, a camel-man.

[1828.—"... camels roaring and blubbering, and resisting every effort, soothing or forcible, of their SERWANS to induce them to embark."—_Mundy, Pen and Pencil Sketches_, ed. 1858, p. 185.]

1844.—"... armed SURWANS, or camel-drivers."—_G. O._ of _Sir C. Napier_, 93.

SUTLEDGE, n.p. The most easterly of the Five Rivers of the Punjab, the great tributaries of the Indus. Hind. _Satlaj_, with certain variations in spelling and pronunciation. It is in Skt. _Satadru_, 'flowing in a hundred channels,' _Sutudru_, _Sutudri_, _Sitadru_, &c., and is the Σαράδρος, Ζαράδρος, or Σαδάδρης of Ptolemy, the Sydrus (or _Hesudrus_) of Pliny (vi. 21).

c. 1020.—"The Sultán ... crossed in safety the Síhún (Indus), Jelam, Chandráha, Ubrá (Ráví), Bah (Bíyáh), and SATALDUR...."—_Al-'Utbí_, in _Elliot_, ii. 41.

c. 1030.—"They all combine with the SATLADER below Múltán, at a place called Panjnad, or 'the junction of the five rivers.'"—_Al-Birūnī_, in _Elliot_, i. 48. The same writer says: "(The name) should be written SHATALUDR. It is the name of a province in Hind. But I have ascertained from well-informed people that it should be _Sataludr_, not _Shataldudr_" (_sic_).—_Ibid._ p. 52.

c. 1310.—"After crossing the Panjáb, or five rivers, namely, Sind, Jelam, the river of Loháwar, SATLÚT, and Bíyah...."—_Wassāf_, in _Elliot_, iii. 36.

c. 1380.—"The Sultán (Fíroz Sháh) ... conducted two streams into the city from two rivers, one from the river Jumna, the other from the SUTLEJ."—_Táríkh-i-Fíroz-Sháhí_, in _Elliot_, iii. 300.

c. 1450.—"In the year 756 H. (1355 A.D.) the Sultán proceeded to Díbálpúr, and conducted a stream from the river SATLADAR, for a distance of 40 _kos_ as far as Jhajar."—_Táríkh-i-Mubárak Sháhí_, in _Elliot_, iv. 8.

c. 1582.—"Letters came from Lahore with the intelligence that Ibrahím Husain Mirzá had crossed the SATLADA, and was marching upon Dipálpúr."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Akbarí_, in _Elliot_, v. 358.

c. 1590.—"_Sūbah Dihlī._ In the 3rd climate. The length (of this Sūbah) from Palwal to Lodhīāna, which is on the bank of the river SATLAJ, is 165 _Kuroh_."—_Āīn_, orig. i. 513; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 278].

1793.—"Near Moultan they unite again, and bear the name of SETLEGE, until both the substance and name are lost in the Indus."—_Rennell, Memoir_, 102.

In the following passage the great French geographer has missed the Sutlej:

1753.—"Les cartes qui ont précédé celles que j'ai composées de l'Arie, ou de l'Inde ... ne marquoient aucune rivière entre l'Hyphasis, ou Hypasis, dernier des fleuves qui se rendent dans l'Indus, et le Gemné, qui est le _Jomanes_ de l'Antiquité.... Mais la marche de Timur a indiqué dans cette intervalle deux rivières, celle de _Kehker_ et celle de _Panipat_. Dans un ancien itineraire de l'Inde, que Pline nous a conservé, on trouve entre l'_Hyphasis_ et le _Jomanes_ une rivière sous le nom d'HESIDRUS à égale distance d'Hyphasis et de Jomanes, et qu'on a tout lieu de prendre pour _Kehker_."—_D'Anville_, p. 47.

SUTTEE, s. The rite of widow-burning; _i.e._ the burning of the living widow along with the corpse of her husband, as practised by people of certain castes among the Hindus, and eminently by the Rājpūts.

The word is properly Skt. _satī_, 'a good woman,' 'a true wife,' and thence specially applied, in modern vernaculars of Sanskrit parentage, to the wife who was considered to accomplish the supreme act of fidelity by sacrificing herself on the funeral pile of her husband. The application of this substantive to the suicidal act, instead of the person, is European. The proper Skt. term for the act is _saha-gamana_, or 'keeping company,' [_saha-maraṇa_, 'dying together'].[260] A very long series of quotations in illustration of the practice, from classical times downwards, might be given. We shall present a selection.

We should remark that the word (_satī_ or _suttee_) does not occur, so far as we know, in any European work older than the 17th century. And then it only occurs in a disguised form (see quotation from P. Della Valle). The term _masti_ which he uses is probably _mahā-satī_, which occurs in Skt. Dictionaries ('a wife of great virtue'). Della Valle is usually eminent in the correctness of his transcriptions of Oriental words. This conjecture of the interpretation of _masti_ is confirmed, and the traveller himself justified, by an entry in Mr. Whitworth's Dictionary of a word _Masti-kalla_ used in Canara for a monument commemorating a _sati_. _Kalla_ is stone and _masti_ = _mahā-satī_. We have not found the term exactly in any European document older than Sir C. Malet's letter of 1787, and Sir W. Jones's of the same year (see below).

_Suttee_ is a Brahmanical rite, and there is a Sanskrit ritual in existence (see _Classified Index to the Tanjore MSS._, p. 135_a_). It was introduced into Southern India with the Brahman civilisation, and was prevalent there chiefly in the Brahmanical Kingdom of Vijayanagar, and among the Mahrattas. In Malabar, the most primitive part of S. India, the rite is forbidden (_Anāchāranirṇaya_, v. 26). The cases mentioned by Teixeira below, and in the _Lettres Édifiantes_, occurred at Tanjore and Madura. A (Mahratta) Brahman at Tanjore told one of the present writers that he had to perform commemorative funeral rites for his grandfather and grandmother on the same day, and this indicated that his grandmother had been a _satī_.

The practice has prevailed in various regions besides India. Thus it seems to have been an early custom among the heathen Russians, or at least among nations on the Volga called Russians by Maṣ'ūdī and Ibn Fozlān. Herodotus (Bk. v. ch. 5) describes it among certain tribes of Thracians. It was in vogue in Tonga and the Fiji Islands. It has prevailed in the island of Bali within our own time, though there accompanying Hindu rites, and perhaps of Hindu origin,—certainly modified by Hindu influence. A full account of Suttee as practised in those Malay Islands will be found in Zollinger's account of the Religion of Sassak in _J. Ind. Arch._ ii. 166; also see Friedrich's _Bali_ as in note preceding. [A large number of references to _Suttee_ are collected in Frazer, _Pausanias_, iii. 198 _seqq._]

In Diodorus we have a long account of the rivalry as to which of the two wives of Kēteus, a leader of the Indian contingent in the army of Eumenes, should perform SUTTEE. One is rejected as with child. The history of the other terminates thus:

B.C. 317.—"Finally, having taken leave of those of the household, she was set upon the pyre by her own brother, and was regarded with wonder by the crowd that had run together to the spectacle, and heroically ended her life; the whole force with their arms thrice marching round the pyre before it was kindled. But she, laying herself beside her husband, and even at the violence of the flame giving utterance to no unbecoming cry, stirred pity indeed in others of the spectators, and in some excess of eulogy; not but what there were some of the Greeks present who reprobated such rites as barbarous and cruel...."—_Diod. Sic. Biblioth._ xix. 33-34.

c. B.C. 30.—

"Felix Eois lex funeris una maritis Quos Aurora suis rubra colorat equis; Namque ubi mortifero jacta est fax ultima lecto Uxorum fusis stat pia turba comis; Et certamen habet leti, quae viva sequatur Conjugium; pudor est non licuisse mori. Ardent victrices; et flammae pectora praebent, Imponuntque suis ora perusta viris." _Propertius_,[261] Lib. iii. xiii. 15-22.

c. B.C. 20.—"He (Aristobulus) says that he had heard from some persons of wives burning themselves voluntarily with their deceased husbands, and that those women who refused to submit to this custom were disgraced."—_Strabo_, xv. 62 (E.T. by _Hamilton and Falconer_, iii. 112).

A.D. c. 390.—"Indi, ut omnes fere barbari uxores plurimas habent. Apud eos lex est, ut uxor carissima cum defuncto marito cremetur. Hae igitur contendunt inter se de amore viri, et ambitio summa certantium est, ac testimonium castitatis, dignam morte decerni. Itaque victrix in habitu ornatuque pristino juxta cadaver accubat, amplexans illud et deosculans et suppositos ignes prudentiae laude contemnens."—_St. Jerome, Advers. Jovinianum_, in ed. _Vallars_, ii. 311.

c. 851.—"All the Indians burn their dead. Serendib is the furthest out of the islands dependent upon India. Sometimes when they burn the body of a King, his wives cast themselves on the pile, and burn with him; but it is at their choice to abstain."—_Reinaud, Relation_, &c. i. 50.

c. 1200.—"Hearing the Raja was dead, the Parmâri became a SATÍ:—dying she said—The son of the Jadavanî will rule the country, may my blessing be on him!"—_Chand Bardai_, in _Ind. Ant._ i. 227. We cannot be sure that _satí_ is in the original, as this is a _condensed_ version by Mr. Beames.

1298.—"Many of the women also, when their husbands die and are placed on the pile to be burnt, do burn themselves along with the bodies."—_Marco Polo_, Bk. iii. ch. 17.

c. 1322.—"The idolaters of this realm have one detestable custom (that I must mention). For when any man dies they burn him; and if he leave a wife they burn her alive with him, saying that she ought to go and keep her husband company in the other world. But if the woman have sons by her husband she may abide with them, an she will."—_Odoric_, in _Cathay_, &c., i. 79.

" Also in Zampa or CHAMPA: "When a married man dies in this country his body is burned, and his living wife along with it. For they say that she should go to keep company with her husband in the other world also."—_Ibid._ 97.

c. 1328.—"In this India, on the death of a noble, or of any people of substance, their bodies are burned; and eke their wives follow them alive to the fire, and for the sake of worldly glory, and for the love of their husbands, and for eternal life, burn along with them, with as much joy as if they were going to be wedded. And those who do this have the higher repute for virtue and perfection among the rest."—_Fr. Jordanus_, 20.

c. 1343.—"The burning of the wife after the death of her husband is an act among the Indians recommended, but not obligatory. If a widow burns herself, the members of the family get the glory thereof, and the fame of fidelity in fulfilling their duties. She who does not give herself up to the flames puts on coarse raiment and abides with her kindred, wretched and despised for having failed in duty. But she is not compelled to burn herself." (There follows an interesting account of instances witnessed by the traveller.)—_Ibn Batuta_, ii. 138.

c. 1430.—"In Mediâ vero Indiâ, mortui comburuntur, cumque his, ut plurimum vivae uxores ... una pluresve, prout fuit matrimonii conventio. Prior ex lege uritur, etiam quae unica est. Sumuntur autem et aliae uxores quaedam eo pacto, ut morte funus suâ exornent, isque haud parvus apud eos honos ducitur ... submisso igne uxor ornatiori cultu inter tubas tibicinasque et cantus, et ipsa psallentis more alacris rogum magno comitatu circuit. Adstat interea et sacerdos ... hortando suadens. Cum circumierit illa saepius ignem prope suggestum consistit, vestesque exuens, loto de more prius corpore, tum sindonem albam induta, ad exhortationem dicentis in ignem prosilit."—_N. Conti_, in _Poggius de Var. Fort._ iv.

c. 1520.—"There are in this Kingdom (the Deccan) many heathen, natives of the country, whose custom it is that when they die they are burnt, and their wives along with them; and if these will not do it they remain in disgrace with all their kindred. And as it happens oft times that they are unwilling to do it, their Bramin kinsfolk persuade them thereto, and this in order that such a fine custom should not be broken and fall into oblivion."—_Sommario de' Genti_, in _Ramusio_, i. f. 329.

" "In this country of CAMBOJA ... when the King dies, the lords voluntarily burn themselves, and so do the King's wives at the same time, and so also do other women on the death of their husbands."—_Ibid._ f. 336.

1522.—"They told us that in Java Major it was the custom, when one of the chief men died, to burn his body; and then his principal wife, adorned with garlands of flowers, has herself carried in a chair by four men ... comforting her relations, who are afflicted because she is going to burn herself with the corpse of her husband ... saying to them, 'I am going this evening to sup with my dear husband and to sleep with him this night.'... After again consoling them (she) casts herself into the fire and is burned. If she did not do this she would not be looked upon as an honourable woman, nor as a faithful wife."—_Pigafetta_, E.T. by _Lord Stanley of A._, 154.

c. 1566.—Cesare Federici notices the rite as peculiar to the Kingdom of "_Bezeneger_" (see BISNAGAR): "vidi cose stranie e bestiali di quella gentilitâ; vsano primamente abbrusciare i corpi morti cosi d'huomini come di donne nobili; e si l'huomo è maritato, la moglie è obligata ad abbrusciarsi viva col corpo del marito."—_Orig._ ed. p. 36. This traveller gives a good account of a Suttee.

1583.—"In the interior of Hindústán it is the custom when a husband dies, for his widow willingly and cheerfully to cast herself into the flames (of the funeral pile), although she may not have lived happily with him. Occasionally love of life holds her back, and then her husband's relations assemble, light the pile, and place her upon it, thinking that they thereby preserve the honour and character of the family. But since the country had come under the rule of his gracious Majesty [Akbar], inspectors had been appointed in every city and district, who were to watch carefully over these two cases, to discriminate between them, and to prevent any woman being forcibly burnt."—_Abu'l Faẓl, Akbar Námah_, in _Elliot_, vi. 69.

1583.—"Among other sights I saw one I may note as wonderful. When I landed (at Negapatam) from the vessel, I saw a pit full of kindled charcoal; and at that moment a young and beautiful woman was brought by her people on a litter, with a great company of other women, friends of hers, with great festivity, she holding a mirror in her left hand, and a lemon in her right hand...."—and so forth.—_G. Balbi_, f. 82v. 83.

1586.—"The custom of the countrey (Java) is, that whensoever the King doeth die, they take the body so dead and burne it, and preserve the ashes of him, and within five dayes next after, the wiues of the said King so dead, according to the custome and vse of their countrey, every one of them goe together to a place appointed, and the chiefe of the women which was nearest to him in accompt, hath a ball in her hand, and throweth it from her, and the place where the ball resteth, thither they goe all, and turne their faces to the Eastward, and every one with a dagger in their hand (which dagger they call a crise (see CREASE), and is as sharpe as a rasor), stab themselues in their owne blood, and fall a-groueling on their faces, and so ende their dayes."—_T. Candish_, in _Hakl._ iv. 338. This passage refers to Blambangan at the east end of Java, which till a late date was subject to Bali, in which such practices have continued to our day. It seems probable that the Hindu rite here came in contact with the old Polynesian practices of a like kind, which prevailed _e.g._ in Fiji, quite recently. The narrative referred to below under 1633, where the victims were the slaves of a deceased queen, points to the latter origin. W. Humboldt thus alludes to similar passages in old Javanese literature: "Thus we may reckon as one of the finest episodes in the _Brata Yuda_, the story how SATYA WATI, when she had sought out her slain husband among the wide-spread heap of corpses on the battlefield, stabs herself by his side with a dagger."—_Kawi-Sprache_, i. 89 (and see the whole section, pp. 87-95).

[c. 1590.—"When he (the Rajah of Asham) dies, his principal attendants of both sexes voluntarily bury themselves alive in his grave."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 118.]

1598.—The usual account is given by _Linschoten_, ch. xxxvi., with a plate; [Hak. Soc. i. 249].

[c. 1610.—See an account in _Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. i. 394.]

1611.—"When I was in India, on the death of the Naique (see NAIK) of Maduré, a country situated between that of Malauar and that of Choromandel, 400 wives of his burned themselves along with him."—_Teixeira_, i. 9.

c. 1620.—"The author ... when in the territory of the Karnátik ... arrived in company with his father at the city of Southern Mathura (Madura), where, after a few days, the ruler died and went to hell. The chief had 700 wives, and they all threw themselves at the same time into the fire."—_Muhammad Sharíf Hanafí_, in _Elliot_, vii. 139.

1623.—"When I asked further if force was ever used in these cases, they told me that usually it was not so, but only at times among persons of quality, when some one had left a young and handsome widow, and there was a risk either of her desiring to marry again (which they consider a great scandal) or of a worse mishap,—in such a case the relations of her husband, if they were very strict, would compel her, even against her will, to burn ... a barbarous and cruel law indeed! But in short, as regarded Giaccamà, no one exercised either compulsion or persuasion; and she did the thing of her own free choice; both her kindred and herself exulting in it, as in an act magnanimous (which in sooth it was) and held in high honour among them. And when I asked about the ornaments and flowers that she wore, they told me this was customary as a sign of the joyousness of the MASTÌ (_Mastì_ is what they call a woman who gives herself up to be burnt upon the death of her husband)."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 671; [Hak. Soc. ii. 275, and see ii. 266 _seq._]

1633.—"The same day, about noon, the queen's body was burnt without the city, with two and twenty of her female slaves; and we consider ourselves bound to render an exact account of the barbarous ceremonies practised in this place on such occasions as we were witness to...."—_Narrative of a Dutch Mission to Bali_, quoted by _Crawfurd, H. of Ind. Arch._, ii. 244-253, from _Prevost_. It is very interesting, but too long for extract.

c. 1650.—"They say that when a woman becomes a SATTEE, that is burns herself with the deceased, the Almighty pardons all the sins committed by the wife and husband and that they remain a long time in paradise; nay if the husband were in the infernal regions, the wife by this means draws him from thence and takes him to paradise.... Moreover the SATTEE, in a future birth, returns not to the female sex ... but she who becomes not a SATTEE, and passes her life in widowhood, is never emancipated from the female state.... It is however criminal to force a woman into the fire, and equally to prevent her who voluntarily devotes herself."—_Dabistān_, ii. 75-76.

c. 1650-60.—Tavernier gives a full account of the different manners of _Suttee_, which he had witnessed often, and in various parts of India, but does not use the word. We extract the following:

c. 1648.—"... there fell of a sudden so violent a Shower, that the Priests, willing to get out of the Rain, thrust the Woman all along into the Fire. But the Shower was so vehement, and endured so long, that the Fire was quench'd, and the Woman was not burn'd. About midnight she arose, and went and knock'd at one of her Kinsmen's Houses, where Father _Zenon_ and many _Hollanders_ saw her, looking so gastly and grimly, that it was enough to have scar'd them; however the pain she endur'd did not so far terrifie her, but that three days after, accompany'd by her Kindred, she went and was burn'd according to her first intention."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 84; [ed. _Ball_, i. 219].

Again:

"In most places upon the Coast of Coromandel, the Women are not burnt with their deceas'd Husbands, but they are buried alive with them in holes, which the Bramins make a foot deeper than the tallness of the man and woman. Usually they chuse a Sandy place; so that when the man and woman are both let down together, all the Company with Baskets of Sand fill up the hole above half a foot higher than the surface of the ground, after which they jump and dance upon it, till they believe the woman to be stifl'd."—_Ibid._ 171; [ed. _Ball_, ii. 216].

c. 1667.—Bernier also has several highly interesting pages on this subject, in his "Letter written to M. Chapelan, sent from Chiras in Persia." We extract a few sentences: "Concerning the Women that have actually burn'd themselves, I have so often been present at such dreadful spectacles, that at length I could endure no more to see it, and I retain still some horrour when I think on't.... The Pile of Wood was presently all on fire, because store of Oyl and Butter had been thrown upon it, and I saw at the time through the Flames that the Fire took hold of the Cloaths of the Woman.... All this I saw, but observ'd not that the Woman was at all disturb'd; yea it was said, that she had been heard to pronounce with great force these two words, _Five_, _Two_, to signifie, according to the Opinion of those who hold the Souls Transmigration, that this was the 5th time she had burnt herself with the same Husband, and that there remain'd but _two_ times for perfection; as if she had at that time this Remembrance, or some Prophetical Spirit."—E.T. p. 99; [ed. _Constable_, 306 _seqq._].

1677.—Suttee, described by A. Bassing, in _Valentijn_ v. (_Ceylon_) 300.

1713.—"Ce fut cette année de 1710, que mourut le Prince de Marava, âgé de plus de quatre-vingt-ans; ses femmes, en nombre de quarante sept, se brûlèrent avec le corps du Prince...." (details follow).—_Père Martin_ (of the Madura Mission), in _Lett. Edif._ ed. 1781, tom. xii., pp. 123 _seqq._

1727.—"I have seen several burned several Ways.... I heard a Story of a Lady that had received Addresses from a Gentleman who afterwards deserted her, and her Relations died shortly after the Marriage ... and as the Fire was well kindled ... she espied her former Admirer, and beckned him to come to her. When he came she took him in her Arms, as if she had a Mind to embrace him; but being stronger than he, she carried him into the Flames in her Arms, where they were both consumed, with the Corpse of her Husband."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 278; [ed. 1744, i. 280].

" "The Country about (Calcutta) being overspread with _Paganisms_, the Custom of Wives burning themselves with their deceased Husbands, is also practised here. Before the _Mogul's_ War, Mr. _Channock_ went one time with his Ordinary Guard of Soldiers, to see a young Widow act that tragical Catastrophe, but he was so smitten with the Widow's Beauty, that he sent his Guards to take her by Force from her Executioners, and conducted her to his own Lodgings. They lived lovingly many Years, and had several Children; at length she died, after he had settled in _Calcutta_, but instead of converting her to _Christianity_, she made him a Proselyte to _Paganism_, and the only part of _Christianity_ that was remarkable in him, was burying her decently, and he built a Tomb over her, where all his Life after her Death, he kept the anniversary Day of her Death by sacrificing a Cock on her Tomb, after the _Pagan_ Manner."—_Ibid._ [ed. 1744], ii. 6-7. [With this compare the curious lines described as an Epitaph on "Joseph Townsend, Pilot of the Ganges" (5 ser. _Notes & Queries_, i. 466 _seq._).]

1774.—"Here (in Bali) not only women often kill themselves, or burn with their deceased husbands, but men also burn in honour of their deceased masters."—_Forrest, V. to N. Guinea_, 170.

1787.—"Soon after I and my conductor had quitted the house, we were informed the SUTTEE (for that is the name given to the person who so devotes herself) had passed...."—_Sir C. Malet_, in _Parly. Papers of 1821_, p. 1 ("Hindoo Widows").

" "My Father, said he (Pundit Rhadacaunt), died at the age of one hundred years, and my mother, who was eighty years old, became a SATI, and burned herself to expiate sins."—Letter of _Sir W. Jones_, in _Life_, ii. 120.

1792.—"In the course of my endeavours I found the poor SUTTEE had no relations at Poonah."—Letter from _Sir C. Malet_, in _Forbes, Or. Mem._ ii. 394; [2nd ed. ii. 28, and see i. 178, in which the previous passage is quoted].

1808.—"These proceedings (Hindu marriage ceremonies in Guzerat) take place in the presence of a Brahmin.... And farther, now the young woman vows that her affections shall be fixed upon her Lord alone, not only in all this life, but will follow in death, or to the next, that she will die, that she may burn with him, through as many transmigrations as shall secure their joint immortal bliss. Seven successions of SUTTEES (a woman seven times born and burning, thus, as often) secure to the loving couple a seat among the gods."—_R. Drummond._

1809.—

"O sight of misery! You cannot hear her cries ... their sound In that wild dissonance is drowned; ... But in her face you see The supplication and the agony ... See in her swelling throat the desperate strength That with vain effort struggles yet for life; Her arms contracted now in fruitless strife, Now wildly at full length, Towards the crowd in vain for pity spread, ... They force her on, they bind her to the dead." _Kehama_, i. 12.

In all the poem and its copious notes, the word SUTTEE does not occur.

[1815.—"In reference to this mark of strong attachment (of Sati for Siva), a Hindoo widow burning with her husband on the funeral pile is called SUTEE."—_Ward, Hindoos_, 2nd ed. ii. 25.]

1828.—"After having bathed in the river, the widow lighted a brand, walked round the pile, set it on fire, and then mounted cheerfully: the flame caught and blazed up instantly; she sat down, placing the head of the corpse on her lap, and repeated several times the usual form, 'Ram, Ram, SUTTEE; Ram, Ram, SUTTEE.'"—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 91-92.

1829.—"_Regulation XVII._

"A REGULATION for declaring the practice of SUTTEE, or of burning or burying alive the widows of Hindoos, illegal, and punishable by the Criminal Courts."—Passed by the _G.-G. in C._, Dec. 4.

1839.—"Have you yet heard in England of the horrors that took place at the funeral of that wretched old Runjeet Singh? _Four_ wives, and _seven_ slave-girls were burnt with him; not a word of remonstrance from the British Government."—_Letters from Madras_, 278.

1843.—"It is lamentable to think how long after our power was firmly established in Bengal, we, grossly neglecting the first and plainest duty of the civil magistrate, suffered the practices of infanticide and SUTTEE to continue unchecked."—_Macaulay's Speech on Gates of Somnauth._

1856.—"The pile of the SUTEE is unusually large; heavy cart-wheels are placed upon it, to which her limbs are bound, or sometimes a canopy of massive logs is raised above it, to crush her by its fall.... It is a fatal omen to hear the SUTEE'S groan; therefore as the fire springs up from the pile, there rises simultaneously with it a deafening shout of 'Victory to Umbâ! Victory to Ranchor!' and the horn and the hard rattling drum sound their loudest, until the sacrifice is consumed."—_Râs Mâlâ_, ii. 435; [ed. 1878, p. 691].

[1870.—A case in this year is recorded by Chevers, _Ind. Med. Jurispr._ 665.]

1871.—"Our bridal finery of dress and feast too often proves to be no better than the Hindu woman's 'bravery,' when she comes to perform SUTTEE."—_Cornhill Mag._ vol. xxiv. 675.

1872.—"La coutume du suicide de la SATÎ n'en est pas moins fort ancienne, puisque déjà les Grecs d'Alexandre la trouvèrent en usage chez un peuple au moins du Penjâb. Le premier témoignage brahmanique qu'on en trouve est celui de la _Brihaddevatâ_ qui, peut-être, remonte tout aussi haut. A l'origine elle parait avoir été propre à l'aristocratie militaire."—_Barth, Les Religions de l'Inde_, 39.

SWALLOW, SWALLOE, s. The old trade-name of the sea-slug, or TRIPANG (q.v.). It is a corruption of the Bugi (Makassar) name of the creature, _suwālā_ (see _Crawfurd's Malay Dict._; [Scott, _Malayan Words_, 107]).

1783.—"I have been told by several Buggesses that they sail in their Paduakans to the northern parts of New Holland ... to gather SWALLOW (Biche de Mer), which they sell to the annual China junk at Macassar."—_Forrest, V. to Mergui_, 83.

SWALLY, SWALLY ROADS, SWALLY MARINE, SWALLY HOLE, n.p. _Suwālī_, the once familiar name of the roadstead north of the mouth of the Tapti, where ships for Surat usually anchored, and discharged or took in cargo. It was perhaps Ar. _sawāḥil_, 'the shores' (?). [Others suggest Skt. _Śivālaya_, 'abode of Siva.']

[1615.—"The Osiander proving so leaky through the worm through the foulness of the sea-water at SUALLY."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 22. Also see _Birdwood, Report on Old Recs._ 209.]

1623.—"At the beach there was no kind of vehicle to be found; so the Captain went on foot to a town about a mile distant called SOHALI.... The Franks have houses there for the goods which they continually despatch for embarkation."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 503.

1675.—"As also passing by ... eight ships riding at _Surat_ River's Mouth, we then came to SWALLY MARINE, where were flying the Colours of the Three Nations, _English_, _French_, and _Dutch_ ... who here land and ship off all Goods, without molestation."—_Fryer_, 82.

1677.—"The 22d of February 167-6/7 from SWALLY HOLE the Ship was despatched alone."—_Ibid._ 217.

1690.—"In a little time we happily arriv'd at SUALYBAR, and the Tide serving, came to an Anchor very near the _Shoar_."—_Ovington_, 163.

1727.—"One Season the _English_ had eight good large Ships riding at SWALLY ... the Place where all Goods were unloaded from the Shipping, and all Goods for Exportation were there shipp'd off."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 166; [ed. 1744].

1841.—"These are sometimes called the inner and the outer sands of SWALLOW, and are both dry at low water."—_Horsburgh's India Directory_, ed. 1841, i. 474.

SWAMY, SAMMY, s. This word is a corruption of Skt. _suāmin_, 'Lord.' It is especially used in S. India, in two senses: (A) a Hindu idol, especially applied to those of Śiva or Subramanyam; especially, as SAMMY, in the dialect of the British soldier. This comes from the usual Tamil pronunciation _sāmi_. (B) The Skt. word is used by Hindus as a term of respectful address, especially to Brahmans.

A.—

1755.—"Towards the upper end there is a dark repository, where they keep their SWAMME, that is their chief god."—_Ives_, 70.

1794.—"The gold might for us as well have been worshipped in the shape of a SAWMY at Juggernaut."—_The Indian Observer_, p. 167.

1838.—"The Government lately presented a shawl to a Hindu idol, and the Government officer ... was ordered to superintend the delivery of it ... so he went with the shawl in his TONJON, and told the Bramins that they might come and take it, for that he would not touch it with his fingers to present it to a _Swamy_."—_Letters from Madras_, 183.

B.—

1516.—"These people are commonly called JOGUES (see JOGEE), and in their own speech they are called ZOAME, which means Servant of God."—_Barbosa_, 99.

1615.—"Tunc ad suos conversus: Eia Brachmanes, inquit, quid vobis videtur? Illi mirabundi nihil praeter SUAMI, SUAMI, id est Domine, Domine, retulerunt."—_Jarric, Thes._, i. 664.

SWAMY-HOUSE, SAMMY-HOUSE, s. An idol-temple, or pagoda. The _Sammy-house_ of the Delhi ridge in 1857 will not soon be forgotten.

1760.—"The French cavalry were advancing before their infantry; and it was the intention of Colliaud that his own should wait until they came in a line with the flank-fire of the field-pieces of the SWAMY-HOUSE."—_Orme_, iii. 443.

1829.—"Here too was a little detached SWAMEE-HOUSE (or chapel) with a lamp burning before a little idol."—_Mem. of Col. Mountain_, 99.

1857.—"We met Wilby at the advanced post, the 'SAMMY HOUSE,' within 600 yards of the Bastion. It was a curious place for three brothers to meet in. The view was charming. Delhi is as green as an emerald just now, and the Jumma Musjid and Palace are beautiful objects, though held by infidels."—_Letters written during the Siege of Delhi_, by _Hervey Greathed_, p. 112.

[SWAMY JEWELRY, s. A kind of gold and silver jewelry, made chiefly at Trichinopoly, in European shapes covered with grotesque mythological figures.

[1880.—"In the characteristic SWAMI work of the Madras Presidency the ornamentation consists of figures of the Puranic gods in high relief, either beaten out from the surface, or affixed to it, whether by soldering, or wedging, or screwing them on."—_Birdwood, Industr. Arts_, 152.]

SWAMY-PAGODA, s. A coin formerly current at Madras; probably so called from the figure of an idol on it. Milburn gives 100 _Swamy Pagodas_ = 110 Star Pagodas. A "_three_ SWĀMI pagoda" was a name given to a gold coin bearing on the obverse the effigy of Chenna Keswam SWĀMI (a title of Krishna) and on the reverse Lakshmi and Rukmini (_C.P.B._).

SWATCH, s. This is a marine term which probably has various applications beyond Indian limits. But the only two instances of its application are both Indian, viz. "the SWATCH of No Ground," or elliptically "The SWATCH," marked in all the charts just off the Ganges Delta, and a space bearing the same name, and probably produced by analogous tidal action, off the Indus Delta. [The word is not to be found in Smyth, _Sailor's Wordbook_.]

1726.—In Valentijn's first map of Bengal, though no name is applied there is a space marked "no ground with 60 raam (fathoms?) of line."

1863.—(Ganges). "There is still one other phenomenon.... This is the existence of a great depression, or hole, in the middle of the Bay of Bengal, known in the charts as the 'SWATCH of No Ground.'"—_Fergusson, on Recent Changes in the Delta of the Ganges, Qy. Jour. Geol. Soc._, Aug. 1863.

1877.—(Indus). "This is the famous SWATCH of no ground where the lead falls at once into 200 fathoms."—_Burton, Sind Revisited_, 21.

[1878.—"He (Capt. Lloyd, in 1840) describes the remarkable phenomenon at the head of the Bay of Bengal, similar to that reported by Captain Selby off the mouths of the Indus, called 'the SWATCH of no ground.' It is a deep chasm, open to seaward and very steep on the north-west face, with no soundings at 250 fathoms."—_Markham, Mem. of Indian Surveys_, 27.]

[SWEET APPLE, s. An Anglo-Indian corruption of _sītāphal_, 'the fruit of Sītā,' the Musk Melon, Fr. _Potiron_. _Cucurbita moschata_ (see CUSTARD-APPLE).]

SWEET OLEANDER, s. This is in fact the common oleander, _Nerium odorum_, Ait.

1880.—"Nothing is more charming than, even in the upland valleys of the Mahratta country, to come out of a wood of all outlandish trees and flowers suddenly on the dry winter bed of some mountain stream, grown along the banks, or on the little islets of verdure in mid (shingle) stream, with clumps of mixed tamarisk and lovely blooming OLEANDER."—_Birdwood, MS._ 9.

SWEET POTATO, s. The root of _Batatas edulis_, Choisy (_Convolvulus Batatas_, L.), N.O. _Convolvulaceae_; a very palatable vegetable, grown in most parts of India. Though extensively cultivated in America, and in the W. Indies, it has been alleged in various books (_e.g._ in _Eng. Cyclop._ Nat. Hist. Section, and in _Drury's Useful Plants of India_), that the plant is a native of the Malay islands. The _Eng. Cyc._ even states that _batatas_ is the Malay name. But the whole allegation is probably founded in error. The Malay names of the plant, as given by Crawfurd, are _Kaledek_, _Ubi Jawa_, and _Ubi Kastila_, the last two names meaning 'Java yam,' and 'Spanish yam,' and indicating the foreign origin of the vegetable. In India, at least in the Bengal Presidency, natives commonly call it _shakar-ḳand_, P.—Ar., literally 'sugar-candy,' a name equally suggesting that it is not indigenous among them. And in fact when we turn to Oviedo, we find the following distinct statement:

"BATATAS are a staple food of the Indians, both in the Island of Spagnuola and in the others ... and a ripe BATATA properly dressed is just as good as a marchpane twist of sugar and almonds, and better indeed.... When _Batatas_ are well ripened, they are often carried to Spain, _i.e._, if the voyage be a quiet one; for if there be delay they get spoilt at sea. I myself have carried them from this city of S. Domingo to the city of Avila in Spain, and although they did not arrive as good as they should be, yet they were thought a great deal of, and reckoned a singular and precious kind of fruit."—In _Ramusio_, iii. f. 134.

It must be observed however that several distinct varieties are cultivated by the Pacific islanders even as far west as New Zealand. And Dr. Bretschneider is satisfied that the plant is described in Chinese books of the 3rd or 4th century, under the name of _Kan-chu_ (the first syllable = 'sweet'). See _B. on Chin. Botan. Words_, p. 13. This is the only good argument we have seen for Asiatic origin. The whole matter is carefully dealt with by M. Alph. De Candolle (_Origine des Plantes cultivées_, pp. 43-45), concluding with the judgment: "Les motifs sont beaucoup plus forts, ce me semble, en faveur de l'origine americaine."

The "Sanskrit name" _Ruktaloo_, alleged by Mr. Piddington, is worthless. _Ālū_ is properly an esculent _Arum_, but in modern use is the name of the common potato, and is sometimes used for the sweet potato. _Raktālū_, more commonly _rat-ālū_, is in Bengal the usual name of the _Yam_, no doubt given first to a highly-coloured kind, such as _Dioscorea purpurea_, for _rakt-_ or _rat-ālū_ means simply 'red potato'; a name which might also be well applied to the _batatas_, as it is indeed, according to Forbes Watson, in the Deccan. There can be little doubt that this vegetable, or fruit as Oviedo calls it, having become known in Europe many years before the _potato_, the latter robbed it of its name, as has happened in the case of BRAZIL-wood (q.v.). The _batata_ is clearly the 'potato' of the fourth and others of the following quotations. [See _Watt, Econ. Dict._ iii. 117 _seqq._]

1519.—"At this place (in Brazil) we had refreshment of victuals, like fowls and meat of calves, also a variety of fruits, called BATATE, pigne (pine-apples), sweet, of singular goodness...."—_Pigafetta_, E.T. by _Lord Stanley of A._, p. 43.

1540.—"The root which among the Indians of Spagnuola Island is called BATATA, the negroes of St. Thomè (_C. Verde_ group) called _Igname_, and they plant it as the chief staple of their maintenance; it is of a black colour, _i.e._ the outer skin is so, but inside it is white, and as big as a large turnip, with many branchlets; it has the taste of a chestnut, but much better."—_Voyage to the I. of San Tomè under the Equinoctial, Ramusio_, i. 117_v_.

c. 1550.—"They have two other sorts of roots, one called BATATA.... They generate windiness, and are commonly cooked in the embers. Some say they taste like almond cakes, or sugared chestnuts; but in my opinion chestnuts, even without sugar, are better."—_Girol. Benzoni_, Hak. Soc. 86.

1588.—"Wee met with sixtee or seventee sayles of Canoes full of Sauages, who came off to Sea vnto vs, and brought with them in their Boates, Plantans, Cocos, POTATO-rootes, and fresh fish."—_Voyage of Master Thomas Candish, Purchas_, i. 66.

1600.—"The BATTATAS are somewhat redder of colour, and in forme almost like _Iniamas_ (see YAM), and taste like Earth-nuts."—In _Purchas_, ii. 957.

1615.—"I took a garden this day, and planted it with POTTATOS brought from the Liquea, a thing not yet planted in Japan. I must pay a _tay_, or 5 shillings sterling, per annum for the garden."—_Cocks's Diary_, i. 11.

1645.—"... PATTATE; c'est vne racine comme naueaux, mais plus longue et de couleur rouge et jaune: cela est de tres-bon goust, mais si l'on en mange souuent, elle degouste fort, et est assez venteuse."—_Mocquet, Voyages_, 83.

1764.—

"There let POTATOS mantle o'er the ground, Sweet as the cane-juice is the root they bear."—_Grainger_, Bk. iv.

SYCE, s. Hind. from Ar. _sāïs_. A groom. It is the word in universal use in the Bengal Presidency. In the South HORSE-KEEPER is more common, and in Bombay a vernacular form of the latter, viz. _ghoṛāwālā_ (see GORAWALLAH). The Ar. verb, of which _sāïs_ is the participle, seems to be a loan-word from Syriac, _sausī_, 'to coax.'

[1759.—In list of servants' wages: "SYCE, Rs. 2."—In _Long_, 182.]

1779.—"The BEARER and SCISE, when they returned, came to the place where I was, and laid hold of Mr. Ducarell. I took hold of Mr. Shee and carried him up. The bearer and SCISE took Mr. Ducarell out. Mr. Keeble was standing on his own house looking, and asked, 'What is the matter?' The bearer and SCISE said to Mr. Keeble, 'These gentlemen came into the house when my master was out.'"—_Evidence on Trial of_ Grand _v._ Francis, in _Echoes of Old Calcutta_, 230.

1810.—"The SYCE, or groom, attends but one horse."—_Williamson, V.M._ i. 254.

c. 1858?—

"Tandis que les ÇAIS veillent les chiens rodeurs." _Leconte de Lisle._

SYCEE, s. In China applied to pure silver bullion in ingots, or SHOES (q.v.). The origin of the name is said to be _si_ (pron. at Canton _sai_ and _sei_) = _sz'_, _i.e._ 'fine silk'; and we are told by Mr. Giles that it is so called because, if pure, it may be drawn out into fine threads. [Linschoten (1598) speaks of: "Peeces of cut silver, in which sort they pay and receive all their money" (Hak. Soc. i. 132).]

1711.—"Formerly they used to sell for SISEE, or Silver full fine; but of late the Method is alter'd."—_Lockyer_, 135.

SYRAS, CYRUS. See under CYRUS.

SYRIAM, n.p. A place on the Pegu R., near its confluence with the Rangoon R., six miles E. of Rangoon, and very famous in the Portuguese dealings with Pegu. The Burmese form is _Than-lyeng_, but probably the Talaing name was nearer that which foreigners give it. [See _Burma Gazetteer_, ii. 672. Mr. St. John (_J. R. As. Soc._, 1894, p. 151) suggests the Mwn word _sarang_ or _siring_, 'a swinging cradle.'] Syriam was the site of an English factory in the 17th century, of the history of which little is known. See the quotation from Dalrymple below.

1587.—"To CIRION a Port of Pegu come ships from Mecca with woollen Cloth, Scarlets, Velvets, Opium, and such like."—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 393.

1600.—"I went thither with Philip Brito, and in fifteene dayes arrived at SIRIAN the chiefe Port in Pegu. It is a lamentable spectacle to see the bankes of the Riuers set with infinite fruit-bearing trees, now ouerwhelmed with ruines of gilded Temples, and noble edifices; the wayes and fields full of skulls and bones of wretched Peguans, killed or famished, and cast into the River in such numbers that the multitude of carkasses prohibiteth the way and passage of ships."—The Jesuit _Andrew Boves_, in _Purchas_, ii. 1748.

c. 1606.—"Philip de Brito issued an order that a custom-house should be planted at SERIAN (_Serião_), at which duties should be paid by all the vessels of this State which went to trade with the kingdom of Pegu, and with the ports of Martavan, Tavay, Tenasserim, and Juncalon.... Now certain merchants and shipowners from the Coast of Coromandel refused obedience, and this led Philip de Brito to send a squadron of 6 ships and galliots with an imposing and excellent force of soldiers on board, that they might cruise on the coast of Tenasserim, and compel all the vessels that they met to come and pay duty at the fortress of SERIAN."—_Bocarro_, 135.

1695.—"9th. That the _Old house_ and _Ground_ at SYRIAN, formerly belonging to the _English Company_, may still be continued to them, and that they may have liberty of building _dwelling-houses_, and _warehouses_, for the securing their _Goods_, as shall be necessary, and that more _Ground_ be given them, if what they formerly had be not sufficient."—Petition presented to the K. of Burma at Ava, by _Ed. Fleetwood_; in _Dalrymple, O.R._ ii. 374.

1726.—ZIERJANG (Syriam) in _Valentijn, Choro._, &c., 127.

1727.—"About 60 Miles to the Eastward of China Backaar (see CHINA-BUCKEER) is the Bar of SYRIAN, the only port now open for Trade in all the _Pegu_ Dominions.... It was many Years in Possession of the _Portugueze_, till by their Insolence and Pride they were obliged to quit it."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 31-32; [ed. 1744].

SYUD, s. Ar. _saiyid_, 'a lord.' The designation in India of those who claim to be descendants of Mahommed. But the usage of _Saiyid_ and _Sharīf_ varies in different parts of Mahommedan Asia. ["As a rule (much disputed) the Sayyid is a descendant from Mahommed through his grandchild Hasan, and is a man of the pen; whereas the Sharīf derives from Husayn and is a man of the sword" (_Burton, Ar. Nights_, iv. 209).]

1404.—"On this day the Lord played at chess, for a great while, with certain ZAYTES; and ZAYTES they call certain men who come of the lineage of Mahomad."—_Clavijo_, § cxiv. (_Markham_, p. 141-2).

1869.—"Il y a dans l'Inde quatre classes de musulmans: les SAIYIDS ou descendants de Mahomet par Huçain, les _Schaikhs_ ou Arabes, nommés vulgairement Maures, les PATHANS ou Afgans, et les MOGOLS. Ces quatres classes ont chacune fourni à la religion de saints personnages, qui sont souvent designés par ces dénominations, et par d'autres spécialement consacrées à chacune d'elles, telles que _Mir_ pour les SAIYIDS, _Khân_ pour les Pathans, _Mirzâ_, _Beg_, _Agâ_, et _Khwâja_ pour les Mogols."—_Garcin de Tassy, Religion Mus. dans l'Inde_, 22.

(The learned author is mistaken here in supposing that the obsolete term MOOR was in India specially applied to Arabs. It was applied, following Portuguese custom, to all Mahommedans.)

T

TABASHEER, s. 'Sugar of Bamboo.' A siliceous substance sometimes found in the joints of the bamboo, formerly prized as medicine, [also known in India as _Bānslochan_ or _Bānskapūr_]. The word is Pers. _tabāshīr_, but that is from the Skt. name of the article, _tvakkshīra_, and _tavakkshīra_. The substance is often confounded, in name at least, by the old Materia Medica writers, with _spodium_ and is sometimes called _ispodio di canna_. See _Ces. Federici_ below. Garcia De Orta goes at length into this subject (f. 193 _seqq._). [See SUGAR.]

c. 1150.—"Tanah (miswritten _Banah_) est une jolie ville située sur un grand golfe.... Dans les montagnes environnantes croissent le ... kana et le ... TABĀSHĪR ... Quant au TÉBACHIR, on le falsifie en le mélangeant avec de la cendre d'ivoire; mais le veritable est celui qu'on extrait des racines du roseau dit ... _al Sharkí_."—_Edrisi_, i. 179.

1563.—"And much less are the roots of the cane TABAXER; so that according to both the translations Avicena is wrong; and Averrois says that it is charcoal from burning the canes of India, whence it appears that he never saw it, since he calls such a white substance charcoal."—_Garcia_, f. 195_v_.

c. 1570.—"Il _Spodio_ si congela d'acqua in alcune canne, e io n'ho trouato assai nel Pegù quando faceuo fabricar la mia casa."—_Ces. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 397.

1578.—"The _Spodium_ or TABAXIR of the Persians ... was not known to the Greeks."—_Acosta_, 295.

c. 1580.—"Spodium TABAXIR vocant, quo nomine vulgus pharmacopoeorum Spodium factitium, quippe metallicum, intelligunt. At eruditiores viri eo nomine lacrymam quandam, ex caudice arboris procerae in India nascentis, albicantem, odoratam, facultatis refrigeratoriae, et cor maxime roborantis itidem intelligunt."—_Prosper Alpinus, Rerum Ægyptiarum_, Lib. III. vii.

1598.—"... these _Mambus_ have a certain Matter within them, which is (as it were) the pith of it ... the Indians call it _Sacar Mambu_, which is as much as to say, as Sugar of _Mambu_, and is a very deep Medicinable thing much esteemed, and much sought for by the Arabians, Persians, and Moores, that call it TABAXIIR."—_Linschoten_, p. 104; [Hak. Soc. ii. 56].

1837.—"Allied to these in a botanical point of view is _Saccharum officinarum_, which has needlessly been supposed not to have yielded _saccharum_, or the substance known by this name to the ancients; the same authors conjecturing this to be TABASHEER.... Considering that this substance is pure _silex_, it is not likely to have been arranged with the honeys and described under the head of περι Σακχαρον μελιτον."—_Royle on the Ant. of Hindoo Medicine_, p. 83. This confirms the views expressed in the article SUGAR.

1854.—"In the cavity of these cylinders water is sometimes secreted, or, less commonly, an opaque white substance, becoming opaline when wetted, consisting of a flinty secretion, of which the plant divests itself, called TABASHEER, concerning the optical properties of which Sir David Brewster has made some curious discoveries."—_Engl. Cycl._ Nat. Hist. Section, article _Bamboo_.

TABBY, s. Not Anglo-Indian. A kind of watered silk stuff; Sp. and Port. _tabi_, Ital. _tabino_, Fr. _tabis_, from Ar. _'attābī_, the name said to have been given to such stuffs from their being manufactured in early times in a quarter of Baghdad called _al-'attābīya_; and this derived its name from a prince of the 'Omaiyad family called 'Attāb. [See Burton, _Ar. Nights_, ii. 371.]

12th cent.—"The _'Attābīya_ ... here are made the stuffs, called 'ATTĀBĪYA, which are silks and cottons of divers colours."—_Ibn Jubair_, p. 227.

[c. 1220.—"'ATTABI." See under SUCLAT.]

TABOOT, s. The name applied in India to a kind of shrine, or model of a Mahommedan mausoleum, of flimsy material, intended to represent the tomb of Husain at Kerbela, which is carried in procession during the Moharram (see _Herklots_, 2nd ed. 119 _seqq._, and _Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Musulm. dans l'Inde_, 36). [The word is Ar. _tabūt_, 'a wooden box, coffin.' The term used in N. India is _ta'ziya_ (see TAZEEA).]

[1856.—"There is generally over the vault in which the corpse is deposited an oblong monument of stone or brick (called 'tarkeebeh') or wood (in which case it is called 'TABOOT')."—_Lane, Mod. Egypt._, 5th ed. i. 299.]

[TACK-RAVAN, s. A litter carried on men's shoulders, used only by royal personages. It is Pers. _takht-ravān_, 'travelling-throne.' In the Hindi of Behar the word is corrupted into _tartarwān_.

[c. 1660.—"... several articles of _Chinese_ and _Japan_ workmanship; among which were a _paleky_ and a TACK-RAVAN, or travelling throne, of exquisite beauty, and much admired."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 128; in 370, TACT-RAVAN.

[1753.—"Mahommed Shah, emperor of Hindostan, seated in a royal litter (TAKHT REVAN, which signifies a moving throne) issued from his camp...."—_Hanway_, iv. 169.]

TAEL, s. This is the trade-name of the Chinese ounce, viz., 1/16 of a CATTY (q.v.); and also of the Chinese money of account, often called "the ounce of silver," but in Chinese called _liang_. The standard _liang_ or _tael_ is, according to Dr. Wells Williams, = 579.84 grs. troy. It was formerly equivalent to a string of 1000 _tsien_, or (according to the trade-name) CASH (q.v.). The China _tael_ used to be reckoned as worth 6_s._ 8_d._, but the rate really varied with the price of silver. In 1879 an article in the _Fortnightly Review_ puts it at 5_s._ 7½_d._ (Sept. p. 362); the exchange at Shanghai in London by telegraphic transfer, April 13, 1885, was 4_s._ 9⅜_d._; [on Oct. 3, 1901, 2_s._ 7¼_d._]. The word was apparently got from the Malays, among whom _taïl_ or _tahil_ is the name of a weight; and this again, as Crawfurd indicates, is probably from the India TOLA (q.v.). [Mr. Pringle writes: "Sir H. Yule does not refer to such forms as TAHE (see below), TAIES (plural in Fryer's _New Account_, p. 210, sub _Machawo_), TAYE (see quotation below from Saris), TAYES (see quotation below from Mocquet), or TAEY, and TAEYS (Philip's translation of _Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 149). These probably come through the medium of the Portuguese, in which the final _l_ of the singular TAEL is changed into _s_ in the plural. Such a form as TAEIS might easily suggest a singular wanting the final _s_, and from such a singular French and English plurals of the ordinary type would in turn be fashioned" (_Diary Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. ii. 126).]

The Chinese scale of weight, with their trade-names, runs: 16 TAELS = 1 CATTY, 100 _catties_ = 1 PECUL = 133½ _lbs. avoird._ Milburn gives the weights of Achin as 4 _copangs_ (see KOPANG) = 1 MACE, 5 MACE = 1 _mayam_, 16 _mayam_ = 1 _tale_ (see TAEL), 5 _tales_ = 1 _buncal_, 20 _buncals_ = 1 CATTY, 200 _catties_ = 1 BAHAR; and the _catty_ of Achīn as = 2 _lbs._ 1 _oz._ 13 _dr._ Of these names, MACE, TALE and BAHAR (qq.v.) seem to be of Indian origin, _mayam_, _bangkal_, and _kati_ Malay.

1540.—"And those three junks which were then taken, according to the assertion of those who were aboard, had contained in silver alone 200,000 TAELS (_taeis_), which are in our money 300,000 _cruzados_, besides much else of value with which they were freighted."—_Pinto_, cap. xxxv.

1598.—"A TAEL is a full ounce and a halfe Portingale weight."—_Linschoten_, 44; [Hak. Soc. i. 149].

1599.—"Est et ponderis genus, quod TAEL vocant in Malacca. TAEL unum in Malacca pendet 16 MASAS."—_De Bry_, ii. 64.

" "Four hundred CASHES make a _cowpan_ (see KOBANG). Foure _cowpans_ are one MAS. Foure _masses_ make a _Perdaw_ (see PARDAO). Four _Perdaws_ make a TAYEL."—_Capt. T. Davis_, in _Purchas_, i. 123.

c. 1608.—"Bezar stones are thus bought by the TAILE ... which is one Ounce, and the third part English."—_Saris_, in _do._, 392.

1613.—"A TAYE is five shillinge sterling."—_Saris_, in _do._ 369.

1643.—"Les Portugais sont fort desireux de ces Chinois pour esclaves ... il y a des Chinois faicts à ce mestier ... quand ils voyent quelque beau petit garçon ou fille ... les enleuent par force et les cachent ... puis viennent sur la riue de la mer, ou ils sçauent que sont les trafiquans à qui ils les vendent 12 et 15 TAYES chacun, qui est enuiron 25 escus."—_Mocquet_, 342.

c. 1656.—"Vn Religieux Chinois qui a esté surpris auec des femmes de debauche ... l'on a percé le col avec vn fer chaud; à ce fer est attaché vne chaisne de fer d'enuiron dix brasses qu'il est obligé de traisner jusques à ce qu'il ait apporté au Couuent trente THEYLS d'argent qu'il faut qu'il amasse en demandant l'aumosne."—In _Thevenot, Divers Voyages_, ii. 67.

[1683.—"The abovesaid Musk weyes Cattee 10: TAHE 14: Mas 03...."—_Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. ii. 34.]

TAHSEELDAR, s. The chief (native) revenue officer of a subdivision (_taḥsīl_, conf. PERGUNNAH, TALOOK) of a district (see ZILLAH). Hind. from Pers. _taḥsīldār_, and that from Ar. _taḥsīl_, 'collection.' This is a term of the Mahommedan administration which we have adopted. It appears by the quotation from Williamson that the term was formerly employed in Calcutta to designate the cash-keeper in a firm or private establishment, but this use is long obsolete. [Possibly there was a confusion with _taḥvīldār_, 'a cashier.']

[1772.—"TAHSILDAR, or _Sezawaul_, an officer employed for a monthly salary to collect the revenues."—_Glossary_, in _Verelst, View of Bengal_, s.v.]

1799.—"... He (Tippoo) divided his country into 37 Provinces under Dewans (see DEWAUN) ... and he subdivided these again into 1025 inferior districts, having each a TISHELDAR."—Letter of _Munro_, in _Life_, i. 215.

1808.—"... he continues to this hour TEHSILDAR of the petty pergunnah of Sheopore."—_Fifth Report_, 583.

1810.—"... the sircar, or TUSSEELDAR (cash-keeper) receiving one key, and the master retaining the other."—_Williamson, V.M._ i. 209.

[1826.—"... I told him ... that I was ... the bearer of letters to his head collector or T,HUSEELDAM (_sic_) there."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, i. 155.]

TAILOR-BIRD, s. This bird is so called from the fact that it is in the habit of drawing together "one leaf or more, generally two leaves, on each side of the nest, and stitches them together with cotton, either woven by itself, or cotton thread picked up; and after putting the thread through the leaf, it makes a knot at the end to fix it" (_Jerdon_). It is _Orthrotomos longicauda_, Gmelin (sub-fam. _Drymoicinae_).

[1813.—"Equally curious in the structure of its nest, and far superior (to the BAYA) in the variety and elegance of its plumage, is the TAILOR-BIRD of Hindostan" (here follows a description of its nest).—_Forbes, Or. Mem._, 2nd ed. i. 33.]

1883.—"Clear and loud above all ... sounds the to-whee, to-whee, to-whee of the TAILOR-BIRD, a most plain-looking little greenish thing, but a skilful workman and a very Beaconsfield in the matter of keeping its own counsel. Aided by its industrious spouse, it will, when the monsoon comes on, spin cotton, or steal thread from the DURZEE, and sew together two broad leaves of the laurel in the pot on your very doorstep, and when it has warmly lined the bag so formed it will bring up therein a large family of little tailors."—_Tribes on My Frontier_, 145.

TAJ, s. Pers. _tāj_, 'a crown.' The most famous and beautiful mausoleum in Asia; the _Tāj Mahal_ at Agra, erected by Shāh Jahān over the burial-place of his favourite wife Mumtāz-i-Mahal ('Ornament of the Palace') Banū Begam.

1663.—"I shall not stay to discourse of the Monument of _Ekbar_, because whatever beauty is there, is found in a far higher degree in that of TAJ MEHALE, which I am now going to describe to you ... judge whether I had reason to say that the _Mausoleum_, or Tomb of TAJ-MEHALE, is something worthy to be admired. For my