Part 1
# Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory: Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1889-1890, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1894, pages 159-350 ### By Turner, Lucien M. (Lucien McShan)
---
Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr and The Internet Archive at http://www.archive.org)
[Transcriber's Note:
This text is intended for users whose text readers cannot use the "real" (Unicode/UTF-8) version of the file. Characters that could not be fully displayed have been "unpacked" and shown in brackets:
[)e] [)i] [)u] (vowel with breve or "short" sign) [-e] (e with macron or "long" sign)
Except for [)i], all are rare. The "oe" ligature, also rare, is shown as separate letters. The "cents" sign ¢ is used in place of the correct character.
Bold or sans-serif type (rare) is shown =like this=. Except for footnote markers, expanded diacritics and similar, brackets [ ] are in the original.
Corrections and variant spellings are listed at the end of the e-text, along with some details of vocabulary.
At the time this article was written, the Ungava district was part of the Northwest Territories. It was transferred to Quebec in 1912. As of spring 2012, Ungava corresponds loosely to the Nunavik administrative division; maps may show either name.]
* * * * * * * * *
Smithsonian Institution--Bureau Of Ethnology.
ETHNOLOGY
of the
UNGAVA DISTRICT, HUDSON BAY TERRITORY.
By LUCIEN M. TURNER.
* * * * * * * * *
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introduction 167 Fort Chimo and the surrounding region 167 Climate 172 Auroras 173 Vegetation 173 Animal life 174 Mammals 174 Birds 175
The native inhabitants of the country--general sketch 175 The Eskimo 175 The Indians 181
Special account of the people around Fort Chimo 184 The Koksoagmyut 184 Physical characteristics 184 Diseases 187 Marriage 188 Children 190 Burial customs 191 Religion 193 Outdoor life 202 Tattooing 207 Clothing 208 Dwellings 223 Household articles 228 Food and its preparation 232 Tobacco and snuff 234 Means of transportation 235 By water 235 On land 240 Weapons and other hunting implements 246 Hunting 249 Miscellaneous implements 252 Amusements 254 Art 259 Story-telling and folklore 260 Origin of the Innuit 261 The coming of the white people 261 Origin of living things on the earth and in the water 261 Origin of the guillemots 262 Origin of the raven 262 Origin of the quadrangular spots on the loon's back 262 Origin of the gulls 263 Origin of the hawks 263 Origin of the swallow 263 The hare 263 The wolf 263 Lice 263 Origin of mosquitoes 264 Story of the man and his fox wife 264 The rivals 264 The jealous man 264 Story of the orphan boy 265 The origin of the sun, moon, and stars 266 Auroras 266 The sky 266 The winds 267 The Nenenot or "Naskopie" 267 Principal characteristics 267 Clothing 281 Preparation of the skins for clothing 292 Dwellings 298 Sweat houses 300 Household utensils, etc. 300 Tobacco and pipes 302 Means of transportation 304 By water 304 By land 308 Weapons 312 Hunting 316 Miscellaneous implements, tools, etc. 317 Amusements 320 Festivals 322 Folklore 327 Story of the wolverine and the brant 327 Story of the wolverine 327 The deer and the squirrel 328 The young man who went to live with the deer 328 The wolf's daughter going to seek her lover 330 The devil punishing a liar 333 A wolverine destroys his sister 333 The rabbit and the frog 334 The wolverine and the rock 336 Creation of people by the wolverine and the muskrat 338 Origin of the whitish spot on the throat of the marten 338 The Indian and his beaver wife 339 The venturesome hare 340 The spirit guiding a child left by its parents 342 Fate of two Indian men 343 The starving wolverine 345 The starving Indians 349
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
PLATE XXXVI. View on Koksoak River 170 XXXVII. Eskimo tent 226 XXXVIII. Stone tobacco pipes 302 XXXIX. Birchbark canoe, Nenenot, Koksoak river pattern 304 XL. Nenenot snowshoe--"swallow-tail" 308 XLI. Nenenot snowshoe--"beaver-tail" 310 XLII. Nenenot snowshoe--"round-end" 312 XLIII. Doll, Indian woman, full dress, Nenenot 326
FIG. 21. Eskimo grave. 192 22. Magic doll 197 23. Belt of magic doll 198 24. Talisman attached to magic doll 199 25. Talisman 199 26. Talisman 199 27. Talisman 200 28. Eskimo woman's amulet 201 29. Eskimo birdskin cap 209 30. Eskimo man's deerskin coat (front) 210 31. Eskimo man's deerskin coat (back) 211 32. Eskimo man's sealskin coat (front) 212 33. Eskimo man's sealskin coat (side) 213 34. Eskimo woman's deerskin coat 214 35. Eskimo woman's deerskin coat 215 36. Eskimo woman's deerskin coat 215 37. Eskimo woman's deerskin coat 216 38. Eskimo woman's sealskin coat 216 39. Eskimo woman's deerskin coat 217 40. Back view of same 217 41. Eskimo boots 218 42. Eskimo shoes 219 43. Ice shoes, Hudson strait Eskimo 219 44. Long waterproof sealskin mitten 220 45. Waterproof gut frock 221 46. Snow goggles--front 222 47. Snow goggles--rear 223 48. Deserted Eskimo snowhouses near Fort Chimo 224 49. Soapstone lamp, Koksoagmyut 229 50. Soapstone lamp, Koksoagmyut 229 51. Soapstone lamp, Koksoagmyut 229 52. Frame for drying mittens 230 53. Soapstone kettle 230 54. Soapstone kettle 231 55. Wooden dish 231 56. Sealskin bucket 232 57. Sealskin cup 232 58. Tobacco pouch 234 59. Eskimo Umiak 235 60. Dog whip 244 61. Bow, East Main Eskimo (back) 246 62. Bow, East Main Eskimo (side) 246 63. Arrow, East Main Eskimo 247 64. Arrow, East Main Eskimo 247 65. Arrow, East Main Eskimo 247 66. Bow case, East Main Eskimo 248 67. Hand spear for killing seals, from kaiak, Koksoak 249 68. Toggle head for hand spear 250 69. Sealskin float 250 70. Ivory snow knife, Koksoagmyut 253 71. Back-scratcher, Koksoagmyut 253 72. Ivory needle case, Koksoagmyut 254 73. Ivory needle case, Koksoagmyut 254 74. Sealskin needle cushion, with thimble, Koksoagmyut 254 75. "Cup and ball," Koksoagmyut 256 76. Football and driver, Koksoagmyut 256 77. Dominoes, Hudson strait Eskimo 257 78. Eskimo doll, man 258 79. Eskimo doll, woman 258 80. Eskimo doll, woman 259 81. Eskimo doll, woman 259 82. Eskimo violin 259 83. Birds carved in ivory 260 84. Human figure carved in ivory 260 85. Indian medicine lodge 274 86. Indian amulet of bearskin 275 87. Indian buckskin coat, man's (front) 281 88. Indian buckskin coat, man's (back) 282 89. Detail of pattern painted on Indian garment 282 90. Detail of pattern painted on deerskin robe 283 91. Indian buckskin leggings 283 92. Indian moccasins 284 93. Indian mittens 285 94. Beaded headband, Nenenot 286 95. Man's winter coat (front) 287 96. Man's winter coat (back) 288 97. Detail of ornamentation 288 98. Man's winter coat, with hood 289 99. Man's winter coat, with hood 290 100. Nenenot woman in full winter dress 291 101. Sealskin headband, Nenenot 292 102. Skin scraper (front), Nenenot 292 103. Skin scraper (side), Nenenot 292 104. Skin-cleaning tool, Nenenot 293 105. Skin-cleaning tool (iron-bladed), Nenenot 294 106. Paint stick, Nenenot 296 107. 296 108. Paint stick, Nenenot 296 109. Paint stick, Nenenot 297 110. Paint stick, Nenenot 297 111. Paint cup, Nenenot 297 112. Paint cup, Nenenot 297 113. Paint cup, Nenenot 298 114. Nenenot Indian tent 298 115. Wooden bucket, Nenenot 301 116. Birchbark basket, Nenenot 301 117. Birchbark basket, Nenenot 301 118. Stone pestle, Nenenot 302 119. Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot 302 120. Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot 302 121. Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot 303 122. Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot 303 123. Stone tobacco pipe 304 124. Pipe cleaner, Nenenot 304 125. Spoon for applying grease to canoe 306 126. Toboggan, Nenenot, side view 307 127. Toboggan, Nenenot, from above 307 128. Nenenot snowshoe, single bar 308 129. Nenenot snowshoe, single bar 309 130. Snowshoe needle, Nenenot 310 131. Wooden snowshoe, Little Whale river 311 132. Bow, Nenenot 312 133. Arrow, Nenenot 313 134. Arrow, Nenenot 313 135. Arrow, Nenenot 313 136. Arrow, Nenenot 313 137. Deer lance, Nenenot 314 138. White whale spear, Little Whale river 314 139. Point of white whale spear enlarged 314 140. Reindeer snare, Nenenot 315 141. Crooked knife, Nenenot 317 142. Awl, Nenenot 318 143. Snow shovel, Nenenot 318 144. Ice scoop, Nenenot 318 145. 319 146. Comb, with birchbark case and cleaner 320 147. Boards for woman's hair 320 148. Swimming board 321 149. Fishhook and line 321 150. Cup and ball, Nenenot 324 151. Drum, Nenenot 324 152. Drum, Little Whale river 325 153. Rattle, Nenenot 326 154. Target, reindeer, buck 326 155. Target, reindeer, doe 326
ETHNOLOGY OF THE UNGAVA DISTRICT, HUDSON BAY TERRITORY.
By Lucien M. Turner.
(Edited by John Murdoch.)
INTRODUCTION.
Ungava bay is on the northern coast of old Labrador--the last great bight of the strait between the ocean and the mouth of Hudson bay. Its chief affluent is Koksoak or South river, which is several hundred miles long and takes its rise in a picturesque festoonery of lakes looped through the highlands half way down to Quebec.
FORT CHIMO AND THE SURROUNDING REGION.
Fort Chimo is in longitude 68° 16´ west of Greenwich and latitude 58° 8´ north. The post is on the right bank of the Koksoak river, about 27 miles from its mouth. The elevation of the level tract on which the houses are situated is but a few feet above high-water mark. The location was selected on account of its comparative dryness, and also because the river affords a safer anchorage in that vicinity than lower down.
The early Moravian missionaries, long before established on the Atlantic coast, desired to extend their labors for the conversion of the Eskimo to their teachings. About the year 1825 a vessel ascended the Koksoak river for the purpose of selecting a new missionary station. Nearly opposite Fort Chimo is a beacon, yet standing, erected by the people of that vessel. Their reception among the natives was such that they gave a glowing account of it on their return. The Hudson Bay Company immediately took steps to erect a trading post upon the river, and a small party was sent in the year 1831 from Moose Factory to establish a trading post where the trade would appear to promise future development. The men remained there, obtaining a precarious subsistence, as the vessel delivering them supplies visited that place only once in two years. Their houses were simple, consisting of a single structure for the official in charge, another for the servants, and two more for the storage of goods. A palisade was erected around the houses to prevent the intrusion of the natives, Indians and Eskimo, who were so lately at war with each other that the rancorous feeling had not subsided and might break out afresh at any moment without warning. The remnants of the palisade were yet visible in 1882. The establishment of this trading post had a pacifying influence upon the natives, who soon found they could do better by procuring the many valuable fur-bearing animals than by engaging in a bloody strife, which the traders always deprecate and endeavor to prevent or suppress. After many trials to establish an overland communication with the stations on Hamilton inlet, it was found to be impracticable, and in 1843 the station was abandoned.
John M'Lean, in a work entitled "Twenty-five Years in the Hudson's Bay Territory,"[1] gives an account of that portion of the country that came under his knowledge from the year 1838 to 1843.
[Footnote 1: Two vols. in one. London, 1849.]
In the year 1866 the steamer _Labrador_ was built and sent with a party to reestablish the post at Fort Chimo. Since 1866 the post has been a paying station, and in later years a good profit has been made.
Fort Chimo is the chief trading station of the Ungava district. The Ungava district proper is the area embraced by the watershed whose outflow drains into Ungava bay. The eastern boundary is formed by the foothills on the west side of the coast range, which is the western limit of Labrador. This range has a trend northwest and southeast to latitude 60°, where it makes a somewhat abrupt angle and pursues a nearly north course, terminating with Cape Chidley and the Buttons, the latter a low group of islets some 7 miles north of the cape. The southern boundary is the "Height of Land," near latitude 55°. This region is estimated to be from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above sea level. The greater portion of it is comparatively level, and on its surface are innumerable lakes of various sizes, some of which are quite large. The western boundary is not so well known in the southern part of the region, as it has been seldom traversed. It seems to be a high elevation extending toward the north-northwest, as numerous streams run from the southwest and west toward the central or Koksoak valley. Eskimo who have traversed the region many times report that the elevated land abruptly ends near 58° 30´, and that there is formed a wide swampy tract, estimated to be about 80 miles wide, which opens to the northeast and southwest. The northwestern portion of the district is a great area abounding in abrupt hills and precipitous mountains of various heights. These heights, estimated to range no higher than 2,600 feet, terminate abruptly on the western end of the strait, and the numerous islands in that portion of the water are, doubtless, peaks of this same range continuing to the northwest.
It will be thus seen that the district of Ungava is a huge amphitheater opening to the north. The interior of the district is excessively varied by ridges and spurs of greater or less elevation. The farther south one travels, the higher and more irregularly disposed are the hills and mountains. These spurs are usually parallel to the main ranges, although isolated spurs occur which extend at right angles to the main range. The tops of the higher elevations are covered with snow for the entire year. The summits of the lower ones are shrouded with snow as early as the 1st of September, and by the 1st of October the snow line descends nearly to their bases. The lower lands are full of swampy tracts, lakes, and ponds.
The more elevated regions are totally destitute of vegetation, except the tripe des roches, which gives to the hills a somber color, anything but inspiring. Fully three-fourths of the more elevated region is, with the exception of black lichens, barren rock. Everywhere is the evidence of long continued glacial action. The southern exposures of all the hills show the same character of wearing, and, in many instances, a fine polish on the rocks forming their bases. This smoothness extends nearly to the summits of the higher peaks. These again are somewhat rougher and often broken into jagged, angular fragments, frequently of immense size. The more moderate elevations are usually rounded summits on whose higher portions may be found huge bowlders of rock having a different character from that upon which they rest, proving that they were carried there by masses of ice in the glacial ages. The northern extremity of all the ridges and spurs indicate that the glacial sheet moved to the north-northwest, for these portions of the rocks are so jagged and sharp edged as to appear to have been broken but yesterday.
The rivers of this district are numerous and several are of great size, although but two of them are navigable for more than 100 miles, and this only for boats of light draft.
The river usually known as George's river (Kan´gûk¢lua´luksoak) is the largest on the eastern side. This stream takes its rise about latitude 55° and pursues a moderately tortuous course nearly northward and falls into the eastern side of Ungava Bay. It has a wide bay-like mouth narrowing rapidly at the mouth proper. Swift rapids are formed here on account of an island near the center. Beyond this the river expands and has an average width of half a mile for a distance of about 18 miles where the river bends eastward and forms rapids for over 2 miles. It is navigable for the steamer _Labrador_ only about 12 miles. Beyond the rapids it runs tolerably smooth and deep for nearly 40 miles and thence to the source is a series of rapids and falls, rendering portages frequent, and making it utterly impracticable for even a heavy skiff to ascend beyond 70 miles from the mouth. Indians assert that high falls occur about 150 miles from the mouth of the George's river. The water is said to fall from a terrific height, almost perpendicularly, and it causes the ground to tremble so that the thundering noise may be heard for more than a day's journey from it.
The tide at the mouth of George's river rises 53 feet, and at the Anchorage, opposite the newly established station of Fort George, some 12 miles from its mouth, 42 feet.
Whale river is the next important river toward the east. Off the mouth of this river is a huge island, locally known as Big island. This high island extends parallel to the course of the river, and a reef, connecting its upper end with the mainland, becomes dry at low water. The course of Whale river is not well known. About 40 miles up this stream it suddenly contracts and becomes a mere creek, forming the outlet of a large lake, whose position is not satisfactorily determined. It is to the banks of this lake that certain families of the Indians repair for summer fishing.
The next large river is the Koksoak. This stream is the largest in the district. It takes its rise from lakes situated on the plateau--the "Height of Land,"--and pursues a course having a general direction north-northeast. On emerging from the lake it is rather small, but forks and unites again about 40 miles below. The current is sluggish at the upper end, and the eastern branch is so narrow that the Indians have to part the overhanging alders and willows to afford their canoes a passage. This branch is said to be the shorter way to the lake and is not so difficult to ascend, the eastern branch being shallow and containing a number of rapids.
Below the junction of the branches the river rapidly becomes larger and contains several very high falls, below which the river flows northwest for a couple of hundred yards and then curves to the north-northeast for a distance of 5 miles. This portion is only about 700 feet wide. It then turns abruptly westward and rushes swiftly through a narrow gorge only 200 feet wide for a distance of about 7 miles. This course is noted for several rapids, through which a boat can not make its way without great difficulty. At the end of this 7-mile run the river again bends abruptly to the east, and continues that course with little northing until the last bend, some 65 miles below, is reached. At the lower end of the 7-mile run the ledges and reefs are too numerous to count. From this place to the mouth of the Larch river the Koksoak is obstructed by islands, bars, and shoals. Below these, however, it becomes quite broad, until nearly opposite the high point or promontory below the mouth of the Larch (Pl. XXXVI). From this locality it is monotonous till the last bend is reached, some 4 miles above Fort Chimo, where it suddenly turns to the north and pursues that direction to the sea with little variation. At the last bend, however, a large island, locally known as Big island, not only obstructs but ends navigation for boats drawing over 6 feet. Small boats, such as skiffs and native boats, ascend to the lower end of 7-mile run. The principal obstruction to travel in any kind of vessel in the Koksoak from Big island to the mouth of the Larch river is the presence of two falls or rapids about 40 miles from Fort Chimo.
[Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVI
VIEW ON KOKSOAK RIVER.]
The extreme rise and fall of the tide at the mouth of the river is 62 feet 3 inches. The usual rise and fall is from 8 to 12 feet less, depending on the stage of the river. At Fort Chimo the tide rises as much as 31 feet. The backwater is held in check as far as the upper rapids in a common stage of water, and during a high rise in the month of June the water is "backed" some 3 miles beyond the upper rapids.
The branches of the Koksoak river are few and unimportant. The larger tributary is the Larch river. It is a rapid and almost unnavigable stream of variable depth, mostly shallow, and 100 to nearly 400 yards wide.
At about 40 miles from its mouth the Larch forks, the lower or southwest fork draining the eastern sides of the same mountains whose western slopes are drained by the Little Whale river. This southwest fork of the Larch river is quite small and scarcely capable of being ascended, although it may, with great caution, be descended. This is the course followed by the Little Whale river Indians when they traverse the country to join the Naskopies of the Koksoak valley. The northwest branch of the Larch is still smaller and is reported to issue from the swampy tract of land in about latitude 58° 30´.
The next large river is the Leaf. Its mouth is about 34 miles northwest of Fort Chimo, and it flows into a peculiarly shaped bay named Tass´iyak, or "like a lake." The length of the river proper is estimated to be but 40 miles, flowing from a very long and narrow lake, having its longer axis extending southwestward and draining the greater part of the swampy tract lying in latitude 58° 30´. The southwestern portion of this tract is merely an area covered with innumerable small lakes so intimately connected by short water courses that it is difficult to determine whether water or land constitutes the greater part of the area. The rivers to the west are of less importance and drain the rugged area forming the northwestern portion of the district, or that part lying under the western third of Hudson strait.
The principal portion of Hudson strait that came under my observation is Ungava bay. This bay is a pocket-shaped body of water lying south of the strait and toward its eastern end. Soundings in various portions of this bay indicate a depth of 28 to 70 fathoms for the central area. The bottom appears to be uniformly the washings from the freshwater streams. The extreme tides of Hudson strait tend to produce the most violent currents in this bay. Opposite the entrance of Leaf river bay is a whirlpool of considerable size, which causes much trouble to navigation. It is safe enough at high water but very dangerous at half-tide.
The large island known as Akpatok lies in such a position as to break much of the current along the south side of the middle of the strait, but to give additional force to the currents at either end. This island is about 100 miles long and has an average width of 18 miles. It is the largest island in the strait proper.