Part 1

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE MALTA: "Queen Adelaide visited Malta in 1838 and founded the Anglican collegiate church of St Paul. Sir F. Hankey as chief secretary was for many years the principal official of the civil administration." 'visited' amended from 'vistied'.

ARTICLE MALTA: "... whose decision affirmed the advisability of legislation and the need for validating retrospectively marriages not supported by either Maltese or English common law. " 'advisability' amended from 'advisibility'.

ARTICLE MAMMOTH CAVE: "... although the diameter of the area of the whole cavern is less than 10 m., the combined length of all accessible avenues is supposed to be about 150 m." 'combined' amended from 'conbined'.

ARTICLE MANCHE: "South of Granville the sands of St Pair are the commencement of the great bay of Mont Saint Michel, 543 whose area of 60,000 acres was covered with forest till the terrible tide of the year 709." 'sands' amended from 'samds'.

ARTICLE MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE: "The Poems of James Clarence Mangan (1903), and the Prose Writings (1904), were both edited by D. J. O'Donoghue, who wrote in 1897 a complete account of the Life and Writings of the poet." 'Mangan' amended from 'Magan'.

ARTICLE MANILA: "In 1906 the total value of the exports was $23,902,986 and the total value of the imports was $21,868,257." Duplicate 'the' removed.

ARTICLE MANN, HORACE: "Meanwhile he served, with conspicuous ability, in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1827 to 1833 and in the Massachusetts Senate from 1833 to 1837, for the last two years as president." 'ability' amended from 'ailbity'.

ARTICLE MANTEGNA, ANDREA: "It was painted in tempera about 1495, in commemoration of the battle of Fornovo, which Gianfrancesco Gonzaga found it convenient to represent to his lieges as an Italian victory ..." 'Gianfrancesco' amended from 'Ginfrancesco'.

ARTICLE MANURES and MANURING: "Clay land, as a rule, is not benefited by their use, these soils containing generally an abundance of potash." 'soils' amended from 'oils'.

ARTICLE MANUSCRIPT: "... where also is described the mechanical computation of the length of a text by measured lines, for the purpose of calculating the pay of the scribe." 'of' amended from 'or'.

ARTICLE MAORI: "The Rarotongas call themselves Maori, and state that their ancestors came from Hawaiki, and Parima and Manono are the native names of two islands in the Samoan group." 'Parima' amended from 'Pirima'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XVII, SLICE V

Malta to Map, Walter

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

MALTA MANG LÖN MALTA FEVER MANGNALL, RICHMAL MALTE-BRUN, CONRAD MANGO MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT MANGOSTEEN MALTON MANGROVE MALTZAN, HEINRICH VON MANICHAEISM MALUS, ÉTIENNE LOUIS MANIFEST MALVACEAE MANIHIKI MALVASIA MANIKIALA MALVERN MANILA MALWA MANILA HEMP MAMARONECK MANILIUS MAMELI, GOFFREDO MANILIUS, GAIUS MAMELUKE MANIN, DANIELE MAMERTINI MANING, FREDERICK EDWARD MAMERTINUS, CLAUDIUS MANIPLE MAMIANI DELLA ROVERE, TERENZIO MANIPUR MAMMALIA MANISA MAMMARY GLAND MANISTEE MAMMEE APPLE MANITOBA (lake of Canada) MAMMON MANITOBA (province of Canada) MAMMOTH MANITOU MAMMOTH CAVE MANITOWOC MAMORÉ MANIZALES MAMUN MANKATO MAMUND MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE MAN MANLIUS MAN, ISLE OF MANN, HORACE MANAAR, GULF OF MANNA MANACOR MANNERS, CHARLES MANAGE MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES MANAGUA MANNHEIM MANAKIN MANNING, HENRY EDWARD MANAOAG MANNY, SIR WALTER DE MANNY MANÁOS MANNYNG, ROBERT MANASSAS MANOEUVRES, MILITARY MANASSEH (son of Hezekiah) MANOMETER MANASSEH (tribe of Israel) MANOR MANASSES, CONSTANTINE MANOR-HOUSE MANASSES, PRAYER OF MANRESA MANATI MANRIQUE, GÓMEZ MANBHUM MANRIQUE, JORGE MANCHA, LA MANSE MANCHE MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF MANSFELD MANCHESTER (Connecticut, U.S.A.) MANSFELD, ERNST MANCHESTER (England) MANSFIELD, RICHARD MANCHESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY MANCHESTER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD (England) MANCHESTER (Virginia, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD (Ohio, U.S.A.) MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL MANSION MANCHURIA MANSLAUGHTER MANCINI, PASQUALE STANISLAO MANSON, GEORGE MANCIPLE MANSUR MANCUNIUM MANSURA MANDAEANS MANT, RICHARD MANDALAY MANTEGAZZA, PAOLO MANDAMUS, WRIT OF MANTEGNA, ANDREA MANDAN MANTELL, GIDEON ALGERNON MANDARIN MANTES-SUR-SEINE MANDASOR MANTEUFFEL, EDWIN MANDATE MANTINEIA MANDAUE MANTIS MANDELIC ACID MANTIS-FLY MANDER, CAREL VAN MANTLE MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE MANTON, THOMAS MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE MAN-TRAPS MANDEVILLE, JEHAN DE MANTUA MANDHATA MANU MANDI MANUAL MANDINGO MANUCODE MANDLA MANUEL I., COMNENUS MANDOLINE MANUEL II. PALAEOLOGUS MANDRAKE MANUEL I. MANDRILL MANUEL, EUGENE MANDU MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE MANDURIA MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE MANDVI MANUEL DE MELLO, DOM FRANCISCO MANES MANUL MANET, ÉDOUARD MANURES and MANURING MANETENERIS MANUSCRIPT MANETHO MANUTIUS MANFRED MANWARING, ROBERT MANFREDONIA MANYCH MANGABEY MANYEMA MANGALIA MANZANARES MANGALORE MANZANILLO (Mexico) MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE MANZANILLO (Cuba) MANGANESE MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO MANGANITE MANZONI, ALESSANDRO FRANCESCO ANTONIO MANGBETTU MAORI MANGEL-WURZEL MAP, WALTER MANGLE

MALTA, the largest of the Maltese Islands, situated between Europe and Africa, in the central channel which connects the eastern and western basins of the Mediterranean Sea. The group belongs to the British Empire. It extends over 29 m., and consists of Malta, 91 sq. m., GOZO (q.v.) 20 sq. m., Comino (set apart as a quarantine station) 1 sq. m., and the uninhabited rocks called Cominotto and Filfla. Malta (lat. of Valletta Observatory 35° 53´ 55´´ N., long. 14° 30´ 45´´ W.) is about 60 m. from the nearest point of Sicily, 140 m. from the mainland of Europe and 180 from Africa; it has a magnificent natural harbour. From the dawn of maritime trade its possession has been important to the strongest nations on the sea for the time being.

Malta is about 17½ m. long by 8¼ broad; Gozo is 8¾ by 4½ m. This chain of islands stretches from N.E. to S.E. On the S.W. the declivities towards the sea are steep, and in places rise abruptly some 400 ft. from deep water. The general slope of these ridges is towards the N.W., facing Sicily and snow-capped Etna, the source of cool evening breezes. The Bingemma range, rising 726 ft., is nearly at right angles to the axis of the main island. The geological "Great Fault" stretches from sea to sea at the foot of these hills. There are good anchorages in the channels between Gozo and Comino, and between Comino and Malta. In addition to the harbours of Valletta, there are in Malta, facing N.W., the bays called Mellieha and St Paul's, the inlets of the Salina, of Madalena, of St Julian and St Thomas; on the S.E. there is the large bay of Marsa Scirocco. There are landing places on the S.W. at Fomh-il-rih and Miggiarro. Mount Sceberras (on which Valletta is built) is a precipitous promontory about 1 m. long, pointing N.E. It rises out of deep water; well-sheltered creeks indent the opposite shores on both sides. The waters on the S.E. form the "Grand Harbour," having a narrow entrance between Ricasoli Point and Fort St Elmo. The series of bays to the N.W., approached between the points of Tigne and St Elmo, is known as the Marsamuscetto (or Quarantine) Harbour.

Mighty fortifications and harbour works have assisted to make this ideal situation an emporium of Mediterranean trade. During the Napoleonic wars and the Crimean campaign the Grand Harbour was frequently overcrowded with shipping. The gradual supplanting of sail by steamships has made Malta a coaling station of primary importance. But the tendency to great length and size in modern vessels caused those responsible for the civil administration towards the end of the 19th century to realize that the harbour accommodation was becoming inadequate for modern fleets and first-class liners. A breakwater was therefore planned on the Monarch shoal, to double the available anchorage area and increase the frontage of deep-water wharves available in all weathers.

Geology and Water Supply.

The Maltese Islands consist largely of Tertiary Limestone, with somewhat variable beds of Crystalline Sandstone, Greensand and Marl or Blue Clay. The series appears to be in line with similar formations at Tripoli in Africa, Cagliari in Sardinia, and to the east of Marseilles. To the south-east of the Great Fault (already mentioned) the beds are more regular, comprising, in descending order, (a) Upper Coralline Limestone; (b) Yellow, Black or Greensand; (c) Marl or Blue Clay; (d) White, Grey and Pale Yellow Sandstone; (e) Chocolate-coloured nodules with shells, &c.; (f) Yellow Sandstone; (g) Lower Crystalline Limestone. The Lower Limestone probably belongs to the Tongarian stage of the Oligocene series, and the Upper Coralline Limestone to the Tortonian stage of the Miocene. The beds are not folded. The general dip of the strata is from W.S.W. to E.N.E. North of the Great Fault and at Comino the level of the beds is about 400 ft. lower, bringing (c), the Marl, in juxtaposition with (g), the semi-crystalline Limestone. There is a system of lesser faults, parallel to the Great Fault, dividing the area into a number of blocks, some of which have fallen more than others. There are also indications of another series of faults roughly parallel to the south-east coast, which point to the islands being fragments of a former extensive plateau. The mammalian remains found in Pleistocene deposits are of exceptional interest. Among the more remarkable forms are a species of hippopotamus, the elephant (including a pigmy variety), and a gigantic dormouse. In the Coralline Limestone the following fossils have been noted:--_Spondylus_, _Ostrea_, _Pecten_, _Cytherea_, _Arca_, _Terebratula_, _Orthis_, _Clavagella_, _Echinus_, _Cidaris_, _Nucleolites_, _Brissus_, _Spatangus_; in the Marl the _Nautilus zigzag_; in the Yellow, Black and Greensand shells of _Lenticulites complanatus_, teeth and vertebrae of _Squalidae_ and _Cetacea_; in the Sandstone _Vaginula depressa_, _Crystallaria_, _Nodosaria_, _Brissus_, _Nucleolites_, _Pecten burdigallensis_, _Scalaria_, _Scutella subrotunda_, _Spatangus_, _Nautilus_, _Ostrea navicularis_ and _Pecten cristatus_ (see Captain Spratt's work and papers by Lord Ducie and Dr Adams).

The Blue Clay forms, at the higher levels, a stratum impervious to water, and holds up the rainfall, which soaks through the spongy mass of the superimposed coralline formations. Hence arise the springs which run perennially, several of which have been collected into the gravitation water supplies of the Vignacourt and Fawara aqueducts. The larger part of the water supply, however, is now derived by pumping from strata at about sea-level. These strata are generally impregnated with salt water, and are practically impenetrable to the rain-water of less weight. The honeycomb of rock, and capillary action, retard the lighter fresh-water from sinking to the sea; the soakage from rain has therefore to move horizontally, over the strata about sea-level, seeking outlets. At this stage the rain-water is intercepted by wells, and by galleries hewn for miles in the water-bearing rock. Large reservoirs assist to store this water after it is raised, and to equalize its distribution.

Climate and Hygiene.

The climate is, for the greater part of the year, temperate and healthy; the thermometer records an annual mean of 67° F. Between June and September the temperature ranges from 75° to 90°; the mean for December, January and February is 56°; March, May and November are mild. Pleasant north-east winds blow for an average of 150 days a year, cool northerly winds for 31 days, east winds 70 days, west for 34 days. The north-west "Gregale" (Euroclydon of Acts xxvii. 14) blows about the equinox, and occasionally, in the winter months, with almost hurricane force for three days together; it is recorded to have caused the drowning of 600 persons in the harbour in 1555. This wind has been a constant menace to shipping at anchor; the new breakwater on the Monarch Shoal was designed to resist its ravages. The regular tides are hardly perceptible, but, under the influence of barometric pressure and wind, the sea-level occasionally varies as much as 2 ft. The average rainfall is 21 in.; it is, however, uncertain; periods of drought have extended over three years. Snow is seen once or twice in a generation; violent hailstorms occur. On the 19th of October 1898, exceptionally large hailstones fell--one, over 4 in. in length, being brought to the governor, Sir Arthur Fremantle, for inspection. Mediterranean (sometimes called "Malta") fever has been traced by Colonel David Bruce to a _Micrococcus melitensis_. The supply of water under pressure is widely distributed and excellent. There is a modern system of drainage for the towns, and all sewerage has been intercepted from the Grand Harbour. There are efficient hospitals and asylums, a system of sanitary inspection, and modernized quarantine stations.

Flora.

It is hardly possible to differentiate between imported and indigenous plants. Among the marine flora may be mentioned _Porphyra laciniata_, the edible laver; _Codium tomentosum_, a coarse species; _Padina pavonia_, common in shallow water; _Ulva latissima_; _Haliseris polypodioides_; _Sargassum bacciferum_; the well-known gulf weed, probably transported from the Atlantic; _Zostera marina_, forming dense beds in muddy bays; the roots are cast up by storms and are valuable to dress the fields. Among the land plants may be noted the blue anemone; the ranunculus along the road-sides, with a strong perfume of violets; the Malta heath, which flowers at all seasons; _Cynomorium coccineum_, the curious "Malta fungus," formerly so valued for medicinal purposes that a guard was set for its preservation under the rule of the Knights; the pheasant's-eye; three species of mallow and geranium; _Oxalis cernua_, a very troublesome imported weed; _Lotus edulis_; _Scorpiurus subvillosa_, wild and cultivated as forage; two species of the horseshoe-vetch; the opium poppy; the yellow and claret-coloured poppy; wild rose; _Crataegus azarolus_, of which the fruit is delicious preserved; the ice-plant; squirting cucumber; many species of _Umbelliferae_; _Labiatae_, to which the spicy flavour of the honey (equal to that of Mt Hymettus) is ascribed; snap-dragons; broom-rape; glass-wort; _Salsola soda_, which produces when burnt a considerable amount of alkali; there are fifteen species of orchids; the _gladiolus_ and _iris_ are also found; _Urginia scilla_, the medicinal squill, abounds with its large bulbous roots near the sea; seventeen species of sedges and seventy-seven grasses have been recorded.

Fauna.

There are four species of lizard and three snakes, none of which is venomous; a land tortoise, a turtle and a frog. Of birds very few are indigenous; the jackdaw, blue solitary thrush, spectacled warbler, the robin, kestrel and the herring-gull. A bird known locally as _Hangi_, not met elsewhere in Europe, nests at Filfla. Flights of quail and turtle doves, as well as teal and ducks, stay long enough to afford sport. Of migratory birds over two hundred species have been enumerated. The only wild mammalia in the island are the hedgehogs, two species of weasel, the Norway rat, and the domestic mouse. The Maltese dog was never wild and has ceased to exist as a breed.

Malta has several species of zoophytes, sponges, mollusca and crustacea. Insect life is represented by plant-bugs, locusts, crickets, grasshoppers, cockroaches, dragon-flies, butterflies, numerous varieties of moths, bees and mosquitoes.

Among the fish may be mentioned the tunny, dolphin, mackerel, sardine, sea-bream, dentice and pagnell; wrasse, of exquisite rainbow hue and good for food; members of the herring family, sardines, anchovies, flying-fish, sea-pike; a few representatives of the cod family, and some flat fish; soles (very rare); _Cernus_ which grows to large size; several species of grey and red mullet; eleven species of _Triglidae_, including the beautiful flying gurnard whose colours rival the angel-fish of the West Indies; and eighteen species of mackerel, all migratory.

[Illustration: Map of Malta.]

Population and Language.

The real population of Malta, viz. of the country districts, is to be differentiated from the cosmopolitan fringe of the cities. There is continuous historical evidence that Malta remains to-day what Diodorus Siculus described it in the 1st century, "a colony of the Phoenicians"; this branch of the Caucasian race came down the great rivers to the Persian Gulf and thence to Palestine. It carried the art of navigation through the Mediterranean, along the Atlantic seaboard as far as Great Britain, leaving colonies along its path. In prehistoric times one of these colonies displaced previous inhabitants of Libyan origin. The similarity of the megalithic temples of Malta and of Stonehenge connect along the shores of western Europe the earliest evidence of Phoenician civilization. Philology proves that, though called "Canaanites" from having sojourned in that land, the Phoenicians have no racial connexion with the African descendants of Ham. No subsequent invader of Malta attempted to displace the Phoenician race in the country districts. The Carthaginians governed settlements of kindred races with a light hand; the Romans took over the Maltese as "dedititii," not as a conquered race. Their conversion by St Paul added difference of religion to the causes which prevented mixture of race. The Arabs from Sicily came to eject the Byzantine garrison; they treated the Maltese as friends, and were not sufficiently numerous to colonize. The Normans came as fellow-Christians and deliverers; they found very few Arabs in Malta. The fallacy that Maltese is a dialect of Arabia has been luminously disproved by A. E. Caruana, _Sull' origine della lingua Maltese_.

The upper classes have Norman, Spanish and Italian origin. The knights of St John of Jerusalem, commonly called "of Malta," were drawn from the nobility of Catholic Europe. They took vows of celibacy, but they frequently gave refuge in Malta to relatives driven to seek asylum from feudal wars and disturbances in their own lands. At the British occupation there were about two dozen families bearing titles of nobility granted, or recognized, by the Grand Masters, and descending by primogeniture. These "privileges" were guaranteed, together with the rights and religion of the islanders, when they became British subjects, but no government has ever recognized papal titles in Malta. High and low, all speak among themselves the Phoenician Maltese, altogether different from the Italian language; Italian was only spoken by 13.24% in 1901. Such Italian as is spoken by the lingering minority has marked divergences of pronunciation and inflexion from the language of Rome and Florence. In 1901, in addition to visitors and the naval and military forces, 18,922 Maltese spoke English, and the number has been rapidly increasing.

In appearance the Maltese are a handsome, well-formed race, about the middle height, and well set up; they have escaped the negroid contamination noticeable in Sicily, and their features are less dark than the southern Italians. The women are generally smaller than the men, with black eyes, fine hair and graceful carriage. They are a thrifty and industrious people, prolific and devoted to their offspring, good-humoured, quick-tempered and impressionable. The food of the working classes is principally bread, with oil, olives, cheese and fruit, sometimes fish, but seldom meat; common wine is largely imported from southern Europe. The Maltese are strict adherents to the Roman Catholic religion, and enthusiastic observers of festivals, fasts and ceremonials.

In 1906 the birth-rate was 40.68 per thousand, and the excess of births over deaths 2637. In April 1907 the estimated population was 206,690 of whom 21,911 were in Gozo. This phenomenal congestion of population gives interest to records of its growth; in the 10th century there were 16,767 inhabitants in Malta and 4514 in Gozo; the total population in 1514 was 22,000. Estimates made at the arrival of the knights (1530) varied from 15,000 to 25,000: it was then necessary to import annually 10,000 quarters of grain from Sicily. The population in 1551 was, Malta 24,000, Gozo 7000. In 1582, 20,000 quarters of imported grain were required to avert famine. A census of 1590 makes the population 30,500; in that year 3000 died of want. The numbers rose in 1601 to 33,000; in 1614 to 41,084; in 1632 to 50,113; in 1667 to 55,155; in 1667 11,000 are said to have died of plague out of the total population. At the end of the rule of the knights (1798) the population was estimated at 100,000; sickness, famine and emigration during the blockade of the French in Valletta probably reduced the inhabitants to 80,000. In 1829 the population was 114,236; in 1836, 119,878 (inclusive of the garrison); in 1873, 145,605; at the census in 1901 the civil population was 184,742. Sanitation decreases the death-rate, religion keeps up the birth-rate. Nothing is done to promote emigration or to introduce manufactures.

_Towns and Villages._--The capital is named after its founder, the Grand Master de la Valette, but from its foundation it has been called Valletta (pop. 1901, 24,685); it contains the palace of the Grand Masters, the magnificent Auberges of the several "Langues" of the Order, the unique cathedral of St John with the tombs of the Knights and magnificent tapestries and marble work; a fine opera house and hospital are conspicuous. Between the inner fortifications of Valletta and the outer works, across the neck of the peninsula, is the suburb of Floriana (pop. 7278). To the south-east of Valletta, at the other side of the Grand Harbour, are the cities of Senglea (pop. 8093), Vittoriosa (pop. 8993); and Cospicua (pop. 12,184); this group is often spoken of as "The Three Cities." The old capital, near the centre of the island is variously called Notabile, Città Vecchia (q.v.), and Medina, with its suburb Rabat, its population in 1901 was 7515; here are the catacombs and the ancient cathedral of Malta. Across the Marsamuscetto Harbour of Valletta is a considerable modern town called Sliema. The villages of Malta are Mellieha, St Paul's Bay, Musta, Birchircara, Lia, Atterd, Balzan, Naxaro, Gargur, Misida, S. Julian's, S. Giuseppe, Dingli, Zebbug, Siggieui, Curmi, Luca, Tarxein, Zurrico, Crendi, Micabbiba, Circop, Zabbar, Asciak, Zeitun, Gudia and Marsa Scirocco. The chief town of Gozo is called Victoria, and there are several small villages.