CHAPTER II.

GREECE.

General Character of Greek Ceramics.--Form and Color.--Borrowed from Egypt and Phœnicia.--How Original.--UNBAKED CLAY: Bricks and Statues.--TERRA-COTTA: Where Used.--Tiles.--Models.--Vessels.--Pithos.--Amphora.--Pigments used on Terra-cotta.--Rhyton.--GLAZED WARES: Quality of Glaze.--Paste.--Enumeration and Description of Vessels.--Uses of Vases.--Chronological Arrangement.--Methods of Making Vessels.--Successive Styles of Ornamentation.--Figures.--Earliest Style.--Archaic Style.--Human Figures.--“Old Style.”--Approach to Best Art.--“Fine Style.”--“Florid Style.”--Decline.--Classification according to Subjects Represented on Vases.--Reliefs and Statuettes as Decoration.

[Illustration: Fig. 165.--Early Greek Aryballoi. Egypto-Phœnician Style. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)]

Were we to be guided solely by continuity in point of time and the succession of ideas, our next subject would be the art of Spain and Italy. We turn, in preference, to that of Greece. It claims the precedence due to priority of date. It holds also a position of what might be called isolation. Its general character has been indicated in the Introduction. The severity and simplicity of the taste of the Greek, and his indifference to effects in color, while permitting him to receive suggestions from Egypt and the East, led him to disregard those adjuncts of art which they held in highest esteem. To him beauty of form was everything, color little or nothing. The former he brought to such perfection that no advance has been made beyond the point he reached. Greek form embodies all that can be said of grace and proportion. We may imitate, but we can hardly hope to excel, what Greece accomplished in her early bloom. We may find prototypes in Egypt for some of her vessels (Fig. 165), but still her art, the culmination of all that was best in preceding forms, is pre-eminently her own. We say this without disparagement to those who were her teachers. To Egypt, in particular, Greece turned, at a remote age, for instruction, and learned from Phœnicia and the other nations with which trade brought her into contact. In this connection the group (Fig. 166) of vases from Athens may be compared with the Phœnician from Cyprus. There are in the decoration the same geometrical designs, the same vertical concentric circles, the same animal figures which the Phœnicians drew from Assyria. But after making every allowance for suggestions from abroad, after conceding that Grecian art is the development of that which preceded it, and that it occupies a well-defined place in progressive history, we fail to find anywhere the equals of the best ceramic works of Greece.

[Illustration: Fig. 166.--Primitive Vessels, from Athens and Argos.]

Taking them as a whole, they are divisible into unbaked; terra-cotta, or burnt clay, without a glaze; and glazed. The Greeks employed unbaked clay for bricks, statues, and several kinds of decoration. The former were used for city walls and buildings. Terra-cotta was devoted to similar purposes. It is not improbable that we may yet return, to a very considerable extent, to the ancient employment of this material in architecture. The Greeks made use of it for pillars, roofs, paving, bricks, friezes, cornices, lamps, statues, flower-pots, and numberless domestic and sepulchral vessels and ornaments. Bricks do not appear to have been held in very high esteem in building, but the custom of roofing with terra-cotta tiles was widely prevalent and of great antiquity. These tiles were occasionally embellished with painted flowers, and designs in blue, red, and yellow. The terra-cotta figures vary in color from red to bright yellow, and are soft in texture and easily marked. Terra-cotta models were used in casting, and in the same material were made copies of statues, like those in plaster of Paris of our own time; and some painters were even accustomed to make terra-cotta models of the figures they afterward painted. Of the specimens which have come down to us a very great number consists of small statuettes of the gods.

[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Greek Vase, from Apulia. (Louvre.)]

The vessels of terra-cotta are either domestic or sepulchral. The largest was the _pithos_, which, as we have seen, was large enough to hold a man satisfied with such limited domestic conveniences as Diogenes. There were also _amphoræ_, large vases, somewhat smaller than the _pithoi_; _phialai_, or saucers, plates, pots, and jugs. Of these the _amphora_ occurs most frequently. Its name is derived from _amphis_--on both sides, and _pherein_--to carry, and it is so called because it had two handles, one on each side, to be grasped by the person carrying it. It is easily recognized (see Fig. 2) by its sharp base--so made to be stuck in the ground--its oval body, its long neck, and its generally heavy lip. The cover was conical, and sometimes the base is surrounded by a ring of clay to keep it more easily in an upright position. The height of the _amphora_ ranged from three feet to over six feet, and it was used for holding wine, water, oil, and for storing figs and other edibles.

[Illustration: Fig. 168.--Head of Minerva, with Figure of Nike. (Prime Coll., N.Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]

Various pigments were applied to terra-cotta, including white, red, green, and blue, the use of which, in painting statues and architectural decorations, formed a distinct branch of art. Colors are also found on sepulchral vases, some of which are further ornamented with applied bas-reliefs; that is, made separately, and fixed to the vase before drying. This practice was carried to such an extent as to represent a combination of the arts of potter, painter, and sculptor (Fig. 167). Closely allied to the cinerary urns were the vases intended solely for ornamental purposes. In one of extraordinary beauty, a large and finely moulded head of Pallas Athene is seen surmounted by a full figure of Victory. There are many of a similar character, representing female and animal heads. The latter are found in the _rhyta_, or drinking cups. The ornamental vases were often painted after being covered with a white slip: evidently the case with the piece (Fig. 168) in Dr. Prime’s collection.

Before treating of glazed vases we shall give the leading denominations of all vases glazed and unglazed, and then the styles of decoration of the former as nearly as may be in their chronological order. They are said to be glazed, although the glaze is so slight that, as Mr. Fortnum says, “it leaves a barely appreciable effect upon the eye, beyond that which might be produced by a mechanical polish.” It is altogether a very inferior kind of glaze, and is supposed to have been made from an alkali without any admixture of lead. The paste resembles terra-cotta, and varies in density, being in some cases scratched with ease, in others with difficulty. It can always be marked with iron. These facts are worth noting, were it only that that art may be thoroughly appreciated which, out of the poorest and commonest materials, has wrought forms of the most wonderful beauty.

[Illustration: Fig. 169.--Stamnos.]

[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Askos.]

The chief names with which we shall have to deal are the pithos, pithakne, stamnos, cheroulion, bikos, hyrche, lagynos, askos, amphorens, kados, hydria, kalpis, krossos, skyphos, or kothon, rhyton, lekythos, alabastros, krater, holmos, kelebe, oxybaphon, psykter, dinos, chytrai, tripous, oinochoe, prochoos, aryballos, epichysis, kotylos, kyathos, skaphe, kantharos, karchesion, kylix, phiale, kanoun, pinax, and diskos.

The _pithos_, already described in part, was a large, open-mouthed cask or jar of unglazed earthen-ware, which was used mainly for the preservation of victuals and wines.

The _pithakne_ was a pithos of smaller size used for holding wine.

The _stamnos_ (Fig. 169) was an open-mouthed jar with two handles, and a body inclined to be oval, but of great rotundity, curving inward to a comparatively narrow base. It held liquids. The _cheroulia_ and _bikoi_ were modifications of the stamnos, the latter being used for holding wine and solids.

[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Skyphos, or Kothon.]

The _hyrche_ is not very well known, either in regard to its shape or purpose, but appears to have had a narrow neck, and to have been used in conveying goods a long distance. Its narrow neck is a tolerably sure indication that it was not intended to be stationary.

The _lagynos_ also appears to have had a very narrow neck, and to have been of considerable size, varying according to circumstances.

[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Greek Rhyton.]

The _askos_ (Fig. 170), literally a wineskin, which it resembled in shape, had an aperture and neck on one side, from which a handle passed over a hollow on the body to the other side. Both the _askos_ and _stamnos_ are frequently painted with red figures.

[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Krater, with Volute Handles.]

The _amphora_, already described in the form it commonly took, may be called a general receptacle, although usually employed for holding provisions and liquors. There were many different shapes, which varied according to the district where made, and the special purpose for which they were destined. The chief kinds are the Egyptian, Apulian, Tyrrhenian, Panathenaic, Bacchic (Fig. 186), and Nolan, the last mentioned being the most perfectly finished, and unexcelled in gracefulness of shape. They were decorated with either red or black paintings.

The _kados_ is the first of the vessels for drawing liquids, of which class the _hydria_ (Fig. 188) is the best known. Its name implies its purpose as a water-pitcher. It had two small side handles, and one larger one, somewhat similar to that of the modern ewer. The _kalpis_ (Fig. 187) and krossos were modifications of the hydria.

The _kothon_ (Fig. 171) is supposed to have been a drinking-cup.

[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Krater.]

The _rhyton_ (Fig. 172) belongs to the later style of drinking-cups, and its peculiarity is that it could not be set down except when empty. The base is modelled after the head of a dog, goat, deer, or other animal, and the neck or cup proper is either cylindrical or elongated and sloped.

The _lekythos_ (Fig. 305) was an oil-jar of an elongated shape, neck in proportion, cup-like orifice, and one handle. It is decorated in all the styles of Grecian art, and is generally about one foot in height. It was sometimes made of metal or marble.

[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Holmos.]

The _alabastros_ was a diminutive lekythos, used for toilet unguents, with two small ears by which to suspend it.

[Illustration: Fig. 176.--Kelebe.]

The _krater_ (Figs. 173 and 174) was the vessel in which the Greeks cooled and mixed their wine, of which it would hold about three gallons. It is the later form of a class of vessels of which the _holmos_ (Fig. 175), _kelebe_ (Fig. 176), and _oxybaphon_ (Fig. 177) are the earlier representatives.

[Illustration: Fig. 177.--Oxybaphon.]

The _psykter_, or wine-cooler, was a double-walled vessel of the amphora type, rotund in shape.

The _dinos_ was another form of the wine vessel, open-mouthed, round in body and base, and allied to the krater.

The _chytrai_ were warming-pots with two handles. The _tripous_, or three-footed pot, was employed in a similar manner.

The _oinochoe_, in the shape most frequently occurring, resembled a jug with a lip either round or pinched in at the sides, and with a handle rising above the orifice. The oinochoe was used in serving the guests from the krater.

[Illustration: Fig. 178.--Prochoos.]

The _prochoos_ (Figs. 178 and 179) was also a jug, either with or without a handle, for either water or wine. The _olpe_ (Fig. 180) belongs to the same class.

The _aryballos_ (Fig. 165) was round or bladder-shaped and short-necked, and bore a close resemblance to one of the toilet vases of the Egyptians.

The _arystichos_ was also used for serving from the krater, a usage which gave rise to several other shapes. Of the cups designed for the same purpose, the _kotylos_ may be mentioned, although its shape is doubtful. The _kyathos_ (Fig. 181), or ladle, belongs to the same class.

[Illustration: Fig. 179.--Prochoos.]

The drinking-cups were of many shapes and assumed great elegance of form. The several varieties cannot now be specified by description. The _skyphos_ was the generic name applied also to a few special shapes now unknown. The _kantharos_ (Fig. 182) was wide, somewhat shallow, with two handles rising well above the lip, and either with or without a stem.

The _kylix_ (Fig. 183) was the cup most generally used, and varied in shape. In the earliest specimens it has a long stem, two handles, and is shallow and wide. The later forms are wider, and shorter in the stem, which ultimately disappears entirely. The _phiale_ was the religious counterpart of the kylix.

[Illustration: Fig. 180.--Olpe.]

The _kanoun_, _diskos_, and _pinax_ were for table use, the two latter corresponding with our plates, with the exception that the diskos stood upon a stem or foot.

Of the vessels named those deserving closest attention, as most frequently presenting themselves, are the kylix, oinochoe, krater, aryballos, kyathos, lekythos, rhyton, hydria, amphora, and pithos. The kylix is to be specially commended for its beauty of shape, and its decoration with red figures exemplifies some of the best art of Greece.

From the descriptions given of the various vessels, it will be seen that many of them were devoted to household use. Vases were also made as toys for children, as prizes to victorious athletes, for holding the viands and liquids placed beside the dead, and more recently for the ashes of the dead. Among the exceptional uses of pottery by the Greeks may be mentioned the giving of receipts on potsherds, the recording on fragments of pottery of votes for ostracizing (from _ostrakon_, a potsherd) a citizen, and for deciding the side to be taken by the entrants for the game called _ostrakinon_. This last was decided by “tossing up” a piece of pottery, and assigning a side to the player according to its falling with the red or black side uppermost. Vases were also made in honor of great men and authors, whose names are inscribed on them. All the vases now in museums, numbering, according to different estimates, from twenty to fifty thousand, were taken from the tombs of Greece, Southern Italy, and Etruria. It was the custom to place beside the dead the vessels necessary for the religious rites, the favorite vases and prizes of the deceased; and in this way they have been preserved to illustrate in our age the branch of Greek art to which they belong. No precise age can be ascribed to any one specimen.

[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Kyathos]

[Illustration: Fig. 182.--Kantharos.]

The first glazed vases date probably from the ninth century before Christ, and from the beginning of the third century the art declined. It had probably reached its highest point four hundred years before our era.

[Illustration: Fig. 183.--Kylix. Black on Red. Female Faces and Feet White. Naked Satyrs. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)]

The earliest vases were made by hand, and even after glazing was introduced that method was continued. It was also resorted to in making the gigantic _pithoi_, which were too large to be turned on the wheel. The finer vases were made on the wheel or moulded. After being moulded they were dried and painted. There were two methods of painting. By the first the figures were outlined and then filled in, leaving them black on a red or pale ground. The vase was then glazed and fired. By the second the figures were left untouched and of the color of the paste, by painting the ground black. A color slightly different from that of the body was employed for the finer lines of the figures. The vase was then glazed and fired as before.

[Illustration: Fig. 184.--Early Greek Oinochoe, showing Phœnician Influences. About B.C. 700-500. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]

We now come to the successive styles of ornamentation. The natural order would give the first place to the uncolored vases, the second to those painted all over in black, the next to the different styles of figures. In addition to what has been said in the Introduction, and to go more deeply into details, the following points may be noted in regard to the last of the above stages--the ornamentation by means of figures. These first took the form of simple belts of color drawn round the body of the piece. A vase of a later but still very early period has the space between the two zones passing round the widest part of the body filled in with vertical designs, alternating with small rings, each containing a cross (see Fig. 166). When animal and floral decoration was first attempted, the artist’s work was rude and the forms were unnatural. White upon black grounds indicate the earliest style. Another very ancient style has the figures, which are all those of animals, painted in dark lines upon the pale red paste (Fig. 184).

[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Greek Oinochoe. Painting, Black and Reddish Brown. Height, 7½ in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Mus. of Fine Arts.)]

The vases of the next, or Archaic, group vary in color from a pale yellow to a deep red, on which the figures are painted in a darker color. One of its leading features is the profusion of flowers. The presence of human forms, more or less skilfully drawn, may be taken as the criterion by which to determine the later members of this group.

[Illustration: Fig. 186.--Bacchic Amphora. Black on Red Ground. Height, 15 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]

In the next style (Fig. 186) human figures become more prominent in the designs, and are perfectly black, with the exception of the flesh of females, which is painted white or red. Many of the subjects are taken from mythology and the heroic legends. This developed into the “old style,” where the black appears greatly improved; and while the hands, face, and exposed parts of the females are pure white, their eyes are red. The drawing is still stiff and constrained, and where attempts at perspective are made, they are eminently unskilful. White is also more plentifully distributed, and is seen in the hair and beard of old men, in horses, and in many accessories, for which red is also occasionally employed. As the art developed, red figures were more frequently introduced among those in black; and we also find the artist entirely obscuring the natural color of the paste by means of a white slip, or coat, upon which he painted the black figures.

As we approach the best art of Greece the colors are inverted. The figures are drawn upon the paste of the red or yellow color of which they appear, and the rest of the vase is painted black (Fig. 187).

[Illustration: Fig. 187.--Greek Kalpis. Red Figures on Black Ground. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]

The “fine style,” the culmination of Greek art, was a development of that last described. The black ground, red figures, and white ornaments show the highest point to which previous styles gradually led upward. Drawing and composition are here at their best. The early stiffness has given place to a fuller grace, and there is a nobility in the figures and faces to which the earlier artists never attained. The limbs lose their unnatural distortion, the muscles are less rigid--there is, in one word, more life in the drawing. The accessories also gain by the greater freedom of treatment. The drapery hangs more gracefully, its straight-lined stiffness giving place to a more natural arrangement.

In the later specimens of this style--so markedly different from the earlier ones that they have been classed together as the florid style--there is a more minute attention to finish, a greater elaboration of dresses and other accessories, and a decided tendency toward finding the ideal human form in that which is most graceful. Gold appears in the ornamentation (Fig. 188), and arabesques encircle the necks. Polychrome vases were made at the same time, some of them showing the utmost excellence of figure-drawing, and draperies of blue, green, or purple.

When the art began to decline, taste and execution both deteriorated. The figures lose their graceful proportions, and acquire a heavier appearance. They are also more crowded, and the dresses become more garish, until at last all refinement, both of conception and treatment, was lost in coarseness and grotesque puerility. The amphora (Fig. 189) illustrates the decadence.

[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Hydria. Black, with Gilt on Neck, and Red Rim with Black Studs. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Greek Amphora, with Columnar Handles. Red on Black. From Canosa. Height, 20 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]

The classification of vases by the subjects represented upon them is unsatisfactory and confusing. Scenes are taken from mythology, heroic legends, funeral ceremonies, from civil life, and from the gymnasium, which permit neither of a chronological arrangement of the vases nor of one based upon their position in the scale of art. A distinct group might, without any loss of lucidity, be made of vases decorated with subjects in relief, or with statuettes arranged upon the body and neck. This was a union of sculpture and pottery occasionally embellished by the painter’s art in the coloring of the drapery and subsidiary ornaments. Color was also applied to sculptured reliefs. A vase now in St. Petersburg is thus described: “It is a piece of very large size, with three handles, and of the finest and most lustrous glaze. It is ornamented at several heights with sculptured friezes in terra-cotta, and gilded; but that which gives it its priceless value is a frieze of figures from four to five inches high, sculptured in bas-relief, with the heads, feet, and hands gilded, and the vestments painted in bright colors--blue, red, and green--in the finest Greek style imaginable. Several heads from which the gilding has become detached show the modelling, which is as fine and as finished as that of the finest ancient cameo.” Cups or vases with two heads, one on each side, such as Hercules and Omphale, illustrate the same branch of art. Such features as these, beautifully modelled relievos, ideal heads, figure scenes in which drawing and composition are almost above criticism, not less than its elegance of shape, have made the Greek vase a model for all time. We can trace Assyrian ideas in the decoration of some of the earlier vases, and Egyptian influences may also occasionally be detected. We can even find foreign models for a few of the Greek forms; but the Hellenizing process has obliterated every antecedent, and the art which Greece gave the world is as purely Grecian as if in every particular it were indigenous to the soil of that favored land.