Part 13
The whole of civilian Moslem architecture from Persia to Morocco is based on four unchanging conditions: a hot climate, slavery, polygamy and the segregation of women. The private house in Mahometan countries is in fact a fortress, a convent and a temple: a temple of which the god (as in all ancient religions) frequently descends to visit his cloistered votaresses. For where slavery and polygamy exist every house-master is necessarily a god, and the house he inhabits a shrine built about his divinity.
[Illustration: _From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au Maroc_
Rabat--gate of the Kasbah of the Oudayas]
The first thought of the Moroccan chieftain was always defensive. As soon as he pitched a camp or founded a city it had to be guarded against the hungry hordes who encompassed him on every side. Each little centre of culture and luxury in Moghreb was an islet in a sea of perpetual storms. The wonder is that, thus incessantly threatened from without and conspired against from within--with the desert at their doors, and their slaves on the threshold--these violent men managed to create about them an atmosphere of luxury and stability that astonished not only the obsequious native chronicler but travellers and captives from western Europe.
The truth is, as has been often pointed out, that, even until the end of the seventeenth century, the refinements of civilization were in many respects no greater in France and England than in North Africa. North Africa had long been in more direct communication with the old Empires of immemorial luxury, and was therefore farther advanced in the arts of living than the Spain and France of the Dark Ages; and this is why, in a country that to the average modern European seems as savage as Ashantee, one finds traces of a refinement of life and taste hardly to be matched by Carlovingian and early Capetian Europe.
III
The brief Almoravid dynasty left no monuments behind it.
Fez had already been founded by the Idrissites, and its first mosques (Kairouiyin and Les Andalous) existed. Of the Almoravid Fez and Marrakech the chroniclers relate great things; but the wild Hilalian invasion and the subsequent descent of the Almohads from the High Atlas swept away whatever the first dynasties had created.
The Almohads were mighty builders, and their great monuments are all of stone. The earliest known example of their architecture which has survived is the ruined mosque of Tinmel, in the High Atlas, discovered and photographed by M. Doutté. This mosque was built by the inspired mystic, Ibn-Toumert, who founded the line. Following him came the great palace-making Sultans whose walled cities of splendid mosques and towers have Romanesque qualities of mass and proportion, and, as M. Raymond Koechlin has pointed out, inevitably recall the "robust simplicity of the master builders who at the very same moment were beginning in France the construction of the first Gothic cathedrals and the noblest feudal castles."
[Illustration: _From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au Maroc_
Fez--Medersa Bouanyana]
In the thirteenth century, with the coming of the Merinids, Moroccan architecture grew more delicate, more luxurious, and perhaps also more peculiarly itself. That interaction of Spanish and Arab art which produced the style known as Moorish reached, on the African side of the Straits, its greatest completeness in Morocco. It was under the Merinids that Moorish art grew into full beauty in Spain, and under the Merinids that Fez rebuilt the mosque Kairouiyin and that of the Andalusians, and created six of its nine _Medersas_, the most perfect surviving buildings of that unique moment of sober elegance and dignity.
The Cherifian dynasties brought with them a decline in taste. A crude desire for immediate effect, and the tendency toward a more barbaric luxury, resulted in the piling up of frail palaces as impermanent as tents. Yet a last flower grew from the deformed and dying trunk of the old Empire. The Saadian Sultan who invaded the Soudan and came back laden with gold and treasure from the great black city of Timbuctoo covered Marrakech with hasty monuments of which hardly a trace survives. But there, in a nettle-grown corner of a ruinous quarter, lay hidden till yesterday the Chapel of the Tombs: the last emanation of pure beauty of a mysterious, incomplete, forever retrogressive and yet forever forward-straining people. The Merinid tombs of Fez have fallen; but those of their destroyers linger on in precarious grace, like a flower on the edge of a precipice.
IV
Moroccan architecture, then, is easily divided into four groups: the fortress, the mosque, the collegiate building and the private house.
[Illustration: _From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au Maroc_
Fez--the praying-chapel in the Medersa el Attarine]
The kernel of the mosque is always the _mihrab_, or niche facing toward the Kasbah of Mecca, where the _imam_[27] stands to say the prayer. This arrangement, which enabled as many as possible of the faithful to kneel facing the _mihrab_, results in a ground-plan necessarily consisting of long aisles parallel with the wall of the _mihrab_, to which more and more aisles are added as the number of worshippers grows. Where there was not space to increase these lateral aisles they were lengthened at each end. This typical plan is modified in the Moroccan mosques by a wider transverse space, corresponding with the nave of a Christian church, and extending across the mosque from the praying niche to the principal door. To the right of the _mihrab_ is the _minbar_, the carved pulpit (usually of cedar-wood incrusted with mother-of-pearl and ebony) from which the Koran is read. In some Algerian and Egyptian mosques (and at Cordova, for instance) the _mihrab_ is enclosed in a sort of screen called the _maksoura_; but in Morocco this modification of the simpler plan was apparently not adopted.
The interior construction of the mosque was no doubt usually affected by the nearness of Roman or Byzantine ruins. M. Saladin points out that there seem to be few instances of the use of columns made by native builders; but it does not therefore follow that all the columns used in the early mosques were taken from Roman temples or Christian basilicas. The Arab invaders brought their architects and engineers with them; and it is very possible that some of the earlier mosques were built by prisoners or fortune-hunters from Greece or Italy or Spain.
At any rate, the column on which the arcades of the vaulting rests in the earlier mosques, as at Tunis and Kairouan, and the mosque El Kairouiyin at Fez, gives way later to the use of piers, foursquare, or with flanking engaged pilasters as at Algiers and Tlemcen. The exterior of the mosques, as a rule, is almost entirely hidden by a mushroom growth of buildings, lanes and covered bazaars; but where the outer walls have remained disengaged they show, as at Kairouan and Cordova, great masses of windowless masonry pierced at intervals with majestic gateways.
Beyond the mosque, and opening into it by many wide doors of beaten bronze or carved cedar-wood, lies the Court of the Ablutions. The openings in the façade were multiplied in order that, on great days, the faithful who were not able to enter the mosque might hear the prayers and catch a glimpse of the _mihrab_.
In a corner of the courts stands the minaret. It is the structure on which Moslem art has played the greatest number of variations, cutting off its angles, building it on a circular or polygonal plan, and endlessly modifying the pyramids and pendentives by which the ground-plan of one story passes into that of the next. These problems of transition, always fascinating to the architect, led in Persia, Mesopotamia and Egypt to many different compositions and ways of treatment; but in Morocco the minaret, till modern times, remained steadfastly square, and proved that no other plan is so beautiful as this simplest one of all.
Surrounding the Court of the Ablutions are the school-rooms, libraries and other dependencies, which grew as the Mahometan religion prospered and Arab culture developed.
The medersa was a farther extension of the mosque: it was the academy where the Moslem schoolman prepared his theology and the other branches of strange learning which, to the present day, make up the curriculum of the Mahometan university. The medersa is an adaptation of the private house to religious and educational ends; or, if one prefers another analogy, it is a _fondak_ built above a miniature mosque. The ground-plan is always the same: in the centre an arcaded court with a fountain, on one side the long narrow praying-chapel with the _mihrab_, on the other a class-room with the same ground-plan; and on the next story a series of cell-like rooms for the students, opening on carved cedar-wood balconies. This cloistered plan, where all the effect is reserved for the interior façades about the court, lends itself to a delicacy of detail that would be inappropriate on a street-front; and the medersas of Fez are endlessly varied in their fanciful but never exuberant decoration.
M. Tranchant de Lunel has pointed out (in "France-Maroc") with what a sure sense of suitability the Merinid architects adapted this decoration to the uses of the buildings. On the lower floor, under the cloister, is a revêtement of marble (often alabaster) or of the almost indestructible ceramic mosaic.[28] On the floor above, massive cedar-wood corbels ending in monsters of almost Gothic inspiration support the fretted balconies; and above rise stucco interlacings, placed too high up to be injured by man, and guarded from the weather by projecting eaves.
[Illustration: _From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au Maroc_
Salé--interior court of the Medersa]
The private house, whether merchant's dwelling or chieftain's palace, is laid out on the same lines, with the addition of the reserved quarters for women; and what remains in Spain and Sicily of Moorish secular architecture shows that, in the Merinid period, the play of ornament must have been--as was natural--even greater than in the medersas.
The Arab chroniclers paint pictures of Merinid palaces, such as the House of the Favourite at Cordova, which the soberer modern imagination refused to accept until the medersas of Fez were revealed, and the old decorative tradition was shown in the eighteenth century Moroccan palaces. The descriptions given of the palaces of Fez and of Marrakech in the preceding articles, which make it unnecessary, in so slight a note as this, to go again into the detail of their planning and decoration, will serve to show how gracefully the art of the mosque and the medersa was lightened and domesticated to suit these cool chambers and flower-filled courts.
With regard to the immense fortifications that are the most picturesque and noticeable architectural features of Morocco, the first thing to strike the traveller is the difficulty of discerning any difference in the probable date of their construction until certain structural peculiarities are examined, or the ornamental details of the great gateways are noted. Thus the Almohad portions of the walls of Fez and Rabat are built of stone, while later parts are of rubble; and the touch of European influence in certain gateways of Meknez and Fez at once situate them in the seventeenth century. But the mediæval outline of these great piles of masonry, and certain technicalities in their plan, such as the disposition of the towers, alternating in the inner and outer walls, continued unchanged throughout the different dynasties; and this immutability of the Moroccan military architecture enables the imagination to picture, not only what was the aspect of the fortified cities which the Greeks built in Palestine and Syria, and the Crusaders brought back to Europe, but even that of the far-off Assyrio-Chaldæan strongholds to which the whole fortified architecture of the Middle Ages in Europe seems to lead back.
[Illustration: _From a photograph from the Service des Beaux-Arts au Maroc_
Marrakech--the gate of the Portuguese]
FOOTNOTES:
[27] The "deacon" or elder of the Moslem religion, which has no order of priests.
[28] These Moroccan mosaics are called _zellijes_.
IX
BOOKS CONSULTED
Afrique Française (L'), Bulletin Mensuel du Comité de l'Afrique Française. Paris, 21, rue Cassette.
Bernard, Augustin. Le Maroc. Paris, F. Alcan, 1916.
Budgett-Meakin. The Land of the Moors. London, 1902.
Châtelain, L. Recherches archéologiques au Maroc. Volubilis. (Published by the Military Command in Morocco.)
Les Fouilles de Volubilis. (Extrait du Bulletin Archéologique, 1916.)
Chevrillon, A. Crépuscule d'Islam.
Cochelet, Charles. Le Naufrage du Brick Sophie.
Conférences Marocaines. Paris, Plon-Nourrit.
Doutté, E. En Tribu. Paris, 1914.
Foucauld, Vicomte de. La Reconnaissance au Maroc. Paris, 1888.
France-Maroc. Revue Mensuelle, Paris, 4, rue Chauveau-Lagarde.
Gaillard. Une Ville d'Islam, Fez. Paris, 1909.
Gayet, Al. L'Art Arabe. Paris, 1906.
Houdas, O. Le Maroc de 1631 à 1812. Extrait d'une histoire du Maroc intitulée "L'Interprète qui s'exprime clairement sur les dynasties de l'Orient et de l'Occident" par Ezziani. Paris, E. Leroux, 1886.
Koechlin, Raymond. Une Exposition d'Art Marocain. (Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Juillet-Septembre, 1917.)
Leo Africanus, Description of Africa.
Loti, Pierre. Au Maroc.
Migeon, Gaston. Manuel d'Art Musulman. II. Les Arts Plastiques et Industriels. Paris, A. Picard et Fils, 1907.
Saladin, H. Manuel d'Art Musulman. I. L'Architecture. Paris, A. Picard et Fils, 1907.
Segonzac, Marquis de. Voyages au Maroc. Paris, 1903. Au Coeur de l'Atlas. Paris, 1910.
Tarde, A. de. Les Villes du Maroc: Fez, Marrakech, Rabat. (Journal de l'Université des Annales, 15 Oct., 1 Nov., 1918.)
Windus. A Journey to Mequinez. London, 1721.
INDEX
Abdallah-ben-Aïssa, 59
Abd-el-Aziz, 256-258
Abd-el-Hafid, 209-211, 258
Abd-el-Kader, 255
Abd-el-Moumen, 30, 243, 244
Abou-el-Abbas ("The Golden"), 152, 153
Abou Hassan, 245, 246
Abou-Youssef, 245
Agdal, olive-yards of the, 139
Ahmed-Baba, 152
Ahmed-el-Hiba, 211, 212
Aïd-el-Kebir, the, 164-170
Aïssaouas, the, of Kairouan, 48 dance of, 52
Algeria, French conquest of, 254-256
Almohads, the, invasion of Morocco by, 243-245 architecture of, 265, 268
Almoravids, the, invasion of Morocco by, 241-243 destruction of architecture of, 265, 268
Andalusian Moors, the, mosque of, 101, 102, 240, 268, 269
Arabs, conquest of Morocco by, 239-241
Architecture, Moroccan, four basic conditions of, 266 four groups of, 270 of the Almohad dynasty, 268 of the Cherifian dynasties, 269 of the Merinid dynasty, 269, 274, 275 the Saadian mausoleum, 155 the collegiate building, 273-275 the fortress, 276 the mosque, 270-273 the private house, 275
Art, Moroccan, sources of influence on, 104, 262-265 disappearance of treasures of, 86, 87 and Moorish art, 269
Ba-Ahmed, builder of the Bahia, 129, 256, 257
Bab F'touh cemetery, at Fez, 102-104
Bahia, the, palace of, at Marrakech, 129-133 apartment of Grand Vizier's Favourite in, 131
Bazaars, of Fez, 91, 107-109 of Marrakech, 135-138 of Salé, 24, 25
Beni-Merins. _See_ Merinids
Berbers, the, attack of, on Fez, 210, 211 origins of, 232 dialects of, 234 nomadic character of, 234, 235 heresy and schisms of, 239
Bernard, M. Augustin, 69, 234, 235, 239, 251
Black Guard, the Sultan's, 164-167 uniform of, 176 Moulay-Ismaël's method of raising, 44, 67-69
Blue Men of the Sahara, the, 112
Bou-Jeloud, palace of, 80, 81, 83
Bugeaud, Marshal, 255
Carthage, African colonies of, 236, 237
Casablanca, exhibitions at, 219 port of, 222, 223
Catholics, in Morocco, 248, 249
Cemetery, El Alou, 17, 18 Bab F'touh, 102-104
Châtelain, M. Louis, 46
Chella, ruins of, 28-30
Cherifian dynasties, the, 247, 251 architecture of, 269
Children, Moroccan, in the harem, 194 negro, 43, 44, 199-201 training of, for Black Guard, 67-69
Chleuh boys, dance of, 148
Christians, captive, and the building of Meknez, 69, 70, 73 religious liberty to, in Africa, 248, 249
Clocks, in Sultan's harem at Rabat, 172, 173
Cochelet, Charles, his "Naufrage du Brick Sophie," 250
Colleges, at Fez, 97-100, 105-107 at Salé, 19-22, 25, 26 Moslem, 225 architecture of Moroccan, 273-275
Colors, of North African towns, 50
Commerce, Moroccan, 223
Conti, Princesse de, 59
Convention of Fez, the, 209
Courts of Justice, Moroccan, 224
Crowds, Moroccan street, 161, 162
Culture, in North Africa, 104-106, 246, 267
Dance, of Chleuh boys, 148 of the Hamadchas, 48, 49, 51-57
Dawn, in Africa, 37
Djebilets, the, 125
Doutté, M., 264, 268
Dust-storm, at Marrakech, 145-147
Education, in Morocco, 225, 226
Elakhdar, mosque of, 62
El Alou, cemetery of, 17, 18
El Andalous, mosque of, 101, 102, 240, 268, 269
Elbali (Old Fez), 88 _et seq._ harems of, 188-196
Eldjid (New Fez), 77, 80 palaces of, 84-87 founding of, 245
El Kairouiyin, mosque of, 80, 83, 93, 95-100, 240, 263, 268, 269 the praying-hall of, 98 the court of ablutions of, 99, 100 legend of the tortoise of, 97
El-Ksar, 11, 12, 152
El-Mansour, Yacoub, 16, 30-33
Elmansour, palace of, 63
Empress Mother, the, 177, 178
English emissaries, visit of, to Meknez, 71-73
Exhibitions, planned by General Lyautey, 219-221
Ezziani, chronicler of Moulay-Ismaël, 60, 61, 64, 66, 67, 70
Fatimites, the, 240, 241
Fez, the approach to, 77 unchanged character of, 78 ruins of Merinid tombs of, 78, 79 the upper or new, 80 old summer-palace at, 80-83 night in, 82, 116-119 antiquity of, 83 palaces of, 84-87 the inns at, 86, 94, 116, 117 streets of, 88-91 a city of wealth, 90 the merchant of, 90 bazaars of, 91, 92, 107-109 a melancholy city, 92, 109 twilight in, 93 the shrines of, 93 mosque of Moulay Idriss at, 94, 95 mosque of El Kairouiyinat, 95-100 the University of, 97, 100, 101 Medersas of, 99, 105-107, 274 mosque of El Andalous at, 101, 102 Bab F'touh cemetery of, 102-104 the potters of, 103 art and culture of, 104-106, 247 the Mellah of, 113 harems of Old, 188-196 the Convention of, 209 uprising in, 210 attack of Berbers on, 211 exhibitions at, 219 Moslem college at, 225 founding of, 240 Almoravid conquest of, 242 centre of Moroccan learning, 247 Catholic diocese at, 248 massacres at, 258
Fez Elbali, 88 _et seq._, 188-196
Fez Eldjid, 77, 80, 83-87, 245
Fondak Nedjarine, the, at Fez, 94
Fortifications, Moroccan, architecture of, 276
Foucauld, Vicomte de, 110, 249
Franco-German treaty of 1911, 212
French Protectorate in Morocco, 209-222 work of, 222-227
French, conquests in Morocco, 254-256 at Fez, 258
Furniture, disappearance of Merinid, 86, 87
Ghilis, the, 125
Gouraud, General, 211
Hamadch, tomb of, 49, 56
Hamadchas, the, ritual dance of, 48, 49, 51-57
Harem, in old Fez, 188-196 an Imperial, 170-181 in Marrakech, 197-205 in old Rabat, 182-187
Hassan, Sultan, 129, 245, 246, 256
Hassan, tower of, at Rabat, 31, 32
Hassanians, the, rule of, 253-258
Holy War, the, against France, 255, against Spain and Portugal, 248-250
Hospitals, in Morocco, 226, 227
Houses, Moroccan, architecture of, 266, 275 color of, 50 plan of, 20 rich private, 86, 106
Ibn-Toumert, 243, 268
Idriss I, 94, 239
Idriss II, 61, 80, 83, 94, 240
Idrissite empire, the, 240, 241
Inns, Moroccan, 86, 94, 116, 117
Jews, of Sefrou, 113-116 treatment of North African, 114
Kairouan, the Alïssaouas of, 48, 52 Great Mosque of, 93, 95, 272
Kairouiyin, mosque of. _See_ El Kairouiyin
Kalaa, ruins of, 264
Kenitra, port of, 38, 223
Koechlin, M. Raymond, 268
Koutoubya, tower of the, 127, 128
Lamothe, General, 218
Land, area of cultivated, in Morocco, 224
Louis XIV, and Moulay-Ismaël, 58, 59, 70
Lunel, M. Tranchant de, 106, 274
Lyautey, General, 23, 149, 150 at Sultan's court, 179 appointed Resident-General in Morocco, 210 military occupation of Morocco by, 211, 212 policy of, 213 _et seq._ economic development of Morocco achieved by, 218-222 summary of work of, 222-226
Maclean, Sir Harry, 144
Mamora, forest of, 14
Mangin, General, 212
Mansourah, mosque of, 150
Market, of Marrakech, 144 in Moulay Idriss, 49 of Salé, 26, 27 of Sefrou, 111-113
Marrakech, the road to, 123-126 founders of, 128, 129, 242 tower of the Koutoubya at, 127, 128 palace of the Bahia at, 129-133 the lamp-lighters of, 133 mixed population of, 134 bazaars of, 135-138 the "morocco" workers of, 137 olive-yards of, 139 the Menara of, 139, 140 a holiday of merchants of, 140-142 the Square of the Dead in, 143-145 French administration office at, 144 fruit-market of, 144 dance of Chleuh boys in, 148 Saadian tombs of, 149, 154-158, 252 a harem in, 197-205 taken by the French, 212 Catholic diocese at, 248 Chapel of the Tombs at, 270
Medersa, the, of the Oudayas, 19-22 Attarine, 99 at Fez, 99, 105-107 at Salé, 25, 26 architecture of, 273-275
Mehedyia, Phenician colony of, 38, 237
Meknez, building of, 57-64, 69, 70 the Kasbah of, 62 palaces of, 63 stables of, 63 entrance into, 64 ruins of, 64-66 sunken gardens of, 72 visit of English emissaries to, 71-73
Mellah, of Fez, 113 of Sefrou, 113-116
Menara, the, in the Agdal, 139, 140
Mequinez. _See_ Meknez
Merinids, the, tombs of, at Fez, 78, 79 conquest of Morocco by, 245-247 architecture of, 269, 274, 275
Mirador, the Imperial, 170-181
Moorish art, 269
Mosque, of Elakhador, 62 of El Andalous, 101, 102, 240, 268, 269 of El Kairouiyin, 80, 83, 93-100, 240, 263, 268, 269 of Kairouan, 93 of Mansourah, 150 of Rabat, 32 of Tinmel, 243, 268 of Tunisia, 96 architecture of Moroccan, 270-273
Moulay Hafid, 81
Moulay-el-Hassan, 129, 256
Moulay Idriss I, rule of, 239 tomb of, 94
Moulay Idriss II, tomb of, 61, 80, 83, 94 rule of, 240
Moulay Idriss, Sacred City of, 5, 39, 45-57 Street of the Weavers in, 47 feast of the Hamadchas in, 48-57 market-place of, 49 whiteness of, 50 founding of, 240
Moulay-Ismaël, and Louis XIV, 58, 59, 70 exploits of, 60-62 mausoleum of Moulay Idriss enlarged by, 61 Meknez built by, 62, 63, 69, 70 the Black Guard of, 44, 67-69 description of, 71 palaces of, 72 and English emissaries, 72, 73 death of, 73, 74 rule of, 253 successors of, 254
Moulay Youssef, 180, 181, 258
Nedjarine, fountain and inn of, 94
Night, in Fez, 116-119
Oases, Moroccan, 109, 110 Marrakech, 127 _et seq._ Sefrou, 110 _et seq._ Settat, 124
Oudayas, the, Kasbah of, 16, 17 Medersa of, 19-22
Palaces, Moroccan, the Bahia, 129-133 Bou-Jeloud, 80-83 at Fez, 80-87 at Meknez, 63 of Moulay-Ismaël, 72
Phenicians, the, African explorations of, 236, 237
Pilgrimage to Salé, a, 41
Population, Moroccan, varied elements of, 89, 134
Ports, Moroccan, 222, 223
Portugal, the Holy War against, 248-250
Pottery, Berber, 264
Potters' Field, the, 104
Rabat, 15, 16 Tower of Hassan at, 31, 32 ruins of mosque at, 32 called "Camp of Victory," 33 Sacrifice of the Sheep at, 163 _et seq._ Sultan's harem of, 170-181 visit to a harem in old, 182-187 exhibitions at, 219 port of, 223 Moslem college at, 225 Central Laboratory at, 226
Railways, Moroccan, built by French Protectorate, 224
Rarb, the, 38, 44
Roads, Moroccan, built by French Protectorate, 224
Romans, the, African explorations of, 237, 238
Saadian Sultans, the, history of, 151-153 tombs of, 149, 154-158, 252 rule of, 247-252
Sacrifice of the Sheep, the, 164-170
Saint-Amand, M. de, 58
Saladin, M. H., his "Manual of Moslem Architecture," 233, 261, 271
Salé, first view of, 14 type of untouched Moroccan city, 23, 24 bazaar of, 24, 25 Medersas of, 19-22, 25, 26 market of, 26, 27 colors of, 50
Schools, in Morocco, 225, 226
Sedrata, ruins of, 264
Sefrou, 110-116 market-place of, 111-113 men and women of, 112, 113 Jewish colony of, 113-116
Senegal, 152
Settat, oasis of, 124
Sheep, sacrifice of the, 164-170
Sidi-Mohammed, 254
Slaves, Moroccan, 171, 191, 199-201 trade in white, 250
_Sloughi_, bronze, at Volubilis, 46, 87
Soudan, 152
Spain, the Holy War against, 248-250
Spanish zone, the, German intrigue in, 213, 218
Stables, of Meknez, 63
Stewart, Commodore, 71
Street of the Weavers (Moulay Idriss), 47
Streets, Moroccan, 47, 88-91, 161, 162
Tangier, 3-8 colors of, 50 taken by the French, 255
Tetuan, bronze chandelier of, 87
Timbuctoo, the Sultanate of, 152
Tingitanian Mauretania, 237
Tinmel, ruins of mosque at, 243, 268
Tlemcen, the conflict for, 245, 246
Touaregs, the, 236
Tower, of Hassan, 31, 32 of the Koutoubya, 127, 128
Tunisia, Almohad sanctuary of, 96
Vandals, the, African invasion by, 238
Veiled Men, the, 236, 241
Versailles and Meknez, 58
Villages, "sedentary," 43