Chapter IX. may be found more detailed in analysis than is necessary for

the beginner. In Part II., Chapters XI.-XII. may be omitted without losing the thread of the argument. In Part III., any one of the specific topics--viz., the political state, the economic order, the family--may be considered apart from the others. Some teachers may prefer to take Parts in their entirety. In this case, any two may be chosen.

As to the respective shares of the work for which the authors are severally responsible, while each has contributed suggestions and criticisms to the work of the other in sufficient degree to make the book throughout a joint work, Part I. has been written by Mr. Tufts, Part II. by Mr. Dewey, and in Part III., Chapters XX. and XXI. are by Mr. Dewey, Chapters XXII.-XXVI. by Mr. Tufts.

It need scarcely be said that no attempt has been made in the bibliographies to be exhaustive. When the dates of publication of the work cited are given, the plan has been in general to give, in the case of current literature, the date of the latest edition, and in the case of some classical treatises the date of original publication.

In conclusion, the authors desire to express their indebtedness to their colleagues and friends Dr. Wright, Mr. Talbert, and Mr. Eastman, who have aided in the reading of the proof and with other suggestions.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION 1

§ 1. _Definition and Method_:--Ethical and moral, specific problem, 1; importance of genetic study, 3. § 2. _Criterion of the moral_:--The moral in cross section, the "what" and the "how," 5; the moral as growth, 8. § 3. _Divisions of the treatment_, 13.

PART I

THE BEGINNINGS AND GROWTH OF MORALITY

II. EARLY GROUP LIFE 17

§ 1. _Typical facts of group life_:--Primitive unity and solidarity, 17. § 2. _Kinship and household groups_:--The kinship group, 21; the family or household group, 23. § 3. _Kinship and family groups as economic and industrial units_:--The land and the group, 24; movable goods, 25. § 4. _Kinship and family groups as political bodies_:--Their control over the individual, 26; rights and responsibility, 27. § 5. _The kinship or household as a religious unit_:--Totem groups, 30; ancestral religion, 31. § 6. _Age and sex groups_, 32. § 7. _Moral significance of the group_, 34.

III. THE RATIONALIZING AND SOCIALIZING AGENCIES IN EARLY SOCIETY 37

§ 1. _Three levels of conduct_:--Conduct as instinctive and governed by primal needs, regulated by society's standards, and by personal standards, 37. § 2. _Rationalizing agencies_: Work, 40; arts and crafts, 41; war, 42. § 3. _Socializing agencies_:--Coöperation, 42; art, 45. § 4. _Family life as idealizing and socializing agency_, 47. § 5. _Moral interpretation of this first level_, 49.

IV. GROUP MORALITY--CUSTOMS OR MORES 51

§ 1. _Meaning, authority, and origin of customs_, 51. § 2. _Means of enforcing custom_:--Public approval, taboos, rituals, force, 54. § 3. _Conditions which render group control conscious_:--Educational customs, 57; law and justice, 59; danger or crisis, 64. § 4. _Values and defects of customary morality_:--Standards, motives, content, organization of character, 68.

V. FROM CUSTOM TO CONSCIENCE; FROM GROUP MORALITY TO PERSONAL MORALITY 73

§ 1. _Contrast and collision_, 73. § 2. _Sociological agencies in the transition_:--Economic forces, 76; science and the arts, 78; military forces, 80; religious forces, 81. § 3. _Psychological agencies_:--Sex, 81; private property, 83; struggles for mastery and liberty, 84; honor and esteem, 85. § 4. _Positive reconstruction_, 89.

VI. THE HEBREW MORAL DEVELOPMENT 91

§ 1. _General character and determining principles_:--The Hebrew and the Greek, 91; Political and economic factors, 92. § 2. _Religious agencies_:--Covenant, 94; personal law-giver, 95; cultus, 97; prophets, 99; the kingdom, 100. § 3. _Moral conceptions attained_:--Righteousness and sin, 102; responsibility, 104; purity of motive, 105; the ideal of "life," 107; the social ideal, 108.

VII. THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEKS 111

§ 1. _The fundamental notes_:--Convention versus nature, 111; measure, 112; good and just, 113. § 2. _Intellectual forces of individualism_:--The scientific spirit, 114. § 3. _Commercial and political individualism_:--Class interests, 119; why obey laws? 122. § 4. _Individualism and ethical theory_:--The question formulated, 124; individualistic theories, 126. § 5. _The deeper view of nature and the good, of the individual and the social order_:--Aristotle on the natural, 127; Plato's ideal state, 129; passion or reason, 131; eudæmonism and the mean, 134; man and the cosmos, 135. § 6. _The conception of the ideal_:--Contrast with the actual, 136; ethical significance, 138. § 7. _The conception of the self, of character and responsibility_:--The poets, 138; Plato and the Stoics, 140.

VIII. THE MODERN PERIOD 142

§ 1. _The mediæval ideals_:--Groups and class ideals, 143; the church ideal, 145. § 2. _Main lines of modern development_, 147. § 3. _The old and new in the beginnings of individualism_, 149. § 4. _Individualism in the progress of liberty and democracy_:--Rights, 151. § 5. _Individualism as affected by the development of industry, commerce, and art_:--Increasing power and interests, 153; distribution of goods, 157; industrial revolution raises new problems, 159. § 6. _The individual and the development of intelligence_:--The Renaissance, 163; the Enlightenment, 165; the present significance of scientific method, 167.

IX. A GENERAL COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND REFLECTIVE MORALITY 171

§ 1. _Elements of agreement and continuity_:--Régime of custom, 172; persistence of group morality, 173; origin of ethical terms, 175. § 2. _Elements of contrast_:--Differentiation of the moral, 177; observing _versus_ reflecting, 178; the higher law, 181; deepening of meaning, 182. § 3. _Opposition between individual and social aims and standards_:--Withdrawal from the social order, 184; individual emancipation, 186. § 4. _Effects upon the individual character_:--Increased possibilities of evil as well as of good, 187. § 5. _Moral differentiation and the social order_:--Effects on the family, 193; on industry and government, 194; on religion, 195; general relation of religion to morality, 197.

PART II

THEORY OF THE MORAL LIFE

X. THE MORAL SITUATION 201

Distinguishing marks of the moral situation, 201; Traits of voluntary activity, 202; The good and bad in non-voluntary behavior, 203; Indifferent voluntary conduct, 205; The moral is introduced when ends have conflicting values, 207; Selection then depends upon, and influences, the nature of the self, 209.

XI. PROBLEMS OF MORAL THEORY 212

Theory grows from practical problems, 212; Three typical problems of reflective practice, 213; Corresponding problems of theory, 214; Their historical sequence, 215; Growth of individualism, 220; The two types of individualism, 221.

XII. TYPES OF MORAL THEORY 224

§ 1. _Typical divisions of theories_:--Teleological and jural, 224; individual and institutional, 225; empirical and intuitional, 226. § 2. _Division of voluntary activity into Inner and Outer_:--The "how" and the "what," 227; attitude and consequences, 228; different types of each theory, 229; bearing of each theory upon problems of knowledge and of control, 231. § 3. _General interpretation of these theories_:--Ordinary view of disposition and of consequences, 232; advantages claimed for emphasis upon consequences, 234; for emphasis upon disposition or attitude, 236; necessity of reconciliation of these theories, 237.

XIII. CONDUCT AND CHARACTER 240

Problem of their relation, 240. § 1. _The good will of Kant_:--Emphasis upon motive, 241; motive with or without consequences, 242; necessity of effort, 243; overt action required to prove motive, 245. § 2. _The "Intention" of the Utilitarians_:--Emphasis upon consequences, 246; distinction of intention from motive, 247; they are really identical, 248; motive as blind and as intelligent, 249; practical importance of insistence upon consequences, 251; foresight of consequences depends upon motive, 252. § 3. _Conduct and character_:--The nature of disposition, 254; partial and complete intention, 256; complexity of motives, 257. § 4. _Morality of acts and of agents_:--Subjective and objective morality, 259; the doer and his deed, 260; summary, 261.

XIV. HAPPINESS AND CONDUCT: THE GOOD AND DESIRE 263

Residence and nature of goodness, 263; happiness as the good, 264; love of happiness as the evil, 265; ambiguity in conception of happiness, 266. § 1. _The Object of Desire_:--Is it pleasure? 269; desire presupposes instinctive appetites, 270; and objects of thought, 271; happiness and desire, 272; need for standard, 274. § 2. _The Conception of Happiness as a Standard_:--Utilitarian method, 275; Difficulty of measuring pleasure, 276; character determines the value of a pleasure, 277; Mill's introduction of quality of pleasure, 279. § 3. _The constitution of happiness_:--Pleasures depend upon objects, 281; they are qualitative, 282; they vary with disposition, 283; happiness as the moral good, 284.

XV. HAPPINESS AND SOCIAL ENDS 286

Utilitarianism aims at social welfare, 286; value as a theory of social reform, 287; its aim conflicts with its hedonistic theory of motive, 289; Bentham's method of reconciling personal and general happiness, 291; Mill's method, 293; sympathy and the social self, 298; the distinctively moral interest, 300; equation of virtue and happiness, 301; moral democracy, 303.

XVI. THE PLACE OF REASON IN THE MORAL LIFE: MORAL KNOWLEDGE 306

§ 1. _Problem of reason and desire_:--Nature of a reasonable act, 306; theories about moral knowledge, 307. § 2. _Kant's theory of practical reason_:--Traits of morality, 309; reason as _a priori_ and formal, 310; true meaning of generalization, 313; the general and the social, 314. § 3. _Moral sense intuitionalism_:--Function of reason, 317; habit and sense, 319; invalid intuitions, 321; deliberation and intuition, 322; the good man's judgment, 324. § 4. _The place of general rules_:--Their value, 325; casuistry, 326; and its dangers, 327; secondary ends of utilitarianism, 329; empirical rules and customs, 330; distinction of rules and principles, 333; sympathy and reasonableness, 334.

XVII. THE PLACE OF DUTY IN THE MORAL LIFE: SUBJECTION TO AUTHORITY 337

Conflict of the rational with the attractive end, 337. § 1. _The subjection of desire to law_, 339; cause of conflict of desire and thought, 342; demand for transformation of desire, 343; social character of duties, 345; the social self is the "universal" self, 346. § 2. _Kantian theory_:--Accord with duty versus from duty, 346; the two-fold self of Kant, 347; criticism of Kant, 348; emphasis falls practically on political authority, 351; "Duty for duty's sake," 351. § 3. _The Utilitarian theory of duty_:--The hedonistic problem, 353; Moral sanctions, 354; they are too external, 355; Bain's account, 356; Spencer's account, 358; such views set up a fictitious non-social self, 361. § 3. _Final statement_:--Growth requires disagreeable readjustments, 362.

XVIII. THE PLACE OF THE SELF IN THE MORAL LIFE 364

Problems regarding the self, 364. § 1. _The doctrine of self-denial_:--Explanation of its origin, 365; four objections to doctrine, 366. § 2. _Self-assertion_:--Ethical dualism, 369; "naturalistic" ethics, 369; false biological basis, 371; misinterprets nature of efficiency, 373. § 3. _Self-love and benevolence; or egoism and altruism_:--The "crux" of ethical speculation, 375; are all motives selfish? 376; ambiguity of term selfish, 377; are results selfish? 379; self-preservation, 380; rational regard for self, 382; regard for others, 384; the existence of "other-regarding" impulses, 385; altruism may be immoral, 387; social justice necessary to moral altruism, 389. § 4. _The good as self-realization_:--Self-realization an ambiguous idea, 391; true and false consideration of the self, 393; equation of personal and general happiness, 395.

XIX. THE VIRTUES 399

Introductory--virtue defined, 399; natural ability and virtue, 400; evolution of virtues, 401; responsibility for moral judgment, 402; futility of cataloguing virtues, 402; their cardinal aspects, 403. § 1. _Temperance_:--Greek, Roman, and Christian conceptions, 405; negative and positive aspects, 407; pleasure and excitement, 408. § 2. _Courage or persistent vigor_:--Dislike of the disagreeable, 410; "dimensions" of courage, 411; optimism and pessimism, 412. § 3. _Justice_:--Three meanings of, 414; justice and love, 415; justice and punishment, 416. § 4. _Wisdom or conscientiousness_:--Importance of intelligent interest, 418; Greek and modern ideas of moral wisdom, 419; ideals and thoughtfulness, 420; ideals and progress, 422.

PART III

THE WORLD OF ACTION

XX. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL 427

Object of discussion, 427. § 1. _Growth of individuality through social organizations_:--Emancipation from custom, 428; double movement towards individuality and complex associations, 429; morality and legality, 432; two-fold contribution of social environment to individual morality, 433; moral value of the state, 434. § 2. _Responsibility and freedom_:--Liability, 436; freedom as exemption and as power, 437; legal and moral freedom, 438. § 3. _Rights and obligations_:--Their definition, 439; they are correlative, 440; physical rights, 442; limitations put upon them by war and punishment, 443; by poverty, 444; mental rights, 445; limitations to freedom of thought and expression, 446; education, 448.

XXI. CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE POLITICAL STATE 451

§ 1. _Civil rights and obligations_:--Their definition, 451; their classes, 452; significance of established remedies for wrongs, 454. § 2. _Development of civil rights_:--Contrast with savage age justice, 456; social harm versus metaphysical evil, 457; recognition of accident and intent, 459; of character and circumstances, 460; of mental incapacity, 462; significance of negligence and carelessness, 464; conflict of substantial and technical justice, 465; relations of the legal and moral, 467; reform of criminal procedure necessary, 468; also of punitive methods, 470; and of civil administration, 471. § 3. _Political rights and obligations_:--Significance of the state, 473; distrust of government, 474; indifference to politics, 476; political corruption, 477; reform of partisan machinery, 478; of governmental machinery, 479; constructive social legislation, 480; a federated humanity, 481. § 4. _The moral criterion of political activity_:--Its statement, 482; the individualistic formula, 483; the collectivistic formula, 484.

XXII. THE ETHICS OF THE ECONOMIC LIFE 486

§ 1. _General analysis_:--The economic in relation to happiness, 487; relation to character, 488; social aspects, 491. § 2. _The problem set by the new economic order_:--Collective and impersonal organizations, 495; readjustments required, 496. § 3. _The agencies for carrying on commerce and industry_:--Early agencies, 497; the business enterprise, 498; the labor union, 499; reversion to group morality, 500; members and management, 500; employer and employed, 501; relations to the public, 502; to the law, 503. § 4. _The methods of production, exchange, and valuation_:--The machine, 507; basis of valuation, 508. § 5. _The factors which aid ethical reconstruction_:--Principles more easily seen, 511.

XXIII. SOME PRINCIPLES IN THE ECONOMIC ORDER 514

1. Wealth subordinate to personality, 514. 2. Wealth and activity, 514. 3. Wealth and public service, 515. 4. A change demanded from individual to collective morality, 517. 5. Personal responsibility, 519. 6. Publicity and legal control, 520. 7. Democracy and distribution, 521.

XXIV. UNSETTLED PROBLEMS IN THE ECONOMIC ORDER 523

§ 1. _Individualism and socialism_:--General statement, 523; equal opportunity, 526. § 2. _Individualism or free contract analyzed; its values_:--Efficiency, 527; initiative, 527; regulation of production, 528. § 3. _Criticisms upon individualism_:--It does not secure real freedom, 528; nor justice, 530; competition tends to destroy itself, 531; position of the aristocratic individualists, 532.

XXV. UNSETTLED PROBLEMS IN THE ECONOMIC ORDER (CONTINUED) 536

§ 4. _The theory of public agency and control_, 536. § 5. _Society as agency of production_:--Charges against private management, 537; corruption, 538; conditions of labor, 540; collective agency not necessarily social, 544. § 6. _Theories of just distribution_:--Individualistic theory, 546; equal division, 547; a working programme, 548. § 7. _Ownership and use of property_:--Defects in the present system, 551. § 8. _Present tendencies_:--Individualistic character of the Constitution, 554; increased recognition of public welfare, 555; social justice through economic, social, and scientific progress, 557. § 9. _Three special problems_:--The open versus the closed shop, 559; the capitalization of corporations, 561; the unearned increment, 564. Appendix: Prof. Seager's programme of social legislation, 566.

XXVI. THE FAMILY 571

§ 1. _Historical antecedents of the modern family_:--Maternal type, 572; paternal type, 572; influence of the church, 576. § 2. _The psychological basis of the family_:--Emotional and instinctive basis, 578; common will, 580; parenthood, 581; social and religious factors, 582; the children, 582. § 3. _General elements of strain in family relations_:--Differences between the sexes in temperament and occupation, 584; in attitude toward the family, 587; differences between parents and children, 589. § 4. _Special conditions which give rise to present problems_:--The economic factors, 590; cultural and political factors, 593. § 5. _Unsettled problems_:--Economic problems, 594; the dilemma between the domestic life and occupations outside the home, 595; the family as consumer, 598. § 6. _Unsettled problems_:--Political problems, authority within the family, 599; equality or inequality, 600; isolation not the solution, 602; authority over the family, divorce, 603; general law of social health, 605; conclusion, 605.

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ETHICS