IX.

THE ROMANESQUE STYLE.

Some late historians have departed from the previously generally accepted nomenclature of architectural styles, in designating under the general term of Christian architecture all buildings erected between the tenth and sixteenth centuries in Western Europe.

As, however, Christian building in Europe began with the conversion of Constantine, this chronology is hardly satisfactory, and as the customary division of Gothic from the styles preceding it, is on many grounds a convenient one, it is preferable to adopt the conventional names, and to distinguish under the title of “Romanesque” the outgrowth of the debased form of Roman architecture which, influenced by Byzantine and Arabic art, formed a distinct method of building throughout the West for nearly two centuries after the year 1000 A.D., giving it the alternative name of “Norman” in Normandy and England.

Previous to this date the long continuance of war and barbaric incursions seem to have prevented the erection of any stable edifices; fire and the poverty of the material with which they were constructed having caused the destruction of the few of which an account has been preserved.

Many churches subsequently built, however, were erected upon the sites of these older ones and have fragments of the older buildings incorporated in them. Of such are the churches of St. Germain des Prés, in Paris, and Notre Dame du Port, at Clermont.

Under Charlemagne, a revival of art was attempted, the chief building constructed by him being a reproduction of St. Vitale, of Ravenna, in which he employed sculpture and ornament torn from the original structure, and fragments from the edifices of ancient Rome; but this effort soon died away, and the period intervening between the eighth and tenth centuries was totally lacking in any architectural production of merit.

As the Roman principles of architecture had been taken Eastward and gradually transformed into a new style at Byzance, so also in the West they had been the forerunners of another method of building, but proportionately different in accordance with the character, customs, and race of the Western populations.

The basilica formed, as it had in the East, the model upon which all church architecture was designed, the nave, transept, aisles, and apse being all retained in this new class of buildings, but many of the building methods were new, and the details of their decoration differed considerably from the precise proportions and Classic graces of the buildings of Rome. The result exhibits a curious contrast between the barbaric ornament and the scientific construction, which advanced throughout the style in the genuine efforts which were made to progress in the art of building.

Starting thus at the decadence of Classic art, with a Classical building as the original type for their churches, the Romanesque architects took up each of the parts combining in its formation, and sought to improve or elaborate each, in pursuance of certain ends, arising from local necessities. There is virtually no point where Romanesque ends and Gothic commences, to give due reason for the conventional divisions of historians, for the one style melts into the other in the continual progress in the study of the principles of construction which was steadily effected throughout both styles.

They differ chiefly in that, during the two centuries prior to the thirteenth century, the pointed arch was rarely used, and that the influence of the Classic decadence is more apparent in the buildings of the earlier period. After this, the pointed arch became universal, and the whole style becoming entirely distinct from its derivation, the ornament and detail, quite unlike anything which had come before, it may be said that a new style had been created.

This new style, which has been called Gothic, continued to be developed until the fifteenth century, when its principles became exaggerated, and it died out at the extreme point to which they could be pushed.

It has been customary to call the buildings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, built in the transition of Roman to Gothic art, Romanesque; but the pointed arch was used in both styles, though, as stated above, less frequently in the earlier one; and it should not, therefore, be taken as the distinguishing characteristic of Gothic architecture.

The chief points wherein the Romanesque churches, which were the only buildings of importance constructed at that period, differed from the basilicas were in the methods of vaulting and their consequent effects upon the whole structure, the elaboration of the apse, and the system of connected supports employed. The main characteristics of the style were the same in all Western countries, and these being known, it is not difficult to distinguish the slight differences arising from local causes.

In the old basilicas the aisles, whether of one or two stories, were lighted by windows in the lateral walls, while the nave borrowed light from them, and also received it directly from a clerestory rising above the roof of the galleries. As we have seen, these buildings were usually covered by wooden roofs, tunnel-vaults or a series of intersecting vaults thrown across the square formed by two of the columns of the nave, equidistant from each other and from corresponding pilasters in the side walls, being only occasionally used in the aisles.

The Western architects of the tenth century continued to build their churches in this manner, and we have a splendid example of a timber roof of this kind, as late even as the twelfth century, in Peterborough Cathedral; but at an early period they sought to replace these perishable roofs by stone vaults. They found the construction of the semi-dome of the apse and the vaulting of the side aisles, either by a continuous tunnel-vault, by a series of semicircular vaults perpendicular to the lateral walls, or by intersecting vaults upon a square plan, comparatively easy; but the vaulting of the nave was a much more difficult matter.

The circular tunnel-vault would have been the simplest known method of accomplishing this, but the pressure of a circular vault placed over the nave would have tended to push outward the walls upon which it rested, and this pressure being continuous, it was obviously of no avail to place buttresses at any separate point, and to place a great number, side by side, all along the vault, or, in other words, to greatly thicken the supporting wall, was to take up too much valuable ground space.

In St. Front and kindred structures we have seen the problem solved in one way by the introduction of Byzantine domes; but these churches were confined to a province of Southern France, and had but little influence in other districts. In St. Etienne de Nevers, St. Sernin de Toulouse, and in Notre Dame du Port at Clermont in Auvergne, and others, this difficulty is partially overcome by the building of a half vault over the upper galleries connecting the tunnel-vault of the nave with the outer main walls, and taking the strain continuously, the thickness of the outer wall not being considered of consequence. This system permitted the placing of roofing-tiles directly upon the extrados of the vaults, and the entire suppression of wooden rafters, which was advantageous in diminishing the risk of fire, although the pitch was scarcely sufficient to prevent leakage. The great disadvantage, however, was that the nave had only borrowed light, and in large churches it was inconveniently dark.

Another method adopted was that of suppressing the upper gallery, and bringing the arches of the aisles up to the level of the springing of the main vault, so that the summits of the side vaults and the walls erected between them, which were at right angles to the nave, served to counteract the strain of the upper vault. We have examples of this in the cathedral of Limoges and at Fontenay, but it is open to the same objection, that of darkening the nave.

Still another system consisted in binding the vault over the nave by ribs or arches thrown across to opposite piers, which were strengthened by buttresses. These buttresses, however, were built upon the top of the arches, thrown across the aisles, and did more harm than good.

[Illustration: ELEVATION.

ROMANESQUE CONSTRUCTION]

[Illustration: SECTION.]

There is an example of unusual construction at Tournus, in Burgundy, where the difficulty is effectually surmounted by the building of a number of arches at right angles to the axis of the nave, between each set of piers; but the effect is far from satisfactory.

Finally at Vezelay, in France, the tunnel-vault was abandoned and diagonal intersecting vaults were thrown across the nave, framed in between semicircular arch ribs carried upon piers spaced at equal intervals, the weight being thus wholly transferred to the four points at the angles of each compartment. It was found, however, that these piers needed strengthening, as the strain upon them was excessive, and it was thus that external buttresses were resorted to, which were connected with the piers by arches, called flying buttresses, bridging the side aisles and conveying the pressure to the outer wall. A weight was placed over each buttress, generally taking the form of a pinnacle, which stiffened it and counteracted the pressure of the arch.

An illustration of this mode of construction has been attempted in the accompanying drawing, which does not represent any special building, but in which the chief characteristics of the style at this juncture have been introduced.

The distance across the nave being usually greater than that between the columns dividing it from the aisles, the rectangular compartments of the vault were consequently no longer square, but oblong, so that while the arches crossing the nave at right angles were still semicircular those between the pillars were pointed.

The transition from this, in the thirteenth century, to the definite adoption of the pointed vault was consequently but a step.

We see, thus, that a continual progress was made in vaulting throughout the style, and the principle of concentrating weight upon isolated points was evolved in order to vault the nave and at the same time give direct light to it. In effecting this result, however, the original aim had been lost sight of—namely, that of avoiding the use of wooden roofs; for when the Romanesque architects abandoned tunnel-vaulting they had to surmount their more complicated intersecting vaults by wooden roofs, the perishable nature of which caused the ruin of many of the finest buildings. Nor was the external appearance of these roofs any improvement upon those of St. Etienne and St. Sernin, for it is a question whether any more monumental roof has been conceived than that which is formed by the natural outside surface of stone vaults.

In the old basilicas, columns taken from or modelled upon those of the temples and palaces of Rome had sufficed to support the light brick wall, carried upon an architrave or arches, which enclosed the nave. When the Western architects resumed the building of churches, after an interval of war and trouble which had proved fatal to architectural progress, brick was little used and the formation of light masonry and good mortar were lost arts. The slender Classic column was consequently insufficient to carry the load of a heavy stone wall and had, necessarily, to be replaced by a more solid pier.

These piers assumed various forms in the tentative efforts made to construct them of the dimensions calculated to occupy the least amount of floor space; some were square, others circular or formed of a number of small columns grouped together, but for a long time no very satisfactory shape was found which avoided a clumsy adjustment of the superstructure.

It came to be gradually recognized that the form of the pier should be subservient to, and made to correspond with, the arches and the column receiving the arch rib of the vault above, which it had to sustain. This was effected at first by a square pier, with rectangular projections on each side, forming abutments for the reception of the constructional arrangement above. Subsequently these were replaced by pilasters and engaged columns on each face, three of which supported the rear and side arches of the nave, the fourth being continued up to the springing of the vault, and redeemed from exaggerated effect by bands or string-courses. There are good examples in France at Vezelay, Beaune and Langres and Autun. In England the contemporary architects usually employed square or circular masses of solid masonry, carrying a heavy abacus, these pillars being sometimes ornamented with a fluting, as in the crypt at Canterbury, or with zigzag patterns, as at Waltham Abbey, Durham, and Lindisfarne.

The capitals of Romanesque columns are especially interesting, for they became constructively useful instead of simply ornamental, as were those used in the Roman orders. The section of the arch rib being square and the column round, it was necessary to afford support to the overlapping corners, the whole surface of the projecting tile or abacus being occupied by the upper masonry, instead of the line of the shaft being continued up, as had been done in Rome. The capital was therefore made to spread outward from the shaft in order to corbel the superstructure.

[Illustration: COMPARATIVE SERIES, SHOWING GREEK, ROMAN, ROMANESQUE, AND GOTHIC METHODS OF SUPPORT.

1. Greek Lintel.

2. Roman Arch, showing False Lintel. 3. Vault Springing from Entablature. 4. Arch Springing 5. Romanesque Column, with Arches Springing from Outer Edge of the Capital. 6. Romanesque Pier. 7. Gothic Pier.]

A simple form of this is found in many German, Italian, and English examples, the upper part of the capital being a cube and the lower a hemisphere. The early examples generally imitate those of the Corinthian order in a rude fashion corresponding with the poverty of talent of the period. The capitals of the twelfth century are better carved and better suited to the services they have to perform. Figures representing biblical subjects are introduced in some and in others strange animals and conventional foliage, sometimes arranged as the acanthus leaf had been in the Roman models. The proportions of the Classic column were also departed from, the capital often being a quarter or a sixth of the whole column; its height being regulated by the size of the beds of stone, which were generally low. In Germany, however, the older proportions were more closely adhered to. The quality of the stone determined in a great measure the depth of the carving, the harder kinds having less depth of incision and the style of ornament applied to them resembling the Byzantine.

In France the Romanesque column has usually a third of the diameter of its shaft engaged in a pier or wall, though isolated ones are used in the triforiums, towers, and porches; in England the latter are common, and recessed columns, that is to say, placed in an angle of masonry, are also frequently seen.

The bases of Romanesque columns, at first simple round and hollow moulds, gradually became more elaborate, until they resembled the attic base. Occasionally they were decorated with foliage or animals, and there are instances where both capital and base are similar. The introduction of an angle ornament, connecting the torus or round mould with the corners of the plinth beneath, is especially noticeable; this was effective in preventing the angles from being broken by thickening the stone at the weakest points, and in later examples added to the beauty of the base.

The arches of the period were usually semicircular and employed either separately or with a second and broader one, their contour being frequently marked by a few simple mouldings of degenerate classic origin.

Two or three arches supported by detached columns, and comprised within a larger one, were frequently placed in the triforiums; when three were used the central one was usually higher than the others. Besides mouldings: billets, zigzags, stars, and similar simple ornaments were employed in their decoration. Where Arabic taste exercised its influence, it is not uncommon to find alternate voussoirs of different-coloured stones, and variegated bands in the piers.

The Italians were especially fond of this treatment and it is seen in the exteriors and interiors of many of their buildings. To them is also due the introduction of blind arcades, the columns of which were either engaged in the wall or separated from it by an intervening gallery. The façade of the cathedral at Pisa is perhaps the most beautiful example of this.

In the West, arcades of this kind became a frequent method of decorating blank walls, and there are instances where a second series of arches intersect the first, resulting in a number of pointed arches formed by the crossing of the circular ones; from this an ingenious but unfounded theory has been deducted purporting to explain the origin of Gothic architecture.

The doors and porches of the Romanesque period are among the most beautiful to be found in any style. Starting in the earlier examples with a simple, round-arched opening, the number of mouldings in the arch became richer and of greater number, and, as the style advanced, recessed and supported by columns. These mouldings were decorated with the zigzag, billet, and kindred ornaments, many of which were probably copied from the decoration of the old basilica of St. Paul’s without the walls of Rome.

As the jambs of the doorways were generally built on an angle, the contiguous shafts and arches sometimes gave the effect of an arched passage in perspective. Such effects were frequently intentional in the churches in Southern France, for we find that the walls of the nave and vault of Notre Dame de Poitiers, and of other buildings, were purposely made to converge in order to give the appearance of greater length.

It was not uncommon to give the doors square heads, supported by corbels and occasionally by a central shaft; in these cases the arch above relieved the lintel from the weight of the superstructure, and gave the character of the style to the whole. The tympanum, thus enclosed, offered a ground for rich sculpture, which was availed of to the fullest extent. The outer door of a porch was usually richer in design than the inner one; in England there are many examples of shallow porches with single deeply recessed doors. In Provence there are many beautiful examples, foremost amongst which must be mentioned the porch of St. Trophyme, at Arles (see frontispiece). Romanesque windows were but modifications of the doors; often having recessed shafts at their sides and being frequently divided by a central column.

The bull’s-eye, or round window, of the early Christian basilicas continued to be used, but it had not as yet the richness of tracery which it attained in the Gothic period.

Classical features of design still retained their hold upon many details, notably in the cornices, where the modillions or brackets of the Corinthian order were frequently employed, and but slightly altered in form, although of native composition. The corona of the cornice also differed but little from the Roman models, and was occasionally supported directly by engaged columns replacing buttresses, chiefly on the exterior of apsidal chapels.

In the early Christian churches the apse had consisted of a central semicircular termination to the building, flanked occasionally by two smaller semicircular recesses containing altars. In the baptisteries and Byzantine churches these had been multiplied, and had come to be customary features in every new building. In England, the Norman architects generally ended their churches rectangularly, without even the original single apse, though there are a few examples in which it is used, as at Newhaven, Sussex. In Germany it was frequently the custom to affix apses to three sides of the square tower placed at the intersection of the nave and transept, and the result was generally satisfactory, as may be seen in St. Martin’s of Cologne, and in the Apostles’ Church in the same city.

[Illustration: PLAN OF STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL (Compare with Basilica, page 89.)]

In France the plan resolved itself into an open semicircular colonnade with a passage intervening between it and the outer wall which followed the outline of a series of small apses. These formed an harmonious cluster, and became a type which was matured in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Those belonging to the Romanesque period, however, had a distinct and constructively excellent character which has rarely been subsequently surpassed. Among the best are those of Notre Dame du Port at Clermont, St. Etienne de Nevers, and St. Sernin at Toulouse.

In France towers were generally placed at the West end of the church, while in England and Germany the usual way was to build them at the junction of the nave and transept; in Italy they were often detached from the main structure. They were characterized by simple solidity; the openings being few and the detail bold; the angles were strengthened by stout piers; the roofs were either of timber or stone, according to the nature of the materials in the localities in which they were erected, and they were usually lighted by the round-arched double window. This round arch, ornamented with a few simple mouldings and reposing upon short sturdy columns, forms a constantly recurring feature in the composition of the several parts of Romanesque buildings.

The corridors which surrounded the square courtyards adjoining churches, and connected them with the dormitories, refectories, and other apartments of the clergy, are called cloisters. They differed but little from the Roman “impluvium” and the “atrium” of the basilica, the changes consisting chiefly in the addition of raised sills separating them from the court, and in their being usually vaulted instead of carrying timber roofs. The series of arcades forming them were treated in many ways, and the detail admitted of much elaboration and variety, as may be seen in the many remarkable examples throughout Europe. The cloisters of St. Paul’s, at Rome, and the atrium of St. Ambrogio, at Milan, form very interesting historical links between the Roman and Romanesque styles and are very beautiful specimens of their kind.

It had been the custom during the struggling period of the early Church to bury the bodies of saints in subterranean chambers called crypts, a word derived from the Greek verb “to hide”; subsequently these became component parts of all churches, serving as places of interment and for the occasional celebration of masses. Their masonry was necessarily of the massive character required for the foundation of the piers of the church above, consisting generally in a grouping of columns sustaining a heavy vault.

[Illustration: CHEVET OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT AT CLERMONT.

(_From Chapuy._)]

The crypt of St. Eutrope, at Saintes in France, may be mentioned as one of the best examples, the pillars being richly carved, and the ribs of the vault of great boldness and strength.

In Germany the crypt is often raised sufficiently above the level of the ground to obtain light from windows, as at Spires, and this is sometimes carried to such an extreme that the church becomes double, that is, of two stories, as at Schwartz Rheindorf.

In England, Canterbury Cathedral possesses perhaps the best example, the crypt being very large and its details varied. Some of the capitals of the columns remain half finished, the work upon them having been arrested by a conflagration in the twelfth century.