Part 16

The passage of a new tariff law, on July 14, which was considered harmful to Southern interests, brought the Federal Government into armed conflict with the South. On November 19, a State Convention met at Columbus, South Carolina, in response to a call of the Legislature, and on the 24th a nullification ordinance was adopted. The tariff laws were declared unconstitutional, and therefore "null and void and no law, nor binding upon the State." On December 10, President Jackson issued a proclamation against nullifiers, threatening them with trial for treason. Governor Hamilton of South Carolina in reply warned citizens not to be diverted from their allegiance to their State by this Federal proclamation. Jackson summoned General Scott to Washington and sent a part of the army to Charleston with a ship of war to collect the revenues. On December 28, J.C. Calhoun resigned the office of Vice-President on account of Jackson's proclamation. He was forthwith elected Senator from South Carolina.

[Sidenote: Treaty of Payne's Landing]

[Sidenote: Troubles with Indians]

[Sidenote: Black Hawk War]

It was during this year that renewed troubles with the Seminoles in Florida resulted in one of the most serious Indian wars of the century. By the treaty of Fort Muller, in 1823, the Indians were to be confined to a reservation on the eastern peninsula, but the Territorial Legislature petitioned Congress for their removal. Finally, in 1832, the treaty of Payne's Landing stipulated that seven Seminole chiefs should examine the country assigned to the Creeks west of the Mississippi, and that if they could live amiably with the Creeks, the Seminoles were to be removed within three years, surrendering their lands in Florida, and receiving an annuity of $15,000 and certain supplies. President Jackson sent a commission to the West to convince the seven chiefs that the country was eminently desirable, and a supplementary treaty from these seven was obtained without consulting the rest of the Seminoles. Many Seminoles were opposed to moving West through fear of the Creeks. The Sacs and Foxes and Winnebago Indians of Wisconsin by treaty, in 1830, had ceded their lands to the United States, but they still refused to leave their territory. Governor Reynolds, of Illinois, called out troops to compel them to go to the lands set apart for them, west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk returned, but was again driven off. In 1832 he came back with a thousand warriors and Indian warfare broke out. Generals Scott and Atkinson were sent with troops to Rock Island. It was the first time that a steamboat was used as a military transport. The force was there divided. General Scott could effect nothing, but General Atkinson pushed on, and in August defeated the Indians and took Black Hawk and his two sons prisoners.

[Sidenote: Cholera reaches America]

[Sidenote: Death of Charles Carroll]

In many other ways public attention was engrossed in America. On June 21, the Asiatic cholera appeared in New York with appalling results. The epidemic spread to Philadelphia, Albany, Rochester, and westward. A number of new railroads were opened in New York and Pennsylvania. The first horse-drawn street cars began running in New York. On July 2, the Agricultural Society of New York was founded, and the first public trial was held of Obett Hussy's new reaping machine, which Cyrus MacCormick also claimed as his invention. The device was destined to give a tremendous impetus to agriculture in the development of the western prairies. About the same time the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, Charles Carroll of Maryland, died at the age of ninety-six. In American letters, this year is noted for the appearance of Smith's national anthem, "My Country, 'tis of Thee." Among the books that attracted attention were Whittier's "Moll Pitcher," Sparks's "Gouverneur Morris," and Irving's "Alhambra." James Gordon Bennett began the publication of the "New York Globe."

1833

[Sidenote: American abolition movement]

At the very outset of this year in America the slavery question burst into flame. The abolition movement inaugurated by Garrison and Whittier in the North was in full sway. In the slave-holding States large rewards were offered for the apprehension of Garrison, Whittier and others connected with the publication of the Boston "Liberator," Philadelphia "Freeman" and New York "Emancipator." The legislatures of Northern States were called upon to suppress anti-slavery societies by penal enactments. Governor Edward Everett of Massachusetts and Governor Marcy of New York commended such legislation. Prominent Northern citizens travelling in the South were arrested, imprisoned and flogged for flimsy reasons. At New York, Montpelier, Utica, Boston, Philadelphia, Cincinnati and Alton, meetings were broken up, houses sacked, newspapers destroyed and public halls burned. Berry's "Philanthropist" at Cincinnati and Lovejoy's "Observer" at Alton were destroyed and Pennsylvania Hall at Philadelphia, a costly building intended for anti-slavery discussion, was burned on the day after its dedication, at which a poem by Whittier had been read. The firemen refused to extinguish the flames. In Boston, Garrison was dragged through the streets with a rope around his neck. Whittier and Thompson tried to lecture against slavery in Boston, but their meeting could not be held in the face of the following placard posted in all parts of Boston:

[Sidenote: A typical manifesto]

"That infamous foreign scoundrel, Thompson, will hold forth this afternoon at 46 Washington Street. The present is a fair opportunity for the friends of the Union to snake Thompson out. It will be a contest between the Abolitionists and the friends of the Union. A purse of _one hundred dollars_ has been raised by a number of patriotic citizens to reward the individual who shall first lay violent hands on Thompson, so that he may be brought to the tar-kettle before dark. Friends of the Union, be vigilant!"

[Sidenote: Wendell Phillips]

These events inspired Wendell Phillips, who was present at a meeting in Faneuil Hall, Boston, called to approve these outrages, to take an open stand in favor of the rights of the people, which were threatened, and gave to the cause for thirty years his active brain and eloquent tongue.

[Sidenote: Compromise tariff]

As a counterpart to the popular excesses in behalf of slavery, the Catholics of New England had to suffer persecution. At Charlestown, in Massachusetts, a mob burned the Ursuline Convent. Another indignation meeting was held at Faneuil Hall in Boston to denounce this outrage. As a concession to the Southern agitators, the American Congress, on February 26, adopted a so-called "Compromise tariff." The new bill cut down all duties of over twenty per cent by one-tenth of the surplus of each year, so as to bring about a uniform rate of twenty per cent within a decade. On the other hand, Congress passed a "force bill," which empowered the President to execute the revenue laws in South Carolina by force of arms. A State Convention in South Carolina for its part repealed the ordinance of nullification, but proceeded to declare the new Federal force bill null and void.

[Sidenote: Death of Randolph]

On May 24, John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia, a descendant of Pocahontas, died at the age of sixty. He commenced public life in 1799, and served thirty years in Congress. There he became distinguished for his eccentric conduct, his sharpness of wit, and his galling sarcasm, which made him feared by all parties. He had to resign from the Cabinet under odious charges. In 1830, Jackson appointed him Minister to Russia. Randolph's speeches are still widely read.

[Sidenote: Texas filibusters]

In the extreme South the American settlers of Texas, aided by Davy Crockett's filibusters from the United States, began a war for independence against Mexico.

[Sidenote: English abolition movement]

[Sidenote: Gladstone's first speech in Parliament]

[Sidenote: Misgovernment in Ireland]

[Sidenote: Irish resentment]

The abolition of slavery was likewise the most absorbing topic that came up during this year in the Parliament of England. Young Gladstone, the newly elected member from Newark, taunted with his father's slave-holding methods at Demerara, made his maiden speech in Parliament on this subject. One who heard the rising orator recorded: "Burke himself could not be more sympathetic, more earnest, and more strong." Another engrossing topic was that of Ireland. The state of Ireland at this period, as conceded by a Tory historian of modern England, was a disgrace to the history of the Nineteenth Century. So wretched was the government of this unhappy dependency that during the year 1832 alone nearly 1,500 people were murdered and robbed in Ireland. Instead of giving to Ireland a better administration, Parliament passed another coercion bill. Tithes for the Protestant clergy were collected at the point of the bayonet. The cause of Ireland, as heretofore, was pleaded most eloquently by Daniel O'Connell. He denounced the Irish Church bill as "the basest act which a national assembly could sanction." The people became so enraged that when an Englishman was killed in a riot the coroner's jury returned a verdict of justifiable homicide. The Court of King's Bench quashed the verdict and tried the murderer before a jury. He was acquitted in the face of the clearest proofs against him and in direct contravention of the instructions of the judge. The spirit of the English aristocracy was indicated by the fact that a bill for relieving Jews from their civil disabilities was thrown out by the House of Lords.

[Sidenote: Death of Wilberforce]

On July 26, William Wilberforce died in his seventy-fourth year. He lived long enough to hear that the bill for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies, to which he had devoted the greater part of his life, had passed its second reading, and that success was assured. Of all English advocates of human freedom he was the most persevering and faithful. After a distinguished Parliamentary career of forty-five years, he gave up all political ambitions to devote himself to the cause of humanity and religion. He had been the intimate friend and associate of Pitt, Fox, G. Milner, Brougham and Macaulay. His wish that he be buried simply and privately was not granted by England. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to the tombs of Pitt, Fox and Canning. Around his open grave stood the royal dukes of Sussex and Gloucester, the Duke of Wellington, Lord Chancellor Brougham, the venerable Archbishop Howley, with other representatives from the House of Lords and Commons.

[Sidenote: Tractarian Movement]

[Sidenote: Newman]

[Sidenote: Dr. Arnold]

It was at this period of the ecclesiastical history of England that the Tractarian Movement began at Oxford. It is a significant fact that the "Tracts for the Times" appeared at Oxford within less than a year after the passage of the Reform Bill. The connection of the two movements has been revealed in Newman's "Apologia Pro Vita Sua." In January, Dr. Arnold, the celebrated headmaster at Rugby, published his "Principles of Church Reform." He aimed at a reunion of all Christians within the pale of a great national church. In the discussion that followed, the foremost spirits were Newman, Froude, Dr. Pusey, and Keble, the sweet singer of the Church of England, whose "Christian Year" will live as long as that Church endures.

[Sidenote: Browning]

[Sidenote: Keane]

[Sidenote: Steel pens]

[Sidenote: Electro-magnetism]

Enlightened Englishmen were further stirred at this time by the publication of Robert Browning's "Pauline," a narrative in unusually virile verse, and by Edmund Keane's original creation of the character of "Othello." The new invention of steel pens first came into general use during this same year, as did Hansom's "safety cab," and Lord Brougham's favorite style of carriage. Robert Brown, an English scientist, in the course of his microscopic studies of orchids happened to make the important discovery of the nucleus of cells. Joseph Saxton, an American, constructed the first electro-magnetic machine in England.

[Sidenote: Bismarck]

[Sidenote: Revolt at Frankfort]

[Sidenote: Caspar Hauser]

The invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph was claimed by Gauss and Weber in Germany. The first telegraph actually constructed and used was set up at Goettingen. Among those who witnessed it was young Bismarck, who had already achieved a reputation as a duellist among the students of Goettingen. An impulse toward his political ambitions of the future may possibly have been given by the sensational events at Frankfort during this year. A band of misguided enthusiasts attempted to establish German unity by a _coup de main_. They overpowered a small detachment of guards and hoisted the black-red-gold banner of Germany. The expected rising of the population did not follow. The little band of revolutionists was dispersed at the first appearance of a strong military force. It is characteristic of the premature nature of this movement that it excited less serious attention in Germany than the death of Caspar Hauser, a freak foundling, whose unexplained origin has remained one of the mysteries of the Nineteenth Century.

[Sidenote: Teplitz conference]

[Sidenote: Zollverein]

The affair at Frankfort received the usual serious consideration by Metternich, who arranged for meetings of the allied monarchs at Muenchengraetz, and of their ministers and authorized representatives at Teplitz. The most beneficial measure agreed on at these meetings was the comprehension of all German States in a tariff union known as the Zollverein.

[Sidenote: Otto's reign in Greece]

Full recognition was given to Prince Otto of Wittelsbach as King of Greece. The young prince, then in his eighteenth year, had already landed at Nauplia. He commenced his reign with a regency consisting of Bavaria's ablest ministers, Count Armandsberg, Von Maurer, and Heideck. King Louis of Bavaria commemorated the accession of his son to the throne of Greece by erecting a number of monumental buildings at Munich in imitation of the architecture of ancient Greece, and by mural paintings in the arcades of his palace garden depicting all the most famous places and incidents of the Greek struggle for independence.

[Sidenote: French painters]

[Sidenote: Death of Legendre]

In France, a new impetus was likewise given to art. Jean Baptiste Leloir began his career as a painter of religious and historical subjects; Lecquereux, the great historical painter, stood already at the zenith of his power, and Corot's exquisite landscapes were receiving their full measure of appreciation. In French letters, this year is noted for the first appearance of Balzac's "Eugenie Grandet" and Prosper Merimee's "Double Erreur." Legendre, the great French mathematician, died during this year.

[Sidenote: Treaty of Keteya]

[Sidenote: Compact of Unkiarskelessi]

[Sidenote: Moltke]

It was the foreign policy of France to supplant Russia as mediator between Turkey and Egypt. Admiral Roussin had made it plain to the Sultan that if Syria could not be reconquered from the rebellious Mehemet Ali except by Russian forces the province was more than lost to Turkey. Accordingly, a French envoy was sent to Mehemet's victorious son, Ibrahim, with powers to conclude peace on any terms. The French suggestions were adopted on April 10, in the treaty of Keteya. The Sultan made over to his viceroy all of Syria and a part of Adana. The Egyptians consented to leave Anatolia. The Sultan took the spoliation so much to heart that he turned from France. Once more he entered into negotiations with Russia. Russian warships were permitted to enter the Dardanelles, and Russian troops camped side by side with the Turks on the east bank of the Bosphorus. A secret treaty for defence and offence was concluded between Russia and Turkey at the palace of Unkiarskelessi: The Porte undertook to close the Dardanelles to the warships of all other nations whenever Russia should be at war. Thus the entrance to the Black Sea was made practically a Russian stronghold. As soon as the purport of this treaty was apprehended it had the effect of uniting the rest of Europe against Russia--notably, France and England. Henceforth Russia's ascendency in the East was watched by the chancelleries of Europe with growing suspicion. Sultan Mahmoud set himself seriously to reorganize his army after Western models. Following the example of Mehemet Ali, he summoned foreign officers to his general staff. It was then that Moltke, the subsequent strategist of Germany, entered Turkish service.

[Sidenote: Portuguese civil war]

[Sidenote: Civil war in Spain]

[Sidenote: Revolt in Cuba]

Lord Napier's namesake, Captain Charles Napier, had won fresh laurels in the Portuguese war for the succession to the throne. In command of the fleet fitted out by Dom Pedro of Brazil he attacked and annihilated Dom Miguel's navy off St. Vincent. Napier's colleague, Villa Flor, landed his forces and marched on Lisbon. The resistance of Dom Miguel's forces was overcome. On July 28, Dom Pedro was able to enter Lisbon as a victor. Still the struggle went on. Among those who linked themselves with Dom Miguel was Don Carlos, the rebellious pretender to the throne of Spain. Upon the death of King Ferdinand VII., in September, and the coronation of the Infanta Isabella as Queen of Spain under a regency, Don Carlos was proclaimed king by his followers. The Basque provinces declared in his favor. Civil war began. Had Don Carlos crossed the border at once he might have captured his crown. Unfortunately for his cause, he lingered in Portugal until the end of the year. The regency of Spain, in the face of this embarrassment at home, was called upon to proceed energetically against a revolutionary rising in Cuba under the leadership of Manuel Quesada. Henceforth the Pearl of the Antilles was no longer the "ever faithful Isle."

1834

[Sidenote: Death of Pedro IV.]

[Sidenote: Quadruple alliance]

[Sidenote: Foreign intervention in Portugal]

[Sidenote: Pretenders withdraw]

The death of Pedro IV., the Emperor of Brazil and claimant king of Portugal, made matters worse in Portugal. Diego Antonio Fergio set himself up as Regent. Monasteries were suppressed and the Society of Jesus was expelled from the kingdom. Dom Miguel continued his fight for the throne. Don Carlos, the Spanish pretender, remained with him. The situation grew so threatening for the established governments in Portugal and Spain that they, too, combined for mutual defence. Queen-Regent Christina of Spain found that she would have to rely for support upon the Spanish Liberals. Martinez de la Rosa was made Prime Minister. His first measure was to give his country a constitution, which was ratified, on April 10, by royal statute. He then entered into negotiations with Portugal as well as with England and France to crush the two rebellious pretenders by a combined effort. On April 22, a fourfold treaty was signed at London by the terms of which the Spanish and Portuguese Governments undertook to proceed conjointly against Miguel and Carlos. England promised to co-operate with her fleet. France agreed to send an army into the Peninsula if called upon. Before the treaty had been ratified even by the English Parliament and French Chambers, General Rodil marched a Spanish division into Portugal. Dom Miguel's forces were driven before him. The threatening demonstrations of British cruisers and the simultaneous publication of the terms of the quadruple alliance in Lisbon and Madrid cowed the revolutionists. On May 22, Dom Miguel yielded. On the promise of a handsome pension, he renounced his rights to the crown of Braganza and agreed to leave Portugal forever. Don Carlos, while declining thus to sell his rights, took refuge with the British admiral on his flagship and was taken to London.

[Sidenote: Return of Don Carlos]

[Sidenote: Zumalacarregui]

For a while it seemed as if order had been restored in the Peninsula. The problem of Portugal was settled. Don Carlos' shrewd move, however, left matters open in Spain. The pretender had not been made a prisoner of war, nor was he placed under any constraint or obligations. After a short residence in England he crossed the Channel, and, travelling through France in disguise, reappeared on July 10 in Navarre, where Zumalacarregui, a brigand chief of considerable military ability, was conducting brilliant operations against the Spanish government forces. Of the detachments sent against him one after another was defeated in the mountains of Navarre.

[Sidenote: Spanish reverses]

All manner of help from the peasants was obtained by a system of ruthless intimidation. The personal presence of Don Carlos strengthened the cause. It was in vain that old General Mina, who had won renown in these parts ten years ago, was sent against the Carlists. Unable to cope with them, the old soldier resigned from his command. The Spanish Minister, Valdes, thereupon took the field himself. His attempt to operate in Navarre with a large army resulted in the worst defeat that had yet befallen the government forces. He had to retreat before the victorious Carlists. Zumalacarregui prepared to cross the Ebro to march upon Madrid.

[Sidenote: Delacey's expedition to Spain]

[Sidenote: French intervention refused]

[Sidenote: Fall of La Rosa's Ministry]

The Spanish Ministry in alarm turned to its allies for aid. The English Government would render no further aid beyond that already given by the British squadron in Spanish waters. Permission, however, was granted to enroll volunteers for the Spanish cause in England and in Ireland. Colonel Delacey Ebbons raised a corps of needy adventurers, and, having been supplied with arms and funds, crossed over to Spain. The first appeal for French intervention resulted in like failure. France had cause to hesitate before embarking in another Peninsular War. Lord Palmerston's refusal on behalf of the British Government to co-operate with France in any such undertaking gave Louis Philippe reason to reflect. A large party in France, moreover, was in sympathy with Don Carlos. The Spanish Government was informed that French military assistance, under the circumstances, was impossible. The first result of this refusal was the downfall of La Rosa's Ministry in Spain. The civil war continued.

[Sidenote: Revolts in France]

[Sidenote: Fall of Broglie's Ministry]

[Sidenote: Thiers, Prime Minister]

[Sidenote: Death of Lafayette]

In France, domestic troubles rather than international questions were the problems of the day. On April 5, a violent outbreak had been precipitated by Mazzini among the workingmen of Lyons, which arose from a labor strike involving thousands. Soon the whole city was in uproar. Barricades were thrown up. Blood was shed in hand-to-hand fights with the troops. Similar outbreaks had been prepared at St. Etienne, Vienne, Grenoble, Chalons, Auxerre, Arbois, Marseilles, and Luneville. The insurrection spread to Paris. On April 13, a conflict of some workmen with the troops was followed by the building of barricades all over the city. The revolt was ruthlessly suppressed by General Bugeaud, the commandant of Paris, who was henceforth denounced as a butcher. After it was all over the Ministry of Duc de Broglie fell in consequence of an adverse vote of the Chambers on the subject of the indemnities due to America. The succeeding Ministry lasted just three days. Then came the recall of Thiers, Guizot, Duchatel, Humann, and Rigny. Marshal Mortier became President of the Council. The Chamber of Deputies was dissolved. The aged Prince Talleyrand quitted the embassy at London. A proposal to form a Ministry headed by Marquis de la Fayette for the last time brought the name of that venerable hero into the public affairs of France. Shortly afterward he died in peace at La Grange, surrounded by his children and calling for his dead wife. His burial in the graveyard of Picpus, consecrated to the memory of the victims of the Terror, was left undisturbed by political demonstrations.

[Sidenote: Lafayette's career]