Book One

we derived moral duties from the four sources of moral rectitude, let us continue the same fourfold division here in pointing out how hostile to virtue are those courses of conduct which seem to be, but really are not, expedient. We have discussed wisdom, which cunning seeks to counterfeit, and likewise justice, which is always expedient. There remain for our discussion two divisions of moral rectitude, the one of which is discernible in the greatness and pre-eminence of a superior soul, the other, in the shaping and regulation of it by temperance and self-control.

*97* XXVI. Utile videbatur Ulixi, ut quidem poëtae tragici prodiderunt (nam apud Homerum, optimum auctorem, talis de Ulixe nulla suspicio est), sed insimulant eum tragoediae simulatione insaniae militiam subterfugere voluisse. Non honestum consilium, at utile, ut aliquis fortasse dixerit, regnare et Ithacae vivere otiose cum parentibus, cum uxore, cum filio. Ullum tu decus in cotidianis laboribus et periculis cum hac tranquillitate conferendum putas?

Ego vero istam contemnendam et abiciendam, quoniam, quae honesta non sit, ne utilem quidem esse arbitror. *98* Quid enim auditurum putas fuisse Ulixem, si in illa simulatione perseveravisset? qui cum maximas res gesserit in bello, tamen haec audiat ab Aiace:

#(Accius or Pacuvius, Judicium Armorum?) _Inc. inc. fab._, Ribbeck^2 55-60#

Cuius ípse princeps iúris iurandí fuit, Quod ómnes scitis, sólus neglexít fidem; Furere ássimulare, né coiret, ínstitit. Quodní Palamedi pérspicax prudéntia Istíus percepset[354] málitiosam audáciam, Fidé sacratae[355] iús perpetuo fálleret.

*99* Illi vero non modo cum hostibus, verum etiam cum fluctibus, id quod fecit, dimicare melius fuit quam deserere consentientem Graeciam ad bellum barbaris inferendum.

Sed omittamus et fabulas et externa; ad rem factam nostramque veniamus. M. Atilius Regulus cum consul iterum in Africa ex insidiis captus esset duce Xanthippo Lacedaemonio, imperatore autem patre Hannibalis Hamilcare, iuratus missus est ad senatum, ut, nisi redditi essent Poenis captivi nobiles quidam, rediret ipse Carthaginem. Is cum Romam venisset, utilitatis speciem videbat, sed eam, ut res declarat, falsam iudicavit; quae erat talis: manere in patria, esse domui suae cum uxore, cum liberis, quam calamitatem accepisset in bello, communem fortunae bellicae iudicantem tenere consularis dignitatis gradum. Quis haec negat esse utilia? quem censes? Magnitudo animi et fortitudo negat. *100* XXVII. Num[356] locupletiores quaeris auctores? Harum enim est virtutum proprium nihil extimescere, omnia humana despicere, nihil, quod homini accidere possit, intolerandum putare. Itaque quid fecit? In senatum venit, mandata exposuit, sententiam ne diceret recusavit, quam diu iure iurando hostium teneretur, non esse se senatorem. Atque illud etiam ("O stultum hominem," dixerit quispiam, "et repugnantem utilitati suae!"), reddi captivos negavit esse utile; illos enim adulescentes esse et bonos duces, se iam confectum senectute. Cuius cum valuisset auctoritas, captivi retenti sunt, ipse Carthaginem rediit, neque eum caritas patriae retinuit nec suorum. Neque vero tum ignorabat se ad crudelissimum hostem et ad exquisita supplicia proficisci, sed ius iurandum conservandum putabat. Itaque tum, cum vigilando necabatur, erat in meliore causa, quam si domi senex captivus, periurus consularis remansisset.

*101* At stulte, qui non modo non censuerit captivos remittendos, verum etiam dissuaserit.

Quo modo stulte? etiamne, si rei publicae conducebat? potest autem, quod inutile rei publicae sit, id cuiquam civi utile esse?

[354] _percepset_ Bt., Ed., Heine; _percepisset_ MSS.; _perspexet_ Müller.

[355] _sacratae_ Edd.; _sacrata_ B H a b; _sacratum_ c.

[356] _num_ A L c, Edd.; _nam_ B H a b.

#Apparent Expediency _vs._ Fortitude:#

#(1) Ulysses's ruse,#

*97* XXVI. Ulysses thought his ruse expedient, as the tragic poets, at least, have represented him. In Homer, our most reliable authority, no such suspicion is cast upon him; but the tragedies charge him with trying to escape a soldier's service by feigning madness. The trick was not morally right, but, some one may perhaps say, "It was expedient for him to keep his throne and live at ease in Ithaca with parents, wife, and son. Do you think that there is any glory in facing daily toil and danger that can be compared with a life of such tranquillity?"

Nay; I think that tranquillity at such a price is to be despised and rejected; for if it is not morally right, neither is it expedient. *98* For what do you think would have been said of Ulysses, if he had persisted in that pretended madness, seeing that, notwithstanding his deeds of heroism in the war, he was nevertheless upbraided by Ajax thus:

"'Twas he himself who first proposed the oath; ye all Do know; yet he alone of all his vow did break; He feigned persistently that he was mad, that thus He might not have to join the host. And had not then Palamedes, shrewd and wise, his tricky impudence Unmasked, he had evaded e'en for aye his vow."

*99* Nay, for him it had been better to battle not only with the enemy but also with the waves, as he did, than to desert Greece when she was united for waging the war against the barbarians.

But let us leave illustrations both from story and from foreign lands and turn to real events in our own history. #(2) the example of Regulus.# Marcus Atilius Regulus in his second consulship was taken prisoner in Africa by the stratagem of Xanthippus, a Spartan general serving under the command of Hannibal's father Hamilcar.[BX] He was sent to the senate on parole, sworn to return to Carthage himself, if certain noble prisoners of war[BY] were not restored to the Carthaginians. When he came to Rome, he could not fail to see the specious appearance of expediency, but he decided that it was unreal, as the outcome proves. His apparent interest was to remain in his own country, to stay at home with his wife and children, and to retain his rank and dignity as an ex-consul, regarding the defeat which he had suffered as a misfortune that might come to anyone in the game of war. Who says that this was not expedient? Who, think you? Greatness of soul and courage say that it was not. *100* #The violation of his oath could not have been expedient for him.# XXVII. Can you ask for more competent authorities? The denial comes from those virtues, for it is characteristic of them to await nothing with fear, to rise superior to all the vicissitudes of earthly life, and to count nothing intolerable that can befall a human being. What, then, did he do? He came into the senate and stated his mission; but he refused to give his own vote on the question; for, he held, he was not a member of the senate so long as he was bound by the oath sworn to his enemies. And more than that, he said--"What a foolish fellow," some one will say, "to oppose his own best interests"--he said that it was not expedient that the prisoners should be returned; for they were young men and gallant officers, while he was already bowed with age. And when his counsel prevailed, the prisoners were retained and he himself returned to Carthage; affection for his country and his family failed to hold him back. And even then he was not ignorant of the fact that he was going to a most cruel enemy and to exquisite torture; still, he thought his oath must be sacredly kept. And so even then, when he was being slowly put to death by enforced wakefulness, he enjoyed a happier lot than if he had remained at home an aged prisoner of war, a man of consular rank forsworn.

*101* "But," you will say, "it was foolish of him not only not to advocate the exchange of prisoners but even to plead against such

## action."

How was it foolish? Was it so, even if his policy was for the good of the state? Nay; can what is inexpedient for the state be expedient for any individual citizen?

[BX] Cicero is careless in his dates. Regulus was consul in 267 and 256. He was defeated and taken prisoner in his second proconsulship at the battle of Tunes in 255. And the Hamilcar of 255 was not Hannibal's father, for his career does not begin until 247, when he was a mere youth, and he was still in his prime when he fell in battle in Spain, in 229.

[BY] At the battle of Panormus in 250 Lucius Caecilius Metellus took among the prisoners no less than thirteen Carthaginian generals--all men of noble birth.

XXVIII. Pervertunt homines ea, quae sunt fundamenta naturae, cum utilitatem ab honestate seiungunt. Omnes enim expetimus utilitatem ad eamque rapimur nec facere aliter ullo modo possumus. Nam quis est, qui utilia fugiat? aut quis potius, qui ea non studiosissime persequatur? Sed quia nusquam possumus nisi in laude, decore, honestate utilia reperire, propterea illa prima et summa habemus, utilitatis nomen non tam splendidum quam necessarium ducimus.

*102* Quid est igitur, dixerit quis, in iure iurando? num iratum timemus Iovem? At hoc quidem commune est omnium philosophorum, non eorum modo, qui deum nihil habere ipsum negotii dicunt, nihil exhibere alteri, sed eorum etiam, qui deum semper agere aliquid et moliri volunt, numquam nec irasci deum nec nocere. Quid autem iratus Iuppiter plus nocere potuisset, quam nocuit sibi ipse Regulus? Nulla igitur vis fuit religionis, quae tantam utilitatem perverteret.

An ne turpiter faceret? Primum minima de malis. Num[357] igitur tantum mali turpitudo ista habebat,[358] quantum ille cruciatus? Deinde illud etiam apud Accium:

#Atreus; Ribbeck^2, 227-228#

Fregistín[359] fidem? Néque dedi neque do ínfideli cuíquam

quamquam ab impio rege dicitur, luculente tamen dicitur.

*103* Addunt etiam, quem ad modum nos dicamus videri quaedam utilia, quae non sint, sic se dicere videri quaedam honesta, quae non sint, "ut hoc ipsum videtur honestum, conservandi iuris iurandi causa ad cruciatum revertisse; sed fit non honestum, quia, quod per vim hostium esset actum, ratum esse non debuit."

Addunt etiam, quicquid valde utile sit, id fieri honestum, etiamsi antea non videretur.

Haec fere contra Regulum. Sed prima _quaeque_[360] videamus.

[357] _Num_ Edd.; _non_ MSS.

[358] _habebat_ L c, Edd.; _habebit_ A B H a b.

[359] _fregistin_ Edd.; _fregistine_ A B H a b; _fregisti_ L c.

[360] _quaeque_ Forchhammer, Müller, Heine; not in MSS., Bt., Ed.

#Expediency inseparable from moral rectitude.#

XXVIII. People overturn the fundamental principles established by nature, when they divorce expediency from moral rectitude. For we all seek to obtain what is to us expedient; we are irresistibly drawn toward it, and we cannot possibly be otherwise. For who is there that would turn his back upon what is to him expedient? Or rather, who is there that does not exert himself to the utmost to secure it? But because we cannot discover it anywhere except in good report, propriety, and moral rectitude, we look upon these three for that reason as the first and the highest objects of endeavour, while what we term expediency we account not so much an ornament to our dignity as a necessary incident to living.

#Arguments against Regulus's fidelity to his oath:#

#(1) he had no need to fear God's wrath,#

*102* "What significance, then," some one will say, "do we attach to an oath? It is not that we fear the wrath of Jove, is it? Not at all; it is the universally accepted view of all philosophers that God is never angry, never hurtful. This is the doctrine not only of those[BZ] who teach that God is Himself free from troubling cares and that He imposes no trouble upon others, but also of those[CA] who believe that God is ever working and ever directing His world. Furthermore, suppose Jupiter had been wroth, what greater injury could He have inflicted upon Regulus than Regulus brought upon himself? Religious scruple, therefore, had no such preponderance as to outweigh so great expediency."

#(2) "Of two evils choose the less,"#

"Or was he afraid that his act would be morally wrong? As to that, first of all, the proverb says 'Of evils choose the least.' Did that moral wrong, then, really involve as great an evil as did that awful torture? And secondly, there are the lines of Accius:

_Thyestes._ 'Hast thou broke thy faith?' _Atreus._ 'None have I giv'n; none give I ever to the faithless.'

Although this sentiment is put into the mouth of a wicked king, still it is illuminating in its correctness."

#(3) oaths extorted by constraint not binding,#

*103* Their third argument is this: just as we maintain that some things seem expedient but are not, so they maintain, some things seem morally right but are not. "For example," they contend, "in this very case it seems morally right for Regulus to have returned to torture for the sake of being true to his oath. But it proves not to be morally right, because what an enemy extorted by force ought not to have been binding."

#(4) exceptional expediency makes right.#

As their concluding argument, they add: whatever is highly expedient may prove to be morally right, even if it did not seem so in advance.

These are in substance the arguments raised against the conduct of Regulus. Let us consider them each in turn.

[BZ] The Epicureans.

[CA] The Stoics.

*104* XXIX. "Non fuit Iuppiter metuendus ne iratus noceret, qui neque irasci solet nec nocere."

Haec quidem ratio non magis contra Reguli quam contra omne ius iurandum valet. Sed in iure iurando non qui metus, sed quae vis sit, debet intellegi; est enim ius iurandum affirmatio religiosa; quod autem affirmate quasi deo teste promiseris, id tenendum est. Iam enim non ad iram deorum, quae nulla est, sed ad iustitiam et ad fidem pertinet. Nam praeclare Ennius:

#(Thyestes?) _Fab. inc._, Vahlen^2, 403#

Ó Fides alma ápta pinnis ét ius iurandúm Iovis!

Qui ius igitur iurandum violat, is Fidem violat, quam in Capitolio "vicinam Iovis optimi maximi," #Unknown# ut in Catonis oratione est, maiores nostri esse voluerunt.

*105* At enim ne iratus quidem Iuppiter plus Regulo nocuisset, quam sibi nocuit ipse Regulus.

Certe, si nihil malum esset nisi dolere. Id autem non modo [non][361] summum malum, sed ne malum quidem esse maxima auctoritate philosophi affirmant. Quorum quidem testem non mediocrem, sed haud scio an gravissimum Regulum nolite, quaeso, vituperare. Quem enim locupletiorem quaerimus quam principem populi Romani, qui retinendi officii causa cruciatum subierit voluntarium?

Nam quod aiunt: "minima de malis," id est ut turpiter potius quam calamitose, an est ullum maius malum turpitudine? quae si in deformitate corporis habet[362] aliquid offensionis, quanta illa depravatio et foeditas turpificati animi debet videri! *106* Itaque nervosius qui ista disserunt, solum audent malum dicere id, quod turpe sit, qui autem remissius, ii tamen non dubitant summum malum dicere.

Nam illud quidem:

#Accius, Atreus; Ribbeck^2, 228#

Néque dedi neque do ínfideli cuíquam

idcirco recte a poëta, quia, cum tractaretur Atreus, personae serviendum fuit. Sed si hoc sibi sument, nullam esse fidem, quae infideli data sit, videant, ne quaeratur latebra periurio.

*107* Est autem ius etiam bellicum fidesque iuris iurandi saepe cum hoste servanda.[363] Quod enim ita iuratum est, ut mens conciperet fieri oportere, id servandum est; quod aliter, id si non fecerit, nullum est periurium. Ut, si praedonibus pactum pro capite pretium non attuleris, nulla fraus sit,[364] ne si iuratus quidem id non feceris; nam pirata non est ex perduellium numero definitus, sed communis hostis omnium; cum hoc nec fides debet nec ius iurandum esse commune. *108* Non enim falsum iurare periurare est, sed, quod EX ANIMI TUI SENTENTIA iuraris, sicut verbis concipitur more nostro, id non facere periurium est. Scite enim[365] Euripides:

#Hippolytus 612#

Iurávi lingua, méntem iniuratám gero.

Regulus vero non debuit condiciones pactionesque bellicas et hostiles perturbare periurio. Cum iusto enim et legitimo hoste res gerebatur, adversus quem et totum ius fetiale et multa sunt iura communia. Quod ni ita esset, numquam claros viros senatus vinctos[366] hostibus dedidisset.

[361] _non modo non_ B H a; _non modo nos_ c; _non modo_ L c p, Edd.

[362] _habet_ L c, Edd.; _habeat_ A B H a b.

[363] _Est ... servanda_ bracketed by Unger, Bt.^2, Ed.

[364] _sit_ Edd. plerique; _est_ MSS., Bt.^1

[365] _Scite enim_ A L c, Edd.; _scit enim_ B H a b.

[366] _vinctos_ A L c, Edd.; _victos_ B H a b.

#Rebuttal.#

*104* XXIX. "He need not have been afraid that Jupiter in anger would inflict injury upon him; he is not wont to be angry or hurtful."

#(1) An oath is a covenant with Justice and Good Faith;#

This argument, at all events, has no more weight against Regulus's conduct than it has against the keeping of any other oath. But in taking an oath it is our duty to consider not what one may have to fear in case of violation but wherein its obligation lies: an oath is an assurance backed by religious sanctity; and a solemn promise given, as before God as one's witness, is to be sacredly kept. For the question no longer concerns the wrath of the gods (for there is no such thing) but the obligations of justice and good faith. For, as Ennius says so admirably:

"Gracious Good Faith, on wings upborne; thou oath in Jupiter's great name!"

Whoever, therefore, violates his oath violates Good Faith; and, as we find it stated in Cato's speech, our forefathers chose that she should dwell upon the Capitol "neighbour to Jupiter Supreme and Best."

*105* "But," objection was further made, "even if Jupiter had been angry, he could not have inflicted greater injury upon Regulus than Regulus brought upon himself."

#What is evil?#

Quite true, if there is no evil except pain. But philosophers[CB] of the highest authority assure us that pain is not only not the supreme evil but no evil at all. And pray do not disparage Regulus, as no unimportant witness--nay, I am rather inclined to think he was the very best witness--to the truth of their doctrine. For what more competent witness do we ask for than one of the foremost citizens of Rome, who voluntarily faced torture for the sake of being true to his moral duty?

#(2) no evil can be greater than moral wrong;#

Again, they say "Of evils choose the least"--that is, shall one "choose moral wrong rather than misfortune," or is there any evil greater than moral wrong? For if physical deformity excites a certain amount of aversion, how offensive ought the deformity and hideousness of a demoralized soul to seem! *106* Therefore, those[CC] who discuss these problems with more rigour make bold to say that moral wrong is the only evil, while those[CD] who treat them with more laxity do not hesitate to call it the supreme evil.

Once more, they quote the sentiment:

"None have I given, none give I ever to the faithless."

It was proper for the poet to say that, because, when he was working out his Atreus, he had to make the words fit the character. But if they mean to adopt it as a principle, that a pledge given to the faithless is no pledge, let them look to it that it be not a mere loophole for perjury that they seek.

#What is perjury?#

*107* Furthermore, we have laws regulating warfare, and fidelity to an oath must often be observed in dealings with an enemy: for an oath sworn with the clear understanding in one's own mind that it should be performed must be kept; but if there is no such understanding, it does not count as perjury if one does not perform the vow. For example, suppose that one does not deliver the amount agreed upon with pirates as the price of one's life, that would be accounted no deception--not even if one should fail to deliver the ransom after having sworn to do so; for a pirate is not included in the number of lawful enemies, but is the common foe of all the world; and with him there ought not to be any pledged word nor any oath mutually binding. *108* For swearing to what is false is not necessarily perjury, but to take an oath "upon your conscience," as it is expressed in our legal formulas, and then fail to perform it, that is perjury. For Euripides aptly says:

"My tongue has sworn; the mind I have has sworn no oath."

#Oaths made to an enemy as binding as treaties.#

But Regulus had no right to confound by perjury the terms and covenants of war made with an enemy. For the war was being carried on with a legitimate, declared enemy; and to regulate our dealings with such an enemy, we have our whole fetial[CE] code as well as many other laws that are binding in common between nations. Were this not the case, the senate would never have delivered up illustrious men of ours in chains to the enemy.

[CB] The Stoics.

[CC] The Stoics.

[CD] The Peripatetics.

[CE] See Index, s.v.

*109* XXX. At vero T. Veturius et Sp. Postumius cum iterum consules essent, quia, cum male pugnatum apud Caudium esset, legionibus nostris sub iugum missis pacem cum Samnitibus fecerant, dediti sunt iis; iniussu enim populi senatusque fecerant. Eodemque tempore Ti. Numicius, Q. Maelius, qui tum tribuni pl. erant, quod eorum auctoritate pax erat facta, dediti sunt, ut pax Samnitium repudiaretur; atque huius deditionis ipse Postumius, qui dedebatur, suasor et auctor fuit.

Quod idem multis annis post C. Mancinus, qui, ut Numantinis, quibuscum sine senatus auctoritate foedus fecerat, dederetur, rogationem suasit eam, quam L. Furius, Sex. Atilius ex senatus consulto ferebant; qua accepta est hostibus deditus. Honestius his quam Q. Pompeius, quo, cum in eadem causa esset, deprecante accepta lex non est. Hic ea, quae videbatur utilitas, plus valuit quam honestas, apud superiores utilitatis species falsa ab honestatis auctoritate superata est.

#§ 103#

*110* At non debuit ratum esse, quod erat actum per vim.--Quasi vero forti viro vis possit adhiberi.

Cur igitur ad senatum proficiscebatur, cum praesertim de captivis dissuasurus esset?

Quod maximum in eo est, id reprehenditis. Non enim suo iudicio stetit, sed suscepit causam, ut esset iudicium senatus; cui nisi ipse auctor fuisset, captivi profecto Poenis redditi essent; ita incolumis in patria Regulus restitisset. Quod quia patriae non utile putavit, idcirco sibi honestum et sentire illa et pati credidit.

#§ 103#

Nam quod aiunt, quod valde utile sit, id fieri honestum, immo vero esse, non fieri. Est enim nihil utile, quod idem non honestum, nec, quia utile, honestum, sed, quia honestum, utile.

Quare ex multis mirabilibus exemplis haud facile quis dixerit hoc exemplo aut laudabilius aut praestantius.

#Roman strictness.#

*109* XXX. And yet that very thing happened. Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius in their second consulship lost the battle at the Caudine Forks, and our legions were sent under the yoke. And because they made peace with the Samnites, those generals were delivered up to them, for they had made the peace without the approval of the people and senate. And Tiberius Numicius and Quintus Maelius, tribunes of the people, were delivered up at the same time, because it was with their sanction that the peace had been concluded. This was done in order that the peace with the Samnites might be annulled. And Postumius, the very man whose delivery was in question, was the proposer and advocate of the said delivery.

Many years later,[CF] Gaius Mancinus had a similar experience: he advocated the bill, introduced in accordance with a decree of the senate by Lucius Furius and Sextus Atilius, that he should be delivered up to the Numantines, with whom he had made a treaty without authorization from the senate; and when the bill was passed, he was delivered up to the enemy. His action was more honourable than Quintus Pompey's; Pompey's situation was identical with his, and yet at his own entreaty the bill was rejected. In this latter case, apparent expediency prevailed over moral rectitude; in the former cases, the false semblance of expediency was overbalanced by the weight of moral rectitude.

#(3) the interests of the state higher than personal advantage;#

*110* "But," they argued against Regulus, "an oath extorted by force ought not to have been binding." As if force could be brought to bear upon a brave man!

"Why, then, did he make the journey to the senate, especially when he intended to plead against the surrender of the prisoners of war?"

Therein you are criticizing what is the noblest feature of his conduct. For he was not content to stand upon his own judgment but took up the case, in order that the judgment might be that of the senate; and had it not been for the weight of his pleading, the prisoners would certainly have been restored to the Carthaginians; and in that case, Regulus would have remained safe at home in his country. But because he thought this not expedient for his country, he believed that it was therefore morally right for him to declare his conviction and to suffer for it.

#(4) nothing expedient unless morally right.#

When they argued also that what is highly expedient may prove to be morally right, they ought rather to say not that it "may prove to be" but that it actually is morally right. For nothing can be expedient which is not at the same time morally right; neither can a thing be morally right just because it is expedient, but it is expedient because it is morally right.

From the many splendid examples in history, therefore, we could not easily point to one either more praiseworthy or more heroic than the conduct of Regulus.

[CF] 184 years, i.e., in B.C. 137.

*111* XXXI. Sed ex tota hac laude Reguli unum illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit. Nam quod rediit, nobis nunc mirabile videtur, illis quidem temporibus aliter facere non potuit; itaque ista laus non est hominis, sed temporum. Nullum enim vinculum ad astringendam fidem iure iurando maiores artius esse voluerunt. Id indicant leges in duodecim tabulis, indicant sacratae, indicant foedera, quibus etiam cum hoste devincitur fides, indicant notiones animadversionesque censorum, qui nulla de re diligentius quam de iure iurando iudicabant.

*112* L. Manlio A. f., cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius tr. pl. diem dixit, quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictaturam gerendam addidisset; criminabatur etiam, quod Titum filium, qui postea est Torquatus appellatus, ab hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare iussisset. Quod cum audivisset adulescens filius, negotium exhiberi patri, accurrisse Romam et cum primo luci[367] Pomponi domum venisse dicitur. Cui cum esset nuntiatum, qui illum iratum allaturum ad se aliquid contra patrem arbitraretur, surrexit e lectulo remotisque arbitris ad se adulescentem iussit venire. At ille, ut ingressus est, confestim gladium destrinxit iuravitque se illum statim interfecturum, nisi ius iurandum sibi dedisset se patrem missum esse facturum. Iuravit hoc terrore coactus Pomponius; rem ad populum detulit, docuit, cur sibi causa desistere necesse esset, Manlium missum fecit. Tantum temporibus illis ius iurandum valebat.

Atque hic T. Manlius is est, qui ad Anienem Galli, quem ab eo provocatus occiderat, torque detracto cognomen invenit, cuius tertio consulatu Latini ad Veserim fusi et fugati, magnus vir in primis et, qui perindulgens in patrem, idem acerbe severus in filium.

[367] _primo luci_ Beier, Heine, Ed.; _primo lucis_ c; _prima luce_ A B H a b.

#The most striking lesson in the story of Regulus.#

*111* XXXI. But of all that is thus praiseworthy in the conduct of Regulus, this one feature above all others calls for our admiration: it was he who offered the motion that the prisoners of war be retained. For the fact of his returning may seem admirable to us nowadays, but in those times he could not have done otherwise. That merit, therefore, belongs to the age, not to the man. For our ancestors were of the opinion that no bond was more effective in guaranteeing good faith than an oath. That is clearly proved by the laws of the Twelve Tables, by the "sacred" laws,[CG] by the treaties in which good faith is pledged even to the enemy, by the investigations made by the censors and the penalties imposed by them; for there were no cases in which they used to render more rigorous decisions than in cases of violation of an oath.

#The sanctity of an oath in the old days.#

*112* Marcus Pomponius, a tribune of the people, brought an indictment against Lucius Manlius, Aulus's son, for having extended the term of his dictatorship a few days beyond its expiration. He further charged him with having banished his own son Titus (afterward surnamed Torquatus) from all companionship with his fellow-men, and with requiring him to live in the country. When the son, who was then a young man, heard that his father was in trouble on his account, he hastened to Rome--so the story goes--and at daybreak presented himself at the house of Pomponius. The visitor was announced to Pomponius. Inasmuch as he thought that the son in his anger meant to bring him some new evidence to use against the father, he arose from his bed, asked all who were present to leave the room, and sent word to the young man to come in. Upon entering, he at once drew a sword and swore that he would kill the tribune on the spot, if he did not swear an oath to withdraw the suit against his father. Constrained by the terror of the situation, Pomponius gave his oath. He reported the matter to the people, explaining why he was obliged to drop the prosecution, and withdrew his suit against Manlius. Such was the regard for the sanctity of an oath in those days.

And that lad was the Titus Manlius who in the battle on the Anio killed the Gaul by whom he had been challenged to single combat, pulled off his torque and thus won his surname. And in his third consulship he routed the Latins and put them to flight in the battle on the Veseris. He was one of the greatest of the great, and one who, while more than generous toward his father, could yet be bitterly severe toward his son.

[CG] "Sacred" laws, according to Festus (p. 318), were laws that placed their transgressor, together with his household and his property, under the ban of some divinity; other authorities limit the term to the laws enacted upon the Sacred Mount (B.C. 394).

*113* XXXII. Sed, ut laudandus Regulus in conservando iure iurando, sic decem illi, quos post Cannensem pugnam iuratos ad senatum misit Hannibal se in castra redituros ea, quorum erant potiti Poeni, nisi de redimendis captivis impetravissent, si non redierunt, vituperandi. De quibus non omnes uno modo; nam Polybius, bonus auctor in primis, ex decem nobilissimis, qui tum erant missi, novem revertisse dicit re a senatu non impetrata; unum ex decem, qui paulo post, quam erat[368] egressus e castris, redisset, quasi aliquid esset oblitus, Romae remansisse; reditu enim in castra liberatum se esse iure iurando interpretabatur, non recte; fraus enim astringit,[369] non dissolvit periurium. Fuit igitur stulta calliditas perverse imitata prudentiam. Itaque decrevit senatus, ut ille veterator et callidus vinctus ad Hannibalem duceretur.

*114*[370] Sed illud maximum: octo hominum milia tenebat Hannibal, non quos in acie cepisset, aut qui periculo mortis diffugissent, sed qui relicti in castris fuissent a Paulo et a Varrone consulibus. Eos senatus non censuit redimendos, cum id parva pecunia fieri posset, ut esset insitum militibus nostris aut vincere aut emori. Qua quidem re audita fractum animum Hannibalis scribit idem, quod senatus populusque Romanus rebus afflictis tam excelso animo fuisset. Sic honestatis comparatione ea, quae videntur utilia, vincuntur.

*115* _C._[371] Acilius autem, qui Graece scripsit historiam, plures ait fuisse, qui in castra revertissent eadem fraude, ut iure iurando liberarentur, eosque a censoribus omnibus ignominiis notatos.

Sit iam huius loci finis. Perspicuum est enim ea, quae timido animo, humili, demisso fractoque fiant, quale fuisset Reguli factum, si aut de captivis, quod ipsi opus esse videretur, non quod rei publicae, censuisset aut domi remanere voluisset, non esse utilia, quia sint flagitiosa, foeda, turpia.

[368] _Novem ... quam erat_ c, Bt.^1, Ed.; om. A B H a b; _unum qui_ Unger, Bt.^2

[369] _astringit_ c p, Ed., Heine; _distringit_ A B H a b, Unger, Bt.

[370] § 114 bracketed by Heus., Bt., as un-Ciceronian.

[371] _C._ Heine, Ed.; not in MSS.

#Contrast between Regulus and the ten envoys from Hannibal.#

*113* XXXII. Now, as Regulus deserves praise for being true to his oath, so those ten whom Hannibal sent to the senate on parole after the battle of Cannae deserve censure, if it is true that they did not return; for they were sworn to return to the camp which had fallen into the hands of the Carthaginians, if they did not succeed in negotiating an exchange of prisoners. Historians are not in agreement in regard to the facts. Polybius, one of the very best authorities, states that of the ten eminent nobles who were sent at that time, nine returned when their mission failed at the hands of the senate. But one of the ten, who, a little while after leaving the camp, had gone back on the pretext that he had forgotten something or other, remained behind at Rome; he explained that by his return to the camp he was released from the obligation of his oath. He was wrong; for deceit does not remove the guilt of perjury--it merely aggravates it. #The ancient Roman discipline.# His cunning that impudently tried to masquerade as prudence was, therefore, only folly. And so the senate ordered that the cunning scoundrel should be taken back to Hannibal in chains.

*114* But the most significant part of the story is this: the eight thousand prisoners in Hannibal's hands were not men that he had taken in the battle or that had escaped in the peril of their lives, but men that the consuls Paulus and Varro had left behind in camp. Though these might have been ransomed by a small sum of money, the senate voted not to redeem them, in order that our soldiers might have the lesson planted in their hearts that they must either conquer or die. When Hannibal heard this news, according to that same writer, he lost heart completely, because the senate and the people of Rome displayed courage so lofty in a time of disaster. Thus apparent expediency is outweighed when placed in the balance against moral rectitude.

*115* Gaius Acilius, on the other hand, the author of a history of Rome in Greek, says that there were several who played the same trick of returning to the camp to release themselves thus from the obligation of their oath, and that they were branded by the censors with every mark of disgrace.

#Expediency and Courage identical.#

Let this be the conclusion of this topic. For it must be perfectly apparent that acts that are done with a cowardly, craven, abject, broken spirit, as the act of Regulus would have been if he had supported in regard to the prisoners a measure that seemed to be advantageous for him personally, but disadvantageous for the state, or if he had consented to remain at home--that such acts are not expedient because they are shameful, dishonourable, and immoral.

*116* XXXIII. Restat quarta pars, quae decore, moderatione, modestia, continentia, temperantia continetur.

Potest igitur quicquam utile esse, quod sit huic talium virtutum choro contrarium? Atqui ab Aristippo Cyrenaici atque Annicerii philosophi nominati omne bonum in voluptate posuerunt virtutemque censuerunt ob eam rem esse laudandam, quod efficiens esset voluptatis. Quibus obsoletis floret Epicurus, eiusdem fere adiutor auctorque sententiae. Cum his "viris[372] equisque," ut dicitur, si honestatem tueri ac retinere sententia est, decertandum est.

*117* Nam si non modo utilitas, sed vita omnis beata corporis firma constitutione eiusque constitutionis spe explorata, ut a Metrodoro scriptum est, continetur, certe haec utilitas, et quidem summa (sic enim censent), cum honestate pugnabit. Nam ubi primum prudentiae locus dabitur? an ut conquirat undique suavitates? Quam miser virtutis famulatus servientis voluptati! Quod autem munus prudentiae? an legere intellegenter voluptates? Fac nihil isto esse iucundius, quid cogitari potest turpius?

Iam, qui dolorem summum malum dicat, apud eum quem habet locum fortitudo, quae est dolorum laborumque contemptio? Quamvis enim multis locis dicat Epicurus, sicuti[373] dicit, satis fortiter de dolore, tamen non id spectandum est, quid dicat, sed quid consentaneum sit ei dicere, qui bona voluptate terminaverit, mala dolore.

Et,[374] si illum audiam, de continentia et temperantia dicit ille quidem multa multis locis, sed aqua haeret, ut aiunt; nam qui potest temperantiam laudare is, qui ponat summum bonum in voluptate? est enim temperantia libidinum inimica, libidines autem consectatrices voluptatis.

*118* Atque in his tamen tribus generibus, quoquo modo possunt, non incallide tergiversantur; prudentiam introducunt scientiam suppeditantem voluptates, depellentem dolores; fortitudinem quoque aliquo modo expediunt, cum tradunt rationem neglegendae mortis, perpetiendi doloris; etiam temperantiam inducunt non facillime illi quidem, sed tamen quoquo modo possunt; dicunt enim voluptatis magnitudinem doloris detractione finiri. Iustitia vacillat vel iacet potius omnesque eae virtutes, quae in communitate cernuntur et in societate generis humani. Neque enim bonitas nec liberalitas nec comitas esse potest, non plus quam amicitia, si haec non per se expetantur,[375] sed ad voluptatem utilitatemve referantur.

Conferamus igitur in pauca.

*119* Nam ut utilitatem nullam esse docuimus, quae honestati esset contraria, sic omnem voluptatem dicimus honestati esse contrariam. Quo magis reprehendendos Calliphontem et Dinomachum iudico, qui se dirempturos controversiam putaverunt, si cum honestate voluptatem tamquam cum homine pecudem copulavissent. Non recipit istam coniunctionem honestas, aspernatur, repellit. Nec vero finis bonorum [et malorum],[376] qui simplex esse debet, ex dissimillimis rebus misceri et temperari potest. #De Finibus, II# Sed de hoc (magna enim res est) alio loco pluribus; nunc ad propositum.

*120* Quem ad modum igitur, si quando ea, quae videtur[377] utilitas, honestati repugnat, diiudicanda res sit, satis est supra disputatum. Sin autem speciem utilitatis etiam voluptas habere dicetur, nulla potest esse ei cum honestate coniunctio. Nam, ut tribuamus aliquid voluptati, condimenti fortasse non nihil, utilitatis certe nihil habebit.

*121* Habes a patre munus, Marce fili, mea quidem sententia magnum, sed perinde erit, ut acceperis. Quamquam hi tibi tres libri inter Cratippi commentarios tamquam hospites erunt recipiendi; sed, ut, si ipse venissem Athenas (quod quidem esset factum, nisi me e medio cursu clara voce patria revocasset), aliquando me quoque audires, sic, quoniam his voluminibus ad te profecta vox est mea, tribues iis[378] temporis quantum poteris, poteris autem, quantum voles. Cum vero intellexero te hoc scientiae genere gaudere, tum et praesens tecum propediem, ut spero, et, dum aberis, absens loquar.

Vale igitur, mi Cicero, tibique persuade esse te quidem mihi carissimum, sed multo fore cariorem, si talibus monitis[379] praeceptisque laetabere.

[372] _viris_ c p, Edd.; _veris_ A B H b.

[373] _sicuti_ L c, Edd.; _sicut id_ A B H a b.

[374] _dolore. Et_ Müller, Heine; _dolore: ut_ MSS., Bt.; _dolore. Ut_ Ed.

[375] _expetantur_ A, Edd.; _expectantur_ B a; _exspectantur_ c.

[376] Omitted by Muretus; bracketed by Heine, Ed., et al.

[377] _videtur_ c, Edd.; _videretur_ B H a b; _viderentur_ A.

[378] _iis_ Edd.; _his_ A B H a b; _hijs_ c.

[379] _monitis_ Lambinus, Edd.; _monumentis_ A B H a b; _monimentis_ c.

#Apparent Expediency _vs._ Temperance.#

*116* XXXIII. We have still left our fourth division, comprising propriety, moderation, temperance, self-restraint, self-control.

Can anything be expedient, then, which is contrary to such a chorus of virtues? And yet the Cyrenaics, adherents of the school of Aristippus, and the philosophers who bear the name of Anniceris find all good to consist in pleasure and consider virtue praiseworthy only because it is productive of pleasure. Now that these schools are out of date, Epicurus has come into vogue--an advocate and supporter of practically the same doctrine. Against such a philosophy we must fight it out "with horse and foot," as the saying is, if our purpose is to defend and maintain our standard of moral rectitude.

#The fallacy of Epicureanism.#

*117* For if, as we find it in the writings of Metrodorus, not only expediency but happiness in life depends wholly upon a sound physical constitution and the reasonable expectation that it will always remain sound, then that expediency--and what is more, the highest expediency, as they estimate it--will assuredly clash with moral rectitude. For, first of all, what position will wisdom occupy in that system? The position of collector of pleasures from every possible source? What a sorry state of servitude for a virtue--to be pandering to sensual pleasure! And what will be the function of wisdom? To make skilful choice between sensual pleasures? Granted that there may be nothing more pleasant, what can be conceived more degrading for wisdom than such a rôle?

Then again, if anyone hold that pain is the supreme evil, what place in his philosophy has fortitude, which is but indifference to toil and pain? For however many passages there are in which Epicurus speaks right manfully of pain, we must nevertheless consider not what he says, but what it is consistent for a man to say who has defined the good in terms of pleasure and evil in terms of pain.

And further, if I should listen to him, I should find that in many passages he has a great deal to say about temperance and self-control; but "the water will not run," as they say. For how can he commend self-control and yet posit pleasure as the supreme good? For self-control is the foe of the passions, and the passions are the handmaids of pleasure.

#Epicureanism and the Cardinal Virtues.#

*118* And yet when it comes to these three cardinal virtues, those philosophers shift and turn as best they can, and not without cleverness. They admit wisdom into their system as the knowledge that provides pleasures and banishes pain; they clear the way for fortitude also in some way to fit in with their doctrines, when they teach that it is a rational means for looking with indifference upon death and for enduring pain. They bring even temperance in--not very easily, to be sure, but still as best they can; for they hold that the height of pleasure is found in the absence of pain. Justice totters or rather, I should say, lies already prostrate; so also with all those virtues which are discernible in social life and the fellowship of human society. For neither goodness nor generosity nor courtesy can exist, any more than friendship can, if they are not sought of and for themselves, but are cultivated only for the sake of sensual pleasure or personal advantage.

Let us now recapitulate briefly.

#Sensual pleasure and moral rectitude incompatible.#

*119* As I have shown that such expediency as is opposed to moral rectitude is no expediency, so I maintain that any and all sensual pleasure is opposed to moral rectitude. And therefore Calliphon and Dinomachus, in my judgment, deserve the greater condemnation; they imagined that they should settle the controversy by coupling pleasure with moral rectitude; as well yoke a man with a beast! But moral rectitude does not accept such a union; she abhors it, spurns it. Why, the supreme good, which ought to be simple, cannot be a compound and mixture of absolutely contradictory qualities. But this theory I have discussed more fully in another connection; for the subject is a large one. Now for the matter before us.

*120* We have, then, fully discussed the problem how a question is to be decided, if ever that which seems to be expediency clashes with moral rectitude. But if, on the other hand, the assertion is made that pleasure admits of a show of expediency also, there can still be no possible union between it and moral rectitude. For, to make the most generous admission we can in favour of pleasure, we will grant that it may contribute something that possibly gives some spice to life, but certainly nothing that is really expedient.

#Conclusion.#

*121* Herewith, my son Marcus, you have a present from your father--a generous one, in my humble opinion; but its value will depend upon the spirit in which you receive it. And yet you must welcome these three books as fellow-guests, so to speak, along with your notes on Cratippus's lectures. But as you would sometimes give ear to me also, if I had come to Athens (and I should be there now, if my country had not called me back with accents unmistakable, when I was half-way there), so you will please devote as much time as you can to these volumes, for in them my voice will travel to you; and you can devote to them as much time as you will. And when I see that you take delight in this branch of philosophy, I shall then talk further with you--at an early date,[CH] I hope, face to face--but as long as you are abroad, I shall converse with you thus at a distance.

Farewell, my dear Cicero, and be assured that, while you are the object of my deepest affection, you will be dearer to me still, if you find pleasure in such counsel and instruction.

[CH] But Cicero never saw his son Marcus again.

INDEX

References are to Book and Section; all dates, given in parentheses (...), are B.C.

Academicians. 1. adherents of the New Academy (_q.v._); their right to teach ethics, I, 6; attitude toward knowledge, II, 7; Cicero's philosophy, II, 1-8. 2. adherents of the Old Academy, III, 20.

Academy, 1. the Older, a school of philosophy founded by Plato and so called from its home; their doctrine of ideas, III, 76, 81; the pre-existence and immortality of the soul; monotheism; the goodness of God; striving after His perfection. 2. the New, a modification of the Old, sceptical, anti-dogmatic, eclectic, III, 20.

Accius, Lucius, a tragic poet (born 170). His tragedies were mostly imitations from the Greek. Cicero knew him personally; quotes from him, III, 84, 102, 106.

Acilius; Gaius Acilius Glabrio (tribune, 197); interpreter, when Carneades, Diogenes, and Critolaus came to Rome; author of History of Rome, III, 115.

Admiration, how won with dignity, II, 31 fg.

Aeacidae, descendants of Aeacus (_q.v._), the father of Peleus and Telamon and grandfather of Achilles and Ajax, I, 38.

Aeacus, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and king of Aegina (_q.v._); renowned for his justice and piety, I, 97; after his death he became with Minos and Rhadamanthus judge in Hades.

Aedileship, cost of, II, 57-60.

Aegina, an island in the Saronic Gulf, a dangerous rival to Athens, directly in front of Piraeus and only twelve miles away, III, 46; unjustly appropriated by Athens (429), III, 46.

Aeginetans, the people of Aegina (_q.v._).

Aelius; _see_ Tubero.

Aemilius; _see_ Paulus and Scaurus.

Aequians, a warlike mountain tribe on the upper Anio, warring against Rome (till 304), I, 35.

Aesopus, Claudius, an intimate friend of Cicero, Rome's greatest tragic actor, I, 114.

Africa, the province in which Carthage was, I, 112 (Thapsus); III, 99 (Carthage).

Africanus; _see_ Scipio.

Agamemnon, leader of the war against Troy; when detained at Aulis he sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia to save the expedition, III, 95. For this he was slain on his return from Troy by his wife Clytaemnestra.

Agesilaus, king of Sparta (398-360); waged war in Asia (396-394), victor at Coronea, saviour of Sparta after Mantinea (362); II, 16.

Agis IV, king of Sparta (244-240); attempted to re-establish the institutions of Lycurgus and reform property abuses; put to death through organized wealth, II, 80.

Agrarian Laws, a menace to the stability of the government, II, 78-83.

Agriculture, impossible without man, II, 12; man's noblest calling, I, 151.

Agrigentum, a city on the south coast of Sicily, once "the most beautiful city of mortals," ruled by Phalaris (560), II, 26.

Ajax, son of Telamon; could brook no wrong, went mad, and committed suicide when the arms of Achilles were awarded to Odysseus, I, 113; rebuked Odysseus, III, 98. Subject of a tragedy by Ennius, I, 114.

Albucius, Titus, an Epicurean; praetor in Sardinia (105); prosecuted for extortion, II, 50.

Alexander, the Great (356-323), son of Philip of Macedon, II, 16, 48; greater than his father in achievement, inferior in courtliness, I, 90; governor of Macedonia (340), II, 53; conquered Greece (338-335), subdued Asia (334-331), Egypt (331), invaded India (329-327), founded Alexandria and other cities, and died of a drunken debauch (I, 90).

Alexander, tyrant of Pherae (369); brother, son-in-law, and successor of Jason (_q.v._), defeated and slew Pelopidas of Thebes at Cynocephalae (364); murdered by his wife and her three brothers, II, 25, 26.

Alexandria, the metropolis of Egypt at the mouth of the Nile; founded by Alexander (332); centre of wealth (II, 82); grain market, III, 50.

Alps, the mountains between Italy and further Gaul, II, 28.

Ambition, a cause of injustice, I, 25-26, 46, 65; of moral wrong, III, 82; of treason, III, 82-83; the foe of freedom, I, 68; II, 28.

Amusements, wholesome, I, 103-104.

Anger, never excusable, I, 89.

Anio, the Sabine river, tributary to the Tiber; the battle on (340), which gave Rome supremacy over all Latium, III, 112.

Anniceris, of Cyrene (4th century), a successor of Aristippus; his school a cross between the Epicurean and the Cyrenaic: he denied that pleasure was merely absence of pain; he held that every act had its own distinct purpose and that the virtues are good in themselves; his teachings were not permanent, III, 116.

Antigonus, one of Alexander's generals, governor of Asia (323-301), king of Asia (306-301); father of Demetrius Poliorcetes and Philip, II, 48.

Antiope, mother of Amphion and Zethus, by whom she was saved from the persecutions of her former husband Lycus and his wife Dirce; her vengeance on Dirce drove her mad; subject of a tragedy of Pacuvius, I, 114.

Antipater, vice-regent of Macedon (334); father of Cassander, II, 48.

Antipater, of Tarsus (2nd century), pupil and successor of Diogenes of Babylonia; teacher of Panaetius; his ethical teachings, III, 51-55, 91.

Antipater, of Tyre (1st century), friend of Cato the younger; a Stoic, II, 86.

Antonius, Marcus, the famous orator (143-87), II, 49; advocate, III, 67; father of Cicero's colleague and grandfather of the triumvir.

Apelles, of Cos (4th century), the greatest painter of his age; court painter to Alexander the Great; his masterpiece was a Venus rising from the sea; another Venus left unfinished, III, 10.

Apollo, god of the light of day; giver of oracles at Pytho, II, 77.

Appetite, subject to Reason, I, 101-103, 132, 141.

Appius Claudius Pulcher, father of Gaius, II, 57.

Aquilius; Gaius Aquilius Gallus, famous jurist; Cicero's colleague in the praetorship; author of formulae on criminal fraud, III, 60-61.

Aquilius, Manius, consul (101) with Marius; victorious in the Servile War in Sicily; prosecuted (98) but acquitted, II, 50.

Aratus, of Sicyon, soldier and statesman (271-213), removed the tyrant Nicocles (251) and averted financial ruin, II, 81, 82; leader of the Achaean League; poisoned by order of Philip of Macedon.

Areopagites, members of the Council of Areopagus.

Areopagus, "Mars Hill," a spur of the Acropolis, seat of the highest court of Athens; the court itself, with powers of senate and supreme court, reorganized and enlarged in function by Solon, I, 75.

Arginusae, a group of islands off the coast of Asia Minor, near Lesbos, scene of the victory of the Athenian fleet (406), I, 84.

Argos, the chief city of Argolis, II, 81.

Aristides, "the Just," III, [16], 49, 87; fought at Marathon (490), Salamis (480), and commanded the Athenians at Plataea (479); exiled (483) because his policies clashed with those of Themistocles.

Aristippus, of Cyrene (flourished 370), founder of the Cyrenaic school, III, 116; disciple of Socrates, but taught that the chief end of man was to get enjoyment from everything (hedonism), to subject all things and circumstances to himself for pleasure; but pleasure must be the slave not the master; good and bad identical with pleasure and pain; I, 148.

Aristo, of Chios (3rd century), a Stoic philosopher, pupil of Zeno; he taught indifference to externals, nothing good but virtue, nothing evil but vice; his theories rejected, I, 6.

Aristotle (385-322), disciple of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great; founder of the Peripatetic school; greatest of philosophers, master of all knowledge--physics, metaphysics, natural philosophy, ethics, politics, poetics, sociology, logic, rhetoric, etc.; II, 56; III, 35; might have been a great orator, I, 4.

Arpinates, the people of Arpinum, owners of public lands, I, 21.

Arpinum, a town in Latium, birthplace of Cicero and Gaius Marius, I, 21.

Athenians, the people of Athens, I, 75, 84; their cruel subjugation of Aegina, III, 46; left their homes to fight at Salamis, III, 48; political strife, I, 86; high moral principles of, III, 49, 55.

Athens, II, 64, 86; III, 55, 87; the intellectual and artistic centre of the world; led Greece in the Persian wars (490-479); humbled by Sparta (404); the university city of the Roman world, I, 1; III, 6, 121.

Atilius; _see_ Regulus.

Atilius; Sextus Atilius Serranus, consul (136), III, 109.

Atreus, son of Pelops and father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, murderer of his half-brother Chrysippus and of his brother Thyestes's children; murdered by his nephew Aegisthus; a fruitful theme for tragedy, I, 97; III, 106.

Attic, belonging to Attica, the province in which Athens is situated; Attic comedy, the comedy of Aristophanes, Eupolis, Menander, etc., I, 104.

Avarice, the great temptation, II, 38, 77; the root of evil, III, 73-75; due to delusion as to expediency, III, 36; avoided by the statesman, II, 76-77; contrary to all law, III, 21-23; _see also_ Covetousness.

Babylonia, the district around Babylon at the head of the Persian Gulf, III, 51.

Bardulis, king of Illyria, conquered a large part of Macedonia from Perdiccas, the brother and predecessor of Philip; defeated and slain by Philip (358); called a "brigand," because his career did not tend to promote civilization, II, 40.

Basilus, Lucius Minucius, otherwise unknown; perhaps Sulla's lieutenant, III, 73-74.

Beauty, physical, I, 98, 126; types of, I, 130.

Beneficence; _see_ Generosity.

Bribery, in Rome, II, 21-22, 75.

Brutus, Lucius Junius, led the Romans to expel the Tarquins; helped by Collatinus, who shared with him the first consulship (509), III, 40.

Brutus, Marcus Junius, an eminent jurist, one of the three founders of the civil law; father of "the Accuser," II, 50.

Brutus; Marcus Junius Brutus Accusator, orator and vigorous prosecutor, son of the preceding, II, 50.

Caelian Hill, the south-east hill of Rome, III, 66.

Caesar, Gaius Julius, son of Lucius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus, candidate for the consulship (88), slain by Marius (87); poet and orator, I, 108, 133.

Caesar, Gaius Julius (100-44), consul (59), in Gaul (58-50), conquered Pompey at Pharsalus (48), dictator (48-44), assassinated (44); orator, statesman, scholar, soldier; despot, II, 2; tyrant, I, 112; II, 23-28, 83; confiscator, I, 43; II, 84; enslaver of Rome, III, 85; treatment of Marseilles, II, 28; a victim of depraved ambition, I, 26; III, 83; a conspirator with Catiline, his love of wrong, II, 84; deserved his death, III, 19, 32, 82.

Caesar, Lucius Julius, father of the Dictator, I, 108.

Callicratidas, succeeded Lysander as admiral of the Spartan fleet, I, 109; defeated Conon, took Lesbos, lost the battle and his life at Arginusae (406), I, 84.

Calliphon, a Greek philosopher, probably a disciple of Epicurus, taught that the supreme good was a union between moral rectitude and pleasure, III, 119.

Calpurnius; Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi; _see_ Piso.

Calpurnius; Publius Calpurnius Lanarius; _see_ Lanarius.

Calypso, the nymph of Ogygia, who kept Odysseus (Ulysses) with her seven years, I, 113.

Campus (Martius), the open plain next to the Tiber outside the north wall of Rome; playground and drillground, I, 104.

Canius, Gaius, a Roman knight, III, 58-60.

Cannae, a town on the Aufidus in Apulia, scene of Hannibal's overwhelming defeat of the Romans (216), I, 40; III, 47, 113.

Capitolium, the Capitoline Hill, between the forum and the Tiber, the citadel of Rome, with the temple of Jupiter and Good Faith, III, 104; place of augury, III, 66.

Carthage, once a mighty city, on the north central coast of Africa, III, 99, 100; the most formidable commercial and military rival of Rome; conquered by Rome in the First Punic War (264-241), I, 39; Second Punic War (219-202), I, 40; III, 47; destroyed in the Third (149-146), I, 35; II, 76.

Carthaginians, the people of Carthage, I, 39, 108; III, 99, 110, 113; treacherous, III, 102; cruel, III, 100, 102; treaty-breaking, I, 38.

Cassander, son of Antipater, disinherited by his father, gained the throne of Macedonia (306) by wars and murders (319-301), II, 48.

Cato, Marcus Porcius, the Censor (or Major, the Elder, I, 37) (234-149), author, I, 104; III, 1; orator, III, 104; soldier, served in Second Punic War (217-202); statesman, responsible for the destruction of Carthage (146), I, 79; "the Wise," III, 16; consul (195); censor (184); stalwart champion of the simple life and stern morals, II, 89; bitterly opposed luxury and Greek culture; yielded in old age.

Cato, Marcus Porcius, son of the preceding; jurist; served under Paulus in Macedon (168), I, 37; [under Marcus Popilius Laenas in Liguria (172), I, 36].

Cato, Marcus Porcius, grandson of the Censor and father of Cato Uticensis, III, 66.

Cato; Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (95-46), son of the preceding and great-grandson of the Censor; a Stoic philosopher; orator; soldier, I, 112; defeated at Thapsus (46); judge, III, 66; stern and unyielding as his great-grandfather, I, 112; III, 88; his suicide, I, 112; close friend of Cicero (II, 2); III, 88.

Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, half-brother of Julius Caesar Strabo, I, 133; orator; scholar, I, 133; author; soldier; consul with Marius (102) in the war against the Cimbri (101); gentleman, I, 109; committed suicide to escape the proscriptions of Marius (87).

Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, son of the preceding, defeated Lepidus at the Milvian bridge; statesman, I, 76; scholar, I, 133.

Caudium, a little town in the mountains of Samnium; near it are the Caudine Forks, the scene of the disastrous battle (321); III, 109; (II, 79).

Celtiberians, a powerful people of central Spain, opposed Rome in Second Punic War, were reduced in the Numantian War (134), submitted on the death of Sertorius (72), I, 38.

Centumalus, Tiberius Claudius; unknown, III, 66.

Chicanery, I, 33.

Chremes, a character in Terence's _Heauton Timorumenus_, I, 30.

Chrysippus, of Soli (250-207), studied Stoic philosophy at Athens under Cleanthes, whom he succeeded; voluminous writer. "Had there been no Chrysippus, there had been no Stoa," III, 42.

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, the orator's father, III, 77; died (64).

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, the orator (106-43), born at Arpinum, educated at Rome under Archias, the Scaevolas, and the teachers of philosophy (_see_ Introduction), at Athens, in Asia, and at Rhodes; his training was all for service, I, 155; as consul (63) he crushed the conspiracy of Catiline, I, 84; banished (58), II, 58; his enforced retirement from his profession, III, 2-4; as a philosopher and orator, I, 1-3; follower of Socrates and Plato, I, 2; of the New Academy, II, 7-8; why he wrote on philosophy, II, 2-8; III, 1-5; attitude on the downfall of the Republic, II, 2.

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, the orator's only son, I, 1, 15, 78; II, 1-8, 44; III, 1, 5, 33; born in 65; served with credit under Pompey, II, 45, and Sextus Pompey; a student of Peripatetic philosophy under Cratippus in Athens (44-43), I, 1; admonished to read also his father's works, I, 3; III, 121; served under Brutus (43-42); consul with Octavian (30).

Cimbrians, a Celtic people, migrating in a vast horde toward Italy, were cut to pieces by Marius and Catulus in the Raudian Plains near Verona (101), I, 38.

Cimon, of Athens, son of the great Miltiades; victorious admiral; statesman; genial and generous, II, 64; died (449).

Circe, nymph of Aeaea, a sorceress; she kept Odysseus (Ulysses) in her halls a year, I, 113.

Civic, compared with military service, I, 74 fg.

Claudius; _see_ Appius and Centumalus and Pulcher.

Cleombrotus, son of Pausanias, king of Sparta, fell at Leuctra (371), I, 84.

Cleomenes; _see_ note to I, 33.

Clodius; Publius Clodius Pulcher, Cicero's inveterate enemy, one of the most turbulent and corrupt characters of Rome, guilty of mutiny in the army, bribery in the courts, profligacy in his public and private life; secured Cicero's banishment; hired gladiators to force his own election to the praetorship, but was killed in a broil with Milo's rival gang of ruffians, II, 58.

Cloelia, a Roman girl sent as a hostage to Porsena; she made her escape by swimming the Tiber, was sent back, but restored by the king with rewards for her courage, (I, 61).

Clytaemnestra, daughter of Tyndareus, wife of Agamemnon, paramour of Aegisthus, with whom she murdered her husband on his return from Troy; she was in turn slain by her son Orestes. Subject of a tragedy by Accius, I, 114.

Cocles, Horatius, the hero who with two others kept the bridge against Porsena and Tarquin, I, 61.

Collatinus, Lucius Tarquinius, husband of Lucretia, associate of Brutus in driving out the Tarquins and his colleague in the first consulship (509), III, 40.

Comedy; _see_ Old Comedy.

Concealment, of guilt, III, 37-39.

Conon, famous Athenian admiral, defeated by Lysander at Aegospotami (405), victorious over Pisander of Sparta at Cnidus (394), restored the long walls, I, 116.

Considerateness, a subdivision of the virtue of Temperance, I, 99, 143.

Conversation, a division of speech, I, 132-133; II, 48; an art, I, 134-135.

Co-operation, and civilization, II, 12-16; and the virtues, II, 17-18; _vs._ Fortune, II, 19; a universal need, II, 39; how secured, II, 21 fg.

Corinth, a famous city at the Isthmus of Corinth; wealthy; next to Athens, richest in treasures of art; head of the Achaean League; sacked and utterly destroyed by the Romans under Mummius (146), I, 35; II, 76; III, 46.

Cornelius; _see_ Scipio and Spinther and Sulla.

Cos, chief city of the island of Cos, one of the Sporades; famed for its silks; the birthplace of Apelles, painter of the Coan Venus, III, 10.

Cotta, Gaius Aurelius, distinguished orator; one of the speakers in Cicero's _de Oratore_ and _de Natura Deorum_; consul (75); II, 59.

Courage; _see_ Fortitude.

Covetousness, I, 68; III, 30; _see_ Avarice.

Crassus, Lucius Licinius, the famous orator, II, 63; III, 67; at 21 (119) he won renown by his prosecution of Carbo, the one-time friend of the Gracchi, II, 47, 49; his aedileship most splendid, II, 57; as consul (95), he secured the expulsion from Rome of all who were not citizens, III, 47; this was a cause of the Social War. He was the greatest orator of Rome before Cicero, fluent, graceful, witty, I, 108, 133; Cicero's mouthpiece in the _de Oratore_.

Crassus; Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives, the triumvir; his wealth and ambition, I, 25; sided with Sulla against Marius and grew enormously rich by the proscriptions; his avarice did not shrink from any meanness or even crime, I, 109; III, 73-75. He defeated Spartacus (71); slain in Parthia (53).

Crassus; Publius Licinius Crassus Dives, II, 57; father of the triumvir, consul (97); ended his own life to escape the prescriptions of Marius (87); Cicero bought his house.

Cratippus, of Mitylene, an eminent Peripatetic, came to Athens (about 50) to lecture; foremost of contemporary philosophers and teacher of young Cicero, I, 1, 2; II, 8; III, 5, 6, 33, 121.

Cunning, not wisdom, II, 10; III, 72, 96.

Curio, Gaius Scribonius, II, 59; orator and statesman, III, 88; consul, (76).

Cynics, a school of philosophy so called from the Athenian gymnasium, Cynosarges, where they met, later adapted to their snarling manner and dirty habits; its leaders were Antisthenes of Athens, a disciple of Socrates, and Diogenes of Sinope; they taught the virtue of poverty and want, indifference to all convention and decency; Cicero's contempt for them and their so-called philosophy, I, 128, 148.

Cyrenaics, the philosophic sect founded by Aristippus (_q.v._), III, 116.

Cyrsilus, a Medizing Athenian, III, 48.

Cyrus, the Great, founder of the Persian Empire; wonderfully gifted in winning the co-operation of men and nations, II, 16.

Damon, a Pythagorean and friend of Phintias, III, 45.

Debts, cancellation of, II, 78-79, 83-85; avoidance of, II, 84; payment enforced, II, 84.

Decius; Publius Decius Mus, father and son, I, 61; III, 16; the former, consul with Manlius Torquatus (360), devoted himself to death in the battle on the Veseris. The son did the same at the battle of Sentinum (295) and brought the Samnite wars to an end.

Demetrius of Phalerum (345-283), orator, statesman, II, 60; philosopher, poet; pupil of Theophrastus, I, 3; the only Greek who was both orator and philosopher, I, 3; he inspired the founding of the Alexandrine library.

Demetrius Poliorcetes, II, 26; son of Antigonus and king of Macedon (294-287). His life was occupied with continuous warfare against enemies in Egypt, Asia, Greece, Macedonia, Epirus.

Demosthenes, the greatest orator of Athens (385-322); pupil of Isaeus and of Plato, I, 4; might have been a great philosopher, I, 4; at 18 he prosecuted his defaulting guardian with success, II, 47; then turned to public speaking and statecraft as a profession.

Diana, goddess of the light of the night, identified with Artemis, III, 95.

Dicaearchus, of Messana (4th century), a Peripatetic philosopher, geographer, and historian, II, 16; pupil of Aristotle and friend of Theophrastus.

Dinomachus, a Greek philosopher, always named with Calliphon (_q.v._), III, 119.

Diogenes, of Babylonia, pupil and successor of Chrysippus; best known for his part in the famous embassy with Carneades and Critolaus from Athens to Rome (156) where, on motion of Cato, they were not permitted to remain; his ethics rather loose, III, 51-55, 91.

Dion, a kinsman of the elder Dionysius and tyrant of Syracuse (356-353); a devoted disciple of Plato at Syracuse and Athens, I, 155.

Dionysius, the elder (430-367), tyrant of Syracuse (405-367), a typically cruel tyrant, suspicious and fearful, II, 25; III, 45 (?); devoted to art and literature, himself a poet crowned with a prize at Athens.

Dionysius, the younger, son of the preceding and tyrant of Syracuse (367-356, 346-343); devoted to literature; Plato, Aristippus, Archytas, and others were brought to his court. Whether the Damon and Phintias story is to be connected with him or his father is uncertain, III, 45 (?).

Drusus, Marcus Livius, son of Gaius Gracchus's colleague in the tribuneship; an eloquent orator, I, 108; as tribune (91) he attempted to renew the social and agrarian legislation of Gracchus and was assassinated.

Duty, the most important subject in philosophy, I, 4; the most fruitful field, III, 5; the philosophic sects and duty, I, 4-6; best presentation, III, 7; classification, I, 7-9; order of importance, I, 58, 152-160; III, 90; to those who have wronged us, I, 33; to an enemy, I, 35-40; III, 98-115; to a slave, I, 41; III, 89; toward the laws, I, 148; of generosity, I, 42-60; of Temperance-Propriety, I, 100-151; III, 116-121; of Fortitude, III, 97-115; to be prosperous, II, 87; duties of youth, I, 122; II, 52; of age, I, 123; of magistrates, I, 124; of statesmen, I, 73-85; of private citizens, I, 124; of aliens, I, 125; _vs._ claims of friendship, III, 43-44; change of duty in change of circumstance, I, 31, 59; III, 32; "mean" and "absolute" duty, I, 8; III, 14; doubts as to, I, 147.

Eloquence, at the bar, II, 66; its decline, II, 67; _see_ Oratory.

Ennius, Quintus (239-169), a Greek by birth, the father of Roman poetry, wrote an epic (the Annals), I, 84; tragedies, I, 26, 51, 52; II, 23, 62; III, 62, 104; comedies and satires.

Epaminondas, one of the greatest men of Greece, a student of Pythagorean philosophy, I, 155; the greatest general of Thebes, victorious at Leuctra (371), I, 84; humbled Sparta and made Thebes the leading city of Greece; fell at Mantinea (362).

Epicurus (342-270), founded at Athens the school that bears his name; author of 300 books, natural and ethical philosophy; held happiness to be the highest good; Cicero confuses his teaching here with that of Aristippus and the Cyrenaics; with the latter, happiness consists in individual pleasures; with Epicurus, it is permanent calm of soul and freedom from pain, with pure and lasting pleasures--the pleasures that come from a life of righteousness, III, 12, 117; the gods existed but had nothing to do with human life, III, 102; adopted the atomic theory. His own life was temperate even to abstinence; his followers went to excess. A very popular school, III, 116; represented by Cicero as illogical, III, 39; their theory of society, I, 158.

Epigoni, the sons of the Seven against Thebes; under Alcmaeon, Diomedes, etc., they conquered and destroyed the city. Subject of a tragedy of Accius, I, 114.

Erillus, of Carthage, pupil of Zeno the Stoic, held that knowledge is the only good, while everything else is neither good nor evil; his ethical theories rejected, I, 6.

Eteocles, son of Oedipus, drove out his brother Polynices, in order to reign alone, and brought on the war of the Seven against Thebes; the brothers fell by each other's hands; III, 82.

Euripides (480-406), tragic poet of Athens; disciple of Anaxagoras and friend of Socrates; wrote 75 to 90 plays; 17 are extant; Cicero quotes from the _Hippolytus_, III, 82; the _Phoenissae_, III, 108.

Evil, the supreme, I, 5; III, 119; not pain, I, 5; III, 105, 117; but moral wrong, III, 105, 106; the only, III, 106.

Expediency, definition, II, 1, 11; indispensable, III, 101; identical with Moral Rectitude, II, 9-10; III, 20, 35, 49, 83, 85, 110; conflict with Moral Rectitude impossible, III, 9, 11, 18, 34, 40, 48, 72; incompatible with immorality, III, 35, 77, 81, 82, 87; II, 64; one standard for both, III, 75; relative, II, 88 fg.; possible change of, III, 95; occasion for doubt, III, 19; apparent conflict with justice, III, 40, 86; apparent political expediency _vs._ humanity, III, 46-49; in business, III, 50 fg.; apparent conflict with Fortitude, III, 97-115; apparent conflict with Temperance, III, 116.

Fabius; _see_ Maximus.

Fabricius; Gaius Fabricius Luscinus, hero of old Rome, famed for integrity and moral dignity; called "the Just," III, 16, 87; consul (282); served against Pyrrhus (280); ambassador to Pyrrhus to negotiate exchange of prisoners; Pyrrhus tried to gain his favour by appeals to his ambition, avarice, and fears--in vain, I, 38; consul again (278), he sent back to Pyrrhus the traitor, I, 40; III, 86-87; a rigorous censor (275); lived and died in poverty.

Fame; _see_ Glory.

Fear, the wretchedness of, II, 25-26; _vs._ love, II, 23-26; dangerous to the one who employs it, II, 26.

Fetial Law, the laws of the _Fetiales_, a college of four priests who served as guardians of the public faith; they conducted the ceremonies attendant upon demands for redress, declarations of war, ratification of treaties, establishment of peace; I, 36; III, 108.

Fides; _see_ Good Faith; the goddess, III, 104; etymology of, I, 23.

Fimbria, Gaius Flavius, colleague of Marius in his second consulship (104); orator and jurist, III, 77.

Finance, II, 87; reform of currency, III, 80-81.

Fortitude, the third Cardinal Virtue, I, 15, 61-92; its characteristics, I, 66; in the light of justice, I, 62, 157; dangers attending, I, 46, 62-63; _vs._ expediency, III, 97-115; in Epicurus's system, III, 117.

Fraud, criminal, III, 60 fg.

Friendship, motives to, I, 55-56; acquisition of friends, II, 30; ideal, I, 56; III, 45-46; _vs._ duty, III, 43-44.

Fufius, Lucius, an orator of no great ability, II, 50.

Furius; Lucius Furius Philus, consul (136), proconsul in Spain, III, 109; a learned interlocutor in Cicero's _Republic_.

Galus, Gaius Sulpicius; _see_ Sulpicius.

Gaul, an inhabitant of Gaul, the land north of the Apennines, III, 112.

Generosity, divisions of, II, 52; close to nature, III, 24; must not harm its object, I, 42-43; in proportion to one's means, I, 42-44; II, 55; to the recipient's merits, I, 45-60; motives to, I, 47-49; III, 118; means to winning popularity, II, 32; gifts of money, II, 52-60; personal service, II, 52, 53; to individuals, II, 65-71; to the state, II, 72 fg.; when most appreciated, II, 63.

Glory, a means to popularity, II, 31, 43; preferred to wealth, II, 88.

Gods, favour of, won by piety, II, 11; do no harm, II, 12; III, 102; free from care, III, 102; slow to anger, III, 102, 104, 105.

Golden Mean, I, 89; in generosity, II, 58, 59, 60; in personal adornment, I, 130.

Good, the supreme, I, 5, 7; III, 52, 119; not pleasure, I, 5; III, 116, 117, 118; but moral goodness, III, 11, 35; living in harmony with nature, III, 13; the only, moral goodness, I, 67; III, 12.

Good faith, III, 104; even to an enemy, III, 86 fg., 111, 113.

Good man, what constitutes a, III, 63, 75-77.

Gracchus, Gaius Sempronius, brother of the younger Tiberius; a more radical reformer; tribune (123 and 122); fell (121) a martyr to his reforms for the restoration of the public lands and the reduction of the cost of living, II, 72, 80; his death applauded by Cicero, II, 43.

Gracchus, Publius Sempronius, father of the elder Tiberius, II, 43.

Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, father of the tribunes, II, 43; in his own tribuneship he defended Scipio (187); a great soldier, II, 80; twice consul, triumphed twice; a just ruler in Spain; son-in-law of the elder, father-in-law of the younger Africanus, an ardent aristocrat; hence Cicero's praise, II, 43.

Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, son of the foregoing; a persuasive orator; friend of the people and helper of the poor and oppressed; murdered for attempting as tribune (133) to reform agrarian abuses and build up a class of small farmers, I, 76, 109; II, 80; his death applauded by Cicero, II, 43.

Gratidianus, Marcus Marius; _see_ Marius.

Gratitude, how won, II, 63.

Greece, the land of liberty, letters, art, and civilization, II, 60; III, 48, 73, 99; cause of fall, II, 80.

Greek, belonging to or a native of Greece, I, 108, 111; II, 83; III, 82; leaders in literature, I, 3; masters of philosophy, I, 8, 51, 142, 153; II, 18; Greek and Latin studies, I, 1.

Gyges, the shepherd who dethroned Candaules and became king of Lydia (716-678), III, 38, 78.

Gytheum, the harbour-town and arsenal of Sparta, III, 49.

Hamilcar, a successful Carthaginian general in the First Punic War, defeated by Regulus at Ecnomus; opposed Regulus in Africa, III, 99; confused with Hamilcar Barca (_q.v._), III, 99.

Hamilcar Barca, famous commander of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily (247-241); in Spain (238-229); father of Hannibal, III, 99.

Hannibal (247-183), one of the world's greatest generals, I, 108; son of Hamilcar Barca, III, 99; sacked Saguntum (219), crossed the Alps and defeated the Romans on the Trebia and Ticinus (218), at Trasimenus (217), Cannae (216), I, 40; III, 113-114; defeated at Zama (202); maligned by the Romans as treacherous and cruel, I, 38.

Harm, from gods to men, II, 12; III, 102; men to men, II, 16 fg.

Health, impossible without man's co-operation, II, 12, 15; care of, II, 86.

Hecaton, of Rhodes, a Stoic, pupil of Panaetius, III, 63, 89.

Hercules, the greatest of heroes, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Alcmena, I, 118; his choice of his path in life, I, 118; performer of the twelve labours; benefactor of humanity, III, 25; his attainment of heaven, III, 25.

Hernicians, a tribe in the Sabine mountains, subdued by Rome (306), I, 35.

Herodotus, of Halicarnassus (5th century), lived also at Athens and Thurii; the father of history; travelled widely and wrote the history of Persia and Greece, II, 41.

Hesiod, the Boeotian didactic poet (8th century); author of the Theogony, the Works and Days, etc., I, 48.

Hippolytus, son of Theseus; his stepmother Phaedra fell in love with him; he rejected her advances but promised not to tell, III, 108; she accused him falsely; his innocence proved, Phaedra hanged herself and Theseus suffered lifelong remorse, I, 32; III, 94.

Home, of man of rank; _see_ House.

Homer, the poet, author of Iliad and Odyssey, III, 97.

Honesty, the bond of human society, III, 21 fg.; the corner-stone of government, II, 78 fg.

House, suitable for a man of rank, I, 138-140.

Hortensius, Quintus (114-50), Cicero's famous rival as orator and advocate; his close friend (after 63), III, 73; enormously wealthy; lavish in his aedileship (75), II, 57; not always scrupulous, III, 73-74.

Hospitality, the duty of, II, 64.

Humility, in prosperity, I, 90-91.

Illyria, the country between Macedonia and the Adriatic, II, 40.

Ingratitude, abhorred, II, 63.

Injustice, active and passive, I, 23, 28; never expedient, III, 84; of hypocrisy, I, 41.

Instinct and Reason, difference between man and beast, I, 11.

Integrity, official, II, 75, 76, 77.

Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra (_q.v._); sacrificed at Aulis, III, 95.

Isocrates (436-338), one of the ten Attic orators, pupil of Gorgias and Socrates; a polished speaker; greater as a teacher than as an orator; might have been a great philosopher, I, 4.

Italian War (90-88), caused by Rome's injustice to the allies, provoked by the fear of prosecution on the part of the corrupt aristocrats, II, 75; resulted in Rome's granting the contentions of the allies.

Italy, in government identified with Rome, II, 76.

Ithaca, the home of Odysseus (Ulysses), an island of the Ionian group west of Greece, probably the historical Leucas, III, 97.

Janus, an old Italian sun-god; a covered passage (commonly called his temple) adjoining the forum accommodated the banking houses of Rome, II, 87.

Jason, tyrant of Pherae (395-370), generalissimo of Thessaly (374-370), an able soldier and diplomat, I, 108.

Jests; _see_ Wit.

Jove; _see_ Jupiter.

Jugurtha, king of Numidia (118-106), campaigned with Scipio against Numantia; war with Rome (112-106) protracted by his bribes as much as by his arms, III, 79; executed in Rome (104).

Julius; _see_ Caesar.

Junius; _see_ Brutus and Pennus and Silanus.

Jupiter, the greatest of the gods of Italy, III, 102, 105; "Supreme and Best," III, 104; father of Hercules, I, 118.

Justice, the second Cardinal Virtue, I, 15, 17, 20-41; in what consisting, I, 20; not fully comprehended, III, 69; queen of all the virtues, III, 28; most important, I, 153; close to nature, I, 153; III, 24; rule of duty, I, 29-30; in war, I, 38-40; and generosity, I, 42; _vs._ Wisdom, I, 152-157; _vs._ Fortitude, I, 157; _vs._ Temperance, I, 159-160; indispensable in business, II, 40; inspires most confidence, II, 34; the best means to popularity, II, 39; to glory, II, 43; always expedient, III, 96; in conflict with apparent expediency, III, 40, 86.

Labeo, Quintus Fabius, grandson of Fabius Maximus, consul (183); injustice of, I, 33.

Lacedaemon; _see_ Sparta.

Laciads, citizens of the deme of Lacia, west of Athens, the home of Miltiades, II, 64.

Laelius, Gaius, surnamed "the Wise," III, 16; statesman; soldier under Scipio at Carthage, successful against Viriathus, II, 40; a Stoic, pupil of Diogenes and Panaetius; a man of endless charm and wit, I, 90, 108; his friendship for Africanus immortalized, II, 31; a man of letters, centre of the literary group comprising also Scipio, Panaetius, Polybius, Terence, Lucilius.

Lanarius, Gaius Calpurnius, III, 66.

Latin, study of combined with Greek, I, 1-2.

Latins, the people of Latium, the province in which Rome is situated, the first territory added to Rome, I, 38; decisive battle on the Anio, III, 112.

Law, the origin of, II, 41-42; the majesty of, I, 148; as a profession, II, 65; its decline with the end of the Republic, II, 67; III, 2.

Lentulus; Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, the splendour of his aedileship (63), II, 57; as consul (57) he was largely instrumental in securing Cicero's recall from banishment.

Leuctra, a town of Boeotia, where the Spartans under Cleombrotus were disastrously defeated by Epaminondas and the Thebans (371), I, 61; II, 26.

Love, how won, II, 32; _vs._ fear, II, 23-26.

Lucullus, Lucius Licinius (110-56), surnamed Ponticus for his victories over Mithradates (84-66); famed for his wealth and magnificence, I, 140; for the splendour of his aedileship with his brother Marcus (79), II, 57; with him prosecuted Servilius to avenge their father whom he had accused of bribery and corruption, II, 50; patron of letters, especially of the poet Archias.

Lucullus, Marcus Licinius, associated with his brother Lucius (_q.v._), II, 50, 57; soldier and orator.

Lusitania, western Spain, practically modern Portugal, II, 40.

Lutatius; _see_ Catulus.

Luxury, a vice, I, 92, 106, 123.

Lycurgus (9th century), the famous lawgiver of Sparta, author (?) of the Spartan constitution, I, 76.

Lydia, the central country of western Asia Minor, III, 38.

Lysander, the Spartan admiral who defeated the Athenians at Aegospotami (405), received the capitulation of Athens (404), established the Thirty Tyrants (403), and gave Sparta her leadership, I, 76, 109.

Lysander, the ephor (241), a descendant of the admiral, a friend of King Agis (_q.v._), sought to bring about agrarian reforms based upon the constitution of Lycurgus; for this he was banished, II, 80.

Lysis, of Tarentum, a Pythagorean; expelled from Italy, he came to Thebes and taught Epaminondas, I, 155.

Macedonia, until the time of Philip a small country north of Thessaly, I, 37.

Macedonians, the people of Macedon, I, 90; II, 53; deserted to Pyrrhus, II, 26; Paulus and their wealth, II, 76.

Maelius, Quintus, tribune (321), more probably tribune-elect, as tribunes could not leave the city, III, 109.

Magnificence, in the home, I, 140.

Mamercus; Aemilius Lepidus Mamercus Livianus, a kinsman of Caesar; though defeated once, II, 58, he was later (77) consul.

Mancia, Quintus Mucius, unknown, I, 109.

Mancinus, Gaius Hostilius; in his consulship (137) he was defeated by the Numantines; his delivery to the enemy, III, 109.

Manlius; Aulus Manlius Capitolinus, father of Lucius (_q.v._), III, 112.

Manlius; Lucius Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus; named dictator to mark the year (363), he used his office to engage in a war; that he transgressed but a "few days" was due to the intervention of the tribunes, III, 112.

Manlius; Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus, his son, a famous hero of Roman story; as consul at the time of the battle on the Veseris he executed his own son for disobeying orders, though the disobedience won the _spolia opima_, III, 112.

Marathon, a plain about twenty miles north of Athens where (490) Miltiades and his ten thousand defeated the hosts of Darius, I, 61.

Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, campaigned against Hannibal in Italy, took Syracuse (212), five times consul, a brave but cruel soldier, over-praised by the Romans, I, 61.

Marcus; _see_ Cicero--Marcus Tullius, the son.

Marcius; _see_ Philippus.

Marius, Gaius (157-87), seven times consul; gained his first consulship dishonourably, III, 79, 81; conquered Jugurtha (107); saved Rome from the invading Cimbri (102) and Teutons (101); a military genius, I, 76; cruel and selfish, he flooded the streets of Rome with her best blood in the civil war with Sulla.

Marius; Marcus Marius Gratidianus, the son (or grandson) of Marcus Gratidius whose sister married Cicero's grandfather; adopted by a kinsman of the great Marius; hence his name; twice praetor; murdered by Catiline during Sulla's proscriptions, III, 67; his unbounded popularity in his first praetorship (86), III, 80-81.

Mars, the god of war, III, 34.

Marseilles (Massilia), a Greek city on the southern coast of Gaul, independent of the province; it sided with Pompey; Caesar captured the city after a protracted siege and exacted cruel vengeance, II, 28.

Maximus; Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctator, consul four times; in his second dictatorship (217) he won his surname by harassing Hannibal, watching his plans and working on the defensive, I, 84, 108.

Medes, the people of Media, a great kingdom in central Asia Minor added to Persia by Cyrus, II, 41.

Medus, a son of Medea and Aegeus; wandering in search of his mother he came to Colchis, where Medea saved his life; the subject of a tragedy of Pacuvius, I, 114.

Melanippa, mother of Boeotus and Aeolus by Posidon (Neptune); blinded and imprisoned by her father, she was at last rescued by her sons and her sight was restored by Posidon; subject of a tragedy of Ennius, I, 114.

Metellus; Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, won his surname by his victories over Andriscus (148); a political rival and yet a good friend of the younger Scipio, I, 87.

Metellus; Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, nephew of the preceding, statesman and soldier; as consul (109), carried on the war with Jugurtha with distinguished success, III, 79.

Metrodorus, of Lampsacus (330-277), the most distinguished of the disciples of Epicurus; his Epicureanism was of the grossly sensual sort; his conception of happiness misunderstood by Cicero, III, 117.

Milo, Titus Annius, an unscrupulous and turbulent fellow; as tribune (57) he did much for Cicero's recall and made a sworn enemy of Clodius (_q.v._); hired gladiators to force his own election, II, 58; defended without success by Cicero for killing Clodius.

Minerva, goddess of thought, temperament, wit, I, 97.

Minos, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and king of Crete; because of his upright life he was made judge with Aeacus (_q.v._) in Hades, I, 97.

Moderation, defined, I, 142.

Modesty, I, 126-129.

Mucius; _see_ Scaevola.

Mummius; Lucius Mummius Achaicus, as consul (146) broke up the Achaean League, razed Corinth to the ground, I, 35; II, 46; carried to Italy untold treasures of wealth and art, II, 76.

Naples, the beautiful Greek city of Campania, I, 33.

Nasica; _see_ Scipio.

Neptune, god of the sea, I, 32; III, 94.

New Academy; _see_ Academy.

Nicocles, tyrant of Sicyon, II, 81.

Nola, a city in Campania, loyal to Rome, I, 33.

Norbanus, Gaius, tribune (95), impeached (94) for treason, II, 49; consul (83).

Numantia, the capital of Celtiberia, razed to the ground after a long siege by the younger Scipio, I, 35, 76; treacherously treated by Rome, III, 109.

Numicius, Tiberius, colleague of Quintus Maelius (_q.v._), III, 109.

Oath, significance of, I, 39, 40; III, 102 fg.; fidelity to, I, 39, 40; III, 99-112; violation of, III, 113 fg.; _see_ Perjury.

Octavius, Gnaeus, as praetor commanded the fleet against Perseus (168) and gained a triumph; consul (165), I, 138.

Octavius, Marcus, tribune (120); had the corn law of Gaius Gracchus repealed and secured the passage of a new and more conservative one, II, 72.

Old Age, duties peculiar to, I, 123; worst vices of, I, 123.

Old Comedy, that of Aristophanes, Cratinus, Eupolis, etc., the comedy of personal abuse, I, 104.

Orata, Gaius Sergius Silus, praetor (97), III, 67.

Oratory, a division of speech, I, 132; divisions of, II, 49; a means for winning favour, II, 48; a means for service, II, 65-71; a power to save, II, 51.

Orderliness, defined, I, 142; of action, I, 142-145.

Orestes; Gnaeus Aufidius Orestes Aurelianus, consul (71), II, 58.

Palamedes, the inventor; exposed Ulysses's trick, III, 98; treacherously done to death in revenge.

Palatine, the hill above the forum on the south; east of the capital, I, 138.

Panaetius, of Rhodes (180-111 _ca._), Stoic philosopher, disciple of Diogenes and Antipater (_q.v._) at Athens, close friend of Laelius (_q.v._) and Scipio, I, 90; II, 76; popularized philosophy, II, 35; wrote a book on moral duty, III, 7; failed to define duty, I, 7; classification of duty, I, 9; omits third division, I, 152, 161; II, 88; reasons for omission, III, 7-18, 34; how it would have been met, III, 33; other omissions, II, 86; on co-operation, II, 16; defends lawyer's efforts in a bad case, II, 51; on expensive public buildings, II, 60; Cicero's model, II, 60; III, 7; Hecaton's teacher, III, 63.

Papius, Gaius, as tribune (65), revived the law of Pennus (_q.v._), III, 47.

Patriotism, I, 83; duty to country, I, 160; III, 90, 95; to die for country, I, 57; sacrifice for, I, 84; III, 100; right to do wrong for one's country, I, 159; III, 93, 95.

Paulus, Lucius Aemilius, consul (216), defeated and slain at Cannae, I, 114.

Paulus; Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus, son of the preceding; in his second consulship he conquered Perseus of Macedon at Pydna (168) and enriched Rome with spoils, II, 76; the father of the younger Africanus, I, 116, 121.

Pausanias, king of Sparta, commander-in-chief of the forces of Greece at Plataea (479) to the glory of Sparta, I, 76.

Peloponnesian War, the death-struggle of Athens with Sparta (431-404), I, 84.

Peloponnesus, the lower peninsula of Greece, in which Sparta was the chief city, I, 84.

Pelops, son of Tantalus and king of Mycenae, father of Atreus and Thyestes, III, 84.

Pennus, Marcus Junius; as tribune (126) he secured a law expelling all foreigners from Rome, III, 47.

Pericles, the peerless statesman of Athens, II, 16; philosopher, friend of Anaxagoras and Socrates; orator of mighty power, serious and deep, I, 108; general, I, 144; his administration made Athens unequalled in the splendour of her public buildings, II, 60.

Peripatetics, followers of Aristotle (_q.v._), empiricists, II, 16; students of exact science; lack the poetry and eloquence of Plato but not very different from the New Academy, I, 2; III, 20; followers of Socrates and Plato, I, 2; their right to teach ethics, I, 6; seek the golden mean, I, 89; moral rectitude the supreme good, III, 11; moral wrong the supreme evil, III, 106; young Cicero their follower, I, 1; II, 8.

Perjury, III, 106-103, 113.

Perseus, the last king of Macedon, conquered by Paulus (_q.v._), I, 37.

Persians, the people of Persia, the great empire of western Asia; under Darius they invaded Greece and were beaten back at Marathon (490), I, 61; under Xerxes were overwhelmingly defeated at Salamis (480), I, 61; III, 48, 49; and at Plataea (479), I, 61.

Phaedra, daughter of Minos, wife of Theseus and stepmother of Hippolytus (_q.v._), III, 94.

Phaëthon, his story, III, 94.

Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum (6th century), type of inhuman cruelty, II, 26; III, 29, 32; slain in an uprising of his people, II, 26; typical of Caesar.

Phalerum, a deme of Attica on the bay of Phalerum, I, 3; II, 60.

Pherae, a town of south-eastern Thessaly, the home of Admetus; of Jason, I, 108; of Alexander, II, 25.

Philip, conqueror, king of Macedon (359-336), educated at Thebes, cultured, I, 90; wise, II, 48; eloquent, tactful and firm in discipline, II, 53.

Philip, the younger, son of Antigonus (_q.v._), II, 48.

Philippus, Lucius Marcius, orator second only to Crassus and Antonius, I, 108; statesman, II, 59; as tribune (104), proposed agrarian reforms, II, 73; dishonest policy toward the Asiatic states, III, 87.

Philippus, Quintus Marcius, father of preceding, consul (186 and 169), II, 59; III, 87.

Philosophers, why righteous, I, 28; attitude toward civic duty, I, 28; as teachers, I, 155.

Philosophy, the study of, I, 1-4; theoretical speculation, I, 153; meaning, II, 5; spirit of, II, 7; as a discipline, II, 4; worth while, II, 5 fg.; why Cicero turned to it, II, 2-8; III, 1-6.

Phintias, the friend of Damon (_q.v._) III, 45.

Phoenissae, the Phoenician Women, a tragedy of Euripides dealing with the war of the Seven against Thebes, III, 82.

Picenum, state of north-east Italy, on the Adriatic, III, 74.

Pinthia, Marcus Lutatius, unknown, III, 77.

Piraeus, the great, landlocked harbour of Athens, about five miles from the city, III, 46.

Piso; Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi, so surnamed for his integrity; author and statesman; tribune (149); law against extortion, II, 75; consul (133).

Plaetorian Law, enacted (192), III, 61.

Plataea, the heroic little city at the foot of Mount Cithaeron in Boeotia; alone with Athens at Marathon (490); the scene of the final defeat of the Persians in Hellas (479), I, 61.

Plato (429-347), pupil and friend of Socrates, profound philosopher and brilliant author, I, 22, 63; ideal statesman, I, 85, 87; might have been a great orator, I, 4; founder of the Academy (_q.v._); a great teacher, I, 155; often quoted by Cicero, I, 15 22, 28, 63, 64, 85, 87; III, 38, 39.

Plautus, Titus Maccius (254-184), the greatest of Rome's comic poets; rich in wit, I, 104.

Po, the great river of Cisalpine Gaul, III, 88.

Poeni; _see_ Carthaginians.

Polybius, of Megalopolis (204-122), president of the Achaean League, detained at Rome in the house of Aemilius Paulus; friend of Scipio Aemilianus and Laelius; author of a history of Rome, III, 113.

Pompey; Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106-48), warrior, I, 76; (II, 20;) politician, the enemy of Caesar, the idol of Cicero, II, 2; conquered the pirates, Sertorians, Mithradates, Judaea, I, 78; triumvir; married Julia, III, 82; adorned Rome with great buildings, II, 60; magnificent shows, II, 57; defeated at Pharsalus (48), II, 45.

Pompey; Quintus Pompeius Rufus, consul (141); as commander in the war with Numantia (140) made the unfortunate peace, III, 109.

Pompey, Sextus, cousin of Pompey the Great, Stoic, scholar, geometrician, I, 19.

Pomponius, Marcus, tribune (363); accuser of Lucius Manlius, III, 112.

Pontius, Gaius, the Samnite general, victor at the Caudine Forks (321), II, 75; faithlessly treated, defeated (292), and executed in Rome.

Poor, services to the, II, 61 fg.; their gratitude, II, 63, 69-71.

Popilius [Marcus Popilius Laenas, as consul (172) campaigning in Liguria, I, 36].

Popular esteem, a means to glory, II, 31; how gained, II, 44 fg.

Posidonius, of Apamea (135-51), a Stoic, disciple of Panaetius at Athens, III, 8; established a school at Rhodes where Cicero studied under him; later he lived with Cicero in Rome; author of many works, I, 159; III, 10.

Postumius; Spurius Postumius Albinus, defeated in his second consulship (321) at the Caudine Forks, III, 109.

Prodicus, of Ceos (fifth century), a respected sophist; his "Choice of Hercules," I, 118.

Profession; _see_ Vocation.

Promises, non-fulfilment sometimes a duty, I, 32; III, 92-95; sacred though given to an enemy, I, 39-40.

Property, private, how obtained, I, 92; rights of, I, 21; II, 73-79, 85; III, 53; public, rights of, I, 21, 51.

Propriety, defined, I, 96; its relations to the Cardinal Virtues, I, 93-100; poetic, I, 97; moral, I, 98-99; conduct in accord with personal endowment, I, 110-117; in choosing a career, I, 115-121; in outward appearance, I, 130; in inward self-control, I, 131-132; in speech, I, 132 fg.; in the home, I, 138-140.

Propylaea, the magnificent gateway to the Acropolis of Athens, built (437-431) by Pericles and Mnesicles at a cost of £500,000, II, 60.

Prosecution, II, 49; to be rarely undertaken, II, 50; a public service, II, 50.

Prudence; _see_ Wisdom.

Ptolemy, Philadelphus (309-247), king of Egypt, patron of art and letters, had the Bible translated; vastly rich, II, 82.

Public Lands, private occupation to be maintained, I, 21.

Public Service, as a career, I, 70 fg.; as a duty, I, 72; as an honour, I, 73; free from partisanship, I, 85-86; self-seeking, I, 87; vindictiveness, I, 88; anger, I, 89; guided by wisdom, I, 155-156.

Public shows, extravagant expenditures, II, 55-60; expected of an aedile, II, 57-60.

Pulcher, Gaius Claudius, son of Appius, aedile (99), II, 57; consul (92).

Punic Wars; _see_ Carthage.

Pyrrho, of Elis (fourth century), founder of the school of the Sceptics; held that virtue is the only good, that truth and knowledge are unattainable; his ethical theories rejected, I, 6.

Pyrrhus (318-272), king of Epirus, descended from Achilles and Aeacus, I, 38; a daring soldier and a gallant enemy, I, 38; a career of adventure and conquest, I, 38; III, 86; invaded Italy (280-275); the story of the poisoner, I, 40; III, 86; (_see also_ Fabricius); invaded Macedonia (273) and the enemy's troops joined him, II, 26; killed in Argos (272).

Pythagorean, a follower of Pythagoras or member of his secret fraternity, I, 155; III, 45.

Pythagoras, of Samos (sixth century), studied in the Orient, great mathematician; moral and religious teacher; serious, ascetic, I, 108; taught transmigration of souls; founded a secret brotherhood of ideal friendship, I, 56; asceticism was the rule of practice, with deep meditation and lofty aspiration.

Pythian, epithet of Apollo, from Pytho, another name for Delphi, II, 77.

Pythius, of Syracuse, his dishonesty, III, 58.

Quirinus, the Sabine name for the deified Romulus, III, 41.

Recklessness, to be avoided, I, 81, 83.

Regulus, Marcus Atilius, a favourite hero of old Rome; consul (267 and 256), annihilated the Carthaginian fleet, took many towns, was finally (255) defeated and taken prisoner, I, 39; III, 99; his famous embassy and the ethics of his conduct, III, 99-115.

Remus, twin brother of Romulus, slain for leaping in derision over the new walls of Rome, III, 41.

Reproof, how administered, I, 136.

Republic, the Roman; its glory, II, 2; the protectorate of the world, II, 27; its downfall, I, 35; II, 2-5, 29, 65; III, 2, 4, 83; the tyrant's sway, II, 23-29; III, 81-85; enslaved, III, 84-85.

Retirement, the life of, I, 69-70.

Rhodes, a large island off the coast of Caria, III, 50.

Rhodian, a native of Rhodes, III, 50, 57; III, 63.

Riches, the object of acquiring, I, 25; proper use of, I, 68; compared with virtue, III, 24; (_see_ Wealth).

Roman, of or belonging to Rome, III, 58; people, I, 33; III, 79, 83-86, 105, 109, 114; the people of Rome, II, 75; celebrated for courage, I, 61; champion of justice, I, 36; II, 26; hatred of tyranny and injustice, III, 19; atonement for tyranny and injustice, II, 27-29; their enslavement, III, 85-86.

Rome, the capital of the Empire and mistress of the world, I, 39, 40; III, 73, 79, 99, 112, 113.

Romulus, the mythical king, founder of Rome, III, 40; builder of its walls; not justified in slaying his brother, III, 41.

Roscius, Sextus, of Ameria, accused by Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sulla's, of murdering his father; bravely and successfully defended by Cicero at the age of twenty-six, II, 51.

Rupilius, an actor otherwise unknown, I, 114.

Rutilius; Publius Rutilius Rufus, a disciple of Publius Scaevola, II, 47; of Panaetius, III, 10; with Quintus Scaevola in Asia he repressed the extortion of the publicans, was banished, and devoted his life to philosophy and literature, III, 10.

Sabine, belonging to the province of central Italy, III, 74; the Sabines, unfriendly to Rome till subdued and added to the empire (290), I, 35, 38.

Sacred Laws; the _Leges Sacratae_, laws for the violation of which the offender was nominally consecrated to some god--i.e., laden with a curse, III, 111.

Salamis, the island and straits directly in front of the Piraeus (_q.v._), where (480) Themistocles and the allied Greeks virtually annihilated the fleets of Persia, I, 61, 75.

Sale, fraud in sale of real estate, III, 54-64; laws concerning, III, 65-71; of slaves, III, 71-72.

Salmacis, a fountain (and nymph) at Halicarnassus, whose waters made men who drank them weak and effeminate, I, 61.

Samnites, the brave, liberty-loving people of Samnium, a province of south-central Italy; after seventy-one years (343-272) of war with Rome admitted to citizenship, I, 38; famous for their victory at the Caudine Forks, III, 109; Gaius Pontius, II, 75.

Sanitation; _see_ Health.

Sardinia, the large island north of Sicily, made a province (238), misgoverned, II, 50.

Satrius; Marcus Minucius Basilus Satrianus, adopted by Lucius Minucius Basilus, his inheritance, III, 74.

Scaevola, Publius Mucius, father of the pontifex maximus, consul (133) and friend of Tiberius Gracchus, an expert in the pontifical law, II, 47.

Scaevola, Quintus Mucius, the Augur, son of the preceding, son-in-law of Laelius, friend of Africanus, consul (117), preceptor to Cicero; simple in his greatness, I, 109.

Scaevola, Quintus Mucius, the Pontifex Maximus, son of Publius, preceptor of Cicero; orator, jurist; authority on the civil law, his business honour, III, 62, 70; followed his father's calling, I, 116; magnificent aedileship, II, 57; consul (95), III, 47.

Scaurus, Marcus Aemilius, consul (115);

## partisan rather than statesman, I, 76;

ambassador to Jugurtha (112), notorious corruptionist, but loyal aristocrat; hence Cicero's praise, I, 108.

Scaurus, Marcus Aemilius, son of the preceding, step-son of Sulla, aedile (58) with extraordinary magnificence, II, 57; governor of Sardinia (56), which he plundered outrageously; successfully defended by Cicero and Hortensius; later (52) condemned and banished, I, 138; palace on the Palatine, I, 138.

Scipio, Gnaeus Cornelius, brother of Publius (_see_ following); consul (222) with Marcus Marcellus; with Publius in Spain (217-211); a gallant soldier, I, 61; III, 16.

Scipio, Publius Cornelius, brother of Gnaeus and father of the elder Africanus, I, 121; consul (218), defeated by Hannibal at the Ticinus; waged war in Spain (217-211); a gallant soldier, I, 61; III, 16.

Scipio; Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (234-183), the son of Publius, I, 121; grandfather of the Gracchi, II, 80; defeated Hannibal at Zama (202) and closed the war; never idle in his zeal for Rome, III, 1-4.

Scipio, Publius Cornelius, son of Africanus Major, adoptive father of Africanus Minor; gifted mentally but physically disqualified for an active career, I, 121.

Scipio; Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor, son of Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus, I, 116, 121; adopted son of Publius Africanus's son, I, 121; friend and pupil of Panaetius, I, 90; intimate friend of Laelius (_q.v._) and devoted to literature; serious, earnest, I, 108; self-control, II, 76; a great soldier, I, 76, 116; at Pydna (168) with his father; captured and destroyed Carthage (136) and Numantia (133), I, 35; II, 76; statesman of high ideals, a bitter rival and yet a friend of Quintus Metellus, I, 87.

Scipio; Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio, known chiefly as the man who led the riot and murdered Tiberius Gracchus, I, 76, 109.

Scipio; Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, son of the preceding; died in his consulship (111); a charming gentleman and a brilliant speaker, I, 109.

Secret sin, II, 37 fg.

Seius, Marcus, reduced the price of corn and regained his lost popularity, II, 58.

Self-control; _see_ Temperance.

Self-sacrifice, III, 25; of Regulus, III, 97-115.

Sergius, Gaius; _see_ Orata.

Sicily, the great island south-west of Italy, fertile and rich, occupied along the coasts by prosperous Greek colonies, a Roman province (212 on), an easy prey for rapacious governors, as Verres whom Cicero prosecuted (70), II, 50.

Sicyon, a city near Corinth, famous as a centre of art; Aratus and the tyranny, II, 81-82.

Silanus, Decimus Junius, stepfather of Marcus Brutus, consul (62), aedile, II, 57.

Slaves, duty toward, I, 41; III, 89.

Social Instinct, man and beast, I, 12, 50; bees, I, 157; leads to justice, I, 157; weighed against justice, I, 159 fg.

Society, principles of, I, 50-57; III, 53; rights of, I, 21; service to, I, 153, 155.

Socrates (469-399), the great philosopher and teacher, II, 43; his ethics, III, 11, 77; his perfect poise, I, 90; brilliant dialectician, with a profound meaning in every word, I, 108; personal eccentricities, I, 148. "The noblest, ay, and the wisest and most righteous man that we have ever known."

Socratic, following Socrates, I, 104, 134; II, 87; most schools of philosophy are based on the teaching of Socrates--the Academy, I, 2; the Peripatetic, I, 2; III, 20; the Cynic, I, 128; the Cyrenaic, III, 116; the Stoic, I, 6; etc.

Sol, the sun-god, father of Phaëthon, III, 94.

Solon, the great lawgiver of Athens (638-558 _ca._), poet, soldier, statesman; his feigned madness and the acquisition of Salamis, I, 108; his constitution and the reorganized Areopagus, I, 75.

Sophocles, the great tragic poet (495-406), supreme on the Athenian stage (468-441); general in the war against Samos (440), I, 144.

Sparta, capital of Lacedaemon in the south-eastern part of the Peloponnesus, III, 99; constitution of Lycurgus, I, 76; national character, I, 64; position at end of Persian wars, I, 76; at end of Peloponnesian war, I, 76; her arsenal, III, 49; disasters, I, 84; despotic, II, 26; cause of her fall, II, 77, 80.

Stoics, adherents of the school founded by Zeno, an offshoot from Cynicism, I, 128; refounded by Chrysippus; philosophy with them is practical, making life accord with Nature's laws, III, 13; virtue and philosophy are identical; virtue the only good, I, 6; III, 11, 12; moral wrong the only evil, III, 106; pain no evil, III, 105; no degrees of right or wrong, I, 10; etymologists, I, 23; define fortitude, I, 62; temperance, I, 142; duties, III, 14; controversies, III, 91; their right to teach ethics, I, 6; Cicero adopts their teaching, I, 6; III, 20; common interests, I, 22; their theology a pantheistic materialism, God working in his providence, III, 102; representative Stoics, II, 51, 86; III, 51.

Sulla; Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (138-78), noble, profligate, brilliant genius; would stoop to anything, I, 109; soldier against Jugurtha, Mithradates, Marius, Rome; statesman; reformed the constitution; absolute monarch of Rome (81-79); treatment of tributary allies, III, 87; confiscator, I, 43; II, 29; overturned the old morals, II, 27; Cicero opposed him, II, 51.

Sulla, Publius Cornelius, nephew of the dictator, II, 29; defended by Cicero on charge of complicity in Catiline's conspiracy.

Sulla, Cornelius, a freedman of the dictator, II, 29.

Sulpicius; Gaius Sulpicius Galus, consul (166); famous astronomer, I, 19; predicted an eclipse of the moon.

Sulpicius; Publius Sulpicius Rufus (124-88), an eminent orator of little character, II, 49.

Sungod; _see_ Sol.

Superbus; _see_ Tarquin.

Syracuse, a great Greek city in south-eastern Sicily, rich in art and in goods; ruled by Dion, I, 155; Dionysius, II, 25; III, 45; a popular resort, III, 58.

Tantalus, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and father of Pelops (_q.v._), III, 84.

Tarquin; Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome (535-510), a cruel tyrant, expelled by Brutus and Collatinus, III, 40.

Tarquins, the kinsmen of Tarquinius Superbus, all expelled (510), III, 40.

Taxation, levying of, II, 74.

Temperance, the fourth Cardinal Virtue, I, 93-151; definition, I, 93; the passions, I, 102; speech, I, 103; _vs._ Justice, I, 159-160; essential to success, II, 77; _vs._ apparent Expediency, III, 116 fg.

Terence; Publius Terentius Afer (195-159), a comic poet, friend of Laelius and Scipio; six plays are left; quotation from the _Heauton Timorumenus_, I, 30; the _Eunuchus_, I, 150.

Thebe, daughter of Jason and wife of Alexander of Pherae, II, 25.

Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, home of Pindar and Epaminondas, I, 155.

Themistocles, brilliant statesman of Athens, II, 16; gave Athens her fleet and saved Greece at Salamis (480), I, 75; consummate general, I, 108; not always scrupulous in his methods, III, 49; his valuation of character, II, 71.

Theophrastus, of Lesbos, favourite pupil and successor of Aristotle, a marvellous teacher, master of Demetrius of Phalerum, I, 3; a prolific author; cited, II, 56, 64.

Theopompus, of Chios (fourth century), pupil of Isocrates, orator and historian, II, 40.

Thermopylae, a narrow pass on the seashore between Thessaly and Locris, held by Leonidas and his three hundred against the hosts of Xerxes (480), I, 61.

Theseus, the great legendary hero of Athens, benefactor of the world; uniter of Athens and Attica; father of Hippolytus (_q.v._) by Antiope; husband of Phaedra; his son's death, I, 32; III, 94.

Thrace, the vast country north of the Aegean; though the home of Orpheus, Linus, etc., it was generally considered barbarous, II, 25.

Thyestes, son of Pelops and brother of Atreus (_q.v._), (III, 102).

Timotheus, admiral of the Athenian fleet (378-356), compared with his father Conon, I, 116.

Torquatus; _see_ Manlius.

Trades; _see_ Vocation.

Troezen, a city of Argolis, near the shore opposite Aegina; the asylum of the Athenians at the approach of Xerxes, III, 48.

Trusts, when not to be restored, III, 95.

Truth, the search after, I, 13.

Tubero, Quintus Aelius, the Stoic, a pupil of Panaetius, praetor (123); a talented jurist, III, 63.

Tusculum, a town in the Alban hills, the oldest municipium in Italy, admitted (381), I, 35; public lands of, I, 21; Cicero's favourite country home.

Twelve Tables, the laws of, drawn up (450); quoted, I, 37; III, 111.

Tyranny, II, 23-29; inspired by false perspective, III, 36; right and duty toward the tyrant, III, 19, 85.

Tyre, the great commercial city on the coast of Phoenice, II, 86.

Ulysses (Odysseus), son of Laertes of Ithaca, the shrewdest of the Greek heroes at Troy, III, 97; the hero of the Odyssey, I, 113.

Varro, Gaius Terentius, consul (216) with Paulus, responsible for the disaster at Cannae, III, 114.

Venus (Aphrodite), the goddess of beauty and love; of Cos, III, 10.

Veseris, a little stream near Mount Vesuvius; scene of the battle of Manlius Torquatus and the elder Decius, III, 112.

Veturius; Titus Veturius Calvinus, consul with Spurius Postumius (321) at the Caudine Forks, III, 109.

Vice, luxurious living, I, 123; sensual pleasure, I, 102, 104-106, 122-123; II, 37; avarice, II, 77; extravagance, I, 140; misrepresentation, I, 150; untruth, I, 150; corrected by observing others, I, 146; by the criticism of the wise, I, 147.

Viriathus, II, 40.

Virtue, defined, II, 18; chief function of, II, 17; the four Cardinal Virtues described, I, 15-17; the sources of moral rectitude, I, 152; III, 96; Nature's leadings to, I, 100; endangered by sensual pleasure, II, 37; rulers chosen for, II, 41.

Vocation, choice of, I, 115-120; change of, I, 120-121; vulgar and liberal, I, 150-152.

Volscians, a people of lower Latium, subdued (303), given full citizenship (188), I, 35.

War, rights of, to be enforced, I, 34; Cato's son, I, 36-37; excuse for war, I, 35, 80; justice in war, I, 38; war for supremacy, I, 38; for glory, I, 38; needless cruelty, I, 82.

Wealth, Theophrastus on, II, 56; insatiable thirst for, I, 25; why sought, I, 25-27; the real good of wealth, II, 56; _see_ Riches.

Wisdom, the first of the Cardinal Virtues, I, 15-19; most important, I, 153; II, 6; absolute, III, 16; and propriety, I, 94, 100; _vs._ Justice, I, 152-157, 160; confounded with cunning, II, 10; III, 72, 96; in Epicurus's system, III, 117.

Wit, kinds of, I, 103-104; representatives of, I, 108.

Xanthippus, a Spartan soldier of fortune, whose generalship defeated Regulus, III, 99.

Xenocrates, of Chalcedon (396-314), a pupil of Plato, president of the Academy, industrious and severe, I, 109.

Xenophon, soldier, historian, disciple of Socrates, II, 87; the story of Hercules's choice, I, 118.

Xerxes, king of Persia (485-465), son of Darius, invaded Greece (480), came to grief at Salamis and Plataea, III, 48.

Youth, duties peculiar to, I, 123; II, 52; time for choosing profession, I, 117.

Zeno, of Cytium (fourth century), pupil of Crates the Cynic and founder of the Stoic school (_see_ Stoics), III, 35.

LETCHWORTH: AT THE ARDEN PRESS.

CORRECTIONS:

page original text correction 190 sn Fab. inc. Valhen^2, 402 Fab. inc. Vahlen^2, 402 230 fn _Ma co_ MSS. _Marco_ MSS. 344 set etiam adiuvat iniuriam? sed etiam adiuvat iniuriam? 413 treacherous and crue, I, 38. treacherous and cruel, I, 38. 421 friend o Quintus Metellus, friend of Quintus Metellus, 422 father of Phaethon, III, 94. father of Phaëthon, III, 94.