Chapter III

., and which is perhaps the commonest of all Malay magic rites) would also seem to have originated from ideas of ceremonial purification.

2. THE SEA, RIVERS, AND STREAMS

The Malays have been from time immemorial a sea-faring race, and are quite as superstitious in their ideas of the sea as sailors in other parts of the world.

As has been already indicated, [487] their animistic notions include a belief in Water Spirits, both of the sea and of rivers, and occasionally this belief finds expression in ritual observances.

Thus, for instance, it was formerly the custom to insert a number of sugar-palm twigs (segar kabong) into the top of the ship's mast, making the end of it look not unlike a small birch of black twigs. [488]

This was intended to prevent the Water Spirit (Hantu Ayer) from settling on the mast. His appearance when he does settle is described as resembling the glow of fire flies or of phosphorescence in the sea--evidently a form of St. Elmo's fire.

The ship being a living organism, one must, of course, when all is ready, persuade it to make a proper start. To effect this you go on board, and sitting down beside the well (petak ruang), burn incense and strew the sacrificial rice, and then tapping the inside of the keelson (jintekkan serempu) and the next plank above it (apit lempong), beg them to adhere to each other during the voyage, e.g.:--

"Peace be with you, O 'big Medang' and 'low-growing Medang!' Be ye not parted brother from brother, I desire you to speed me, to the utmost of your power, To such and such a place; If ye will not, ye shall be rebels against God," etc.

I need hardly explain, perhaps, that "big medang" and "low-growing medang" are the names of two varieties of the same tree, which are supposed in the present instance to have furnished the timber from which these different parts were made.

Then you stand up in the bows and call upon the Sea Spirits for their assistance in pointing out shoals, snags, and rocky islets. [489]

Sometimes a talisman is manufactured by writing an Arabic text on a leaf which is then thrown into the sea.

So, too, it is not unusual to see rocks in mid-stream near the mouths of rivers adorned with a white cloth hanging from a long stick or pole, which marks them out as "sacred places," and sometimes in rapids where navigation is difficult or dangerous, offerings are made to the River Spirits, as the following quotation will show:--

"We commenced at last to slide down a long reach of troubled water perceptibly out of the horizontal. The raft buried itself under the surface, leaving dry only our little stage, and the whole fabric shook and trembled as if it were about to break up. Yelling 'Sambut, sambut' ('Receive, receive') to the spirits of the stream, whom Kulup Mohamed was propitiating with small offerings of rice and leaves, the panting boatmen continued their struggles until we shot out once more into smooth deep water, and all danger was over." [490]

The importance of rivers in the Malay Peninsula, and for that matter, in Malayan countries generally, can hardly be overrated. It was by the rivers that Malay immigration, coming for the most part, if not entirely, from Sumatra, entered the interior of the Peninsula, and before the influx of Europeans had superseded them by roads and railways the rivers were the sole means of inland communication. All old Malay settlements are situated on the banks of rivers or streams, both on this account and because of the necessity of having a plentiful supply of water for the purpose of irrigating the rice-fields, which constitute the main source of livelihood for the inhabitants.

Accordingly the backbone, so to speak, of a Malay district is the river that runs through it, and from which in most cases the district takes its name; for here, as elsewhere, the river-names are generally older than the names of territorial divisions. They are often unintelligible and probably of pre-Malayan origin, but are sometimes derived from the Malay names of forest trees. As a rule every reach and point has a name known to the local Malays, even though the river may run through forest and swamp with only a few villages scattered at intervals of several miles along its banks.

Of river legends there are not a few. The following extract relates to one of the largest rivers of the Peninsula, the river Perak, which gives its name to the largest and most important of the Malay States of the West Coast. Perak means silver, though none is mined in the country; and the legend is a fair specimen of the sort of story which grows up round an attempt to account for an otherwise inexplicable name:--

"On their return down-stream, the Raja and his followers halted at Chigar Galah, where a small stream runs into the river Perak. They were struck with astonishment at finding the water of this stream as white as santan (the grated pulp of the cocoa-nut mixed with water). Magat Terawis, who was despatched to the source of the stream to discover the cause of this phenomenon, found there a large fish of the kind called haruan engaged in suckling her young one. She had large white breasts from which milk issued. [491]

"He returned and told the Raja, who called the river 'Perak' ('silver'), in allusion to its exceeding whiteness. Then he returned to Kota Lama." [492]

3. REPTILES AND REPTILE CHARMS

The Crocodile

Of the origin of the Crocodile two conflicting stories, at least, are told. One of these was collected by Sir William Maxwell in Perak; the other was taken down by me from a Labu Malay in Selangor, but I have not met with it elsewhere; a parallel version of the story quoted by Maxwell being the commonest form of the legend in Selangor as well as Perak.

Sir William Maxwell's account runs as follows:--

"In the case of the crocodile, we find an instance of a dangerous animal being regarded by Malays as possessed of mysterious powers, which distinguish him from most of the brute creation, and class him with the tiger and elephant. Just as in some parts of India sacred crocodiles are protected and fed in tanks set apart for them by Hindus, so in Malay rivers here and there particular crocodiles are considered kramat (sacred), and are safe from molestation. On a river in the interior of Malacca I have had my gun-barrels knocked up when taking aim at a crocodile, the Malay who did it immediately falling on his knees in the bottom of the boat and entreating forgiveness, on the ground that the individual reptile aimed at was kramat, and that the speaker's family would not be safe if it were injured. The source of ideas like this lies far deeper in the Malay mind than his Muhammadanism; but the new creed has, in many instances, appropriated and accounted for them. The connection of the tiger with Ali, the uncle of the prophet, has already been explained. A grosser Muhammadan fable has been invented regarding the crocodile.

"This reptile, say the Pêrak Malays, was first created in the following manner:--

"There was once upon a time a woman called Putri Padang Gerinsing, whose petitions found great favour and acceptance with the Almighty.

"She it was who had the care of Siti Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet. One day she took some clay and fashioned it into the likeness of what is now the crocodile. The material on which she moulded the clay was a sheet of upih (the sheath of the betel-nut palm). This became the covering of the crocodile's under-surface. When she attempted to make the mass breathe it broke in pieces. This happened twice. Now it chanced that the Tuan Putri had just been eating sugar-cane, so she arranged a number of sugar-cane joints to serve as a backbone, and the peelings of the rind she utilised as ribs. On its head she placed a sharp stone, and she made eyes out of bits of saffron (kuniet); the tail was made of the mid-rib and leaves of a betel-nut frond. She prayed to God Almighty that the creature might have life, and it at once commenced to breathe and move. For a long time it was a plaything of the Prophet's daughter, Siti Fatima; but it at length became treacherous and faithless to Tuan Putri Padang Gerinsing, who had grown old and feeble. Then Fatima cursed it, saying, 'Thou shalt be the crocodile of the sea, no enjoyment shall be thine, and thou shalt not know lust or desire.' She then deprived it of its teeth and tongue, and drove nails into its jaws to close them. It is these nails which serve the crocodile as teeth to this day. Malay Pawangs in Pêrak observe the following methods of proceeding when it is desired to hook a crocodile:--To commence with, a white fowl must be slain in the orthodox way, by cutting its throat, and some of its blood must be rubbed on the line (usually formed of rattan) to which the fowl itself is attached as bait. The dying struggles of the fowl in the water are closely watched, and conclusions are drawn from them as to the probable behaviour of the crocodile when hooked. If the fowl goes to a considerable distance the crocodile will most likely endeavour to make off; but it will be otherwise if the fowl moves a little way only up and down or across the stream.

"When the line is set the following spell must be repeated: 'Aur Dangsari kamala sari, sambut kirim Tuan Putri Padang Gerinsing; tidak di-sambut mata angkau chabut' ('O Dangsari, lotus-flower, receive what is sent thee by the Lady Princess Padang Gerinsing; if thou receivest it not, may thy eyes be torn out'). As the bait is thrown into the water the operator must blow on it three times, stroke it three times, and thrice repeat the following sentence, with his teeth closed and without drawing breath: 'Kun kata Allah sapaya kun kata Muhammad tab paku,' ('Kun saith God, so kun saith Muhammad; nail be fixed.') Other formulas are used during other stages of the proceedings." [493]

The rarer story, to which allusion has been made, was the following:--

"There was a woman who had a child which had just learnt to sit up (tahu dudok), and to which she gave the name of 'Sarilang.' One day she took the child to the river-side in order to bathe it, but during the latter operation it slipped from her grasp and fell into the river. The mother shrieked and wept, but as she did not know how to dive she had to return home without her child. That night she dreamed a dream, in which her child appeared and said, 'Weep no more, mother, I have turned into a crocodile, and am now called 'Grandsire Sarilang' ('Toh Sarilang): if you would meet me, come to-morrow to the spot where you lost me.' Next morning, therefore, the mother repaired to the river and called upon the name of her child, whereupon her child rose to the surface, and she saw that from the waist downwards he had already turned into a crocodile, though he was still human down to the waist. Now the child said, 'Come back again after fourteen days, and remember to bring an egg and a plantain (banana).' She therefore went again at the time appointed, and having called upon him by his new name ('Toh Sarilang), he again came to the surface, when she saw that from the waist upwards he had also now turned into a crocodile. So she gave him the egg and the plantain, and he devoured them, and when he had done so he said, 'Whenever the crocodiles get ferocious (ganas), and commence to attack human beings, take a plantain, an egg, and a handful of parched rice, and after scattering the rice on the river, leave the egg and the plantain on the bank, calling upon my name ('Toh Sarilang) [494] as you do so, and their ferocity will immediately cease.'"

The notes on crocodile folklore which will now be given were reprinted in the Selangor Journal from the "Perak Museum Notes" of Mr. Wray.

"When the eggs of a crocodile are hatching out, the mother watches; the little ones that take to their native element she does not molest, but she eats up all those which run away from the water, but should any escape her and get away on to the land they will change into tigers. Some of these reptiles are said to have tongues, and when possessed of that organ they are very much more vicious and dangerous than the ordinarily formed ones. When a crocodile enters a river it swallows a pebble, so that on opening the stomach of one it is only necessary to count the stones in it to tell how many rivers it has been into during its life. The Malays call these stones kira-kira dia, [495] on this account. The Indians on the banks of the Orinoco, on the other hand, assert that the alligator swallows stones to add weight to its body to aid it in diving and dragging its prey under water. Crocodiles inhabiting a river are said to resent the intrusion of strangers from other waters, and fights often take place in consequence. According to the Malays they are gifted with two pairs of eyes. The upper ones they use when above water, and the under pair when beneath the surface. This latter pair is situated half-way between the muzzle and the angle of the mouth, on the under surface of the lower jaw. These are in reality not eyes, but inward folds of skin connected by a duct with a scent gland, which secretes an unctuous substance of a dark gray colour, with a strong musky odour. Medicinal properties are attributed to the flesh of the males, which are believed to be of very rare occurrence, and to be quite unable to leave the water by reason of their peculiar conformation. The fact is that the sexes are almost undistinguishable, except on dissection, and therefore the natives class all that are caught as females. While on this subject, it may be worth mentioning that at Port Weld there used to be a tame crocodile which would come when called. The Malays fed it regularly, and said it was not vicious, and would not do any harm. It was repeatedly seen by the yearly visitants to Port Weld, or Sapetang, as the place was then called, and was a fine big animal, with a bunch of seaweed growing on its head. Some one had it called, and then fired at the poor thing; whether it was wounded or only frightened is uncertain, but it never came again." [496]

The following notes upon the same subject were collected by me in Selangor:--

The female crocodile commonly builds her nest, with or without the aid of the male, among the thorny clumps of lempiei (or dempiei) trees just above high-water mark, using the fallen leaves to form the nest, and breaking up the twigs with her mouth. The season for laying is said, in the north of the Peninsula, to coincide with the time "when the rice-stalks swell with the grain," i.e. the end of the wet season.

The most prolific species of crocodile is reputed to be the buaya lubok, or Bight crocodile (also called buaya rawang, or Marsh crocodile), which lays as many as fifty or sixty eggs in a single nest. Other varieties, I may add, are the buaya tembaga (Copper crocodile), the buaya katak (Dwarf crocodile), which is, as its name implies, "short and stout," and the buaya hitam or besi (Black or Iron crocodile), which is reported to attain a larger size than any other variety. This latter kind is often moss-grown, and is hence called buaya berlumut (Mossy crocodile). The largest specimen of this variety of which I have had any reliable account is one which measured "four fathoms, less one hasta" (about 23 feet), and which was caught in the time of Sultan Mahmat at Sungei Sembilang, near Kuala Selangor, by one Nakhoda Kutib.

The buaya jolong-jolong, which has attracted attention owing to its reputed identification with the gavial of Indian waters, and which is therefore no true crocodile, is pointedly described by Malays as separating itself from the other species.

Finally, there is the buaya gulong tenun (the "Crocodile that Rolls up the Weft"?), which is not, however, the name of a separate variety, but is the name applied to the Young Person or New Woman of the world of crocodile-folk--the aggressive female who "snaps" at everything and everybody for the mere glory of the snap!

"After hatching," says Mr. Wray, "the mother watches, and ... eats up all those which run away from the water, but should any escape her and get away on to the land they will turn into tigers." There is perhaps more point in the Selangor tradition, according to which the little runaways turn, not into tigers, but into "iguanas" (Monitor lizards).

As regards the want of a tongue, which is supposed to be common to all crocodiles, it is said they were so created by design, in order that they might not acquire too pronounced a "taste" for human flesh. Hence the proverb which declares that no carrion is too bad for them to welcome: "Buaya mana tahu menolak bangkei?" ("When will crocodiles refuse corpses?") [497]

After the outbreak of ferocity (ganas) among the crocodiles in the Klang River last year, some account of the way in which the crocodile is here said to capture and destroy his human victims may prove of interest.

Every crocodile has, according to the Selangor Malay, three sets of fangs, which are named as follows: (1) si hampa daya [498] (two above and two below), at the tip of the jaws; (2) entah-entah (two in the upper and two in the lower jaw), half-way up; (3) charik kapan (two in the upper and two in the lower jaw), near the socket of the jaws.

The first may be translated by "Exhaust your devices"; the second by "Yes or no"; and the third by "Tear the shroud," the latter being a reference to the selvage which, among the Malays, is torn off the shroud and afterwards used for tying it up when the corpse has been wrapped in it.

If a man is caught by the "Exhausters of all Resources," he has a fair chance of escape; if caught by the "Debateable" teeth his escape is decidedly problematical; but if caught by the "Tearers of the Shroud," he is to all intents and purposes a dead man. Whenever it effects a capture the crocodile carries its victim at once below the surface, and either tries to smother him in the soft, thick mud of the mangrove swamp, or pushes him under a snag or projecting root, with the object of letting him drown, while it retires to watch him from a short distance. After what it considers a sufficient interval to effect its purpose, the crocodile seizes the body of the drowned man and rises to the surface, when it "calls upon the Sun, Moon, and Stars to bear witness" that it was not guilty of the homicide--

"Bukan aku membunoh angkau, Ayer yang membunoh angkau."

Which, being translated, means--

"It was not I who killed you, It was water which killed you." [499]

After thrice repeating this strange performance, the crocodile again dives and proceeds to prepare the corpse for its prospective banquet. Embracing the corpse with its "arms," and curving the tip of its powerful tail under its own belly (until the tail is nearly bent double), it contrives to break the backbone of the victim, and then picking up the body once more with its teeth, dashes it violently against a trunk or root in order to break the long bones of the limbs. When the bones are thus so broken as to offer no obstruction, it swallows the body whole--thus affording a remarkable parallel to the boa in its method of devouring its prey, and recalling Darwinian ideas of their cousin-hood. Miraculous escapes have, however, occasionally occurred. Thus Lebai `Ali was caught by a crocodile at Batu Burok (Kuala Selangor), one evening as the tide was ebbing, and the crocodile, after smothering him effectually (as it thought) in the thick mud, retired to await the end. Insensibly, however, it floated farther and farther off with the falling tide, and Lebai `Ali, seeing his opportunity, made a bold and successful dash for freedom.

A similar case was that of Si Ka', who was pushed under a bamboo root on the river bank by the crocodile which caught him, and who, after waiting till his formidable enemy had floated a little farther off than usual, drew himself up by an overhanging stem and swarmed up it. At the same moment the crocodile made a rush, and actually caught him by the great toe, which latter, however, he willingly surrendered to his enemy as the price of his liberty.

A yet more marvellous escape, was that of the youth belonging to the Government launch at Klang, who escaped, it is related, by the time-honoured expedient of putting his thumbs into the crocodile's eyes. In connection with this latter exploit, by the way, Malay authorities assert that the crocodile's eyes protrude from their sockets on stalks (like those of a crab) so long as he stays under water, the stalks being "as long as the forefinger," so that it is quite an easy matter to catch hold of these living "pegs."

For the rest, crocodiles are said by the Malays to have a sort of false stomach divided into several pouches or sacs, one sac being for the stones which they swallow, and another for the clothes and accoutrements of their human victims, these pouches being in addition to their real stomach (in which the remains of monkeys, wild pig, mouse-deer, and other small animals are found), and, in the case of female specimens, the ovary. The second pair of eyes in the neck which, Mr. Wray says, they are supposed to use when below the surface, are in Selangor supposed to be used at night, whence they are called mata malam, or night-eyes, as opposed to their real eyes which they are supposed to use only by day.

As regards the stones, which crocodiles undoubtedly swallow, they are sometimes supposed to enable each male crocodile to keep an account of the number of rivers which it has entered, of the number of bights it has lived in, or even of the number of its human victims. The noise which crocodiles make when fighting resembles a loud roar or bellow, and the Malays apply the same word menguak to the bellow of the crocodile as well as to that of the buffalo.

The wrath of the crocodile-folk is provoked by those who wish to shoot them, in various ways, of which, perhaps, the commonest is to dabble a sarong, or (as is said to be more effectual) a woman's mosquito-curtain, in the water of the river where they live. So also to keep two sets of weights and measures (one for buying and another for selling, as is sometimes done by the Chinese), is said to be a certain means of provoking their indignation.

The crocodile-wizard is sometimes credited with the power of calling the crocodile-folk together, and of discovering a man-eater among them, and an eye-witness lately described to me the scene on one such occasion. A Malay had been carried off and devoured by a crocodile at Larut, and a Batu Bara man, who went by the sobriquet of Nakhoda Hassan, undertook to discover the culprit. Sprinkling some of the usual sacrificial rice-paste (tepong tawar) and "saffron" rice upon the surface of the river, he called out in loud tones to the various tribes of crocodiles in the river, and summoned them to appear on the surface. My informant declares that not less than eight or ten crocodiles actually appeared, whereupon the Pawang commanded them all to return to the bottom with the exception of the one which was guilty. In a few moments only one crocodile remained on the surface, and this one, on being forthwith killed and cut open, was found to contain the garments of the unfortunate man who had been captured by it. Similar stories of the prowess of crocodile charmers are told by the Javanese. [500]

I shall now proceed to describe the methods and ceremonies used for the catching of crocodiles. The following is a description by Mr. J. H. M. Robson, of Selangor, of the most usual method, at all events in Selangor, but it would appear from remarks upon the subject in Dr. Denys' work, that live as well as dead bait is commonly used:--

"A small piece of hard wood, about 6 in. or 8 in. long, and about three-quarters of an inch thick, is sharpened at both ends, and to the middle of this the end of a yard of twine is firmly fastened, the twine having about a dozen strands just held together by say a couple of knots, so as to prevent the crocodile from biting it through, as the strands simply get between his teeth; to the other end of this twine is fastened a single uncut rattan, at least 20 feet long, which can be only a quarter of an inch in diameter, but may with advantage be a little bigger; a small stick affixed to the end of the line, to act as a visible float, completes this part of the gear. Probably a crocodile will eat anything, but he is certainly partial to chicken--at least that bait is always successful in the Sepang river--so, having killed some sort of fowl, the body is cut right through the breast lengthways from head to tail, and the small piece of pointed hard wood inserted, and the bird bound up again with string. Next, two pieces of light wood are nailed together, forming a small floating platform about a foot square, and on this the fowl is placed, raised on miniature trestles. The small platform thus furnished is placed in a likely spot near the bank, and the rattan line is hitched over a small branch or a stake, so that the bait platform may not be carried away by the tide. By the next morning the rattan line, bait and platform may all have disappeared, which probably means that the crocodile, having swallowed the fowl, has gone off with the rattan in tow, a tug being sufficient to set it free, whilst the platform, thus released, has drifted away. A crocodile will try the aggressive sometimes, so, when going in pursuit, it is better to have a boat than a sampan, [501] but Malay paddles are the most convenient in either case. It is also advisable to have a second man with a rifle. The crocodile has probably a favourite place up-stream, so the boatmen paddle up on the look-out for the rattan (which always floats), finding it at length close to the mangrove roots bordering on the river, perhaps. The boat-hook picks up the floating-stick end of the line, and, with a couple of boatmen on to this and a crocodile at the other end, with the small pointed hard wood stick across his throat, the excitement begins. The crocodile plunges about amidst the mangrove roots under the water, and then makes a rush; the rattan is paid out again and the boat follows; then he rushes under the boat, perhaps at the boat, whilst the line is steadily pulled in. This sort of thing may last some time, but the only thing to be afraid of is the rattan's getting twisted round a bakau [502] root under water, which might prevent a capture; otherwise, after a good deal of playing of a rather violent nature, the continual pulling of the rattan-holders in the boat, or his own aggressiveness, induces him to show his head above the surface, whereat the rifles crack, and the crocodile dies, though often not till four or five bullets have been put into different parts of his body." [503]

I will now proceed to describe the religious ceremonies which accompany this performance.

The following outline of the ceremonies used in catching a crocodile who is known to be a man-eater, was taken down by me from the mouth of a noted crocodile-wizard on the Langat river. First, you take strips of bark of a river-side bush or tree called baru-baru (which must be cut down at a single stroke), and fasten them together at each end only, so that they form a rope with divided (unravelled) strands. This will form that part of your tackle which corresponds to the gut (perambut) of a fishing line, (i.e. the part just above the hook), and the advantage of it is that the loose strands get between the crocodile's teeth, and prevent it from being bitten through as a rope would certainly be.

Next, you take a piece of the bottommost rung of a house-ladder (anak tangga bongsu), and sharpen it to a point at both ends, so as to form a cross-piece (palang) such as will be likely to stick in the crocodile's throat. Having fastened one end of the "gut" round the middle of the cross-piece, and the other to your rattan line, the length of which may be from ten to fifteen fathoms or so, according to the depth of the river at the spot where the crocodile is supposed to lie, you must next cut down a young tree to serve as the pole (chanchang) to which the floating platform and bait may be subsequently attached. This pole may be of any kind of wood except bamboo; so when you have found a suitable tree, take hold of it with the left hand and chop at it thrice with the right, saying a charm as you do so--

"Peace be with you, O Prophet Tetap, in whose charge is the earth, Peace be with you, O Prophet Noah, Planter of Trees, I petition for this tree to serve as a mooring-post for my crocodile-trap; If it is to kill him (the crocodile), do you fall supine, If it is not to kill him, do you fall prone." [504]

These last two lines refer to the omens which are taken from the way the tree falls; the "supine" position being that of a crocodile which has "turned turtle," whereas the prone position would be its natural attitude as it swims.

Then start making the floating platform or raft (rakit) by chopping a plantain stem (any kind will do) into three lengths (di-k'ratkan tiga), and then skewering these lengths together at their ends so as to form a triangle.

Into the apex of this triangle firmly plant the lower end of a strong and springy rod, making the upper end curve over slightly in a forward direction (di-pasang-nya kayu melentor ka-atas) and securing it in its position by two lashings, which are carried down from its tip and fastened to the two front corners of the triangle. Then utter the charm and plant the pole by the river-side in the spot you have selected, holding your breath and making believe that you are King Solomon (di-sifatkan kita Raja Suleiman) as it sinks into the ground. The charm consists of these lines:--

"Peace be with you, O Prophet Khailir, In whose charge is the water; Peace be with you, O Prophet Tetap, In whose charge is the earth; Pardon, King of the Sea, Deity of Mid-currents, I ask only for the 'guilty' (crocodiles), The innocent do you assist me to let go, And drive out only the guilty which devoured So-and-so. If you do not do so, you shall die," etc.

Now prepare the bait. To do this you must kill a fowl (in the orthodox way), cut it partly open and insert the ladder-rung into its body, wrapping the flesh and feathers round it, and binding the whole bird seven times round and seven times across with a piece of rattan, not forgetting, however, to observe silence and hold your breath as you pass the first rattan lashing round the fowl's carcase. When you have finished binding it up as directed, chew some betel-leaf and eject (semborkan) the chewed leaf upon the fowl's head, repeating the appropriate charm. [505] Then hook the bait (sangkutkan umpan) on to the tip of the bent rod (on no account tie it on, as it must be left free for the crocodile to swallow), and having prepared the wonted accessories--including three chews of betel-leaf, a richek of ginger (halia bara sa-richek), and seven white pepper-corns (lada sulah tujoh biji)--breathe (jampikan) upon the betel-leaf, and at the end of the invocation eject the chewed betel-leaf upon the head of the cock intended for the bait.

The charm to be recited (which makes allusion to the fable concerning the supposed origin of the crocodile) runs as follows:--

"Follow in procession, follow in succession, The 'Assembly-flower' begins to unfold its petals; Come in procession, come in succession, King Solomon's self comes to summon you. Ho, Si Jambu Rakai, I know your origin; Sugar-cane knots forty-four were your bones, Of clay was formed your body; Rootlets of the areca-palm were your arteries, Liquid sugar made your blood, A rotten mat your skin, And a mid-rib of the thatch-palm your tail, Prickles of the pandanus made your dorsal ridge, And pointed berembang suckers your teeth. [506] If you splash with your tail it shall break in two, If you strike downwards with your snout it shall break in two, If you crunch with your teeth they shall all be broken. Lo, Si Jambu Rakai, I bind (this fowl) with the sevenfold binding, And enwrap it with the sevenfold wrapping Which you shall never loosen or undo. Turn it over in your mouth before you swallow it. O, Si Jambu Rakai, accept this present from Her Highness Princess Rundok, from Java: [507] If you refuse to accept it, Within two days or three You shall be ... choked to death with blood, Choked to death by Her Highness Princess Rundok, from Java. But if you accept it, A reach up-stream or a reach down-stream, there do you await me; It is not my Word, it is King Solomon's Word; If you are carried down-stream see that you incline up-stream, If you are carried up-stream see that you incline down-stream, By virtue of the Saying of King Solomon, 'There is no god but God,'" etc.

Then take a canoe paddle (to symbolise the crocodile's tail) and some strong thread, fasten one end of the thread to the front of the floating platform, and the other end to the bow of your boat, back water till it grows taut, and strike the surface of the water thrice with the aforesaid "mock" crocodile's tail. If the first time you strike it the sound is clearest (terek bunyi) it is an omen that the crocodile will swallow the bait the first day; if the second time, it will be the second day when he does so; if the third time, it will be the third day. But every time you strike the water you must say to yourself, "From Fatimah was your origin" (Mani Fatimah asal'kau jadi), in order to make the crocodile bold. After striking the water you may go home and rest; but you must get up again in any case at about two in the afternoon (dlohor), and whatever happens you must remember never to pass underneath a low overhanging bough (because such a bough would resemble the bent rod of the floating platform), and never (for the time being) to eat your curry without starting by swallowing three lumps of rice successively. If you do this it will help the bait to slide more easily down the crocodile's throat, and in the same way you must never, until the brute is safely landed, take any bones out of the meat in your curry--if you do, the wooden cross-piece is sure to get loose and work out of the fowl--so it is just as well to get somebody to take the bones out of your meat before you begin, otherwise you may at any moment be compelled to choose between swallowing a bone and losing all your labour.

I will pass on to the final capture. The crocodile has taken the bait, we will say, and with the last of the ebb, not unfrequently in a perilously rickety boat, you go out to look for the tell-tale end of the line that floats up among the forked roots of the mangrove trees. First you must go to the place where you left the floating platform; take hold of the pole to which it is moored and press it downwards into the river-bottom, saying (to the hooked crocodile) as you do so:--

"Do not run away, Our agreement was a cape (further) up-stream, A cape (further) down-stream." [508]

(Here hold your breath and press upon the pole.) Then wait for the tide to turn, search for the end of the line (which, being of rattan, is sure to float) up and down the river banks, and when you find it take hold of the end and give it three tugs, repeating as you do so this "crippling charm":--

"I know the origin from which you sprang, From Fatimah did you take your origin. Your bones (she made from) sugar-cane knots, Your head from the cabbage of a cocoa-nut palm, The skin of your breast from the leaf-case of a palm, Your blood from saffron, Your eyes from the star of the east, Your teeth from the pointed suckers of the berembang tree, Your tail from the sprouting of a thatch-palm."

As you utter the last words give the end of the line three twists (pioh) and then clench the teeth upon it (katup di gigi) thrice, holding your breath as you do so; then jerk it (rentak) thrice and haul upon it (runtun); if you feel much resistance slack it off again and repeat the ceremony, using the "crippling charm" as before, "until you break all the bones in his body." Besides this, in order to drive the "mischief" out of the crocodile, you may say:--

"Pardon, King of the Sea, God of Currents, I wish to drive the 'mischief' out of this crocodile." [509]

And strike the water and middle of the line with the end of the line itself.

Now you haul on the line, and the crocodile comes up to the top with a rush, and the fun begins. As he comes up to the surface you ask him, "Was it you who caught So-and-so?" [510] And if he wishes to reply in the affirmative he will bellow loudly. When he does so, say, "Wind yourself up" ("lilit"), and he will wind the line round his muzzle. And when you want to kill him, chop across the root of his tail with a cutlass; this will kill him at once.

I may add that it is not generally wise to keep a captured crocodile alive overnight, as he happens to be one of the clientèle of a certain powerful hantu (spirit) named Langsuir [511] who comes to the assistance of his follower at night and endows him with supernatural strength, thus enabling him, if he is not very sufficiently tied up, to get loose, which might be awkward. You should also never bring one into the house, on account of an understanding, prejudicial to yourself, which exists between him and the common house-lizard (chichak).

Of the folklore which is concerned with other classes of "reptilia" that which deals with Snakes is the most important.

"The gall-bladder of the python, uler sawah, is in great request among native practitioners. This serpent is supposed to have two of these organs, one of which is called lampedu idup, or the live gall-bladder. It is believed that if a python is killed and this organ is cut out and kept, it will develop into a serpent of just twice the size of that from which it was taken. The natives positively assert that the python attains a length of sixty to seventy feet, and that it has been known to have killed and eaten a rhinoceros.

"One of the pit vipers is exceedingly sluggish in its movements, and will remain in the same place for days together. One individual that was watched, lay coiled up on the branch of a tree for five days, and probably would have remained much longer, but at the end of that time it was caught and preserved. The Malays call it ular kapak daun, and they say that it is fed three times a day by birds, who bring it insects to eat. One man went so far as to say that he had actually once seen some birds engaged in feeding one of these beautiful bright-green snakes." [512]

In Selangor, as in Perak, the "live gall-bladder" of the python will (it is believed), if kept in a jar, develop into a serpent; when dried it is in great request as a remedy for small-pox. The story that Mr. Wray tells of the pit viper (ular kapak daun) is in Selangor told of a snake called chintamani. Selangor Malays say that it was once upon a time a Raja of the country, and that the birds which bring it food were then its subjects. A Malay told me that he once saw this operation, and that the birds fed it with insects. It is reputed to be a perfectly harmless snake, and it is considered extremely lucky to keep one of the species in one's house, or even to see it. It is described as of a bright and glittering blue [513] colour (biru berkilat-kilat), and is frequently referred to in charms, especially those connected with the Rice-soul ceremony, and is sometimes said to spring from the egg of the chandrawasih or bird of paradise.

The cobra (ular tedong) is said to have a bright stone (kemala or gemala) [514] in its head, the radiance of which causes its head to be visible on the darkest night. A "snake bezoar" (guliga ular) is also said to be occasionally found in the back of a snake's head (?), whilst the snake-stone (batu ular) is carried in its mouth.

This batu ular is a prize for the possession of which snakes are not unfrequently believed to fight, and appears to correspond to the pearl for which in Chinese legendary lore the dragons of that country were believed to engage in mortal combat. A Malay remarked to me that it was always worth while if one came upon two snakes thus engaged to kill them both, as one of them was sure to possess this much-coveted stone, which is said to confer an almost certain victory upon its possessor.

Another species of "snake-stone," which is said to be manufactured by Pawangs from gold, silver, amalgam (of silver and gold), tin, iron, and quicksilver, is called Buntat Raksa, and is said to be invaluable in case of snake-bite. It is believed that this stone will adhere to the wound, and will not fall off until it has sucked out all the poison. One of these stones, which was sold to me in Selangor for a dollar, was about an inch long and oval in shape; it was evidently made of some mixture of metals, and was perforated so as to enable it to be carried on a string.

The ular gantang is said to be a snake, though from the description given it would seem more likely to be some species of slow-worm or blind-worm. It is only a "few inches" long, and is "black," and there is said to be little if any difference between its head and its tail. It is considered to be extremely lucky, and when a Malay meets it, he spreads out his head-cloth or turban on the ground, and allows it to enter, when he carries it home and keeps it.

To dream of being bitten by a snake is thought to portend success in a love affair. [515]

"A horned toad, known as katak bertandok, but not the common one of that name (Megalophrys nasuta, Gunther), has a very bad reputation with the Malays. It is said to live in the jungle on the hills, and wherever it takes up its abode all the trees and plants around wither and die. So poisonous is it, that it is dangerous even to approach it, and to touch or be bitten by it is certain death.

"The bite of the common toad (Bufo melanostictus, Cantor) is also said to prove fatal. That toads have no teeth is an anatomical detail that does not seem to be thought worthy of being taken into account.

"The supposed venomous properties of this useful and harmless tribe have a world-wide range. In Shakespeare many allusions to it are made; one of them, which mentions the habit of hibernation possessed by those species which inhabit the colder parts of the earth, says--

'In the poison'd entrails throw, Toad, that under coldest stone Days and nights hast thirty-one, Swelter'd venom sleeping got, Boil thou first i' the charmed pot.'

"In another, reference is made to the toad-stone, which seems to be represented in Malayan tradition by the pearl carried in the bodies of the hamadryad, the cobra, and the bungarus, the three most deadly snakes of the Peninsula:--

'Sweet are the uses of adversity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in its head.'

"There is some foundation of fact for the popular belief, as toads secrete an acrid fluid from the skin, which appears to defend them from the attacks of carnivorous animals." [516]

It may not be out of place to give here a Malay tradition about a species of snail:--

"A strange superstition is attached to a small snail which frequents the neighbourhood of the limestone hills in Perak. It belongs to the Cyclophoridæ, and is probably an Alycæus. Among the grass in the shadow of a grazing animal these creatures are to be discovered, and if one of them is crushed it will be found to be full of blood, which has been drawn in a mysterious way from the veins of the animal through its shadow. Where these noxious snails abound, the cattle become emaciated and sometimes even die from the constant loss of blood. In the folklore of other countries many parallels to this occur, but they differ in either the birds, bats, or vampires, who are supposed to prey on the life-blood of their fellows, going direct to the animals to suck the blood, instead of doing so through the medium of their shadows." [517]

4. FISHING CEREMONIES

Fish are in many cases credited by the Malay peasant with the same portentous ancestry as that which he attributes to some of the larger animals and birds.

"Many Malays refuse to eat the fresh-water fish called ikan belidah, [518] on the plea that it was originally a cat. They declare that it squalls like a cat when harpooned, and that its bones are white and fine like a cat's hairs. Similarly the ikan tumuli is believed to be a human being who has been drowned in the river, and the ikan kalul to be a monkey transformed. Some specially favoured observers have seen monkeys half through the process of metamorphosis--half-monkey and half-fish." [519]

Similarly, the Dugong (Malay duyong) is asserted by some Malays to have sprung from the remains of a pig, which Muhammad himself dined off before he pronounced pork to be the accursed thing. Being cast by the Prophet into the sea, it revived and took the shape of the dugong, in which shape it is still to be found off the coast of Lukut and Port Dickson, where it feeds upon sea-grass (rumput setul), in common with a species of small tripang or bêche-de-mer. [520]

The origin of the Eel (ikan b'lut) is derived from a stem of the g'li-g'li plant; the "white-fish" (ikan puteh) from splinters, or rather shavings of wood (tatal kayu or tarahan kayu); the senunggang fish from the long-tailed monkey (k'ra); the aruan fish from a frog (katak) or lizard (mengkarong); the bujok fish from charred fire-logs (puntong api); the telan fish from the creeping roots of the yam (sulur k'ladi); and so on. There is even the leaf of a certain tree which is sometimes said to turn into a fish (the ikan belidah), [521] while the following story is held to account for the origin of the Porpoise:--

Once upon a time there was a fishing-wizard (Pawang Pukat) who had encountered nothing but misfortune from first to last, and who at length determined to put forth all his skill in magic in one last desperate effort to repay the burden of debt which threatened to crush him. One day, therefore, having tried his luck for the last time, and still caught nothing, he requested his comrades to collect an immense quantity of mangrove leaves in their boat. Having carried these leaves out to the fishing-ground, he scattered them on the surface of the water, together with a few handfuls of parched and saffron-stained rice, repeating a series of most powerful spells as he did so. The next time they fished, the leaves had turned into fish of all shapes and sizes, and an immense haul of fish was the result. The wizard then gave directions for the payment in full of all his debts and the division of the balance among his children, and then without further warning plunged into the sea only to reappear as a porpoise.

"A species of fish-like tadpole, [522] found at certain seasons of the year in the streams and pools, is supposed to divide when it reaches maturity, the front portion forming a frog and the after-part or tail becoming the fish known as ikan kli, one of the cat-fishes or Siluridæ. In consequence of this strange idea many Malays will not eat the fish, deeming it but little better than the animal from which it is supposed to have been cast.

"The ikan kli is armed with two sharp barbed spines attached to the fore-part of the pectoral fins, and can and does inflict very nasty wounds with them, when incautiously handled. The spines are reputed to be poisonous, but it is believed that if the brain of the offending fish is applied to the wound, it will act as a complete antidote to the poisonous principle, and the wound will heal without trouble. The English cure for hydrophobia--that is, 'the hair of the dog that bit you'--will occur to all as a modification of the same idea." [523]

The fish called seluang is used for purposes of magic. It is supposed that any one who pokes out its eyes with a special needle (which must be one out of a score--the packets being made up in scores--and must possess a torn eye) will be able to inflict blindness, by sympathy, upon any person against whom he has a grudge. [524]

The fish called kedera is supposed to change into a sea-bird.

I will now proceed to describe the ceremony which is supposed to secure an abundant catch of fish in the stakes.

In January 1897 I witnessed the ceremony of sacrificing at the fishing-stakes (menyemah b'lat) which took place at the hamlet of Ayer Hitam (lit. "Blackwater"), in the coast district of Kuala Langat (Selangor). The chief performer of the rites was an old Malay named Bilal Umat, who had owned one of the fishing-stakes in the neighbourhood for many years past, and had annually officiated at the ceremony which I was about to witness. I and my small party arrived in the course of the morning, and were received by Bilal Umat, who conducted us to the long, low palm-thatch building (bangsal kelong), just above high-water mark, in which he and his men resided during the fishing-season. Here we found that a feast was in course of preparation, but what most attracted my attention was the sight of three large sacrificial basket-work trays, [525] each about 2 1/2 feet square, and with high fringed sides which were suspended in a row from the roof of the verandah, on the seaward side of the building. These trays were empty, but had been lined with banana leaves to prepare them for the reception of the offerings, which latter were displayed upon a raised platform standing just in front of them.

Shortly after our arrival the loading of the trays commenced. First Bilal Umat took a large bowl of parched rice, and poured it into the trays, until the bottom of each tray was filled with a layer of parched rice about an inch in depth.

Next he took a bowl of saffron-stained rice, and deposited about five portions of it in the centre and four corners of each tray; then he made a similar distribution of small portions of washed rice, of sweet potatoes (k'ledek), of yams (k'ladi), of tapioca (ubi kayu), of bananas (pisang), and betel-leaf (sirih)--there being two sets, one cooked and one uncooked, of each of these portions, except the last. Finally, he added one cigarette to each portion, the cigarette being intended for the spirits to smoke after their meal!

A fine black goat, "without blemish and without spot," had been killed by Bilal Umat early that morning, and he now deposited its head in the middle of the central tray, two of the feet in the middle of the right-hand tray, and the other two feet in the middle of that on the left. To each of these three central portions were now added small portions of the animal's viscera (liver, spleen, lights, tripe, heart, etc.), and then the small diamond-shaped (ketupat) and cylindrical (lepat) rice-bags [526] were suspended in the usual manner. A wax taper was added to each portion of each tray, and the loading of the trays declared complete.

Everything being now ready, Bilal Umat carried a smoking censer thrice round the row of trays (walking always towards the left), and then lighting the five wax tapers of the left-hand tray, directed two of his men to take down this tray and sling it on a pole between them. This they did, and we set off in procession along the sandy foreshore at the back of the building until we came to a halt at a spot about fifty yards off, where Bilal Umat suspended the tray from the branch of a mangrove-tree about five feet from the ground. This done, he faced round towards the land, and breaking off a branch of the tree, gave utterance to three stentorian cooees, which he afterwards informed me were intended to notify the Land Spirits (Orang darat, lit. "Land Folk") of the fact that offerings were awaiting their acceptance. Returning to the house, he manufactured one of the leaf-brushes [527] which the Malays always used for the "Neutralising Rice-paste" (tepong tawar) rite, and we then started in a couple of boats for the fishing-stakes, taking with us the two remaining trays.

Of these two trays, one was suspended by Bilal Umat from a high wooden tripod which had been erected for the purpose, the site selected being the centre of a shoal about half-way between the fishing-stakes and the house. The third tray, which contained the head of the goat (kapala kambing dengan buah-nya), was then taken on to the fishing-stakes, Bilal Umat disposing of a large quantity of miscellaneous offerings which he had brought with him in a basket by strewing them upon the surface of the sea as we went along. [528]

On reaching the stakes, the Pawang (Bilal Umat) suspended the tray from a projecting pole at the seaward end of the fishing-stakes, [529] and then seating himself upon one of the timbers almost directly underneath it, scattered handfuls of saffron-stained rice, "washed" rice, and native cigarettes upon the water, just outside the two seaward posts at the end of the stakes, and emptied out the remainder of the parched rice upon the water just inside the "head" of the stakes. Then he recited a charm, stirred the bowl of neutralising rice-paste (tepong tawar) with the brush of leaves, and taking the latter out of the bowl, sprinkled, or rather daubed it first upon the two "tide-braces" of the stakes (first upon the left "tide-brace," and then upon the right), then upon the heads of the two upright posts next to the tide-braces, and then delegated the brush to two assistants. One of these sprinkled the heads of all the (remaining) upright posts in the seaward compartment of the stakes, while the other boarded the big boat belonging to the stakes, and sprinkled the boat and all its gear from stem to stern (commencing on the left side of the bows, and working right down to the stern, and then recommencing on the right and working down to the stern again). Finally, the same assistant returning to the stakes, washed the rice-bowl in the sea just beneath the place where Bilal Umat was sitting, and fastened up the leaf-brush to the left-hand head-post (kayu puchi kiri) at the seaward end of the stakes. To the above account I may add that a number of taboos are still pretty rigorously enforced by the fishing-wizards (Pawang B'lat) upon the coast of Selangor. I was never allowed to take either an umbrella or boots into the fishing-stakes when I visited them--the spirits having, I was told, the strongest possible objection to the use of either.

Other "perpetual taboos" (pantang salama-lama-nya) are to bathe without wearing a bathing-cloth (mandi telanjang), to throw the wet bathing-cloth over the shoulder when returning to the house, and to rub one foot against the other (gosok satu kaki dengan lain). Sarongs, umbrellas, and shoes must never on any pretence be worn. I may add that the first pole planted is called Turus Tuah (tua?), and if the response of the spirits to the invocation be favourable, it is believed that it will enter the ground readily, as if pulled from below. The only seven-days' taboo which I have heard mentioned (though, no doubt, there are many others) is the scrupulous observance of chastity.

A boat which possesses a knot in the centre of its keel, or to which the smell of fish long adheres (p'rahu peranyir, or perhanyir), is supposed to bring good luck to the fishermen.

There is also a regular "taboo language" used by the fishermen, of which the following are examples:--

"Fish = daun kayu (tree-leaves) or sampah laut (jetsam). Snake = akar hidup (living creeper). Crocodile = batang kayu (tree-log). Seaward compartment of the stakes (bunohan) = kurong."

At the close of the ceremony Bilal Umat repeated to me one of the kelong [530] invocations which he had just been making use of, and which ran as follows:--

"Peace be with you, God's Prophet, 'Tap! Peace be with you, God's Prophet, Khizr! Peace be with you, God's Prophet, Noah! Peace be with you, god of the Back-water! Peace be with you, god of the 'Bajau'! Peace be with you, god of Mid-currents! Peace be with you, god of the Yellow Sunset-glow! Peace be with you, Old Togok the Wizard! Peace be with you, O Elder Wizard! It is not I who make you this peace-offering, It is Old Togok the Wizard who makes it. It is the Elder Wizard who makes it, By the order of Old Aur Gading (lit. 'Ivory Bamboo'). By virtue of 'There is no god,'" etc. [531]

The following was the charm used by the Pawang at the planting of the first pole of a jermal: [532]--

"Peace be with you, Eldest Wizard, First of Wizards, Allah, And Musa, the Converser with Allah. Sedang Bima, Sedang Buana, Sedang Juara, and King of the Sea, Come let us all together Plant the pole of this jermal."

Even when fishing with rod and line, a serapah (invocation) of some sort, such as the following, was generally used:--

"Ho, God of Mid-currents, See that you do not agitate my hook! If my hook is to the left, Do you go to the right. If my hook is to the right, Do you go to the left. If you approach this hook of mine You shall be cursed by the Saying of God," etc.

(Before casting the line, a chew of betel-leaf should be thrown into the water.)

Another very common rhyming charm would frequently be addressed to the fish:--

"Swallow (lit. receive) the gut of my line, Be it broken sooner than torn from my hands, If you tear it from my hands Your eye shall be plucked out."

(d) Fire

1. PRODUCTION OF FIRE

"Procuring fire by friction is an accomplishment as common to the Malay as to the North American Indian. The process is, however, slightly different. While the latter resorts to circular friction, the Malay cuts a notch on the converse surface of a bamboo, across which he rapidly rubs another piece cut to a sharp edge. A fine powder is rubbed away and this ignites. Bamboo is also used as a flint with tinder. The all-pervading match, however, is alone used in all districts under foreign influence." [533]

The foregoing description requires to be supplemented, for the method of procuring fire by circular friction is hardly (if at all) less common among the Malays than the method of cross friction. The former process takes the form of the well-known "fire-drill," both the block and the upright stick being generally made of mahang wood. The upright stick is frequently worked by a species of "bow," such as that used by carpenters, and is kept from jumping out of the socket in which it revolves by means of a cocoa-nut shell, which is pressed down from above. When cross friction is used, a long narrow slit is usually cut, following the grain, in the convex surface of the piece of bamboo, the dust which is rubbed away falling through it and gradually forming a little pile which presently ignites. It is hardly necessary to cut a notch for the cross-piece, as a groove is very quickly worn when the friction is started. A species of fire-syringe has also, I believe, been collected by Mr. L. Wray in Perak.

2. FIRE CHARMS

In procuring fire by circular or cross friction the performer will often say, by way of a charm--

"The Mouse-deer asks for Fire [534] To singe his mother-in-law's feathers."

The "mouse-deer's mother-in-law" is the name of a small bird, which is said to have very gay plumage of five colours and to resemble the green pigeon (punei) in shape, and the explanation of this charm is said to be that in the days of King Solomon, when both the mouse-deer and his mother-in-law wore their human forms, the Mouse-deer was greatly annoyed by the conduct of his mother-in-law, who kept dancing in front of him as he went. A quarrel ensued, [535] as the result of which they were both transformed into the shapes which they now respectively bear; but the mother-in-law has not yet abandoned her exasperating tactics, and may still often be seen tantalising the Mouse-deer by hopping in front of it as it goes along.

There are still some traces of the influence of animistic ideas in that part of Malay folklore which is concerned with fire. If an inflammable object, such as wood, falls by accident into the fire, a stick must be used in extracting it, and the stick left, as a substitute, in its place.

The hearth-fire (api dapor) must never be stepped over (di-langkah-nya), nor must the rice-pot which stands upon it, as in the latter case the person who does so will be "cursed by the Rice."

Both fire and smoke (fumigation) are a good deal used by the Malays for purposes of ceremonial purification, but the details of such rites cannot be conveniently discussed except in connection with the complete ceremonies of which they form a part; they will accordingly be found under such headings as Birth, Adolescence, Marriage, Medicine, and Funerals. [536]

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