D.

=Dabber.= A tool used in etching to distribute the etching-ground over a plate of metal in the first process of engraving, and, in printing from copper-plate engraving and woodcuts, to spread the ink.

=Dactyliography= or =Dactyliology=, Gen. (δακτύλιος, a ring). The study of rings.

=Dactyliotheca=, Gr. (δακτυλιο-θήκη, a ringbox). (1) A glass case or casket containing rings. (2) A collection of rings, engraved stones, or precious stones. (See GLYPTOTHECA.)

=Dactylus=, Gr. (δάκτυλος, a finger). The Roman _digitus_; a finger-breadth, the 16th part of a foot.

=Dado=, Arch. (1) The part of a pedestal between the base and the cornice. (2) In apartments, an arrangement of moulding, &c., round the lower part of the wall.

=Dædal.= A fanciful word coined by the poet Spenser, for “variegated in design.”

=Dædala=, Gr. Ancient images preserved in sanctuaries in memory of Dædalus, to whom were attributed the greater number of those works of art the origin of which was unknown. Hence the name was especially attributed to certain wooden statues, ornamented with gilding, bright colours, and real drapery, which were the earliest known form of images of the gods.

=Dædala=, Gr. (δαίδαλα). Festivals in honour of Hera, celebrated in Bœotia.

=Dæmon=, =Daimon=, Gr. (δαίμων). The good genius who watched over an individual during his whole life, like the Latin _Lar_ and _Genius_. It was the belief of Socrates that he was guided by his Daimon in every important act and thought of his life. The word has a general meaning of “Divinity.”

=Dag= or =Dagge=. Old English name of a pistol.

=Dagges=, O. E. Ornamental cutting of the edges of garments, introduced into England about 1346. (See the illustration to COINTISE, Fig. 177).

=Dagob=, Hindoo. A conical tumulus or shrine in which relics and images of Buddha were worshipped.

=Dag-swain=, O. E. A sort of rough material of which coverlets for beds, tables, or floors were made.

=Daguerreotype=. A kind of photography on plates of silver, named after M. Daguerre, the inventor.

=Daidies=, Gr. (from δαίω, to kindle). A festival held at Athens, during which torches were lit; it lasted three days.

[Illustration: Fig. 235. Dais.]

=Dais=, Chr. An architectural structure, decorated with sculptures and ornaments, which serves as a canopy for an altar, throne, pulpit, chair (_cathedra_), statue, or group. Fig. 235 represents a stone dais of the St. Anne door in the cathedral of Paris.

=Dais.= In Anglo-Saxon houses, and generally; a covered seat of honour, at the upper end of the hall, on a raised floor. (“In all the houses of the wealthy _in China_ there are two raised seats at the end of the reception-room, with a table between them.” _Fortune_.) (See DEAS.)

=Dalmahoy=, O. E. A kind of bushy bob-wig, worn especially by chemists; 18th century.

[Illustration: Fig. 236. Ecclesiastical Dalmatic.]

=Dalmatic.= A long robe or upper tunic partly opening at the sides, so named from its being of Dalmatian origin; an ecclesiastical vestment; also a portion of the coronation robes of sovereign princes. It was usually made of white silk with purple stripes, occasionally of other colours, the left sleeve only being ornamented; the right was plain for convenience. As early as the reign of Richard I., the dalmatic is mentioned amongst the coronation robes. (Fig. 236.) (See COLOBIUM, DEACON.)

=Damara= or =Dammar=. A resin used for varnishes. It is a valuable substitute for mastic.

=Damaretion.= A Sicilian coin, supposed to have been of gold, equal in value to a half-_stater_.

=Damas= (or =Damascus=) =Pottery Ware=. The commercial name in the 16th century for a large class of wares, now generally known as Persian.

[Illustration: Fig. 237. Specimen of Arabic Damascening (full size).]

=Damascening=, or =Damaskeening=, is the art of incrusting one metal on another, not in _crusta_, but in the form of wire, which by undercutting and hammering is thoroughly incorporated with the metal it is intended to ornament. (See DAMASK, DAMASCUS BLADES.) The process of etching slight ornaments on polished steel wares is also called Damascening. (Fig. 237.)

=Damascus Blades= are prepared of a cast steel highly charged with carbon, which, being tempered by a peculiar process, assumes the manycoloured _watered_ appearance by which they are known. The process is called DAMASCENING (q.v.).

=Damask.= A rich fabric, woven with large patterns, in silk, linen, wool, or even cotton, originally made at Damascus. (See Fig. 88.)

=Dames=, O. E. The old name for the game of draughts, represented early in the 14th century. The pieces were originally square.

=Danace= (δανάκη). The _obolus_ which was placed in the mouth of the dead to pay the passage of the Styx.

=Dance of the Corybantes.= (See CORYBANTICA.)

=Dance of Death=, =Danse Macabre=, Chr. Paintings, illuminations, or sculptures in bas-relief, representing men dancing under the eye of Death, who presides at this dance. In some instances the performers are skeletons and corpses. The most celebrated Dance of Death was that painted in fresco by Holbein in the cloister of the Dominicans at Basle. It has been destroyed by fire, but the etching-needle has preserved it for us. Other examples that may be named are, that in the new church at Strasburg, that of Lucerne, that in the palace at Dresden, and—most ancient of all—that at Minden, in Westphalia, which dates from 1380.

=Dancette=, Arch. The chevron or zigzag moulding peculiar to Norman architecture. (See CHEVRON.)

=Dangu Faience.= Pottery from a manufactory near Gisors in France, established in 1753.

=Daphnephoria= (δάφνη, a laurel). A festival held in honour of Apollo every ninth year at Thebes, in which the assistants carried laurel branches.

=Dara=, Ind. A kind of tambourine.

=Darabukkeh.= An Egyptian drum, unaltered from ancient times.

=Daric Money.= A Persian gold coin, stamped on one side with the figure of an archer kneeling, and on the other with a deep cleft, and to which the name of _Daric money_ has been given by numismatists. Its proper name is the Stater of Dareius I., king of Persia. Its value is about 1_l._ 1_s._ 10_d._

=Darned Netting= (needlework). (See LACIS.)

=Datatim ludere=, R. To play with a ball (“_catch-ball_”).

=Davenport Pottery= is the produce of a manufactory of fine faience established at Longport in England by John Davenport in 1793.

=Day=, Arch. Part of a window: the same as BAY.

=Deacon=, Chr. A dalmatic, or an alb; i. e. a _deacon’s_ vestment.

=Dead-boot=, O. E., Chr. Prayers for the dead.

=Dealbatus=, R. (_dealbo_, to whiten over). Covered with a coating of stucco (_albarium opus_). The builders of antiquity made great use of stucco, both in the interior and exterior of buildings. All the buildings of Pompeii are stuccoed.

=Deambulatory=, Arch. (_deambulo_, to walk about). The lateral nave which surrounds the choir of a church; it is usually separated from the aisles by a grating (_cancelli_).

=Deas=, =Dais=, =Dees=, Scotch, (1) A table, especially the great hall table. (2) A pew in a church. (3) A turf seat erected at the door of a cottage. (See DAIS.)

=Death’s-man=, O. E. The executioner.

=Debased=, Her. Reversed.

=Decadence.= The term in ancient art is applied to the period after the fall of Rome, and before the _Renaissance_ in the 14th century; in modern art to the period of the _rococo_ style of Louis XV.

=Decaduchi= (δεκα-δοῦχοι), Gr. A council of ten, who ruled Athens from B.C. 403 until the restoration of democracy.

=Decan=, Egyp. A period of ten days, which was ruled by a star called its _Decan_. The month was divided into three decans, and the year into thirty-six, each being presided over by its own inferior divinity. On zodiacs they are arranged in groups of three above the twelve superior gods. The decans were the tutelary genii of the horoscope.

=Decarchia= (δεκ-αρχία). A council of the Lacedæmonians.

=Decastellare=, Med. Lat. To dismantle.

=Decastylos=, Arch. A building of which the portico has ten columns; a decastylic pediment is a pediment supported by ten columns.

=Decemjugus= (sc. _currus_), R. A chariot drawn by ten horses abreast; represented on the medals of the later emperors.

=Decempeda=, R. A ten-foot measuring-rod used by architects and surveyors.

=Decemremis=, R. (_remus_, an oar). A vessel with ten banks of oars. It is certain that the different ranks of rowers, who had each his own seat, sat one above the other; the lowest row was called _thalamos_, the middle _zuga_, and the uppermost _thranos_; but it is very difficult to understand in what manner so many ranks could have been arranged, and the question has been the subject of infinite discussion.

=Decennalia= or =Decennia=. A festival at Rome in commemoration of the refusal of Augustus to become emperor for a longer period than ten years at a time.

=Decollation= (= beheading). An ecclesiastical expression applied to St. John the Baptist and other martyrs.

[Illustration: Fig. 238. Decorated window.]

=Decorated Style of Architecture.= The second of the POINTED or GOTHIC styles of architecture used in England. It was developed from the EARLY ENGLISH at the end of the 13th century, and gradually merged into the PERPENDICULAR during the latter part of the 14th. Its most characteristic feature is the geometrical traceries of the windows.

[Illustration: Fig. 239. Decrescent.]

=Decrescent=, =In Detriment=, Her. A half-moon having its horns to the sinister.

=Decursio=, R. (_decurro_, to run or march). Military manœuvres; a review, sham fight, or any exercise for training soldiers; the term _decursus_ was also used.

=Decussis=, R. (_decem_, ten, and _as_). A piece of money marked with the numeral X (10), and which was worth ten asses (post-Augustan; see DENARIUS).

=De Fundato= or =Netted=. A name given to certain silks, which were dyed of the richest purple, and figured with gold in the pattern of netting.

=De-gamboys=, O. E. A musical instrument. (See VIOL DE GAMBO.)

=Degradation=, Gen. The diminishing of the tones of colour, light, and shade, according to the different degrees of distance. (A term used especially in reference to glass painting.)

=Degreed=, =Degraded=, Her. Placed on steps.

=Deice=, =Deas=, or =Deis=, O. E. (See DAIS.)

=Deinos=, Gr. A vessel with a wide mouth and semi-spherical body, something like the _cacabus_.

=Delf.= Common pottery from Delft in Holland.

[Illustration: Fig. 240. Oil cruet, Delft ware.]

=Delft Faiences= are remarkable for the beauty of their paste and of their enamel, but spurious imitations are said to be abundant. Fig. 240 is a representative specimen of the real Delft ware. The date of the establishment of this manufacture is uncertain, but earlier than 1614; the ornamentation is inspired by Japanese art. (Consult _Jacquemart’s History of the Ceramic Art_.)

=Delia=, Gr. Festivals and games at Delos.

=Delphica= (sc. _cortina_), R. A table of a very costly description, made of white marble or bronze. It was used as a drinking-table, and had only three feet richly ornamented. [Explained under the heading CORTINA.]

=Delphinia.= A Greek festival in honour of Apollo.

=Delphinorum Columnæ=, R. The two columns at one end of the _spina_ of a circus, on which marble figures of dolphins were placed. The seven _ova_ (eggs) on similar columns at the end of the _spina_ opposite to these dolphins, served to indicate the number of turns made by the chariots round the goal. (See OVUM.) [The figure of the dolphin was selected in honour of Neptune.] (Cf. CIRCUS.)

[Illustration: Fig. 241. Dolphin. Used as an ornament.]

[Illustration: Fig. 242. Dolphin. Medal of Syracuse.]

=Delphinus=, =Dolphin=, Gen. (δελφίν). The dolphin was often used as an ornament, and especially as a hand-rest or banister to the _vomitoria_ or entrances of the theatres and amphitheatres. Fig. 241 represents a dolphin utilized in this manner at the theatre of Puzzoli. Many medals, as for instance those of Syracuse (Fig. 242), are stamped with a dolphin. (See also DOLPHIN.)

=Delphis=, R. A heavy mass of iron or lead used in naval warfare, to drop on board of a hostile ship and sink it. (Compare CORVUS.)

=Delubrum=, R. (_deluo_, to cleanse). A shrine; the part of a temple which contains the altar or statue of the deity, and thence a temple containing an altar.

=Demembered=, =Dismembered=, Her. Cut into pieces, but without any alteration in the form of the original figure.

[Illustration: Fig. 243. Demi-lion, _rampant_.]

=Demi=, Her. The half; the upper, front, or dexter half, unless the contrary is specified.

=Demi-brassarts=, =Vambraces=, or =Avant-braces=. Half-armour for the arm.

=Demi-culverin.= A cannon of four inches’ bore. (_Meyrick._)

=Demi-hag.= A smaller kind of hackbut (arquebus).

=Demi-haque=, O. E. A fire-arm, smaller than the arquebus; 16th century.

=Demi-jambes.= Armour for the shins.

=Demi-placcate.= The lower part of a breastplate.

=Demi-relievo.= Sculpture in relief, in which one half of the figure projects; generally called _Mezzo-relievo_. (See BASSO-RELIEVO.)

=Demiurgi= (δημι-ουργοί). Popular magistrates.

=Demosii.= Slaves belonging to the state, at Athens.

=Demotic= (writing), Egyp. (δημοτικὰ, sc. γράμματα, i. e. popular writing). A mode of writing among the ancient Egyptians, differing from the _hieroglyphic_ or sacred writing. This writing, which was employed for civil records, was introduced under the twenty-fifth dynasty, being derived from the _hieratic writing_, the first abbreviation of the hieroglyphics.

=Demster=, O. E. A judge.

=Demyt=, O. E. An old word for dimity; a kind of fustian. Perhaps so called because first manufactured at Damietta.

=Denarius=, R. (_deni_, by tens). The silver coin principally in use among the Romans. Until the reign of Augustus the denarius was worth ten asses, and afterwards sixteen. _Denarius aureus_ was a gold denarius, equal in value to twenty-five silver denarii.

=Denia.= A city of Valencia in Spain, which disputes with Alcora the production of a remarkable kind of pottery, of which Jacquemart mentions a vase with two handles of Arab form, resembling the alcarazas, upon a smooth white enamel decorated with birds and flowers coarsely painted.

=Dens=, R. Literally, a _tooth_; hence the prongs of a fork, the flukes of an anchor, the barbs of a lance, the teeth of a saw or rake.

=Dentale=, R. (_dens_, a tooth). The piece of wood in a plough on which the plough-share (_vomer_) is fastened.

=Dentatus=, R. Armed with teeth.

=Dentelle Decoration.= Of French pottery, a light lace pattern, more delicate than the “_lambrequin_.”

=Dentels=, Fr. (See DENTILE.)

=Dentile=, =Dentils= (Latin, _denticuli_), Arch. Ornaments in the form of small cubes or teeth, used in the moulding of cornices, in the IONIC, CORINTHIAN, and COMPOSITE orders. (See TOOTH-ORNAMENT, DOG’S-TOOTH.)

=Depas=, R. A bowl with two handles, the foot of which is made of a low flat moulding like the Doric fillet.

=Depressed=, Her. Surmounted, placed over another.

=Derby Porcelain.= Manufactory established in 1750. Jacquemart says, “Derby has made fine porcelains and statuettes which have nothing to fear by comparison with the groups of Saxony or Sèvres.”

=Dere=, O. E. Noble, honourable.

“Syr Cadore with his _dere_ knyghttes.”

=Derring do=, O. E. Deeds of arms.

=Deruncinatus=, R. Smoothed and polished with the _runcina_ or carpenter’s plane.

=Desca=, Lat. A stall or desk in a church.

=Descobinatus=, R. Rasped with the SCOBINA or carpenter’s rasp.

=Destrere=, Anglo-Norman. A war-horse.

=Desultorius= (sc. _equus_), R. (_desilio_, to leap off). A horse trained for equestrian performances in a circus by the _desultor_. _Desultorius_ is itself sometimes used as a synonym for _desultor_. The _desultor_ rode two horses at once, and got his name from his _leaping_ or vaulting from one to the other.

=Desvres=, Pas de Calais, France. An interesting manufactory of faience established in the 17th century, of a style originating in Flanders. (_Jacquemart._)

=Detached.= A term in painting applied to figures which stand out well.

=Detriment=, Her. (See DECRESCENT.)

=Deunx=, R. (_de_ and _uncia_, a twelfth part off). A nominal value not represented by any coin. The term means literally eleven _unciæ_, or eleven-twelfths of anything [i. e. ounces or twelfths of a pound].

=Developed=, Her. Displayed, unfurled.

=Devil=, Chr. Mediæval representations of the devil (especially in painting) were taken from those of the satyrs of the ancients. They were, however, subject to no canon of symbolism at all, and varied from the likeness of a beautiful woman to every imaginable variety of the grotesque and repulsive.

[Illustration: Fig. 244. Old Devonshire Lace.]

=Devonshire Lace (Old).= This lace is said to have been first introduced into England by the Flemings in 1567–73, and it long preserved its Flemish character. The engraving shows a specimen of old Devonshire lace, made at the beginning of the last century.

=Devs=, Pers. Evil genii, servants of Ahriman, in the religion of Zoroaster; they were twenty-eight in number, and were opposed to the ministers of the amchaspands or IZEDS (q.v.).

=Dextans=, R. (_de_ and _sextans_, i. e. a sixth part off). A nominal value not represented by any coin. The literal meaning of the term is ten _unciæ_, or ten-twelfths of anything [ounces].

=Dexter=, Her. The right side, i. e. to the spectator’s or reader’s left.

[Illustration: Fig. 245. Dextrochere or bracelet.]

=Dextrale=, R. (_dexter_, right). A bracelet worn by Greek and Roman women on the right arm, and differing from the _dextrocherium_ (Fig. 245), which was worn on the wrist. The latter ornament was often of gold. (See ARMILLA.)

=Dholkee=, Hindoo. A kind of tom-tom, or small drum. (See TOM-TOM.)

=Diabathrum=, Gr. and R. (βάθρον, that on which one stands). A sandal or light shoe worn by women, especially such as were tall. The comic poet Alexis, talking of courtesans, says, “One is too short, and so she puts cork in her _baukides_; another is too tall, and she puts on a light _diabathrum_.”

=Diaconicum=, =Scevophylacium=, and =Bematis Diaconicon=, Chr. A room in an ancient basilica near the altar, where the priests put on and took off their vestments, and the deacons (διάκονοι) prepared the vessels and sacred ornaments to be used in the service. _Diaconicum majus_ was the sacristy.

=Diadema=, R. (diadeô, to bind round). Originally the white fillet worn by Eastern monarchs round the head. It was made of silk, wool, or yarn, narrow, but wider in the centre of the forehead. The Greeks presented a diadem to every victor in the public games, and it was worn by priests and priestesses. As the emblem of sovereignty it is an attribute of Juno. Afterwards the term came to mean a diadem.

=Diæta=, Gr. and R. (i. e. a living-place). That part of a house in which a Roman received his guests. The same term was applied to a captain’s cabin in the after-part of a ship.

=Diætæ=, R. Summer-houses. (See HORTUS.)

=Diaglyph=, Gr. and R. (διαγλύφω, to carve through). An intaglio, or design cut into the material on which it is executed. (See INTAGLIO.)

=Diaglyphic.= (Sculpture, engraving, &c.) in which the objects are sunk below the general surface.

=Diagonal Rib=, Arch. A cross formed by the intersection of the ribs which cut one another according to the groins of a groined roof.

=Dialia=, Gr. and R. (διάλια, from Δὶς, old form for Ζεύς). Festivals held in honour of Jupiter by the Flamen Dialis (the priest of Jupiter).

=Diamastigosis=, Gr. (διαμαστίγωσις, i. e. a severe scourging). A festival held at Sparta in honour of Artemis Orthia, during which boys were flogged at an altar in order to harden them to the endurance of pain.

[Illustration: Fig. 246. Diamicton.]

=Diamicton=, Gr. and R. (διαμίγνυμι, to mix up). A wall, of which the outside surface was made of brickwork or regular layers of masonry, and the centre was filled up with rubble. Fig. 246.

=Diamond=, for glass-cutting, was not used till the 16th century, although suggested in a Bolognese MS. of a century earlier. Its discovery is attributed to Francis I., who, to let the Duchesse d’Estampes know of his jealousy, wrote on the palace windows with his ring,—

“Souvent femme varie; Mal habil qui s’y fie.”

The art of cutting and polishing diamonds with diamond powder was discovered by Louis de Berquem in 1476.

=Diamond=, in Christian art. (See WHITE.)

=Diamond Fret=, Arch. The descriptive name for a decorated moulding in Norman architecture.

[Illustration: Fig. 247. Di-amante, Punning device of Pietro de’ Medici.]

=Diamond Rings= were used as seal and bearings on his escutcheon (represented in Fig. 100) by Cosmo de’ Medici, the founder of the famous Florentine family. The device in various forms was invariably adopted by his descendants. Fig. 247 is the device of Pietro de’ Medici († 1470), the son of Cosmo: a falcon with a ring, and the punning motto, “Semper,” forming with the device the words “_Semper fa-’l-con di_ (Dio) _amante_.”

=Diapasma=, Gr. and R. (διαπάσσω, to sprinkle). A powder made of dried flowers and odoriferous herbs, which was put in a sachet for use as a perfume, or rubbed over the body.

=Diaper=, Arch. Ornament of sculpture in low relief, sunk below the general surface.

=Diaper=, O. E. A mode of decoration by a repeated pattern, carved or painted, generally in squares, representing flowers and arabesques.

[Illustration: Fig. 248. Diapered surcoat of a Herald, with the clarion.]

=Diaper= or =Damask=, a name given to a fine linen cloth made at Ypres, is spoken of as early as the 13th century.

“Of cloth making she had such a haunt, She passed hem of Ypres and of Gaunte.” (_Prologue of Canterbury Tales._)

The peculiarity of this cloth, as of that of Damascus, was in the pattern. “_To diaper_” is, in heraldry, to cover the field of an escutcheon with devices independent of the armorial bearings. The engraving shows a surcoat diapered, on which are embroidered armorial bearings. (Fig. 248.)

=Diasia=, Gr. Festivals in honour of Zeus, held at Athens, outside of the walls of the city, for the purpose of averting epidemics and other ills (ἄση).

=Diastyle=, Arch. An intercolumniation, in which the columns are separated from each other by a space of three diameters.

=Diathyrum=, Gr. A passage leading at one end to the street door of a house, and at the other to the door of the courtyard. The Romans called this space PROTHYRUM (q.v.).

[Illustration: Fig. 249. Diatonoi.]

=Diatoni=, =Diatonoi=, Gr. and R. (διατείνω, to extend through). Long stones extending from one face of a wall to the other (to which modern architects give the name of _perpenders_ or _perpend-stones_), and which were employed in the method of construction called EMPLECTON (q.v.). In Fig. 249 one is represented by the stone placed between b and c.

=Diatreta=, Gr. (διάτρητα, i. e. bored through). A drinking-cup made of glass, cut in such a way that the designs or ornaments upon it stand out completely from the body of the vase, and form a tracery, which is only united to the vase itself by small ties or pins left for the purpose.

=Diatriba=, Gr. and R. (διατρίβω, to spend time). Places in which learned discussions were held, such as lecture or assembly rooms.

=Diaulos=, Gr. The double flute. (See AULOS, FLUTE.) One in the British Museum, found in a tomb at Athens, is of cedar-wood, with tubes fifteen inches in length.

=Diazoma=, Gr. (διάζωμα, that which girdles). A Greek synonym of the Latin term PRÆCINCTIO (q.v.).

=Dicasterion=, =Dicastery=, Gr. (δικαστήριον; δίκη, justice). A tribunal at Athens in which the people themselves administered justice without the intervention of the magistrates.

=Dicastes.= A judge, or rather juryman, chosen annually from the citizens at Athens.

=Dicerion=, Chr. (δι-κέραιον, with two horns). A candlestick with two branches, holding which in their hands the Greek priests bless the people. The _dicerion_ is symbolical of the two-fold nature of Christ. (See TRICERION.)

=Dichalcon=, Gr. (δίχαλκος, i. e. double-chalcos). A small Greek copper coin worth only one-fourth or one-fifth of an obolus.

=Dichoria=, Gr. (δι-χορία, i. e. division of chorus). When the ancient choruses divided into two, to recite in turn a part of the action of a play, or mutually to interchange sentiments, this action was called _dichoria_; each half of the chorus was called _hemichoria_ (ἡμιχορία), and each stanza _antichoria_ (ἀντιχορία).

=Dicken=, O. E. The devil. “Odds dickens!”

=Dicker=, O. E. Half a score.

=Dicomos=, Gr. (κῶμος, a feast). A banqueting-song, which was sung at the second course of the feast at the festivals of Bacchus.

=Dicrotos=, =Dicrotus=, Gr. (δί-κροτος, lit. double-beating). The Greek name for a vessel with two banks of oars, the Roman _biremis_.

=Dictynnia= (δίκτυον, a hunter’s net). A Cretan festival in honour of Artemis.

[Illustration: Fig. 250. Dictyotheton.]

=Dictyotheton=, Gr. (from δίκτυον, a net). A kind of masonry composed of regularly-cut square stones, forming, in a wall so constructed, a network or chess-board pattern. It answered to the _opus reticulatum_ of the Romans.

=Didrachma=, =Didrachmum=, Gr. (δί-δραχμον). A double silver drachma of the Greek coinage, which was worth about two shillings.

=Die.= In Architecture, for _dado_, or the part of a pedestal that would correspond to the _dado_ (q.v.).

=Die-sinking.= The art of engraving on steel moulds, medals, coins, and inscriptions.

=Difference=, =Differencing=, Her. An addition to, or some change in, a coat of arms, introduced for the purpose of distinguishing coats which in their primary qualities are the same. Differencing is sometimes used in the same sense as Cadency; but, strictly, it is distinct, having reference to alliance and dependency, without blood-relationship, or to the system adopted for distinguishing similar coats of arms. (_Bouteil._)

=Digitale=, R. (_digitus_, a finger). A kind of glove worn by the Sarmatians, an example of which may be seen on Trajan’s Column.

=Diglyph=, Gr. and R. (δί-γλυφος, doubly indented). An ornament consisting of two _glyphæ_ (γλυφαὶ) or grooves channelled out on consoles. (See TRIGLYPH.)

=Diipoleia= (πολιεὺς, of the city). A very ancient Athenian festival, celebrated annually on the Acropolis, in honour of Zeus Polieus.

[Illustration: Fig. 251. Rose dimidiated. Device of James I.]

=Dimidiated=, Her. Cut in half per pale, and one half removed. Fig. 251 is a device placed by James I. on some of his coins, in which the thistle and rose are respectively _dimidiated_. The legend was, “_Fecit eos in gentem unam_.”

=Diocleia.= A festival of the Megarians, held about the grave of an ancient Athenian hero, Diocles. There was a prize for kissing.

=Dionysia.= The celebrated orgies of Dionysus or Bacchus, suppressed B.C. 186, and substituted by the Liberalia. (See BACCHANALIA.)

=Dioptra=, Gr. and R. (δίοπτρα; διοράω, to see through). An instrument used in surveying to measure distances and to take levels.

=Dioscuria=, Gr. and R. (Διοσκούρια). Games instituted at Rome in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), who, at the battle of Lake Regillus against the Latins (496 B.C.), were supposed to have fought on the side of the Romans.

=Diospolites=, Egyp. One of the nomes or divisions of Lower Egypt.

=Diota=, Gr. (δί-ωτα, with two ears). A name applied indifferently to any kind of vase furnished with two handles, such as _lagenæ_, _amphoræ_, _canthari_, &c.

=Diplinthus=, R. (πλίνθος, a brick). Masonry two bricks thick.

=Diploïs=, Gr. and R. Folded in two; an upper garment which was doubled in the same manner as a woman’s shawl at the present day; it was much worn among the Greeks.

=Diploma=, Gr. and R. (δίπλωμα, i. e. double-folded). A passport consisting of two leaves (whence its name). The term is also used to denote a diploma by which any right or privilege is conferred.

=Dipteral=, Arch. A building having double wings. The term is applied to any building having a double intercolumniation all round it.

=Diptheræ=, Gr. and R. (διφθέραι; δέφω, to make supple). (1) Prepared skins for writing on. (2) A kind of garment; an overcoat of skin or leather which Greek slaves put on over their tunic.

=Diptych=, Gr. (δί-πτυχα, i. e. double-folded). Double tablets united by means of strings or hinges. _Diptycha consularia_, _ædilitia_, _prætoria_ had engraved on them portraits of consuls, ædiles, prætors, and other magistrates. These consular diptychs were a part of the presents sent by new consuls on their appointment to very eminent persons. The series of them is a very valuable record of the progress of the art of ivory carving. In Christian archæology diptychs were decorated with scenes from biblical history. There were also diptychs of the baptized; of the bishops and benefactors of a church, living or dead; of saints and martyrs; and, lastly, of deceased members of the congregation, whose souls were to be remembered at mass. (See TRIPTYCH.)

=Directors=, or =Triangular Compasses=. A mathematical instrument adapted for taking three angular points at once.

=Diribitorium=, R. (_diribeo_, to sort or separate). A place or building in which a public officer inspected the troops, distributed the pay, and enrolled the conscripts in their respective regiments.

=Dirige=, Chr. A psalm forming part of the burial service, “Dirige gressus meos,” &c.; hence =Dirge=, for funereal music or hymns in general.

=Dirk.= A Scotch dagger.

[Illustration: Fig. 252. Tazza of Diruta, with head of “Rome.”]

=Diruta.= An important porcelain manufactory in the Papal States, established by a pupil of Luca della Robbia in 1461.

=Discerniculum=, R. (_discerno_, to divide). A bodkin used by Roman women in the toilet to part their hair. (See COMBS.)

=Discharging Arch.= An arch built into the structure of a wall, to relieve the parts below it of the pressure of those above it; such arches are common over flat-headed doors or other openings.

=Discinctus=, Gr. and R. (_discingo_, to ungird). A man who is _ungirt_, that is, who does not wear a girdle round the waist of his tunic; for a man, this was a mark of effeminate manners. _Discinctus miles_ denoted a soldier who had been stripped by his commander of his sword-belt, as a mark of disgrace. (Compare CINGULUM.)

=Disclosed=, Her. With expanded wings, in the case of birds that are not birds of prey. The contrary to CLOSE.

[Illustration: Fig. 253. Discobolus of Myron copied on a gem.]

=Discobolus=, Gr. and R. (δισκο-βόλος, i. e. discus-throwing). A man throwing the DISCUS (q.v.). [A celebrated statue of the sculptor Myron so called.]

=Discus=, R. (δίσκος; δικεῖν, to throw). This term denoted (1) the discus hurled by the DISCOBOLUS (q.v.); that is, a circular plate of metal or stone, about ten or twelve inches in diameter. (2) A sun-dial. (3) A shallow circular vessel for holding eatables.

=Disk.= (See WINGED DISK.)

=Disomum=, Chr. (δί-σωμον, double-bodied). An urn or tomb which held the ashes or bodies of two persons; _bisomum_ was also used. Both terms are met with in Christian inscriptions.

[Illustration: Fig. 254. Falcon Displayed.]

=Displayed=, Her. Birds of prey with expanded wings. Fig. 254 represents the crest of Edward IV., the falcon and fetterlock.

=Displuviatus=, =Displuviatum=, R. An atrium, the roof of which was sloped outwards from the COMPLUVIUM (q.v.), instead of being sloped towards it. (See IMPLUVIUM and ATRIUM.)

=Disposed=, =Disposition=, Her. Arranged, arrangement.

=Distaff.= A common object in ancient art. It is an attribute of the Fates, and generally distaffs of gold were given to the goddesses. It was dedicated to Minerva. (See COLUS.) The name of St. Distaff’s Day was given to the day after Twelfth Day in England.

=Distance.= In a picture, _the point of distance_ is that where the visual rays meet; _middle distance_ is the central portion of a picture, between the _foreground_ and the _extreme distance_.

=Distemper.= A kind of painting in which the pigments are mixed with an aqueous vehicle, such as _size_. Distemper is painted on a dry surface. (See FRESCO-PAINTING.)

=Ditriglyph=, R. (δὶς, twice, and τρίγλυφος). The space between two triglyphs in the Doric order. The term is therefore a synonym of METOPE (q.v.).

=Dividers.= Ordinary compasses for taking off and transferring measurements.

=Dividiculum=, R. A reservoir in the form of a tower, in which the water of an aqueduct was collected, and whence it was afterwards distributed. (See CASTELLUM.)

=Docana= (δοκὸς, a beam). An ancient Spartan symbol of Castor and Pollux. It consisted of two upright beams, with cross pieces.

=Doccia.= An important Italian manufactory of soft porcelain founded in 1735. Jacquemart says, “Doccia now inundates Europe with spurious majolica of the 16th century, and with false porcelain of Capo di Monte, of which she possesses the moulds.”

=Dodecahedron=, Gr. A solid figure of twelve equal sides.

=Dodecastyle=, Gr. and R. (δώδεκα, twelve, and στῦλος, pillar). A building, the arrangement of which admits of twelve columns in front. A dodecastyle pediment is a pediment supported by twelve columns.

=Dodra=, R. (_dodrans_, nine parts). A kind of beverage, or rather soup, composed of nine ingredients. We learn from Ausonius that it was made of bread, water, wine, oil, broth, salt, sweet herbs, honey, and pepper.

=Dodrans=, R. (i. e. three-fourths). Nine _unciæ_, or three-quarters of an _as_. There was no coin of this value. As a measure of _length_, nine inches. (See AS.)

=Doff= or =Deff=, Egyp. The square tambourine of the ancient Egyptians; the _toph_ of the Hebrews, still in use among the Arabs, especially in the Barbary States.

=Dog.= An emblem of fidelity and loyalty. In mediæval art, the attribute of St. Roch; also of St. Dominic, the founder of the Dominican order; of St. Bernard, St. Wendelin, and St. Benignus. As an emblem of fidelity, it is placed at the feet of the effigies of married women upon sepulchres. It was common to represent, in painting or mosaic, a chained watch-dog at the doors of Roman houses. The DOG OF FO is a sacred emblem in China, sometimes called a _Chimera_; it is placed as the guardian of the thresholds of temples, and of the Buddhist altars. In the Chinese zodiacal system the dog is the sign for the month of September.

=Dog Latin.= Barbarous Latin; e. g. “Verte canem ex” (turn the dog out).

=Dog’s-nose=, O. E. A cordial used in low life, composed of warm porter, moist sugar, gin, and nutmeg. (_Halliwell._)

=Dog’s-tooth Moulding=, Arch. A characteristic ornament of Early English architecture, formed of four leaves with small spiral fillets, which bear some resemblance to teeth. (See TOOTH-ORNAMENT.)

[Illustration: Fig. 255. Bronze Dolabra or hatchet (Celtic).]

[Illustration: Fig. 256. Hatchet, flint-stone.]

[Illustration: Fig. 257. Gallic hatchet.]

=Dolabra=, R. (_dolo_, to hew). An instrument like a pick or hatchet, which varied in form according to the different purposes for which it was employed. The _dolabra_ was used for digging, cutting, breaking, and chopping, and was thus a pick, a hatchet, an adze or _ascia_, &c. Dolabra of flint or other hard stone, called Celts, are of remote antiquity. (See CELT.) (Figs. 255 to 257.)

=Doliolum.= Dimin. of DOLIUM (q.v.).

=Dolium= or =Culeus=, Gr. and R. A large earthenware vessel with a wide mouth, and of rounded, spherical form. It was used to contain wine and oil when first made, before they were transferred into smaller vessels for keeping.

[Illustration: Fig. 258. Dolmen.]

=Dolmen=, Celt. A term which, in the Celtic language, means literally a stone table. It consists of a number of stones, of which some are fixed in the ground, and the others laid transversely over them. These structures were used as sepulchres. Figs. 258 and 259 represent two different types of dolmens. (See CROMLECH.)

[Illustration: Fig. 259. Dolmen, in the forest of Rennes.]

=Dolon= or =Dolo=, R. (δόλων). (1) A long stick armed with an iron point. (2) A cane, in the hollow of which a poniard was concealed. (3) The fore-topsail of a vessel.

[Illustration: Fig. 260. Heraldic Dolphin.]

=Dolphin=, Her. A favourite fish with heralds. It is best known as the armorial ensign of the Dauphin, the eldest son and heir apparent of the kings of France—_Or_, a Dolphin _az_. In Christian archæology the dolphin is the symbol of swiftness, diligence, and love; it is often met with entwined with an anchor. The first Christians often wore these two symbols united in a ring, which was known as a _nautical anchor_. (See also DELPHIN.)

=Dome=, It. (1) Literally, the _house_ of God. When a city possesses several churches, the name is applied to the cathedral only. (2) The interior of a _cupola_.

=Dominions=, in Christian art. (See ANGELS.)

[Illustration: Fig. 261. Plan of a Greek house.]

=Domus=, Gr. and R. (Gr. δόμος, οἶκος). A house, in contradistinction to _insula_, a group of houses. The Greek house is divided into two parts by the central chambers. The external, the ANDRONITIS, contains the men’s, and the inner, or GYNÆCONITIS, the women’s apartments. The whole building was generally long and narrow, occupying a comparatively small frontage to the street, and the outside wall was plain without windows. Outside the door was often an altar of Apollo Agyieus, or an obelisk, or sometimes a laurel-tree, or a bust of the god Hermes. A few steps, called ANABATHMOI, led up to the house door (αὐλεία θύρα), over which there was generally a motto inscribed: the passage (θυρωρεῖον, πυλὼν, θυρὼν) (A B in the plan) had the stables on one side, and the porter’s lodge opposite, and led to C, the PERISTYLE or AULA of the men’s quarters, a HYPÆTHRAL, or open air court, surrounded by porticoes called STOAI, and by the men’s apartments, which were large banqueting-rooms (οἶκοι, ἀνδρῶνες), smaller sitting-rooms (ἐξέδραι), and sleeping-chambers (δωμάτια, κοιτῶνες, οἰκήματα). The door to the passage D was called μέταυλος or μέσαυλος (i. e. the middle of the aulæ), and gave admission to E, the peristyle or aula of the Gynæconitis. The rooms numbered 10 to 17 were the chambers of the women; P P were called the Thalamos and Amphithalamos; H H and G were the ἱστῶνες, or rooms for working in wool; and at I was the garden door (κηπαία θύρα). There was usually an upper story where guests and slaves were lodged (ὑπερῷον, διῆρες), the stairs leading to which were outside the house. The roofs were flat, and it was customary to walk upon them. The floors were of stone, in later times ornamental or coloured. The construction and decoration varied with the ages; painted ceilings were a late introduction.

[Illustration: Fig. 262. Plan of a Roman house.]

Of a Roman house, the principal parts were the VESTIBULUM, or court before the door, open to the street; the OSTIUM, JANUA, or FORES, the entrance; the ATRIUM, CAVUM ÆDIUM, or CAVÆDIUM, with the COMPLUVIUM open over the central tank (termed the IMPLUVIUM); the ALÆ (wings), TABLINUM, FAUCES, and PERISTYLIUM: of each of which a notice will be found in its alphabetical place in this work. (See also CUBICULA, TRICLINIA, EXEDRÆ, PINACOTHECA, BIBLIOTHECA, BALNEUM, CULINA, CŒNACULA, DIÆTA, SOLARIA, &c.) The floors of a Roman house were either of the composition called RUDERATIO, and, from the process of beating down _pavita_, were then called PAVIMENTUM, or of stone or marble or mosaics (MUSIVUM OPUS). The inner walls were usually covered with frescoes. The ceilings left the beams visible, which supported the roof, and the hollow or unplanked spaces (LACUNARIA or LAQUEARIA) were often covered with gold and ivory, or with paintings. (See CAMARA.) The principal apartments had no windows, deriving their light from the roof; in the upper stories there were windows either open or latticed, or later filled with mica, and finally glass.

[Illustration: Fig. 263. Atrium with Doric columns. (_See also_ Fig. 49.)]

=Don Pottery.= A name given to the productions of a porcelain manufactory established in 1790 at Swinton on the Don.

[Illustration: Fig. 264. Donjon.]

=Donjon=, Mod. The principal tower of a Norman or mediæval castle. It was generally separate from the other parts of the building. The greater number of feudal fortresses originally consisted merely of a donjon erected on an artificial earthwork. This donjon was surrounded by an open space walled, called the Inner Bailey, and another beyond called the Outer Bailey. Beneath were the dungeons. Fig. 264 represents a donjon called the Tower of Loudun. The White tower is the donjon of the Tower of London.

=Doom.= In Christian art, the Last Judgment; a subject usually painted over the chancel arch in parochial churches.

=Dorelot.= A network for the hair, worn by ladies in the 14th century. (See CALANTICA, CRESPINE, &c.)

[Illustration: Fig. 265. Column and Capital of the Doric Order.]

=Doric Order of Architecture.= The earliest and simplest of the three Greek orders. “The Grecian Doric order, at its best period, is one of the most beautiful inventions of architecture—strong and yet elegant, graceful in outline and harmonious in all its forms, imposing when on a great scale, and pleasing equally when reduced in size, by the exquisite simplicity of its parts.” (_Newlands._) The columns of this order had no pedestal, nor base; the capital, which was half a diameter in height, had no _astragal_, but a few plain fillets, with channels between them, under the _ovolo_, and a small channel below the fillets. The _ovolo_ is generally flat, and of great projection, with a _quirk_, or return. On this was laid the ABACUS, which was only a plain tile, without fillet or ornament. A peculiarity of this order was the _flutings_ of the column, twenty in number, shallow, and with sharp edges. The best examples of the Grecian Doric of which we have descriptions and figures are the temples of Minerva (called the Parthenon) and of Theseus at Athens, and that of Minerva at Sunium. The ROMAN DORIC differs in important

## particulars from the Grecian. (See ROMAN DORIC.)

=Dormant= or =Couchant=, Her. Asleep. (See COUCHANT.)

=Dormer= (Fr. _dormir_, to sleep). The top story in the roof of a house.

=Dormer Window.= A gabled window in the sloping side of a roof, projecting _vertically_; when it lies in the slope of the roof, it is a _skylight_.

=Dorneck=, =Dornex=, or =Dornyks=, O. E. An inferior damask, wrought of silk, wool, linen thread, and gold, at Tournay or _Dorneck_; 15th century.

=Dorsale=, =Dosser=, =Dossier=, Chr. (_dorsum_, the back). Pieces of tapestry or hangings put up in the arches or bays surrounding the choir of a church in order to screen the clergy and choristers from draughts of air. Also pieces of tapestry hung upon parapets, the panels of pulpits and stalls, and sometimes the backs of side-boards. It was the custom to hang tapestry, cloth of Arras, or needlework round the lower half of all the ancient dining-halls to a height of about five feet above the basement.

=Dorsualia=, R. (_dorsum_). An embroidered saddle-cloth, which was laid across the back of a horse on the occasion of a triumphal entry, or on the backs of victims for sacrifice. Examples of _dorsualia_ occur on several monuments, in especial on a bas-relief of the arch of Titus, at Rome.

=Doryphorus=, Gen. (δορυ-φόρος). Literally, spear-bearer. Fig. 130 represents a Persian spearman. A celebrated statue of Polycletus (of the Argive school) is called the _Doryphorus_. “Polycletus advanced his art in several respects, chiefly by fixing a law of proportion, of which his Doryphorus, a youth bearing a spear, was called the CANON (q.v.); and also by his making the weight of the body rest on one foot, in contradistinction to the ancient practice, thereby producing a contrast between the supporting, weight-bearing side of the body, and the supported, freely-resting side.” (_Butler’s Imitative Art._) The statue by Polycletus is lost. The proportions handed down to us by Vitruvius are thus described by Bonomi:—

(1) The length of the horizontally extended arms equals the height of the figure.

(2) The head is an _eighth_, the face a _tenth_ of the whole height.

(3) From the top of the scalp to the nipples is _one-fourth_.

(4) From the nipples to horizontal line across the centre of the square—the pubes—is _one-fourth_.

(5) From that line to one just below the knee-cap is _one-fourth_.

(6) From that line to the ground is _one-fourth_.

(7) The forearm (from the elbow) is a _fourth_ of the height; the hand a _tenth_.

=Dose= or =Dosall=, O. E. (Lat. DORSALE, q.v.).

=Dossar.= (See DORSALE.)

=Douai.= A manufactory of modern faience established in 1784, producing stone-wares and “cailloutages.”

=Doublé=, Fr. (1) The term is applied to precious stones, when cemented upon glass. (2) The inside lining of a well-bound book.

[Illustration: Fig. 267. Doublet costume, _temp._ Elizabeth.]

=Doublet=, although deriving its name from the French word _doublée_ (lined), is in that language more generally known as “Pourpoint,” of which, in fact, it is merely a variety. It first appeared in England in the 14th century made without sleeves, which for convenience were afterwards added; and being universally adopted, it superseded the tunic. The engraving shows a doublet with stuffed sleeves of the time of Elizabeth. They were worn of varied forms till the reign of Charles II. (Fig. 267.)

=Doubling=, Her. The lining of a mantle or mantling.

[Illustration: Fig. 268. Two Doves. Device of Giovanna de’ Medici.]

=Dove.= A Christian symbol of frequent occurrence; it expresses candour, gentleness, innocence, faith, and, in especial, the Holy Spirit. It is also a symbol of martyrdom and grief, and in this signification appears frequently represented on tombs and sarcophagi. With an olive-bough in its mouth it is a symbol of peace, and accordingly the inscription PAX (Peace) is often found accompanying representations of the dove, more

## particularly in the catacombs. With the Assyrians and Babylonians the

dove was the symbol of Semiramis, who, according to them, took this shape on leaving earth. The dove was the favourite bird of Venus. As a symbol of conjugal fidelity, the device of two turtle-doves was adopted by Giovanna of Austria on her marriage with Francesco de’ Medici. (Fig. 268.)

[Illustration: Fig. 269. Dove-tailed Masonry.]

=Dove-tail= or =Swallow-tail=, Gen. A method of joining employed for wood, stone, or iron, and so called because the tenon by which the joint is effected is cut in the shape of a dove-tail or swallow-tail. This tail fits into a notch (Fig. 269). The ancients employed double dove-tails for joining stones together; this method of construction was called _Opus_ REVINCTUM (q.v.).

=Dove-tail Moulding=, Arch. (Norman; called also TRIANGULAR FRETTE). Decorated with running bands in the form of dove-tails.

=Doves, the Eucharistic.= Sacred vessels of gold, silver, gilded bronze, or ivory, in the form of a dove, a tower, &c., which served as receptacles for the reserved Host; they were hung up in the middle of the CIBORIUM (q.v.). At the Amiens Museum a dove of this kind is to be seen dating from the 12th century, and at the church of St. Nazaire at Milan there is one of silver, gilded within and enamelled without, which is also very ancient.

=Dowlas=, O. E. Coarse linen cloth made in Brittany; “_filthy dowlas!_”

=Drachma=, Gr. (δραχμή; δράσσομαι, to hold in the hand). A drachm, the principal silver coin of the Greeks. There were two kinds of _drachmata_, which differed in value: the Attic drachm and the Æginetan. The Attic _drachma_ was equal in value to a franc, equal to six _oboloi_. The piece of four drachmas was called a _stater_. As a weight the drachma was the eighth of an _uncia_; about = our modern _drachm_.

=Draco=, Gen. (1) A dragon; the ensign of the Roman cohort in the time of Trajan, adopted from the Parthians. (2) A fantastic animal of Pagan mythology: the garden of the Hesperides, the Golden Fleece, and the fountain of Castalia were all guarded by dragons. (3) In Christian archæology the dragon symbolizes sin, especially idolatry. (4) The Chinese give to several immortals the figure of a dragon. They distinguish the long dragon of heaven, a being especially sacred; the Kau, dragon of the mountain; and the Li, dragon of the sea. The dragons are represented as “gigantic saurians, with powerful claws, and terminated by a frightful head, scaly and strongly toothed.” There are the scaly dragon, the winged dragon, the horned and the hornless dragons, and the dragon rolled within itself which has not yet taken flight to the upper regions. In their zodiacal system the dragon is the sign for the month of March. (See TCHY.)

=Draconarius=, R. The standard-bearer who carried the _draco_.

=Dracontarium=, R. A band for the head, so called because it was twisted in imitation of the _draco_ which was used as an ensign.

[Illustration: Fig. 270. Heraldic Dragon.]

=Dragon=, Her. A winged monster having four legs. (See DRACO.)

=Dragon.= A short carbine (hence “dragoons”).

=Dragon’s Blood.= A resinous astringent extract of a deep red colour, used as a colouring ingredient for spirit and turpentine varnishes and paints, &c. The Roman _cinnabar_ was Dragon’s Blood.

=Draught= (or =Drawte=) =Chamber=, O. E. The with _drawing_ room.

=Draughts, Game of.= (See DAMES, LATRUNCULI.)

=Dravid’ha=, Hind. A Hindoo temple constructed on an octagonal plan. (See NAGARAS, VIMANA, VESARA.)

[Illustration: Fig. 271. Dresden milk-jug.]

=Dresden Porcelain=, made at the Royal Manufactory established at Meissen in Saxony in 1709, is most excellent anterior to 1796, since when its ancient perfection has been lost. The mark of the best period is two crossed swords, with a sloped cross or a small circle beneath. The later mark has a star beneath the swords. On rejected pieces the swords were cut across with a line; but the manufactory at the present day counterfeits its old marks. Fig. 271 is a specimen of the best period, later than 1720 and before 1778.

[Illustration: Fig. 272. Pot-pourri vase, Dresden china.]

=Dressoir= or =Dressouer= (the _buffet_ of the 15th century, the _évidence_ of the 16th) was the principal object of the dining-room, on which were displayed all the ornamental plate of the owner of the house, costly vases, &c. Kings had often three dressers, one for silver, another for silver-gold, and the third for gold plate. In form they varied; but they were made of the most valuable woods, and enriched with the finest carving. They were sometimes covered over with cloth of gold: the city of Orleans offered one in gold to Charles IV., which was valued at 8000 livres Tournois.

=Drilbu=, Hind. A bell used in Buddhist worship.

=Drinking-cups of Glass= are frequently found in the Saxon barrows or graves in England. They are ornamented in various patterns, and rounded at the bottom. The Anglo-Saxons were also rich in cups of the precious metals. They used horn cups also, as did the Normans. In the 15th century flat-shaped cups or bowls were used.

=Drip=, Arch. The edge of a roof; the eaves; the corona of a cornice.

=Drip-stone=, Arch. The moulding in Gothic architecture which serves as a canopy for an opening and to throw off the rain. It is also called _weather-moulding_ and _water-table_. (See also CORONA.)

=Dromo=, =Dromon=, R. (δρόμων; δραμεῖν, to run). A vessel remarkable for its swift sailing; hence—

=Dromon= or =Dromound=, O. E. A mediæval ship, propelled by oars and one sail, used for the transport of troops. The Crusaders called it a _dromedary_.

=Dromos=, Gr. and Egyp. (δρόμος). (1) The Spartan race-course. (2) An avenue leading to the entrances of Egyptian temples; that leading to the great temple of Karnac contained 660 colossal sphinxes, all of which were monoliths.

=Drop Lake= is a pigment obtained from Brazil wood, which affords a very fugitive colour.

=Drops=, Arch. (Lat. _guttæ_). Ornaments resembling drops, used in the Doric entablature, immediately under the TRIGLYPH and MUTULE.

=Druidic= (Monuments), Celt. Celtic monuments, also known by the name of _Megalithic_. (See STANDING STONES, DOLMENS, MENHIRS, CROMLECHS, &c.). The most ancient and probably the largest Celtic or Druidical temple was at Avebury in Wiltshire. _Dr. Stukeley_, who surveyed it in 1720, says that “this may be regarded as the grand national cathedral, while the smaller circles which are met with in other parts of the island may be compared to the parish or village churches.”

=Drum=, Arch. (1) Of a dome or cupola, the STYLOBATE (or vertical part on which the columns rest). (2) Of the Corinthian and Composite capitals, the solid part; called also BELL, VASE, BASKET.

=Dry Point.= Direct engraving upon copper with the sharp etching-needle itself, without the plate being covered with etching-ground, or the lines bit in by acid. This method produces very soft and delicate work, but it is not so durable in printing as the etched line.

=Dryers.= In painting, substances imparted to oils to make them dry quickly. The most general in use is OXIDE of LEAD, but white copperas, oxide of manganese, ground glass, oxide of zinc, calcined bones, chloride of lime, and verdigris have all been used at various times.

=Drying Oil.= Boiled oil, used in painting as a vehicle and a varnish. It is linseed oil boiled with litharge (or oxide of lead).

=Dryness.= A style of painting in which the outline is harsh and formal, and the colour deficient in mellowness and harmony.

=Duck-bills=, O. E. Broad-toed shoes of the 15th century.

[Illustration: Fig. 273. Duke’s coronet.]

=Duke=, Her. The highest rank and title in the British peerage; first introduced by Edward III. in the year 1337, when he created the Black Prince the first English duke (in Latin “dux”). The coronet of a duke, arbitrary in its adornment until the 16th century was far advanced, is now a circlet, heightened with eight conventional strawberry-leaves, of which in representation three and two half-leaves are shown. (_Boutell._)

=Dulcimer.= A musical instrument, the prototype of our pianoforte. It was very early known to the Arabs and Persians, who called it _santir_. One of its old European names is the _cimbal_. The Hebrew _nebel_, or perhaps the _psanterin_ mentioned by Daniel, is supposed to have been a dulcimer; the _psalterion_ of the Greeks also. A hand organ of the Middle Ages was called a dulcimer.

=Dunkirk.= A manufactory of modern faience which only existed for a short time in the 18th century, and was closed within a year. The works are therefore very rare. Jacquemart mentions a clock bearing a close resemblance to certain Dutch products, inscribed _Dickhoof_ and _A. Duisburg_, and by the latter name identified as Dunkirk work.

=Duns=, Celtic. Ancient hill forts of the simplest kind, consisting of a round or oval earthen wall and ditch on a rising ground, probably contemporary with the pit dwellings.

=Dunster=, O. E. Broad cloth made in Somersetshire, _temp._ Edward III.

=Dutch Pink.= (See PINKS.)

=Dutch White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.)

=Dwararab’ha=, =Dwaragopouras=, =Dwaraharmya=, =Dwaraprasada=, =Dwarasala=, Ind. (See GOPOURAS.)

E.

[Illustration: Fig. 274. Eagle—Ensign of France.]

=Eagle=, Her. The eagle (called in heraldry _Alerion_) appears in the earliest English examples of arms, and his appearance often denotes an alliance with German princes. Both the German emperors and Russian czars adopted the eagle for their heraldic ensign in support of their claim to be considered the successors of the Roman Cæsars. The eagle borne as the ensign of Imperial France sits, grasping a thunderbolt, in an attitude of vigilance, having its wings elevated, but the tips of the feathers drooping, as they would be in a living bird. In remote antiquity the eagle was an emblem of the sun, and the double-headed eagle typifies the rising and the setting sun. The eagle was the attribute of Jove as his messenger. The eagle killing a serpent or a hare is an ancient symbol of victory. In Christian art the eagle is the attribute of St. John the Evangelist, the symbol of the highest inspiration. St. John is sometimes represented with human body and eagle head. The lectern in Christian churches is commonly in the form of an eagle. Elisha the prophet is represented with a two-headed eagle. (See AQUILÆ.)

[Illustration: Fig. 275. Earl’s coronet.]

=Earl=, Her. (from the Gaelic _iarflath_, “a dependent chief” = _iar_, “after,” and _flath_, “lord”; pronounced _iarrl_). Before 1337 the highest, and now the third degree of rank and dignity in the British peerage. An earl’s coronet has eight lofty rays of gold rising from the circlet, each of which supports a large pearl, while between each pair of these rays there is a golden strawberry-leaf. In representation five of the rays and pearls are shown. Elevated clusters of pearls appear in an earl’s coronet as early as 1445; but the present form of the coronet may be assigned to the second half of the following century.

=Earl Marshal.= In England, one of the great officers of state, who regulates ceremonies and takes cognizance of all matters relating to honour, arms, and pedigree.

=Early English Architecture.= The first of the pointed or Gothic styles of architecture used in England. It succeeded the NORMAN towards the end of the 12th century, and gradually merged into the DECORATED at the end of the 13th. Its leading peculiarity is the long narrow lancet window.

=Earn=, Scotch. An eagle.

[Illustration: Fig. 276. Greek or Etruscan ear-rings in gold.]

=Ear-rings= (Lat. _inaures_, Gr. ἐνώτια) were a common ornament for ladies in Greece and Rome, and among the early Saxons: they were worn by men during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.

=Earth Tables=, Arch. The projecting course of stones in a wall, immediately above the surface of the ground, now called the plinth. (_Parker._)

=Earthenware.= (See POTTERY.)

=Easel= (from the German _esel_, an ass). A frame with movable rest for resting pictures on.

=Easel-picture.= A small portable picture.

=Easter=, Chr. (A.S. _eastre_). From the goddess “Eostur,” whose festival fell in April. The Latin name “Paschal” refers to the Jewish feast of the Passover. The Paschal season originally extended over fifteen days, from Palm Sunday to Low Sunday. (See _Smith and Cheetham’s Dict. of Christian Ant._)

=Eaves= (A.S. _efese_, the edge). The overhanging “edge” of the roof of a house.

=Ebénistes=, Fr. Workers in fine cabinet-making.

=Ebony.= A heavy, hard, black wood, obtained from the Diospyrus ebenus. Ebony and other exotic woods came into general use in Europe from the end of the 17th century—subsequently to 1695, when the Dutch settled in Ceylon. The black ebony is the most valuable, but there are green and yellow varieties. Old carved ebony furniture found in English houses dates generally from the early years of the Dutch occupation of Ceylon.

=Eburnean.= Made of ivory.

=Ecbasios= (ἐκβαίνω, to disembark). A sacrifice offered to Apollo after a favourable voyage.

=Ecclesia=, Gr. General assembly of the citizens of Athens. (See _Smith and Cheetham’s Dict. of Christian Ant._)

=Echea=, Gr. and R. (ἦχος, sound or noise). Earthenware or bronze vessels used to strengthen the sound in theatres. (See ACOUSTIC VESSELS.)

=Echinate.= Armed with spines or bristles like a hedgehog.

[Illustration: Fig. 277. Echinus or egg and tongue on the ovolo of a Greek cornice.]

=Echinus=, Arch. (Gr. ἐχῖνος, a hedgehog). The _egg and dart_ or _egg and tongue_ ornament frequently carved on the round moulding, much used in classic architecture, called the _ovolo_. (Fig. 277.)

=Echometry= (μέτρον, a measure). The art of measuring the duration of sounds.

=Ecorchée=, Fr. (lit. flayed). Said of an anatomical model specially prepared for the study of the muscular system.

=Ecphonesis=, Chr. That part of a devotional office which is said _audibly_, in contrast with that said _secreté_.

=Ectypus=, R. A hollow mould which produces an impression in relief which is called _ectypum_.

[Illustration: Fig. 278. Ecuelle, Venetian porcelain.]

=Ecuelle=, Fr. A porringer. Fig. 278 is a specimen in the best style of Venetian porcelain.

=Edward-Shovelboards=, O. E. Broad shillings of Edward VI., formerly used in playing the game of shovelboard. (_Halliwell._)

=Effeir of War=, Scotch. Warlike guise.

=Effigies=, R. An image or effigy. The word is usually applied to the heads upon coins or medals.

=Egg and Dart=, or =Egg and Tongue, Ornament=, Arch. (Fr. _aards et oves_). A carving commonly inserted on the ovolo moulding. (See ECHINUS.)

=Egg-feast= or =Egg-Saturday=, O. E. The Saturday before Shrove Tuesday.

=Egg-shell Porcelain.= A very thin white porcelain of the “Rose family,” to which the Chinese have given the name of “porcelain without embryo.”

=Eggs=, as a Christian emblem, are supposed to represent “the immature hope of the resurrection.” (_Martigny._)

=Egret= (Fr. _aigrette_). A small white heron, marked by a _crest_ on his head.

=Egyptian Architecture= and =Sculpture= can be studied in the monuments remaining from remotest antiquity to about A. D. 300. Great varieties of style occur, which can be easily attributed to their respective periods by the hieroglyphical inscriptions. The three primitive motives of all Egyptian buildings are the _pyramid_, _caves_, and _structures of timber_; all contemporary with the most ancient relics. In sculpture, the most ancient works of all are also those most remarkable for fidelity to nature. The conventionality introduced afterwards with the _canon of proportions_ is still combined with a close imitation of Nature in the details. The Grecian or Ptolemaic period begins B.C. 322. [See _Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians_, _Canina’s Egyptian Architecture_; and the works of _Brugsch_, _Marriette_, _Soldi_, _Ebers_, &c.]

=Egyptian Blue=, the brilliant blue pigment found on the monuments, is found by analysis to consist of the hydrated protoxide of copper, mixed with a minute quantity of iron. The green colour was derived from another oxide of copper; violet from manganese or gold; yellow from silver, or perhaps iron; and red from the protoxide of copper.

[Illustration: Fig. 280. Lenticular Phials. Louvre Museum.]

[Illustration: Fig. 279. Oviform bottle. Egyptian.]

=Egyptian Pottery= of great beauty is found in great quantities along with the costly ornaments in the tombs. It is intermediary between porcelain and stone-ware, and its colouring demonstrates a high degree of skill, science, and precision of execution. Among the forms frequently found are the oviform, long-necked bottles (Fig. 279), lenticular phials, with royal cartouches (Fig. 280), lamps (Fig. 281), &c. (See also Fig. 219.)

[Illustration: Fig. 281. Lamp in blue enamelled earthenware. Egyptian.]

=Eikon=, Gr., or =Icon=, Lat. An image; hence iconoclasts or image-breakers.

=Eileton=, Chr. (from εἴλω, to wind or fold). The cloth on which the elements are consecrated in the Eucharist. “The _eileton_ represents the linen cloth in which the body of Christ was wrapped when it was taken down from the cross and laid in the tomb.” (_Germanus_).

=Eisodos=, Chr. A ceremony of the Greek Church, of two parts. (1) The bearing into the church in procession of the book of the Gospels is called the _Lesser Entrance_. (2) A similar bearing in of the elements of the Eucharist is called the _Greater Entrance_.

=Elæolite= (lit. oil-stone). A mineral having a fatty resinous lustre.

=Elæothesium=, Gr. and R. A room in a suite of baths where oils, perfumes, and essences were kept, and the bathers were anointed and rubbed.

=Elaphebolia=, Gr. Athenian festivals held in the month called _Elaphebolion_, or the ninth month of the year, when a stag (ἔλαφος) was sacrificed to Diana.

=Elbow-gauntlet.= A long gauntlet of plate armour, adopted from the Asiatics in the 16th century.

=Elbow-pieces= (Fr. _coudières_). Plate armour to cover the joint at the elbow.

=Elbows=, Mod. (Fr. _accoudoirs_). The divisions between the stalls in a church, also called by the French “museaux,” from the fact of their ends being ornamented with an animal’s head.

=Electoral Bonnet=, Her. A cap of crimson velvet guarded with ermine, borne over the inescutcheon of the arms of Hanover from 1801 to 1816.

=Electrotint.= A method of preparing engraved copper plates for the printing-press by the electrotype process. (See _Art Journal_, 1850.)

=Electrotype.= The process whereby works in relief are produced by the agency of electricity, through which certain metals, such as gold, silver, and copper, are precipitated from their solutions upon moulds in so fine a state of division as to form a coherent mass of pure metal, equal in toughness and flexibility to the hammered metals. (_Fairholt._) At the present day electrotypes are generally taken from engravings on wood for printing from.

=Electrum= (ἤλεκτρον). In Homer and Hesiod this word means _amber_. Pliny says that when gold contains a fifth part of silver, it is called electrum. Its colour was whiter and more luminous than that of gold, and the metal was supposed to betray the presence of poison. Specimens are rare. A beautiful vase of electrum is preserved in the St. Petersburg Museum. Some coins in electrum were struck by the kings of Bosporus, and by Syracuse and some Greek states.

=Elements=, Chr. The bread and the wine in the Lord’s Supper. In the Eastern liturgies the unconsecrated elements are called “the MYSTERIES,” and the bread alone the SEAL (σφραγὶς), from its being divided by lines in the form of a cross. The interesting subject of the composition and form of the elements in the early churches is fully discussed in the “Dictionary of Christian Antiquities” (Smith and Cheetham).

=Elemine.= A crystallized resin used to give consistency to the varnish which forms part of the composition of lacquer.

=Elenchus=, R. (ἔλεγχος). (1) A pear-shaped pearl highly esteemed by the Roman ladies, who wore such pearls mounted as drops or pendants to brooches and rings. (See the illustration to CROTALIUM.) (2) An index to a book.

=Elephant.= In mediæval heraldry this animal is a symbol of piety, from an ancient legend, mentioned by Ælian, Pliny, and others, that it has in religious reverence, with a kind of devotion, not only the stars and planets, but also the sun and moon.

=Elephant Paper.= Drawing-paper manufactured in sheets, measuring 28 inches by 23. _Double Elephant Paper_ measures 40 inches by 26¾.

=Eleusinian Mysteries.= The holiest and most venerated of the Greek festivals. The Lesser Eleusinia, held at Agræ in the month Anthesterion, were a preparation for the Greater, which were celebrated at Athens and Eleusis. The _Mystæ_ were the initiated at the Lesser, of which the principal rite was the sacrifice of a sow, previously purified by washing in the Cantharus. The Greater were celebrated every year in the month Boedromion, and lasted nine days. On the first day the Mystæ assembled at Athens; on the second they went through a ceremony of purification at the sea-coast; the third was a day of fasting; on the fourth there was a procession of a waggon drawn by oxen, followed by women who had small mystic cases in their hands; on the fifth, or torch day, the Mystæ went in the evening with torches to the temple of Demeter, where they passed the night; on the sixth, which was the most solemn of all, a statue of Iacchos, the son of Demeter, was borne in procession to Eleusis, and the Mystæ were there initiated in the last mysteries during the following night. There was something in the secrets of this part of the ceremony which excited greatly the imagination of the ancient writers, especially Christians, who describe them “in an awful and horrible manner.” Each of the initiated was dismissed by the _mystagogus_ with the words κόγξ, ὄμπαξ. On the next day they returned to Athens, and resting on the bridge of Cephisus engaged in a contest of ridicule with the passers-by: the eighth and ninth days were unimportant.

=Eleutheria.= A Greek festival in honour of Zeus Eleutherios (the Deliverer).

=Elevati= of Ferrara. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device was from the fable of Hercules and Antæus, with the motto from Horace, “_Superat tellus, sidera donat_” (Earth conquers us, but gives us Heaven).

=Elevation.= (1) In Architecture, &c., a perpendicular plan drawn to a scale. (2) In Christian archæology, the _lifting up_ of the elements at certain points in the Eucharistic service, universally prescribed in the early Oriental liturgies, and introduced into the Western Church with the doctrine of transubstantiation.

[Illustration: Fig. 282. Bas-relief from the frieze of the Parthenon. One of the Elgin Marbles.]

=Elgin Marbles.= Friezes and metopes from the Parthenon at Athens, brought to the British Museum by Lord Elgin. They are adorned with sculptures in relief; those on the frieze represent the Panathenaic procession in honour of Athena; those on the metopes, chiefly the contests of the Centaurs and Lapithæ. There are also statues and friezes, especially from the temple of the Wingless Victory and the CHORAGIC MONUMENT of Lysicrates. They are admirably described by Mr. Newton in his “Guide” to these sculptures published by the authorities of the British Museum. (Fig. 282.)

[Illustration: Fig. 283. Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth.]

=Elizabeth, Queen.= The costume and the royal appurtenances of this monarch are well illustrated by the Royal Seal. In the Royal Arms we see the lions and the lilies (_France modern and England quarterly_). On the reverse (Fig. 284) the Tudor Rose, fleur-de-lis, and harp appear separately crowned for England, France, and Ireland. Elizabeth was fond of allegory and devices. In her portrait by Zoffany “the lining of her robe is worked with eyes and ears, and on her left sleeve is embroidered a serpent—all to imply wisdom and vigilance.” In her other hand is a rainbow with the motto, “_Non sine sole iris_” (no rainbow without the sun).

[Illustration: Fig. 284. Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth.]

=Elizabethan.= The style of architecture and decoration gradually developed during the reign of the Tudors in England. Its characteristics are a mixed revival of classical forms with quaint and grotesque relics of the Gothic. Typical examples are Crewe Hall, Speke, in Lancashire, Haddon Hall, Kenilworth Castle, Raglan Castle, &c.

=Ellipsis=, =Ellipse=. A figure formed by cutting a cone obliquely across its length; hence—

=Ellipsograph.= An instrument for describing a semi-ellipse.

=Ellotia= or =Hellotia=. A Corinthian festival with a torch-race, in honour of Athena as a goddess of fire.

=Ellychnium=, R. (λύχνος, a light). The wick of an oil lamp; it was made of flax fibres or papyrus.

=Emarginated.= Having the _margin_ broken by a notch or notches.

=Embalming= was frequently practised by the early Christians, especially with the bodies of martyrs. The practice was derived from the Jews. As a pagan ceremony embalming was intended to facilitate _cremation_.

=Embalon=, Gr. and R. A beak, corresponding to the modern _ram_, under the bows of a war galley, for the purpose of sinking the enemy.

=Embas=, Gr. A shoe of white felt, used esp. by the Bœotians.

=Ember Days=, Chr. (in Anglo-Saxon, _ymbren dagas_, “recurrent days;” in Latin, _jejunia quatuor temporum_; in French, _les quatre temps_, &c.). Special fasts appointed to be observed at the commencement of each of the _four seasons_ of the year. In the Eastern Church there is no trace of such an observance. (The word has no connexion with _embers_ in the sense of ashes.)

=Emblazon=, Her. (See BLAZON.)

[Illustration: Fig. 285. Emblemata.]

=Emblemata=, Gr. (ἐμβάλλω, to put in). INLAID-WORK, or (1) Mosaic made of coloured cubes of glass or vitreous enamel. (See SECTILE, TESSELLATUM, VERMICULATUM.) Fig. 285 represents _emblemata_ of different kinds of glass. (2) _Crusts_ exquisitely wrought on the surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture; as, for instance, alabaster on marble, gold on silver, silver on bronze. The Romans generally used the term _crustæ_ for this kind of work. From EMBLEMATA is derived our word EMBLEM, the true meaning of which is “a symbolical figure or composition which conceals an allegory.” Thus an _ape_ symbolized malice and lust; a _pelican_ piety, and the Redeemer’s love for the world. &c. The most important books of Emblems are by Alciati, Paradin, and Sambuco.

=Embolismus=, =Embolis=, or =Embolum=, Chr. (1) An inserted or intercalated prayer in a liturgy. (2) The number of days required to make up the lunar year to the solar. (See EPACT.)

=Embolium=, Gr. and R. (lit. something thrown in). An interlude or comic piece recited by an actress (_emboliaria_) between the acts of a drama.

=Embolos=, Arch., Chr. A covered portico or cloister surrounding the external walls of a church.

=Embolum=, Gr. The Greek term answering to the Latin ROSTRUM (q.v.). (See also EMBOLISMUS.)

=Embolus=, R. (ἔμβολος). The piston in the chamber of a pump.

=Embossing=, =Embossment=. A prominence like a boss; raised ornamental work.

=Embowed=, Her. Bent. An arm embowed has the elbow to the dexter.

=Embrasure=, Arch. (1) The interval between the COPS of a battlement. (2) An expansion of doorways, windows, &c., given by slanting the sides. (See SPLAY.)

[Illustration: Fig. 286. Indian Embroidery. In the Indian section of the South Kensington Museum.]

=Embroidery= is one of the oldest of the ornamental arts. Some specimens of ancient _Egyptian_ embroidery are exhibited in the Louvre, and Herodotus mentions the embroidered vestments of the gods in Egypt. The _Israelites_ appointed Aholiab, “a cunning workman, and an embroiderer in blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen,” to be _chief embroiderer_ to the sacred ark. The prophet Ezekiel mentions the embroidery of _Tyre_. It was the principal domestic occupation of ladies in _Greece_, from the days when Penelope embroidered a garment for Ulysses, representing a dog chasing a deer. The _Romans_ called embroidery “Phrygium,” and imported it largely from the East. In later times _Byzantium_ was celebrated for its embroidered ecclesiastical vestments. Pope Paschal, in the 9th century, was the greatest patron of the art. When the Caliph Omar pillaged the _Persian_ palace of Khosroes, he found there a carpet of silk and cloth of gold, sixty cubits square, having a garden depicted upon it, and rubies, emeralds, sapphires, beryls, topazes, and pearls arranged with consummate skill to represent trees, fruit and flowers, rivulets, fountains, roses and shrubs. Our English word “embroidery” is derived from the Celtic “brouda,” to prick. Anglo-Saxon embroidery was celebrated throughout Europe as _Opus Anglicanum_. The celebrated Bayeux tapestry is attributed to the 12th century. A copy of it may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. The art decayed in England during the Civil War of the 17th century.

=Embrued=, Her. Stained with blood.

=Embu.= A French term for the _loss of tone_ in an oil sketch, caused by the absorption of the oil whilst it is drying. It is easily corrected by a glaze.

=Emerald.= A precious stone of various shades of green, much used by the ancients for gem-engraving. The less brilliant varieties are known as beryls. For its significance in Christian art, see GREEN.

=Emerald Green.= A vivid bright green pigment, prepared from the arseniate of copper, and used both in oil and water-colours; called also _Paul Veronese Green_.

=Emissarium=, R. (_emitto_, to send forth). A channel, natural or artificial, for letting off stagnant water. Some of these channels are the most wonderful monuments of Roman ingenuity. The lakes of Trasimene, Albano, Nemi, and Fucino were all drained by EMISSARIA. The last is open to inspection, and is described as “a stupendous work of engineering, planned by Julius Cæsar, and completed by the Emperor Claudius.”

=Empaistic=, Gr. _Damascening_ (q.v.) or _in crusta_ work practised by the ancients, as opposed to TOREUTIC ART (q.v.).

=Emperor Paper.= The largest kind of drawing-paper manufactured in sheets measuring 66 inches by 47.

=Emphotion=, Chr. (from ἐμφωτίζω, to enlighten). A name given in the early Church to the white robe with which persons were invested in baptism; as it were, “a robe of light.”

=Emplecton=, Gr. and R. (lit. inwoven). A method of building, originating in Greece and adopted by the Romans, in which a space left in the interior of the wall was filled in with rubble, the whole block of masonry being bound together at intervals by ties (_diatonoi_). In the engraving, _c_ and _b_ are the _square stones_, the parts between them being the ties or diatonoi, and _o_ the rubble. (See Fig. 249.)

=Emporium=, Gr. and R. (ἔμπορος, a passenger in a ship). A place at a sea-port where imported merchandise was warehoused and exposed for sale. The remains of the ancient _emporium_ of Rome have been discovered on the banks of the Tiber. The name is sometimes applied to a town, but applies properly only to a certain place in a town.

=Enafota= or =Enafodia=, Chr. (Gr. ἐννεάφωτα). A corona or chandelier of “nine lights.”

=Enaluron=, Her. (See ENTOIRE.)

[Illustration: Fig. 287. Pendant of gold, enamelled and enriched with jewels.]

=Enamel= (Fr. _esmail_; Ital. _smalto_). A glassy substance of many brilliant colours, melted and united to gold, silver, copper, bronze, and other metals in the furnace. Enamel is coloured _white_ by oxide of tin, _blue_ by oxide of cobalt, _red_ by gold, and _green_ by copper. Different kinds of enamel are (1) inlaid or incrusted. (2) Transparent, showing designs on the metal under it. (3) Painted as a complete picture. “Many fine specimens of ancient Chinese enamel were seen in the Exhibition of 1851. They have the enamel on copper, beautifully coloured and enlivened with figures of flowers, birds, and other animals. The colouring is most chaste and effective. The Chinese say that no good specimens of this manufacture have been made for the last six or eight hundred years.” (_Fortune._) Beautiful transparent enamels are made in India. They look like slices of emerald or sapphire laid in beds of gold, having tiny figures of beaten gold let into their surfaces. (See also CLOISONNÉ, CHAMP-LEVÉ, BASSE-TAILLE, &c.) The beautiful example of enamel-work, Fig. 287, is attributed to Benvenuto Cellini. (See Fig. 188.)

=Enamel.= Painting in enamel is done by means of colours that are vitrifiable, a quality that is communicated to them by combining them with a vitreous base, which is called their flux. These are fused and fixed on the enamel by the action of fire, which produces in the colours applied such changes as the artist has previously learned to calculate. (_Bouvier._)

=Enamelled Glass.= (See GLASS.)

=Enamelled Wares.= (See GLAZED WARE.)

=Encænia=, Chr. A dedication festival.

[Illustration: Fig. 288. Encarpa (Festoons) on the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.]

=Encarpa=, Gr. An architectural decoration formed of festoons or garlands of flowers and fruits (καρποὶ), whence its name. Fig. 288 shows an example from the temple of Vesta at Tivoli.

=Encaustic=, R. (lit. burning in). The art of painting in encaustic. Pliny says, “The colours were applied with wax on marble, and transparent gum on ivory. Coloured wax was applied to the wall in the form of a paste, and in the manner of mosaic or enamels. This was then melted or fused with hot irons (_cauteria_), a small fillet of a different tint being inserted between each flat tint.” Fairholt says, “There is no antique painting extant which is properly called ENCAUSTIC; all those supposed to be so have, on closer examination, proved to be in FRESCO or in TEMPERA.”

=Encaustic Tiles.= Ornamental tiles for floorings, extensively used in the Middle Ages.

=Encheirion=, Chr. The napkin with which the priest wipes his hands; worn at the girdle.

=Encoignure=, Fr. A table made with an angle to fit into a corner.

=Encolpia=, Chr. (lit. worn on the breast, or from the Gr. ἐγκολπίζω, to contain in the womb). (1) Small caskets containing relics or a copy of the Gospels, worn by the early Christians suspended from the neck. (See EPOMADION.) Their use is of the highest antiquity, and specimens have been found in the tombs of the ancient cemetery of the Vatican, belonging to the 4th century. These were square in form, having on one side the sacred monogram ΙΧΡ for ΙΗΣΟΥΣ ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ between the letters Α and Ω. (2) The pectoral crosses worn by bishops are also called _encolpia_. Reliquaries in the form of a cross are first mentioned by Gregory the Great. He sent one of them to Queen Theodelinda. (_Martigny._)

=Encomboma=, Gr. (i. e. girt on). A Greek apron, tied round the waist, worn chiefly by young maidens and by slaves to keep the tunic clean.

=Encyclical Letters.= (1) Chr. Letters “sent round” to all who should read them, and not addressed to any particular person (from the members of a council, &c.). (2) Gen. The same words, γράμματα ἐγκύκλια, apply to the subjects which the Greeks included in the “circle of the sciences,” or encyclopædia.

=Encysted.= Enclosed in a cyst.

=Endecagon= (ἕνδεκα, eleven; γωνία, an angle). A plane figure having eleven sides and eleven angles.

=Endorse=, Her. A diminutive of the PALE (q.v.), one-fourth of its width.

=Endothys.= (See ENDYTIS.)

=Endromis=, Gr. and R. (δρόμος, a course or running). In Greek this name is given to hunting boots of Cretan origin, such as Diana is represented wearing by the Greek sculptors. Among the Romans the _endromis_ was an ample blanket of coarse wool, introduced from Gaul, in which athletes wrapped themselves when they were heated with the exercises. _Endromis Tyria_ was the name given to a large woollen wrap much finer than the ordinary _endromis_, and which was worn by the Roman ladies after their gymnastic exercises.

=Endytis=, Chr. (ἐνδύω, to put on). This term, in the Middle Ages, denoted an altar-covering; other terms for it were _endothis_ and _endothys_.

=Energumens=, Chr. Men possessed with devils.

=Enfeu=, Fr. A sepulchral vault usually placed under the choir of a church; it assumed the form of a large niche. Originally bishops were interred by “droit d’enfeu” in tombs of this kind. The term is derived from the Latin _infodere_ (to dig).

=Enfiled=, Her. Pierced with the sword.

=Engageants=, Fr. “Double ruffles that fall over the wrists.” (_Ladies’ Dictionary_, 1694.)

=Engineer’s Cartridge.= Drawing-paper manufactured in sheets measuring 30 by 22 inches. _Double Engineer’s Cartridge_ measures 46 inches by 30.

=Engobe=, Fr. A “slip” or thin coating of white clay used to coat pottery before the invention of the tin glaze.

=Engrailed=, Her. A border line indented in semicircles.

=Engraving.= Copper-plate engraving is called CHALCOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr. χαλκὸς, copper); wood-engraving, XYLOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr. ξύλον, wood); and engraving on stone, LITHOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr. λίθος, a stone). [Each process is described under its own heading. See also ETCHING.]

=Enhanced=, Her. Raised towards the CHIEF, or upper part of the shield.

=Enneapylæ=, Pel. (ἐννέα and πύλαι). Literally, nine gates; a fortified enclosure constructed by the Bœotian Pelasgians round the Acropolis of Athens, some years after the Trojan war. Xerxes destroyed the _enneapylæ_ after the capture of Athens. A few fragments of it remain to this day, not far from the temple of the Wingless Victory.

=Enotia=, Gr. (Lat. _inaures_). EAR-RINGS (q.v.).

=Enseniator=, Med. Lat. (from the Italian _insegna_, an ensign). A mounted ensign-bearer.

=Ensiculus=, R. A small sword, or child’s sword, used as a plaything. It is the diminutive of ENSIS.

=Ensigned=, Her. Adorned; having some ensign of honour placed above, as a coronet above a shield.

[Illustration: Figs. 289, 290. Gallic Ensigns.]

=Ensigns=, Gen. (Lat. _signa militaria_; Gr. σημεῖα). Military symbols beneath which soldiers are ranged according to the different regiments to which they belong. The most ancient Roman ensign was a bundle of straw, hay, or fern. Then came the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar. Afterwards the eagle alone was displayed (B. C. 104); it was made of silver or bronze, with expanded wings. The serpent or dragon was used as a particular ensign by the several _cohorts_, and the centuries had also each its ensign; but these were cloth flags. Under Constantine the LABARUM (q.v.) was introduced. (See CUSPIS, Figs. 228 to 230.)

[Illustration: Fig. 291. Gallic Ensign.]

=Ensiludium=, Med. Lat. A contest in sport with swords. (See CEMBEL, HASTILUDIUM.)

=Ensis, Sword.= A synonym of GLADIUS (q.v.).

=Ensis a Estoc=, Med. A stabbing-sword, usually carried at the saddle-bow.

[Illustration: Fig. 292. Entablature with leaf ornament.]

=Entablature.= A member of architecture placed as a crown to another. The entablature is composed of _architrave_, the part immediately above the column; _frieze_, the central space; and _cornice_, the upper projecting mouldings. (See Fig. 184.)

[Illustration: Fig. 293. Entablature with honeysuckle ornament.]

=Entalma=, Chr. The document by which a bishop confers the right of hearing confessions.

[Illustration: Fig. 294. Egyptian Column, showing entasis.]

=Entasis=, Gr. and R. (ἔντασις, a stretching tight). The _swelling_ of a balustre or of the shaft of a column. The narrowing of the shaft is called CONTRACTURA (q.v.).

=Enterclose=, Arch. A passage between two rooms in a house.

=Enthronisation=, Chr. (Lat. _incathedrare_). (1) The ceremony of placing a newly-ordained bishop upon his throne. (2) That of placing the relics in the altar of a church on consecration. (3) The installation of a presbyter in his church is sometimes called _enthronisation_.

=Entire=, Her. Said of a charge when it extends to the border lines of a shield, coat, or banner; also of a shield, coat, or banner of arms, when borne without any difference or mark of cadency.

=Entoire=, =Entoyre=, Her. A bordure charged with a series of inanimate figures or devices, as crosslets, roundles, &c. To a similar bordure of living figures the term ENALURON is applied.

=Entrance=, Chr. (See EISODOS and INTROIT.)

=Entrecoupe=, Fr. When two vaults are superimposed, and both spring from the same walls, “entrecoupe” is the term applied to the arched interval—if any—between them.

=Enveloped=, =Environed=, Her. Surrounded.

=Eolian (Æolian) Harp.= A musical stringed instrument arranged to be played upon by the wind (from Eolus [or properly Æolus], the ruler of the winds).

=Eolodicon.= A musical instrument similar to a harmonium, invented in the last century by Eschenbach.

=Eolophone.= A musical instrument similar to a harmonium.

=Eōra=, Gr. (ἐώρα). A festival held at Athens in honour of Icarius and his daughter Erigonê. It was known also by the names of _Æora_ (αἰώρα) and _Aletis_ (Ἀλῆτις). The last appellation originated in a hymn which was sung at the festival, and which had been composed by Theodorus of Colophon. It was sometimes called “Eudeipnos,” from the rich banquets usually given during its celebration.

=Epact= (Gr. ἐπακταὶ, sc. ἡμέραι; in Med. Lat. _adjectiones Lunæ_). The number of days required at the end of a lunar year to complete the solar year. (See EMBOLISMUS.)

=Epagomenæ= (sc. days), Gen. (ἐπαγόμεναι ἡμέραι, i. e. intercalated days). The name given to the five supplementary days of the year among those nations who divided the year into twelve months of thirty days each.

=Epaullière= or =Epaullets=, Er. Shoulder-plates; also the shoulder-knots formerly worn by gentlemen, but now restricted to domestic servants. (See AIGLET.)

=Ependytes=, Chr. (ἐπενδύτης, i. e. worn above). The “fisher’s coat” of St. Peter. A coarse cloak worn by the monks of the Middle Ages over another garment; it is also called, in the ancient MSS., _superaria_, _superindum_, and _sagus rusticus_. It is frequently described, especially in the East, as made of skins (μηλωτὴς, pelliceus).

=Epergne= (Fr. _épargne_, economy). An ornamental stand, with dish and branches, for the centre of a table.

=Epernay Ware.= At Epernay were specially made glazed wares in relief for the service of the table, in shapes such as a hare, a fowl, &c., in half relief; also surprise or puzzle jugs.

=Epha= or =Ephah=, Heb. A measure of capacity, about 3 pecks and 3 pints.

=Ephebeum=, Gr. (ἐφηβεῖον). The large hall of a gymnasium, situated in the centre of the building, in which the youths (_ephebi_) practised gymnastic exercises.

=Ephippium=, Gr. (ἐφίππιον, i. e. for putting on a horse). A saddle. Among the Greeks and Romans it was a kind of pad, square or round in shape, and regularly stuffed. Saddle-cloths hung from it, but it had no stirrups. The word _sella_, or _sella equestris_, became common in later times.

=Ephod=, Hebrew. A short upper garment worn by the Jewish priests. The ephod, which was also worn by the Jewish judges and kings, was made of fine linen; that of the high priest consisted of a sleeved tunic, woven with gold thread, purple, hyacinth, and twisted flax. Two sardonyx stones set in gold adorned the clasps by which this tunic was fastened round the shoulders.

=Epi= or =Girouette=, Fr. The complicated iron ornament with which steeples and pointed roofs were surmounted in the architecture of the Renaissance period, replaced in modern times by the weathercock. A similar spiked ornament, of pottery or metal, is still common on the gables of houses in Normandy.

=Epic.= In Art, the graphic representation of an “epos,” or event, cardinal in history.

=Epichysis=, Gr. and R. (ἐπίχυσις, i. e. that which pours in). A Greek pitcher with a long neck and a handle; it was used for pouring wine into cups.

=Epicopus=, Gr. and R. (ἐπίκωπος, i. e. furnished with oars). A vessel with oars. (See NAVIS.)

=Epicrocum=, Gr. and R. A woman’s garment, of a saffron yellow (crocus), whence its name.

=Epicycloid.= “A curve described by the movement of the circumference of one circle on the convex or concave part of the circumference of another.” (_Stormonth._)

=Epideipnis=, Gr. (i. e. following the dinner). The last course of a dinner or any kind of banquet.

=Epidemia=, Gr. (lit. among the people). Festivals held at Argos in honour of Juno, and at Delos and Miletus in honour of Apollo. They received their name from the fact that these deities were supposed to be present at them, and to mingle with the people (ἐπὶ, among; δῆμος, people).

=Epidote.= A mineral of a green or greyish colour: of the garnet family.

=Epidromos=, Gr. (1) The mizen, or sail on the mast nearest to the stern, in vessels with several masts. (2) A part of the oil-press. (3) A running rope passing through the rings of a large net for catching birds, by means of which the huntsman, who was on the watch, closed the net when the game had found their way into it.

=Epigonation=, Gr., Chr. An ornament peculiar to the Eastern Church; a lozenge-shaped piece of some stiff material, hanging from the girdle on the right side as low as the _knee_ (whence its name).

=Epigrus.= (See EPIURUS.)

=Epiphany=, Chr. This festival is known by various names in the different European languages; and the names are either (1) mere reproductions of the Latin name, or renderings of it; or (2) refer to the manifestation to the Magi as the three Kings, as the Dutch Drie-Koningendag, &c.; or (3) indicate it as the final day of the Christmas festivity, _Twelfth Day_, &c. (See _Smith and Cheetham’s Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_.)

=Epiphi=, Egyp. The third month of summer, called the season of harvests.

=Epirhedium=, R. (ἐπὶ Gr., and _rheda_ Gallic). A kind of chariot. The word was formed by the Romans as above, and is explained as _Ornamentum rhedarum, aut plaustrum_. (See RHEDA, PLAUSTRUM.)

=Episcenium=, Gr. and R. (ἐπι-σκήνιον, i. e. above the stage). A room situated above the stage, in ancient theatres, for the machinery.

=Episcopalia=, Chr. The ring and the pastoral staff, the distinctive marks of the authority of a bishop.

=Episotron= (ἐπί-σωτρον). (See CANTHUS.)

=Epistle Side= (of a church). The south side.

=Epistomium=, R. (στόμα, a mouth). The cock of a vessel or water-pipe, which let out only a little water at a time.

=Epistylium=, Gr. and R. (ἐπι-στύλιον). An epistyle; literally, on the column (ἐπὶ, on, and στῦλος, a column); that is, the architrave or lower beam of an entablature laid horizontally upon columns. By analogy the term is used to denote the entire ENTABLATURE (q.v.).

=Epitaph= (ἐπιτάφιος). (1) A eulogy pronounced at a funeral. (2) Memorials of art in churches, in remembrance of the dead. (3) Inscriptions on tombs.

=Epithalamium=, Gr. A nuptial song. A fragment of verses from one of these songs, written by Hesiod, has come down to us.

=Epithedes= or =Sima=, Arch. The upper member of the cornice of an entablature.

=Epitoga=, R. A cloak worn over the toga.

=Epitoxis=, Gr. and R. That part of the catapult in which the missile was laid.

=Epitrachelion=, Chr. (i. e. on the neck). The Greek name for the stole. (See STOLE.)

=Epiurus=, R. (ἐπίουρος). A wooden peg used as a nail.

=Epoch.= A fixed and important period of novelty or change, which gave a new and distinctive character to Art. (_Fairholt._)

=Epomadion=, Gr., Chr. The cord or ribbon by which relics, or crosses (ENCOLPIA), were suspended from the neck.

=Eques=, R. Generally, any one on horseback, a rider, and by analogy a knight, that is, a patrician or man of distinguished family. _Eques alarius_ was the name given to the cavalry of the allies; _eques cataphractus_ was a knight whose horse, as well as himself, was clad in complete armour; _eques extraordinarius_ were the picked cavalry in the service of the consuls; _eques legionarius_, _eques prætorianus_, the prætorian cavalry; _eques sagittarius_, the mounted archers.

=Equipped=, Her. Fully armed, caparisoned, or provided.

=Equiria=, R. (_equus_). Games instituted by Romulus, and celebrated at Rome in the Field of Mars on the third of the calends of March (27th February). These games, held in honour of Mars, consisted of chariot races. There were two festivals of this name; the second was on the eve of the ides of March (14th March).

=Equuleus= or =Eculeus=, R. (lit. a colt, a young horse). This was an instrument of torture on which slaves were placed astride. The law prescribed that all slaves called as witnesses should be examined under torture.

=Equus=, R. A horse; properly a stallion, as opposed to _cauterius_, a gelding, and _equa_, a mare.

=Eradicated=, Her. Torn up by the roots.

=Erased=, Her. Torn off with a ragged edge.

=Eremites=, Gr., Chr. Hermits.

=Ergastulum=, R. (ἐργάζομαι, to work). A private prison attached to a farm or _villa rustica_, in which insubordinate and ill-conducted slaves were kept in chains; they were under the superintendence of a gaoler, who was himself a slave, and who was called ERGASTULARIUS. _Ergastula_ were built underground, and thus formed subterranean dungeons.

=Ergata=, Gr. and R. (ἐργάτης, i. e. worker). A strong capstan used for moving heavy weights; among other things, for hauling vessels on shore.

=Ericius=, R. (lit. hedgehog). A military engine, a cheval-de-frise or long beam studded with iron spikes, whence its name. It was placed across a door or other opening to which it was desired to bar ingress.

[Illustration: Fig. 295. The Ermine. Arms of Anne of Brittany.]

=Ermine=, =Ermines=, =Erminois=, Her. The animal, the ermine, sometimes appears in blazon, and an ermine spot is borne as a charge. Generally the ermine is an emblem of royalty, purity, and honour. The illustration (Fig. 295) is of the arms of Anne of Bretagne, the Queen of Charles VIII.

=Erotidia=, Gr. (ἐρωτίδια). Festivals held every fifth year at Thespiæ in Bœotia, in honour of Eros, the principal divinity of the Thespians.

=Erpa=, Egyp. A title in use among the Egyptians implying authority generally; the crown prince was so designated, and the high priest was, in the same manner, called _erpa_ of the priests.

[Illustration: Fig. 296. Escallop.]

=Escallop= or =Scallop Shells= were emblems worn by pilgrims, and of St. James the Great, from the 13th century.

=Escape=, Arch, (or Apopyge). The small curvature given to the top and bottom of the shaft of a column where it expands to meet the edge of the fillet above the torus of the base, and beneath the astragal under the capital.

[Illustration: Fig. 297. Escaufaille, or portable brazier.]

=Escaufaille=, Fr. A small portable brazier on wheels, which was taken from room to room as required.

=Eschelles=, Fr. “A stomacher laced or ribboned in the form of a ladder.” (_Ladies’ Dict._, 1694.)

=Escoinson=, Med. Fr. The interior edge of the window-side or jamb. This was often decorated with a pilaster called the “pilastre des écoinsons.”

=Escroll=, Her. A ribbon charged with a motto; also a ribbon, coiled at its extremities, borne as a charge.

[Illustration: Fig. 298. Escutcheon of the Sforzas.]

=Escutcheon.= (1) The heraldic shield. (2) Metal plates on doors. Escutcheons are abundantly used in Gothic architecture, and are frequently carved on the bosses of ceilings and at the ends of weather mouldings, &c. Sometimes. instead of armorial bearings, escutcheons have the instruments of the Crucifixion or other devices carved on them.

=Escutcheon of Pretence=, Her. A shield charged upon the field of another shield of larger size, and bearing a distinct coat of arms.

=Espadon.= A long Spanish sword. It was the weapon used for decapitation of criminals.

=Espietus=, =Expiotus=, Med. Lat. A dart (1361).

=Espringale=, =Springale=, =Espringold=. A machine for throwing darts.

=Esquire=, Her. A rank next below that of knight.

=Esseda=, =Essedum=, R. (from the Celtic _ess_, a carriage). A chariot of Gaulish origin, drawn by two horses, which was used by the Britons and the Germans in war. It was mounted on two wheels, and was open in front, but closed behind. The pole was broad, and the rider used to run to and fro upon it in the battle. The Romans constructed carriages of a similar kind. A similar chariot drawn by one horse was called the _cisium_. (See CURRUS.)

=Essonite.= The cinnamon-stone, a variety of the garnet. It is of a reddish yellow tint, resembling the colour of cinnamon. These stones come principally from Ceylon, and are frequently sold for hyacinths or jacinths, from which, however, they differ in many important peculiarities. (_H. Emanuel._)

=Este.= A manufactory in Italy of soft porcelain; also of fine faience and pipe-clay.

=Estivation=, Bot. The arrangement of the unexpanded leaves of the flower-bud which burst in Summer; as opposed to VERNATION, the arrangement of the leaves of the bud which burst in Spring.

=Estoc=, Fr. (Med. Lat. _estoquum_). A short sword worn at the girdle; also called a “tuck” (_temp._ Elizabeth).

=Estoile=, Her. A star with wavy rays or points, which are six, eight, or sometimes more in number.

=Estrade=, Fr., Arch. A platform raised three or four inches above the rest of the floor of a chamber, upon which to place a bed or a throne, &c.

=Estrif= or =Estref=, Med. A kind of arrow for the balista.

=Etching.= In this process the copper plate is covered with an _etching-ground_, which is a preparation of bees’-wax, Burgundy pitch, black pitch, and asphaltum (or other ingredients); and the lines of the design are traced out with _etching-needles_, which remove the etching-ground from the copper wherever they pass, and slightly scratch the surface of the plate. Next, a border of _banking-wax_ is put round the sides of the plate, making a trough of it. The _banking-wax_ is made of bees’-wax, common pitch, Burgundy pitch, and sweet oil melted in a crucible and poured into cold water. The next operation is to pour in nitrous acid reduced with water to a proper strength (about one part acid to four parts water). When the acid has been on a sufficient time to corrode the fainter parts of the subject, it is to be poured off, the plate washed with water, and left to dry. These fainter parts are then to be varnished with a mixture called _stopping-ground_, made of lamp-black and Venice turpentine, applied with a camel’s-hair pencil. This stops the further action of the acid on these parts. When the surface is dry, fresh acid is poured on to _bite in_ the bolder parts, and the processes of _stopping_ and _biting-in_ are alternated for every gradation of tint. The wax is removed from the plate by heat, and cleaned away with a rag moistened with olive oil; and the work is then complete, or it may be finished off with the _graver_. _Etching-points_ or _needles_ resemble common needles, fixed in handles four or five inches long; some are made oval to produce broader lines. The _dry point_ is only a very fine-pointed needle for the delicate lines. Imitations of chalk and pencil drawings are sometimes produced by _etching on soft ground_. _Etching on steel_ is done in the same way as on copper. For _etching on glass_, a ground of bees’-wax is laid on, and the design traced as above. Sulphuric acid is then poured on, and fluor-spar sprinkled on it, or fluoric acid may be at once used; this is allowed to remain four or five hours, and is then removed with oil of turpentine. (See also STIPPLE, MEZZOTINTO, AQUATINTA.)

=Eterea= of Padua. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device, a charioteer in his car in the air, drawn by a white and black horse, the one endeavouring to touch the earth, the other to ascend. Motto, “_Victor se tollit ad auras_.”

=Etiolation.= The process of blanching to which plants are subject in dark places.

=Ettwee.= O. E. for ETUI (q.v.).

[Illustration: Fig. 299. Etui.]

=Etui=, Fr. (by contraction _Twee_, Boyer). A case formerly worn at the girdle by ladies. They were made of gold or silver, or ornamented with paintings in enamel. The richly-decorated example represented in Fig. 299 was the property of a granddaughter of Oliver Cromwell.

=Euripus=, R. (εὔριπος). An artificial canal or watercourse in the gardens of a Roman villa, generally stocked with fish and aquatic or amphibious animals. The same term was applied to a moat dug at the foot of the _podium_ in an amphitheatre or circus, which was intended, in conjunction with the metal railings or trellis-work placed at the top of the _podium_, as a protection to the spectators, when wild beasts were exhibited in the arena. _Euripus_ is also applied by Tertullian and other authors to the _spina_ of a circus.

=Eustyle=, Arch. (εὔ-στυλος). An intercolumniation in which the columns are separated by a width of two diameters and a quarter, measured at the lower part of the column, excepting the central intercolumn, which is of three diameters. It is the form of columniation which, according to Vitruvius, satisfied the demands at once of solidity of structure, beauty of appearance, and general harmony of effect.

=Euterpean.= Pertaining to music: from the Muse Euterpe.

=Everriculum=, R. (_everro_, to sweep out). A fishing-net.

=Ewery=, Med. An office of household service, where the ewers, &c., were kept: our modern _scullery_.

=Exacisculatus=, R. Destroyed by means of a pick (_acisculus_). The term is of frequent occurrence in sepulchral inscriptions, its purpose being to serve as a notice to the thieves who broke into tombs.

=Examen=, R. (_exigo_, to examine). The tongue or index on the beam of a balance.

=Exasciatus=, R. Hewn or fashioned with the adze (ascia); whence the expression _opus exasciatum_ for work which only required to be finished or polished.

=Excalceatus=, R. (lit. without shoes or boots). A comic actor or comedian who wore sandals. The tragic actor, on the other hand, who wore on the stage the laced boot or _cothurnus_, was called _cothurnatus_.

=Excubitorium=, R. The post or guard of the _excubitores_; of these there was one in each quarter of the city, or fourteen in all.

[Illustration: Fig. 300. Exedra.]

=Exedra=, Gr. and R. An assembly-room or hall for discussion or conversation, forming part of a gymnasium, palæstra, or private house. In many cases _exedræ_ were in the open air, consisting merely of circular marble benches. (Fig. 300.) When an exedra was covered in, one of the sides often terminated in a circular apse (_absis_). [Larger rooms were called “_Leschai_.”]

=Exedrium=, R. Diminutive of EXEDRA (q.v.).

=Exequiæ.= (See EXSEQUIÆ.)

=Exergue.= The bottom space on a coin, where the date is engraved.

=Exiteria=, Gr. and R. (ἐξιτήρια, concerning departure or result). Sacrifices offered to propitiate the gods on the eve of an important enterprise, or in gratitude for success.

=Exomis=, Gr. and R. (ἐξ-ωμὶς, i. e. off the shoulders). A short tunic, of Greek origin, adopted by the Romans. It left the right shoulder and arm exposed, and had only a short sleeve for the left arm. The term was also applied to the _pallium_, when so arranged upon the person as to resemble the tunic just described.

=Exonarthex.= (See NARTHEX.)

=Exostra=, Gr. and R. (ἐξώστρα). (1) A flying bridge thrown from a movable tower (_acrobaticon_) on to the walls of a besieged town, by means of which the assailants made their way into the place. (2) A theatrical machine which was pushed to the front of the stage from behind a curtain which concealed it until it was wanted.

=Expeditus= (opposed to _impeditus_), R. Free, unencumbered; light-armed troops (_velites_) were thus called (_expediti_), [or any other troops, when they left their _impedimenta_ behind for a forced march, &c.]

=Expositories.= (See MONSTRANCES.)

=Exsequiæ=, R. (_exsequor_, to follow after). A funeral conducted with great pomp. (See =Funus=.)

=Extispicium=, R. (_exta_ and _inspicio_, to inspect). Divination by inspection of the entrails of victims sacrificed on the altar; called also _haruspicina_.

=Extra-dos=, Arch. The exterior curve of an arch; opposed to the SOFFIT or INTRA-DOS.

=Extremities.= In Art, the head, feet, and hands: compare _acrolithes_.

=Ex-voto=, Gen. Offerings of any kind in fulfilment of a vow (_ex voto_).

=Eye.= In Christian art, the emblem of Providence. Attribute of St. Lucia, as a symbol, _not_ of her martyrdom, but of the meaning of her _name_ (“light”). (See OUDJA, OCULUS.)

F.

=Fabaria=, R. Offerings of bean-flour (_faba_) made by the Romans on the 1st of June to the goddess Carna; from these offerings the calends of June took the name of _fabariæ_.

=Fabatarium=, R. A large earthenware vessel in which bean-flour (_puls fabacia_) was served, boiled up with water or broth. It formed a kind of _polenta_.

=Fabrica=, R. (_faber_, an artisan). The shop in which an artisan works, chiefly a joiner’s or carpenter’s shop.

=Fabrilia=, R. A general term, including all the different kinds of tools used by an artisan.

=Façade=, Arch. The _face_ or front of a building.

=Face-guard.= On a helmet, a bar or bars of iron protecting the face.

=Face-painting=, O. E. Portrait painting.

=Facets= (Fr. _facette_, a little face). The flat surfaces cut upon precious stones.

=Facial Angle.= The angle formed by two lines, one horizontal from the nostrils to the ear, the other perpendicular from the nostrils to the forehead.

=Fac-simile= (from Latin _factum_, made, and _simile_, like). A perfectly exact copy.

=Factorium= (sc. _vas_), R. A vessel containing exactly a _factum_, or quantity of grapes or olives proper to be placed under the press (_torcular_) at one _factum_ or making.

=Faculæ=, R. Little torches.

[Illustration: Fig. 301. Faenza sweetmeat-dish.]

=Faenza.= A manufacture of pottery considered by some writers to be the most ancient in Italy. _Garzoni_, writing in 1485, says, “The majolicas of F. are white and polished, and one can no more confound them with those of Treviso, than one would take puff-balls for truffles.” _Vincenzo Lazari_ says they are distinguished by the softness of the tints, the correctness of the drawing, and the whiteness of the enamel at the back. For a long and interesting account of this most important botega, see _Jacquemart_, _Hist. of the Ceramic Art_. The name of _Fayence_ is derived from Faenza, and _not_ from the little town of Fayence in France. (Fig. 301.)

=Faience.= (See FAYENCE.)

=Fairy Butter=, O. E. (1) A fungous excrescence about the roots of trees, and (2) a species of _tremella_ found on furze and broom are so called.

=Fairy Circles.= Circles of coarse green grass common in meadows, and attributed to the dancing of the fairies.

=Fairy Dances= = FAIRY CIRCLES (q.v.).

=Fairy Darts.= Small flints in the form of arrow-heads, possibly of the stone age.

=Fairy Faces.= Fossil _echini_ or sea-urchins.

=Fairy Groats.= A country name for certain old coins. (See _Harrison’s England_, p. 218.)

=Fairy Loaves.= Fossils found in the chalk, called also _fairy faces_.

=Fairy Money.= Treasure trove was so called.

=Fairy Pipes.= Small old tobacco-pipes, frequently found in the north of England.

=Fairy Rings.= (See FAIRY CIRCLES.)

=Fairy Sparks.= Phosphoric light seen on various substances in the night time. (_Halliwell._)

=Fairy Stones.= (See FAIRY LOAVES.)

=Faith=, in Christian art, is represented by a female figure holding the Eucharistic cup.

=Fala=, R. A wooden tower used in the siege of a fortified place, but the exact form of which is unknown; it differed from the ACROBATICON.

=Falarica= or =Phalarica=, R. A heavy spear, used by the Saguntines, which was generally discharged from a _balista_. Its shaft was sometimes enveloped with sulphur and resin, and with tow steeped in oil; and it was launched blazing against wooden towers for the purpose of setting them on fire.

=Falbala.= (See FURBELOW.)

=Falcastrum=, R. (_falx_, a sickle). An agricultural tool with a curved blade for tearing up weeds.

=Falcatus=, R. Furnished with scythes (_falces_). (See CURRUS.)

=Falchion.= A broadsword, spelt “fawchon;” 14th century. (See FALX.)

=Falcicula.= Dimin. of _falx_.

=Falcon=, in mediæval art, is the attribute of a gentleman, in allusion to the restrictions of the sumptuary laws.

=Falcula.= Dimin. of _falx_.

=Faldestol=, O. E. An elbow-chair of state; modern “_fauteuil_.” (See FALDSTOOL.)

=Falding= (A.S. _feald_). A kind of coarse cloth, like frieze.

=Faldstool=, =Faldistory=, O. E. A folding-stool, like a modern camp-stool, used in cathedral church services in Saxon times.

=Fall= or =Falling-band=. A large collar falling on to the shoulders; 16th and 17th centuries. (See BANDS.)

=Fallals=, O. E. The falling ruffs of a woman’s dress.

=False=, Her. Said of any charge when its central area is removed; thus an annulet is a “false roundle.”

=False Roof=, Arch. The space between the ceiling of the garret and the roof.

=Falx=, R. A scythe, sickle, bill-hook, &c.; any instrument with a curved edge used for cutting grass, wood, or other objects. There were many different kinds, which were called respectively _arboraria_ and _sylvatica_, _denticulata_, _fænaria_ or _veruculata_, _vinitoria_, _vineatica_, and _putatoria_. The term _falx_ was also applied to a falchion strongly curved at the end. _Falx supina_ was a dagger with a keen and curved blade; _falx muralis_ was an instrument employed in warfare, both by sea and land, either to cut the masts and rigging of a vessel, or to sweep the ramparts clear of defenders. [_Culter_ is a knife with one straight edge; _falx_, one with the edge curved. Hence our _falchion_, &c.]

=Familia=, Med. Lat. An old term for a set of chessmen. Among the jewels in the wardrobe-book of Edward I. occur “una _familia_ de ebore, pro ludendo ad scaccarium,” and “una familia pro scaccario de jaspide et crystallo.”

[Illustration: Fig. 302. Feather Fan—Italian.]

=Fan=, Egyp. With the _Egyptians_, the fan of ostrich feathers for brushing away flies was looked upon as the insignia of princes and chieftains; the _flabellum_ or _umbellum_ (parasol) was carried by inferior officers. Both kinds of fan are frequently represented on the sacred barges. The use of the fan was first introduced into England in the 16th century; they were first made of feathers with long handles of gold, silver, or ivory of elaborate workmanship, and sometimes inlaid with precious stones. The engraving shows one from a portrait of Queen Elizabeth. The _Greeks_ and _Romans_ had fans of various elegant materials, often of peacock’s feathers; sometimes of wings of birds, or of linen stretched on a frame. _Italian_ fans, mediæval, were square flags, as in Fig. 303. Folding fans were first introduced in the 17th century. Inventories of churches and monasteries of the 14th century include ecclesiastical fans or _flabella_. These are still used in the Catholic Church in the East. An illumination at Rouen represents the deacon raising the flabellum, a circular fan with a long handle, over the head of the priest at the altar. In the accounts of the churchwardens of Walberswick, Suffolk, of 1493, is the entry “for a bessume of pekok’s fethers, IVd.” (Figs. 302, 303.)

[Illustration: Fig. 303. Venetian lady, with a square fan of the 16th century.]

=Fan-crest=, Her. An early form of decoration for the knightly helm.

=Fandango.= A Spanish dance.

=Fane.= (1) A vane or weathercock; “a fayne of a schipe,” i. e. a vane on the top of a mast. “Of sylver his maste, of golde his _fane_.” (2) _Anglo-Saxon._ A banner. (3) The white flower-de-luce. (_Gerard._) (4) Enemies. (_Halliwell._) (See also FANUM.)

=Fanfare=, Fr. A flourish of trumpets.

=Fannel= or =Phannel=, O. E. The FANON (q.v.).

=Fanon=, Chr. The maniple or napkin worn by the priest at mass. It was originally nothing but a plain strip of linen worn on the left wrist. In later times it was highly decorated, and often made of the richest materials.

=Fan-tao=, Chinese. A fabulous peach-tree, which blossoms every 3000 years; represented on pottery as an attribute of Cheou-Lao, the god of longevity, who holds in his hand a fruit of it.

=Fan-tracery.= In Gothic architecture, elaborate carved work spread over an arched surface, like a fan with the handle resting on a corbel or stone bracket below.

=Fanum=, R. (_fari_, to speak); Eng. =Fane=. A term synonymous with TEMPLUM (q.v.), but implying also the idea of a place which had been consecrated by the solemn formula of the augurs. The _fanum_ thus comprised not only the building itself, the temple, but also all the consecrated ground surrounding it [“_locus liberatus et effatus_.”]

=Farrago=, R. (i. e. made of _far_, spelt). Fodder for horses and cattle, consisting of the green ears of different kinds of grain.

[Illustration: Fig. 304. Farthingale of the time of Elizabeth.]

=Farthingale= (Fr. _vertugale_) is first spoken of in 1547. It was a sort of cage made of whalebone worn under the petticoat, increasing the size of the hips. In Elizabeth’s reign it reached to a preposterous size, giving the wearer the appearance of “standing in a drum,” according to “Sir Roger de Coverley.” There were _wheel-farthingales_ and _tub-farthingales_. Farthingales were worn during the reign of Charles I., but of more moderate dimensions; and in Charles II.’s reign the fashion vanished to reappear in the hoop of the 18th century. The engraving gives an example of a moderate farthingale. (Fig. 304.)

=Fartura=, R. (_farcio_, to stuff). The act of fattening poultry; and thence applied to a kind of structure, the centre of which was filled with rubble.

=Fasces.= (See FASCIS.)

[Illustration: Fig. 305. Roman lictor carrying the fasces.]

=Fascia=, R. Any strip of cloth used for a bandage; such as (1) the swathes (Gr. σπάργανον) in which newly-born children were wrapped; (2) a white band, or for women, a purple, worn as a diadem (DIADEMA); (3) (_f. pectoralis_) a bandage worn by young Roman girls to prevent excessive development of the breast; (4) (_f. cruralis_) a bandage wound closely round the leg from the ankle to the knee, &c.; these were adopted in Europe in the Middle Ages; (5) (_f. pedulis_, Gr. ποδεῖον) a sock; (6) see ZONA. (7) In _architecture_ the term _fascia_ or _facia_ is applied to three flat parallel _bands_ of stone, introduced to break the monotony of architraves, more especially of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite Orders.

=Fasciculus=, R. (dimin. of _fascis_). A small bundle, or number of objects tied up into small bundles.

=Fascina= (_fascinum_ = fascination). Amulets worn to avert the “evil eye.” “Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos.” (_Virgil._)

=Fasciola= (dimin. of _fascia_). A small bandage. (See FASCIA.)

=Fascis=, R. A bundle; a small packet; a small faggot of wood, or fascine. In the plural _fasces_ denoted the bundle of rods, with an axe in the middle, carried by the lictors before certain of the Roman magistrates. (See Fig. 305.) _Fasces laureati_ were the fasces crowned with laurel leaves, which were carried before a victorious general; _fasces versi_, the reversed fasces, which were carried axe downwards, in token of mourning, at funerals. The fasces were carried by the lictors on their shoulders, as shown in Fig. 305; and when an inferior magistrate met a superior one, the lictors of the former lowered their fasces to him; hence the expression _submittere fasces_, to yield or confess inferiority.

=Faselus.= (See PHASELUS.)

=Fasti=, R. (_fas_, divine law). Archives or calendars engraved on stone or marble; they were of two kinds. (1) The _fasti sacri_ or _kalendares_, a kind of almanack or calendar, setting out the _dies fasti_, or lawful days on which certain kinds of business might be transacted without impiety; also the religious festivals, &c. The calendars were entirely in the keeping of the priests. (2) The _fasti annales_ or _historici_, which contained the names of the consuls and magistrates, and a short account of the most remarkable events. Some important lists of this kind of the time of Tiberius are preserved in the capitol at Rome, and called the Fasti Capitolini.

=Fastigium=, R. (_fastigo_, to raise to a point). The top of a pediment, and thence the entire pediment itself. In a building this term also signifies the _ridge_, or top of a roof whose two sides rise up to a point.

=Faun= (Lat. _Faunus_). A woodland god, frequently represented with sharp ears and with the feet of a goat.

=Fauteau=, Fr. A military engine used in the Middle Ages; it was a kind of battering-ram suspended in a tower. (See ARIES.)

=Faux=, R. Any narrow passage, lobby, corridor, or entrance to a house, in especial the passage which formed the communication between two blocks of a house. In the plural, _fauces_, like _carceres_, denoted stalls or stables for horses. (See CARCER.)

=Favissæ=, R. Pits or cellars under a temple, in which all the furniture and sacred implements which had become unfit for use were kept.

=Favour=, O. E. A love-gift; a ribbon or glove, &c., worn on the crest of the favoured knight at a tournament, &c.

=Favourite=, O. E. A lock of hair: “a sort of modish lock, dangling on the temples.” (_Ladies’ Dictionary_, 1694.)

=Favus=, R. A flagstone or tablet of marble cut into a hexagon, like the cell of a honeycomb (_favus_), whence its name. [Pavements of this pattern were called Sectilia.]

=Fax=, R. A torch. This consisted either of pieces of wood joined together and steeped in resin, or a metal tube filled with inflammable materials, such as resin, pitch, tallow, tow impregnated with wax, &c. [The early evening was hence called _prima fax_, and as marriages were celebrated at that time of day, the _torch_ was made an attribute of Hymen, and a symbol of marriage. The torch was also carried at funerals to fire the pile with.]

=Fayence.= Pottery.

=Feather.= In Christian art (German) an attribute of St. Barbara; it is generally a peacock’s feather. This refers to an old German version of her legend, which relates that when St. Barbara was scourged by her father, angels changed the rods into feathers.

=Featherings=, in Architecture, are lacelike ornaments along the edges of arcs in windows, canopies, &c.

[Illustration: Fig. 306. Ostrich feathers. (An escroll for a coronet.)]

=Feathers=, Her. The feathers borne as crests and badges are generally those of the ostrich, sometimes of the swan, the turkey, and a few other birds. Fig. 306 is a representation of an early plume of ostrich feathers, as they are carved, with an escroll in place of a coronet, in the Abbey Church of St. Albans. From the time of the accession of the House of Stuart to the crown of the United Kingdom, the coroneted plume of three ostrich feathers appears to have been regarded, as it is at this present day, as the special badge of the Princes of Wales.

=Februa=, =Februales=, R. A festival in honour of the dead instituted by Numa; it was celebrated every year on the ides of February.

=Feet.= In Christian art the feet of Our Lord, also of angels and of the Apostles, should always be represented naked, without shoes or sandals. (_Fairholt._)

=Felt= (Fr. _feutre_). A sort of coarse wool, or wool and hair. Felt hats were first made in England by Spaniards and Dutchmen, in the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. Felt was also used for the stuffing of garments.

=Feminalia= or =Femoralia=, R. (_femur_, the thigh). Short breeches or a kind of drawers which reached from the waist to about the knee. [Worn by Augustus Cæsar, who was very susceptible to cold.]

=Fendace= (armour). The old name for the gorget.

=Fenestella=, Chr. (lit. a small window). A niche made in the wall of a church, near the altar, and containing the stone basin in which the priest poured away the water in which he had washed the chalice.

=Fenestra, Window.= _Fenestra biforis_ is a _Gemel-window_, formed by a double bay. _Fenestra_ was the name given to the hole pierced in the ears to receive the ear-rings, as also to the loop-holes made in the walls of a fortress.

=Fenestration=, Arch. A term which expresses the disposition and arrangement of all the windows in a house.

=Fengite.= Transparent alabaster used for glass in windows.

=Ferculum=, R. (_fero_, to carry). Contracted form of _fericulum_, a tray, and thence the dishes carried upon a tray; a _course_ or _remove_. In a triumphal procession the term was applied to a platform for displaying an enemy’s spoils, a rich booty, images of the gods, &c.; or the ashes of the dead in a funeral.

[Illustration: Fig. 307. Silver Feretory or Reliquary, of good English work, for the most part in repoussé.]

=Feretory=, Chr. (1) A richly ornamented shrine, often of solid gold and set with jewels, in which the relics of saints are carried in Roman Catholic processions. (2) The enclosure or chapel in which the shrine was kept.

=Feretrum= or =Pheretrum=, Gr, R., and Chr. (Lat. _capulus_). A bier; sometimes a shrine. The term was used at a period when coffins were uncommon; more properly the FERETORY, 1 (q.v.).

=Feriæ=, R. Days of festival among the Romans; they were classed as follows: (1) _Feriæ statæ_ or _stativæ_, which were held regularly on the days indicated in the calendar; these were the _immovable festivals_, such as the Agonalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, &c. (2) _Feriæ conceptæ_ or _conceptivæ_, which were held every year, but at uncertain intervals; these were the _movable festivals_, such as the Latinæ, Sementivæ, Paganalia, and Compitalia. (3) Lastly, there were the _feriæ imperativæ_ or _official festivals_, which were held by order of the dictators, consuls, or prætors. All _feriæ_ were _dies nefasti_, on which lawsuits, political transactions, &c. were impious, and slaves were relieved of their labour. The _feriæ Latinæ_ were the most important of all Roman festivals.

=Fermail=, Her. A buckle.

=Ferr=, Her. A horse-shoe.

=Ferrara.= A manufactory of majolica in North Italy, described by Jacquemart as “one of the most brilliant in Italy;” established by Alfonso I. with artists imported from Faenza, circa 1495. (_Jacquemart._)

=Ferrea Solea.= A horse-shoe. (See SOLEA and HIPPOSANDALIUM.)

=Ferriterium.= A prison for slaves. Synonym of ERGASTULUM (q.v.).

=Ferula=, R. The fennel; a plant with which children were beaten for slight faults, and thence a cane or stick with which slaves were chastised.

[Illustration: Fig. 308. Fesse.]

=Fesse=, Her. One of the ordinaries. A broad band of metal or colour crossing the shield horizontally.

=Fesse-point=, Her. The central point of an escutcheon.

=Fesse-wise=, =In Fesse=, Her. Disposed in a horizontal line, side by side, across the centre of a field, and over the fesse-point of a shield.

[Illustration: Fig. 309. Festoon of foliage.]

=Festoon=, Arch. Garland of flowers. (Fig., 309.) (See ENCARPA.)

=Festra=, R. An abbreviation anciently employed for FENESTRA (q.v.).

=Festuca= or =Vindicta=, R. The rod which the lictor held over the head of a slave during the ceremony of _manumissio_, by which he was given his freedom. (See MANUMISSIO.)

=Fetter-lock=, Her. A shackle, padlock; a Yorkshire badge.

=Fibrinæ= (vestes), =Fibrinæ= (lanæ). (See CASTOREÆ.)

[Illustration: Fig. 310. Fibula. Gallic.]

[Illustration: Fig. 311. Fibula. Gallic.]

=Fibula=, Gen. (_figo_, to fix). (1) A clasp, buckle, or brooch; any contrivance made of gold, silver, bronze, ivory, &c., used for fastening male or female attire. (2) The buckle of a head-band (_tænia_, _vitta_). Figs. 310 and 311 represent buttons and clasps belonging to the Gaulish and Merovingian periods. [The girdles of the _Franks_ and _Saxons_, found in English tombs, were usually ornamented most profusely. Not only were the buckles (_fibulæ_) of the richest workmanship, and conspicuous for size and decoration, but they are sometimes supplemented by enchased plates, or plates set with precious stones. (_Roach Smith._)] (See Figs. 105 to 113.)

=Fictile Ware=, =Keremania=, R. (_fingo_, to mould). Any object made of terra-cotta or pottery, such as tiles, bricks, vases, &c. (See POTTERY.)

=Fiddle= (A.S. _fithele_), or =Viol=, is represented in an Anglo-Saxon MS. of the 11th century, of a pear-shape, with four strings. The fiddle-bow probably originated in Hindustan, where the _Hindus_ claim that the ravanastron was invented about 5000 years ago by Ravanon, a king of Ceylon. Almost identical with this is the _Chinese_ fiddle called _urheen_, which has only two strings, and its body consists of a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with a snake-skin. A German fiddle of the 9th century, called _lyra_, has only one string. In the Nibelungen Lied Volker is described as dexterous in playing the fiddle. Interesting representations of performers on the fiddle are painted on the roof of Peterborough Cathedral. They are attributed to the 12th century.

=Fidelia=, R. An earthenware vessel or jar used as a receptacle for cement.

=Fides= or =Fidis=, R. A general term comprising all stringed or gut instruments (from _sphidé_, catgut).

=Fidicula=, R. (dimin. of _fides_). A very fine catgut string, a _treble-string_. The plural _fidiculæ_ denotes an instrument of torture for slaves, the form of which is unknown.

=Field.= In Numismatics, the surface of a coin on which objects were engraved; in Heraldry, the entire surface of a shield or banner.

=Figure-paintings.= Paintings of the human figure.

[Illustration: Fig. 312. Silver Filigree. Reliquary, belonging to Lord Hastings, said to have been dug up in the foundations of St. Paul’s, London.]

=Filagree=, =Filigree=, or =Filigraine= (It. _filigrana_ = _filum_ and _granum_, or granular network; so called because the Italians, who first introduced this style of work, placed beads upon it. [_Ure._]). This work is of gold or silver wire plaited and soldered into delicate arabesques and flower patterns. In the 15th century the Spanish Moors “made admirable chiselled, enamelled, and gilt work, and applied filigree work on the surface, a system kept up at Salamanca and Cordova to the present day.” The Eastern nations have always been famous for filigree work.

=File=, Her. A label (from the Latin _filum_, a narrow ribbon).

=Filfot=, called also the =Gammadion=. (See FYLFOT.)

=Filigree Glass.= (See GLASS.)

=Fillet=, Her. A diminutive of a chief.

=Fillets=, Gen. Strips of linen employed for various purposes. The victims which were conducted by priests to sacrifice were adorned with sacred fillets. Among the Egyptians fillets were employed to swathe mummies, the strips being repeatedly wound by the embalmers round the corpse, till it reassumed the appearance it had presented before being dried. (See DIADEM, FASCIA.) In Architecture, a small round or rectangular moulding which separates two others which are larger and more prominent; the fillet also separates the flutings of columns. (See TÆNIA.)

=Fimbria=, R. The border or fringe of a cloth or garment. [These were more common among the Egyptians and Assyrians than the Greeks and Romans, and are mentioned in the Bible.]

[Illustration: Fig. 313. Cross fimbriated.]

=Fimbriated=, Her. Bordered; the border (which is narrow) lying in the same plane with the object bordered. (Fig. 313.)

[Illustration: Fig. 314. Finial.]

=Finial.= In Gothic architecture, an ornament of carved work representing foliage, on the apex of a spire or pinnacle. (See CROCKET.) (Fig. 314.)

=Fir-cone= upon a stem was the form of vases special to the majolica manufactory of Deruba; “a form,” says Jacquemart, “quite special to that manufactory, and directly imitated from the extreme East and from Asia Minor.”

=Fire.= Flames of fire placed near St. Anthony signify his spiritual aid as patron saint against fire in all shapes, in the next world and in this. _Tongues of fire_ are, of course, depicted on the heads of the Apostles, in representations of the Day of Pentecost.

=Fire-dog.= (See ANDIRON.)

=Fire-lock.= The musket fired by flint and steel, invented in France about the year 1630. (See MATCH-LOCK.)

=Fire-stommer=, O. E. A poker.

=Fiscus=, R. A wicker-work basket used for gardening purposes, especially for gathering in the olive and grape crops. The Romans also made use of this basket for transporting sums of money; hence _fiscus_ came to mean a moneychest, and was the name given to that part of the revenue which was applied to the civil list of the emperors [opposed to _ærarium_, the property of the senate]; but at last the word was used to signify generally the property of the state.

=Fish.= In Christian art, the symbol of water and the rite of baptism. (See ACROSTIC and VESICA PISCIS.)

=Fistuca=, R. A pavior’s ram or beetle; a wooden bar or pile used to consolidate floorings, masonry, and pavements.

=Fistula=, R. (1) A water-pipe of lead or earthenware. (2) A writing-pen made of reed, and thence a Pan’s pipe. (3) A rolling-pin for making pastry. (4) A probe. (5) A machine for bruising corn, which was called _fistula farraria_.

=Fitch.= The best of paint-brushes are made of the hair of the _fitch_ or polecat. They are black, elastic, and firm though soft. They are made flat or round, and are used also for varnishing.

=Fitchée=, Her. Pointed at the base.

=Flabelliform=, Arch. (_flabellum_). Fan-shaped. The term is usually applied to an ornament composed of leaves and palms, which is of frequent occurrence on Romano-Byzantine monuments.

=Flabellum=, Gen. (_flo_, to blow). A fan. (See FAN.)

=Flagellum=, Gen. (_flagrum_). A whip or scourge made with thongs of leather, especially thongs of the ox’s hide, or twisted or knotted cords, &c., used in antiquity for punishing slaves or culprits. It was a terrible weapon, and the lash was often knotted with bones, or heavy metal _hooks_ to tear the flesh (_scorpio_). Gladiators used to fight in the arena with _flagella_.

=Flagon=. A vessel with a long neck covered at top, and a spout. The flagons of the 15th and 16th centuries are the best in design and ornamentation.

=Flail.= A weapon like a flail, of wood and iron armed with spikes, _temp._ Henry VIII.

=Flake-white.= So called from its form, in commerce, of _flakes_ or scales. As a pigment it possesses great body, and enters largely into numerous compound tints. (_Fairholt._) (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.)

=Flamboyant= (style), Mod. The style of French architecture peculiar to the 15th century, so called because the mullions and tracery of the windows in the monuments belonging to that period are curved and twisted like the waving of flames. This style was contemporary with that called “the perpendicular” in England.

=Flamen=, R. A priest devoted to the service of any one god; e. g. _Flamen Martialis_, the priest of Mars. Their characteristic dress was the APEX, the LÆNA, and a laurel wreath.

=Flaming Heart=, in Christian symbolism, expresses fervent piety and love.

=Flammeolum= (dimin. of _flammeum_). A term denoting a texture much finer than that of the _flammeum_.

=Flammeum=, R. A bridal veil worn by the bride on the day of her marriage; it was of light gauze, and in colour of a vivid and brilliant yellow, like a flame; whence its name. It covered the lady from head to foot, and was removed by the bridegroom on their arrival home after the ceremony.

=Flammula=, R. A small flame; a small banner borne by light cavalry regiments; it was of a vivid and brilliant yellow colour, like the bridal _flammeum_; whence its name. (Modern ORIFLAMME, q.v.)

=Flanches=, =Flasques=, Her. Subordinaries.

[Illustration: Fig. 315. Flat-heads.]

=Flat-heads=, =Projecting-heads=, Mod. An ornament peculiar to the Romano-Byzantine period, which decorates archivolts. Fig. 315 gives an example of flat-heads; Fig. 316 of projecting-heads.

[Illustration: Fig. 316. Projecting-heads.]

=Flaying-knife.= An attribute of St. Bartholomew, signifying the manner of his martyrdom. In Croyland Abbey it was anciently the custom to present all members of the community with small flaying-knives on St. Bartholomew’s Day (Aug. 24).

[Illustration: Fig. 317. Old Flemish Lace.]

=Flemish Lace.= Flanders and Italy dispute the invention of pillow lace. It is certain, however, that lace of home manufacture was worn in the 15th century in the Low Countries, and from that time to the present lace-making has formed a source of national wealth to Belgium. The engraving shows a fine specimen of old Flemish lace composed of six different designs joined together, commonly known as “Trolle Kant.” A similar lace is made in some of our own counties, and called “Trolly.” (Fig. 317.)

[Illustration: Fig. 318. “Cosse de Genest,” showing a Cross fleurettée.]

=Fleur-de-lis= (Fr.), the royal insignia of France, was first adopted by Louis VII. (about A. D. 1137) _semée_, or scattered over the field. This shield is blazoned as “France Ancient.” On the occasion of his marriage, in 1234, St. Louis instituted the order of the “Cosse de Genest” (Fig. 318), and, as an emblem of his humility, took for his badge the broom-flower with the motto _Exaltat humiles_. The collar of the order was composed of broom-flowers enamelled, intermixed with fleurs-de-lis. In the reign of Charles VI. four collars of the order of the Cosse de Genest were sent as presents to King Richard II. and his uncles the Dukes of Lancaster, Gloucester, and York. The fleur-de-lis entered the English insignia in 1275 with the marriage of Edmund with Blanche of Artois, and was erased on January 1, 1801.

=Fleurettée=, Her. Terminating in, or bordered with fleurs-de-lis, like the cross in Fig. 318.

=Fleuron.= A small full-blown rose placed in the centre of the abacus of the capital in certain orders of architecture.

=Flexed=, Her. Bowed, bent.

=Flighted=, Her. Feathered, as arrows are.

=Flo=, O. E. An arrow.

“Robin bent his joly bowe, Therein he set a _flo_.” (_Wright’s Songs and Carols._)

=Floralia=, or =Florales Ludi=. A Roman festival in honour of Flora, said to have been instituted B.C. 238, to invoke the protection of the goddess upon the spring blossoms.

=Florentine Fresco.= A peculiar method of fresco-painting, by which the lime is kept moistened during the process.

=Florentine Lake.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.)

=Florentine Mosaic.= Inlaid-work in coloured stones, and precious stones combined into beautiful patterns.

=Florid= (style), Arch. This term, now disused, has been replaced by that of FLAMBOYANT style (q.v.).

=Florimontana.= A literary society established at Annecy in 1606. They took for their device an orange tree, with the motto, “_Flores, fructusque perennes_.”

=Fluor-spar= or =Derbyshire-spar=. A mineral rock very common in Derbyshire, where it is made into ornaments, &c., with the lathe.

=Flute=, Gen. Said to have been invented by Apollo or Mercury. The simplest form of flute was made with an oat-stalk (_avena_) or a hollow reed (_calamus_); in the course of time it was made of ivory, bone, or the shin-bones of animals; whence its Latin name of TIBIA (q.v.). The Greek flute (_aulos_) was held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed was inserted into the mouthpiece. The single flute was called _monaulos_; the double one _diaulos_. A specimen of the last in the British Museum was found in a tomb at Athens. It is made of cedar, and the tubes, which are fifteen inches in length, have each a separate mouthpiece and six finger-holes, five of which are at the upper side, and one underneath. The flutes of the _Etruscans_ were often of ivory; those used in religious ceremonies were of box-wood, ass’s bone, bronze, and silver. The _Persian_ flute called “_nay_,” and the “_surnay_” a kind of oboe, are still popular in the East. In _Mexico_, the young man sacrificed to the god was taught to play the flute, and as he went to his death he broke a flute on each of the steps of the temple. The practice of making flutes of the bones of their enemies was common with many Indian tribes in America.

[Illustration: Fig. 319. Flutings.]

=Flutings= or =Flutes=, Arch. Small semicircular indents or grooves cut perpendicularly, by way of ornament, in the shafts of columns and pilasters. Flutings may be either decorated or plain. When filled with a bead moulding, they are said to be _cabled_. Fig. 319 represents flutings decorated with leaves twined round a reed.

=Fly=, Her. The length and also the side of a flag furthest from the mast.

=Fo=, Chinese. (See DOG OF FO.) The “Hand of Fo” is a fragrant fruit, a kind of _cédrat_, generally styled the Chinese hand-plant, used to perfume apartments.

=Focale=, R. (_fauces_, the throat). A square piece of cloth which was wrapped round the neck, and covered the ears.

[Illustration: Fig. 320. Foculus.]

=Foculus=, R. (dimin. of _focus_). A portable fireplace; a brazier or chafing-dish. (Fig. 320.)

=Focus=, R. The hearth or fireplace of a house, consecrated to the Lares or household gods.

=Foil=, in Architecture. (See TREFOIL, QUATREFOIL, &c.)

[Illustration: Fig. 321. Foliage of the Acanthus.]

=Foliage=, Gen. Nearly every style of architecture has made use of foliage for purposes of ornamentation. In antiquity, the leaves of the acanthus, palm, laurel, olive, ivy, &c., were thus employed; the Romano-Byzantine, Byzantine, and Pointed styles utilized for the same purpose the vine, oak, cinquefoil, parsley, mahonia, mullein, thistle, &c. Foliage has been applied to the decoration of capitals, archivolts, bands, cornices, and friezes; and it has also been used to form CROCKETS (q.v.), crownings, pinnacles, &c. Architectural work thus enriched is said to be FOLIATED, and the ornament itself is called FOLIATION.

[Illustration: Fig. 322. Foliage on moulding.]

=Folliculus=, R. A leather cap encircling the hole by which an oar protruded from a ship. The term is a diminutive of FOLLIS (q.v.).

=Follis=, R. A small ball of leather inflated with air, which also went by the name of _folliculus_; used for a plaything.

=Fong-hoang=, Chinese. A fabulous bird which is immortal, lives in the highest regions of the air, and only approaches men to announce to them happy events and prosperous reigns. It is easily recognized (on pottery, &c.) by its carunculated head, its neck surrounded by silky feathers, and its tail partaking of the Argus pheasant and the peacock. (_Jacquemart._)

[Illustration: Fig. 323. Pompeian fountain.]

=Fons=, =Fountain=, Gen. In antiquity, natural springs and fountains were objects of religious worship. Fig. 323 represents a Pompeian fountain known as the Fountain of Abundance.

[Illustration: Fig. 324. Baptismal font (Romano-Byzantine).]

=Font=, Chr. The vessel which contains the consecrated water used in the administration of baptism, by sprinkling or aspersion (Fig. 324), introduced in lieu of the original mode of immersion (Fig. 325). (Compare PISCINA.)

[Illustration: Fig. 325. Early English Font.]

[Illustration: Fig. 326. The Fontange Head-dress.]

=Fontange=, Fr. “A modish head-dress,” deriving its name from Mademoiselle de Fontange, a lady of the court of Louis XIV., who invented it. (Fig. 326.)

=Font-cloth=, O. E. (1) The hanging with which the font was ornamented. (2) The CHRISMALE (q.v.).

=Fools.= In Church architecture and decoration, grotesque figures of men with fool’s cap and bells are frequently seen under the seats of choir-stalls and _miserere_ seats. (See the article OBSCŒNA.)

=Foolscap.= A fool’s cap was the device of the Italian society called the Granelleschi, formed at Venice in 1740 to oppose the corruption of the Italian language. A sheet of foolscap paper is 17 in. by 13½ in.

=Forceps.= Tongs or pincers, the attributes of some of the martyrs. (See FORFEX.)

=Foreshortening.= The art of representing objects on a plane surface as they appear to the eye in perspective.

[Illustration: Fig. 327. Roman Forfex.]

[Illustration: Fig. 328. Forfex.]

=Forfex=, R. (1) Large scissors or shears used to cut hair or shear animals. (2) A clip, in the form of shears, for raising weights. (Fig. 327.) Fig. 328 represents a shears described by Vitruvius, which was used to raise stones.

=Fori=, R. This term, which is the plural of _forus_, denotes (1) the flooring of a ship; (2) the flooring of a bridge; (3) the standing-places on a temporary platform; (4) the shelves forming the divisions or different stories of a beehive; (5) the narrow parallel furrows drawn in a garden by means of the hoe.

=Foricula.= A little door. Dimin. of FORIS (q.v.).

=Foris=, R. The door as distinguished from the frame in which it hung. In the plural, _fores_ denotes a folding-door with two leaves, as, for instance, _fores carceris_, the door of the stalls in a circus.

=Forks= were not in general use earlier than the 14th century. One of the earliest occasions on which a fork is mentioned informs us that John, Duke of Brittany in 1306, had one “to pick up soppys.”

=Forlon.= A Spanish carriage with four seats.

=Forma=, R. (_fero_, to produce). A mould, form, or model; a mould for making bricks or other objects in clay, such as (1) antefixa, masks, &c.; (2) a shoemaker’s last; (3) the waterway of a subterranean aqueduct. _Diminutive_, =Formella=, R. A small shape or mould used especially by the Romans to give an artificial form to the fish which was served as one of the courses at dinner.

=Fornacalia=, R. A festival of bakers in honour of the goddess _Fornax_ (oven-goddess). It took place in February, the day being given out by the _curio maximus_, who announced, in tablets which were placed in the forum, the part which each _curia_ had to take in the festival. Those persons who did not know to which curia they belonged, performed the rites on the last day, called _Stultorum feriæ_ (the feasts of fools).

=Fornacula= (dimin. of FORNAX, q.v.). (1) A small furnace for smelting metals. (2) A small furnace for a bath-room.

=Fornax=, R. A furnace; an oven; a kiln for baking pottery: _fornax calcaria_, a lime-kiln; _fornax æraria_, a blast-furnace for smelting metals; _fornax balnei_, a hypocaust or bathfurnace; this was also called FORNACULA (q.v.). FORNAX is also the name of the goddess of _ovens_.

=Fornix=, R. A term having the same meaning as ARCUS (q.v.). It also denotes (1) a triumphal arch (_arcus triumphalis_); (2) a vault or vaulted room; (3) a vaulted gate.

=Forril.= A kind of parchment, specially prepared for bookbinding.

=Forulus=, R. (dimin. of _forus_, a shelf). A cupboard, cabinet, or dwarf bookcase.

[Illustration: Fig. 329. Ground-plan of the Forum at Pompeii.]

=Forum=, R. A large open space used by the Romans as a market; it answered to the Greek AGORA (q.v.). Fig. 329 represents the _forum civile_ of Pompeii, unquestionably one of the most complete examples bequeathed to us by antiquity. _A_ is the principal entrance; _B_, a Corinthian temple; _C_, the public prison (_carcer publicus_); _D_ is supposed to have been a horreum, or public granary; _E_, the temple of Venus, the guardian goddess of the city; _F_, the basilica; _G_, _H_, _I_, the curiæ, which were a kind of civil and commercial tribunals; _K_ is a rectangular building which probably served the purpose of a shop for money-changers; _L_, a portico terminating in an absis; _M_, the temple of Mercury or Quirinus; _N_, a building with a large semicircular tribune, which probably formed the residence of the AUGUSTALES.

=Forus.= A synonym of FORUM (q.v.). _Forus aleatorius_ was the term applied to a dice-table.

=Fossil Ivory.= The tusks of the mammoth—the extinct _elephas primigenius_—found in great quantity in Siberia, are the material of which nearly all the ivory-turner’s work in Russia is made. The ivory has not undergone any petrifying change like other fossils, and is as well adapted for use as that procured from living species.

=Fote= (or =Foot=) =Mantel=. An outer garment of the petticoat kind, bound round the hips (of a woman on horseback) “to keep her gown or surcoat clean.” (_Strutt._)

“A _fote-mantel_ about hir hips large.” (_Chaucer._)

=Fountain=, Her. A circular figure or ROUNDLE that is _barry wavy_ arg. is so blazoned.

=Fourchée=, Her. Divided into two parts; said of a lion with a double tail.

=Fraces=, R. A kind of fuel made of the tan obtained from the residuum of oil-presses; it was thus the pulp of olives.

=Frænum=, =Frenum=, R. A horse’s bridle, including the bit and the reins. [The bit was called _orea_ or Greek στόμιον.]

=Framea=, R. (1) A German spear, the iron head of which was short but very sharp; it was employed by them as a pike. (2) A weapon used by the Franks.

=Francisca.= A kind of battle-axe used by the Franks.

=Frankfort Black.= A German pigment prepared like _blue black_ (q.v.).

=French Ultramarine.= (See GUIMET’S ULTRAMARINE.)

=Fresco-Painting= (i. e. _al fresco_, upon fresh or wet ground), generally employed for large pictures on walls and ceilings, is executed with mineral and earthy pigments upon a freshly-laid ground of stucco. It was known to the ancients, and must be distinguished from DISTEMPER PAINTING (q.v.) on plaster, which is a different process. “_Buon_ (or genuine) _fresco_,” painted on the fresh surface of plaster, is distinguished from “_fresco secco_,” or a process of painting on dry plaster commonly practised in Italy and Munich. It is argued that the latter was the process used at Pompeii, and generally by the ancients, because (1) lime is found in nearly all the colours, and (2) the nature of the joinings in the work indicates that each compartment does not contain only one day’s work, as it must in _buon fresco_.

[Illustration: Fig. 330. Greek Fret.]

[Illustration: Fig. 331. Greek Fret.]

[Illustration: Fig. 332. Greek Fret.]

=Fret=, Arch. An angular, interlaced architectural ornament of the Greek and Romano-Byzantine period, also known as _broken batoon_ and _Vitruvian scroll_, and presenting some analogy with _chevron_ or zigzag. There are _crenelated_ or _rectangular frets_, _triangular_, _nebulated_, _undulated frets_, &c.

[Illustration: Fig. 333. Undulated Fret.]

[Illustration: Fig. 334. Scroll Fret.]

=Fret=, O. E. A _caul_ of gold or silver wire.

“A _fret_ of golde she had next her hair.” (_Chaucer._)

[Illustration: Fig. 335. Badge of the Arundel family, with fret.]

=Fret= or =Frette=, Her. One of the subordinaries. The illustration is one of the badges of the Arundel family: a chapeau or and gules, surmounted by a _fret_ or, and an acorn leaved vert.

=Frieze=, Arch. That part of the entablature which is included between the architrave and the cornice. (See Fig. 184.) Another name for it is ZOOPHORUS (q.v.). It was generally richly sculptured. The finest frieze ever found is that of the Parthenon, the ornamentation of which may be studied in the Elgin-marble room at the British Museum. (See Fig. 282.)

=Frieze=, =Frize=. A coarse woollen cloth, first mentioned 1399.

“Cloth of gold, do not despize To match thyself with cloth of frize. Cloth of frize, be not too bold, Though thou be matched with cloth of gold.”

=Frigidarium=, R. (_frigidus_, cold). (1) A cool apartment in a bathing establishment. (2) A cool place used as a larder.

=Frisquet.= In wood-engraving, a piece of paper laid over the proof-paper in the act of printing, to keep clean the parts not intended to be exposed to the ink.

=Fritillus=, R. A dice-box of a cylindrical form, called also _turricula_ or _pyrgus_ (Greek φιμός).

[Illustration: Fig. 336. Frog. The device of Mæcenas.]

=Frog.= An ancient emblem of silence and secrecy, from a legend quoted by Ælian that the frogs of Syriapha never croak in their own marshes. Hence it was adopted by Mæcenas, the friend of Augustus, for his device. (Fig. 336.)

[Illustration: Fig. 337. Frontale of a bridle.]

=Frontale=, Gen. (_frons_, the forehead). (1) A frontlet or head-band worn by Greek women, and to be seen principally on the statues of goddesses. (2) A plate or band of metal placed across the forehead of horses (Fig. 337) as a protection for the frontal bone. The Medes, Persians, Greeks, and Romans made use of the _frontale_ for their cavalry horses. For the ecclesiastical =Frontal=, Mediæval, see ANTEPENDIUM. Henry III. gave a FRONTAL to the high altar at Westminster Abbey, upon which, besides carbuncles in golden settings, and several large pieces of enamel, were as many as 866 smaller pieces of enamel.

=Frontispiece.= In Architecture, the façade or face of a building. The engraved title-page of a book was originally called the frontispiece.

=Frote=, O. E. To rub; to stir.

=Frountere=, O. E. FRONTAL (q.v.).

=Fucus=, Gr. Cosmetic paint, much used by the Greek and Roman ladies. They stained their eyebrows black with a preparation of sulphuret of antimony called _stimmi_, or of soot, _asbolos_. The Roman ladies, in addition to rouge and white for the complexion, used to trace out the veins on their temples with a blue paint, and they wore the patches of Queen Anne’s time (_splenia_). “From beef without mustard, a servant which overvalues himself, _and a woman which painteth_,—good Lord deliver us!” (_Stubbes._)

=Fuller’s Bat= or =Club=. Attribute of St. James the Less, who was killed with such an implement.

=Fullonica=, =Fullonum=, R. (_fullo_, a fuller). A fuller’s establishment. An example of one, in perfect preservation, is preserved at Pompeii. The _fullones_ acted as laundrymen to Greek and Roman families, washing linen as well as woollen clothes by treading in tubs (using urine for soap, which was unknown to them); hence _saltus fullonicus_, a fuller’s dance.

=Fulmen.= The thunderbolt of Jove. (See also ILLAPA.) It is generally represented as a double cone of flame, with lightnings on each side, or frequently with wings.

=Fumarium=, R. (_fumus_, smoke). A chamber in the upper part of a Roman house, into which the smoke from the fires was conducted. The smoke-room was used for drying wood and ripening wine. The “Rauchkammer” or smoke attic is still a common institution in good houses in Germany.

=Funale=, R. (_funis_, a rope). A link or torch made of various materials.

=Funalis= or =Funarius= (sc. _equus_). The tracehorse, so called because its traces, instead of being of leather, were of rope (_funis_).

=Funarius.= (See FUNALIS.)

=Funda, Sling=, Gen. The sling has been employed by most of the peoples of antiquity as a weapon of warfare for hurling stones, chiefly flints or leaden bullets (_glandes_). The slings of the Egyptians were made of leather thongs or plaited cord. The _funaitores_, or slingers, of the Greek and Roman armies carried each a provision of stones in the folds (_sinus_) of his pallium, a shield on his left arm, and brandished his sling in the right hand. The most celebrated slingers were the inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, which took their ancient name from this circumstance.

[Illustration: Fig. 338. Fundibalus—Onager.]

=Fundibalus=, =Fundibalum=, R. (βάλλω, to throw). A machine for hurling stones; a kind of _balista_ (q.v.). (Fig. 338.)

[Illustration: Fig. 339. Street at Pompeii.]

=Fundula=, R. A blind alley or _cul-de-sac_. Fig. 339 represents one of the kind at Pompeii.

=Fundulus=, R. The piston of a hydraulic machine.

=Funeral Ceremonies.= 1. Greek. The expressions τὰ δίκαια, νομιζόμενα, or προσήκοντα, the just and lawful rites, are expressive of the Greek idea that the proper burial of the dead was a most sacred duty to them. The first act was to place in the mouth of the corpse an _obolus_, with which the spirit would pay the ferryman in Hades. This coin was then called _danaké_. The body was then washed and anointed, the head crowned with flowers, and the handsomest robes put on. All this was done by the women of the family. By the side of the bed upon which the corpse was then laid (πρόθεσις) were placed painted earthen vessels (_lecuthoi_; see LECYTHUS), which were afterwards buried with the corpse. (These vases are frequently disinterred in modern excavations.) A honeycake (_melittouta_) to throw to the dog Cerberus was laid on the bed. Before the door a vessel of water (_ostracon_ or _ardalion_) was set, to be used, like the holy water of Catholic times, by persons _leaving_ the house, for purification. On the third day after death, the _ecphora_, or carrying out for burial, took place in the morning before sunrise. The men walked before the corpse, and the women behind. Hired mourners (_threnodoi_) accompanied the procession, playing mournful tunes on the flute. The bodies were either buried or burned, until cremation gave way to a Christian prejudice. The body was placed for burning on the top of a _pyre_ (Gr. πῦρ, fire); and, in remote ages, animals, prisoners, or slaves were burned with it. Oils and perfumes were thrown into the flames. Finally, the smouldering ashes were quenched with wine, and relatives and friends collected what remained of the bones. The bones were then washed with wine and oil, and placed in urns, often golden.

2. Roman. _Funera justa_ conveys the same idea as the Greek _dicaia_ of the right and title of the dead to a proper observance. With the Romans, the washing, anointing, &c. of the body was done by slaves (_pollinctores_) of the undertakers, who were called _libitinarii_, because they dwelt near the temple of Venus Libitina, in which all things requisite for funerals were sold and a mortuary register was kept. The coin having been duly placed in the mouth, the body was laid out in the vestibule dressed, of ordinary citizens in a white toga, and of magistrates in their official robes, and the couch was strewn with flowers, and a branch of _cypress_ was placed at the door of the house. All funerals were, in ancient times, performed at night, but afterwards only those of the poor. At a great funeral the corpse was carried out on the eighth day, preceded by musicians (_cornicines_, &c.) and mourning women (_præficæ_), who chanted a funeral hymn (_nænia_); players and buffoons (_histriones_, _scurræ_) followed, and a procession of the freed slaves wearing the cap of liberty (_pileati_). Images of the deceased and of his ancestors were borne before the corpse, which was carried on a litter (_feretrum_). The common bier of the poor was called _sandapila_, and its bearers _vespillones_, because they bore it forth in the evening (_vespere_). The couches of the rich were of ivory, richly ornamented with gold and purple. The relations walked behind in mourning, sons with the head veiled, and daughters with dishevelled hair. At the forum a funeral oration (_laudatio_) was delivered, and thence the procession went to the place of burial or cremation. Those who were buried (as all were subsequently to the 4th century A. D.) were placed in a coffin (_arca_ or _loculus_), often of stone. The Assian stone, from Assos in Troas, was said to consume all the body, with the exception of the teeth, in forty days, whence it was called sarcophagus (q.v.). For cremation the pyre, or _rogus_, was built like an altar, and the corpse in its splendid couch being placed on the top, the nearest relation, with averted face, fired a corner of the pile. Perfumes were forbidden by the Twelve Tables. Sometimes animals were slaughtered, and in ancient times, captives and slaves, but afterwards gladiators were hired to fight round the blazing pile. (Compare BUSTUM.) When the pyre was burnt down, the embers were soaked with wine, and the bones and ashes collected into urns. (See URNA.) The solemnities continued for nine days after the funeral, at the end of which time a sacrifice was performed called the _novemdiale_. Men wore _black_ for mourning, and women white; but at all banquets given in honour of the dead the guests were clothed in white.

[Illustration: Fig. 340. Covered urn of red pottery. Ohojepore.]

=Funeral Urns= of Indian pottery are found of extremely ancient date. That represented in Fig. 340 is a covered jar, of primitive make, with an inscription in ancient characters; its date is probably from 260 to 240 B.C. (_Jacquemart._)

=Fur.= _Strutt_ says that “the furs of sables, beavers, foxes, cats, and lambs were used in England before the Conquest; to which were afterwards added those of ermines, squirrels, martens, rabbits, goats, and many other animals.” In the Middle Ages the more precious furs, as ermine and sable, were reserved for kings, knights, and the principal nobility of both sexes. Inferior ranks used “vair” and “gris,” or gray; while citizens, burgesses, and priests wore the common squirrel and lamb-skins. The peasants wore cat-skins, badger-skins, &c. In after times were added the skins of badgers, bears, beavers, deer, fitches, foxes, foynes (or martens), grays, hares, otters, sables, squirrels, weasels, wolves, &c. The mantles of our kings and peers, and the furred robes of municipal officers are the remains of this fashion, which in the 13th century was almost universal.

[Illustration: Fig. 341. Shield with Ermine.]

=Fur=, Her. The _furs_ are of comparatively rare appearance in heraldry, and do not appear in the best ages. _Vair_ and _ermine_ are common. In Fig. 341 is an example of the treatment of ermine from the monument of Edward III.

=Furbelow=, O. E. An ornament on the petticoat of a woman’s dress, described as a “puckered flounce,” to display which it became the fashion to roll back the skirts of the gown. “The Old Mode and the New, or the Country Miss with her Furbelow,” is the title of an old play, _temp._ William and Mary.

=Furca=, R. A fork with two teeth (_bidens_), or two prongs; a hay-fork: _furca carnarii_, a fork used for taking down the meat hung up in the _carnarium_. The term _furca_ was further applied to a kind of fork by aid of which a foot-traveller carried his baggage, but the more usual name for this kind of fork was _ærumna_ (q.v.). Also, a wooden fork placed for punishment across the shoulders of slaves and criminals, to the prongs of which the hands were tied. Reversed it formed a cross upon which criminals were executed, either by scourging or by crucifixion with nailing. The patibulum was a similar instrument of punishment formed like the letter H.

=Furgon=, O. E. (Fr. _fourgon_). A fork for putting faggots and sticks on to the fire.

=Furnus=, R. (1) A baker’s oven. (2) A baker’s shop. (See FORNAX.)

=Fuschan in Appules=, O. E. Fustian of Naples. (See FUSTIAN.)

=Fuscina=, R. (1) A fork with three prongs used for spearing fish. (2) The trident of the _retiarius_. Originally it was called _tridens_, and used as a goad to drive horses. Neptune always carries one.

=Fuscinula= (dimin. of _Fuscina_, q.v.). A carving-fork.

=Fusée=, Fr. A gun with a wide bore, like a blunderbuss.

=Fusiform= (_fusus_, a spindle). In the form of a spindle.

[Illustration: Fig. 342. Fusil. Device of Philip of Burgundy (D. 1467).]

=Fusil=, Fr. The steel for striking fire from a flint; an ancient device of the Dukes of Burgundy, the motto inculcating the worthlessness of latent virtues never brought into action.

=Fusi-yama.= The sacred mountain of the Japanese, often depicted on their porcelain.

=Fustian.= “A species of cotton cloth much used by the Normans,

## particularly by the clergy, and appropriated to their chasubles.”

(_Strutt._) It was originally woven at Fustat, on the Nile, with a warp of linen thread, and a woof of thick cotton, so twilled and cut that it showed on one side a thick but low pile. In the 14th century Chaucer says of his knight,—

“Of fustian he wered a gepon.”

In the 15th century Naples was celebrated for fustian. An old English account of this date has “Fuschan in Appules” (for Fustian from Naples).

=Fustibalum=, R. A pole about four feet long, furnished with a sling (_funda_) in the middle. It was wielded by both hands, and was used to hurl huge stones to a distance.

=Fusus= (Gr. ἄτρακτος). A spindle. It was generally made of wood; but some nations, as for instance the Egyptians, had spindles of pottery.

=Fygury=, O. E. An old name for silks _diapered_ with _figures_ of flowers and fruit. A cope in the York fabric rolls is described “una capa de sateyn fygury.”

[Illustration: Fig. 343. Fylfot.]

=Fylfot= or _Filfot_. This mysterious ornament exactly resembles the Hindu _arani_ of remote antiquity, i. e. the instrument of wood by which fire was obtained by friction; which is the symbol of _Agni_. This symbol has never been lost, and occurs sixty times on an ancient Celtic funereal urn; also on monumental brasses and church embroidery of the Middle Ages. It is generally called the GAMMADION.

G.

=Gabardine= or =Gallebardine=, It. “A rough Irish mantle, or horseman’s coat; a long cassock.” It was, and is, a favourite outer garment of the Jews.

=Gabion=, Fortification. A basket filled with earth, used in the construction of earthworks for defensive purposes.

=Gable=, Arch. (German _Giebel_, point). The triangular end of a house from the eaves to the top.

=Gablet.= Diminutive of gable—applied to furniture and niches.

=Gadlyngs=, O. E. Spikes on the knuckles of gauntlets, like the modern “knuckle-dusters.”

=Gæsum=, R. A weapon of Celtic origin. It was a strong, heavy javelin with a very long barbed iron head, used rather as a missile than a spear.

=Gage=, Med. A glove or cap thrown to the ground as a challenge to combat.

=Galages=, O. E. (modern, _goloshes_). Clogs fastened with _latchets_.

=Galaxia=, Gr. (Γαλάξια). Festivals in honour of Apollo, who was surnamed _Galaxios_; they were so called because the principal offering consisted of a barley cake cooked with milk (γάλα).

=Galaxy= (Gr. γάλα, milk). In Astronomy, the Milky Way. It passes between Sagittarius and Gemini, dividing the sphere into two parts.

=Galbanum=, R. (_galbus_, yellow). A yellow garment worn by women; men who adopted this kind of dress were looked upon as foppish and effeminate.

=Galbe=, Fr. The general contour or outline of any member of architecture; in especial, the shaft of a column. (See CONTRACTURA.) It also denotes the lines of a vessel, console, baluster, &c.

=Galea=, R. A helmet; especially one of skin or leather, in contradistinction to CASSIS, which denoted a metal helmet.

=Galeated.= In Heraldry, wearing a helmet.

=Galeola=, R. A very deep vessel in the shape of a helmet. It was used for holding pure wine, and was a kind of ACRATOPHORUM (q.v.).

=Galerus=, =Galerum=, R. A peasant’s cap made of fur, and thence a wig. It was a round leather cap, ending in a point, originally peculiar to the priesthood.

=Galgal=, Celt. A Celtic or megalithic monument, more commonly called TUMULUS.

=Galiot=, =Galliot= (dimin. of _galère_). A ship moved by both sails and oars.

=Gall= (A.S. _gealla_). In an animal, a bitter yellowish green fluid secreted by the gall-bladder. Ox-gall, clarified by boiling with animal charcoal and filtering, is used in water-colour and in ivory painting to make the colours spread more evenly upon the paper, ivory, &c.: mixed with gum-arabic it thickens, and fixes the colours. A coating of it _sets_ black-lead or crayon drawings. This word is also applied to anything exceedingly bitter, especially to the bitter potion which it was customary among the Jews to give to persons suffering death under sentence of the law, for the purpose of rendering them less sensible to pain. ὄξος μετὰ χολῆς, “vinegar to drink mingled with gall.” (Matt. xxvii. 34.)

=Galle= (Tours de), Celt. A name applied to certain ancient monuments in France, built by the Gauls.

=Galleon= (Sp. _galeon_). A large Spanish ship, formerly used in trading to America as a war vessel.

=Gallery=, Gen. A covered place much longer than it is wide. In Christian archæology it is a kind of tribune situated above the side aisles, and having bays over the nave; it is also called TRIFORIUM (q.v.).

[Illustration: Fig. 344. Device of Cardinal Richelieu, from the Galerie d’Orléans, Palais Royal.]

=Galley= (Icelandic _galleyda_). A one-decked vessel, navigated with sails and oars, in Heraldry called a LYMPHAD (q.v.). The prow of a galley (Fig. 344), one of the devices adopted by Cardinal Richelieu, may still be seen among the architectural decorations of his palace.

=Galloon= (Sp. _galon_). A narrow kind of lace made of silk woven with cotton, gold, or silver; or of silk only.

=Gallow-balk=, O. E. (See GALOWS.)

=Gally-gascoynes=, O. E. Broad loose breeches; 16th century.

“His galligaskins were of corduroy, And garters he had none.” (_The Weary Knife-grinder._)

=Galows=, O. E. An iron bar fastened inside an open chimney, from which the _reeking-hook_ was hung, for suspending pots and vessels over the fire.

=Galvanography.= (See ELECTROGRAPHY, ELECTROTYPE.)

=Gamashes.= “High boots, buskins, or startups.” (_Holme_, 1688.)

=Gambeson= (Saxon _wambe_, the belly). A quilted tunic, stuffed with wool. It answered the purpose of defensive armour, and was subsequently called a _pourpoint_.

=Gamboge.= A gum-resin of a forest tree called Garcinia Cambogia, generally imported in cylindrical rolls. It forms a beautiful yellow pigment, used for water-colour; it is used to stain wood in imitation of box, and the tincture enters into the composition of the gold-coloured varnish for lacquering brass; it also gives a beautiful and durable stain to marble. (_E. B._)

=Gamelion.= The seventh month of the ancient Athenian year, corresponding to our January. It was so called because it was a favourite season for marriages (γάμη).

=Gammut.= (See GAMUT.)

=Gamut.= The musical scale; so called from the first tone, UT (our DO), of the model scale of Guido, which was represented by the Greek _gamma_.

=Ganoid= (γάνος, brightness). A name applied to an order of fishes, having angular scales, composed of bony plates, covered with a strong shining enamel.

=Gantlet.= (See GAUNTLET.)

=Garb=, Her. A sheaf of wheat, or of any other grain to be specified.

[Illustration: Fig. 345. Garde de Bras.]

=Garde de Bras.= An additional protection for the left arm, to the elbow-piece of which it was fastened by straps and a screw. It was used only for jousting, and first appears at the end of the 15th cent. The example shown is of the 16th cent., from the Meyrick collection. (Fig. 345.)

[Illustration: Fig. 346 Gargoulette. Arab.]

=Gargoulette.= An Arab vase, or water-cooler, with one handle, furnished with a spout adapted for drinking through. The piece in the illustration is from the Arabian potteries of Maghreb in Africa. This pottery is described by M. Jacquemart as “covered with a pinkish grey enamel of rose colour, and heightened by a polychrome decoration in zones, generally consisting of bands of scrolls, flowers, denticulations, rosettes, &c.; where citron, yellow, manganese brown, green, and blue form the most charming harmony.”

[Illustration: Fig. 347. Gargoyle, Antique.]

[Illustration: Fig. 348. Gargoyle, Gothic.]

=Gargoyle=, Mod. The projecting extremity of a gutter. In antiquity terra-cotta masks were used for the purpose. (Fig. 347.) During the Gothic period any kind of representation was employed. Fig. 348 shows an upright gargoyle from the church of St. Remy at Dieppe.

=Garland=, Arch. A term employed by some authors as synonymous with foliage; but it denotes rather heavy festoons tied with fillets, and consisting of leaves, fruits, and flowers, as shown in Figs. 287 and 309, taken from the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. (See ENCARPA, FESTOONS.)

=Garnet.= This gem, on account of its brilliant colour and hardness, is much used in jewellery, and although an abundant supply renders it of little value, the gem nevertheless possesses every quality necessary for ornamental purposes. It occurs in many colours—red, brown, yellow, white, green, black; the streak is white; the diaphaneity varies from transparent to sub-translucent, or nearly opaque, and it has a subconchoidal or uneven fracture. The varieties used in jewellery are called _carbuncle_, _cinnamon-stone_ (or _essonite_), _almandine_, and _pyrope_ or Bohemian garnet. _Garnets_ are not much used for engraving, being of splintery, bad grain under the tool. (_A. Billing_, _Science of Gems_, &c.; _H. Emanuel_, _Diamonds and Precious Stones_.)

=Garnished=, Her. Adorned in a becoming manner.

[Illustration: Fig. 349. Order of the Garter. Lesser George.]

=Garter, Order of the=, instituted by Edward III. in 1350, consists of the Sovereign and twenty-five knights companions, of whom the Prince of Wales always is one. Knights of the Garter place K.G. after their names; and these letters take precedence of all other titles, those of royalty alone excepted. The stalls of the knights are in the choir of St. George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle, where their garter-plates are fixed and their banners are displayed. The insignia are the garter itself, the badge of the order; the collar, and the Lesser George or jewel. (Fig. 349.) It was this jewel that Charles I., immediately before he suffered, delivered to Archbishop Juxon, with the word “Remember!” The ribbon of the order is dark blue; it passes over the left shoulder, and the Lesser George hangs from it under the right arm.

=Garter King of Arms=, Her. The chief of the official heralds of England, and officer of arms of the Order of the Garter.

=Gastrum=, R. An earthenware vessel with a round _belly_; whence its name.

=Gaulus=, R. A vessel used for drinking and other purposes. The same term was also applied to a broad-built ship employed by the Phœnicians and by pirates.

[Illustration: Fig. 350. Gauntlet.]

=Gauntlet.= The knight’s gauntlet was made of leather covered with plates of steel. It was not originally divided into fingers. (Fig. 350.)

=Gausapa=, =Gausape=, =Gausapum=, R. (γαυσάπης). (1) A garment introduced from Egypt into Rome, in the time of Augustus; it was made of a woollen cloth with a long nap on one side, and was worn on leaving the bath; it was white or dyed purple. Gausapa was used not only for articles of dress, but for table linen, napkins, dusters, and mattings. (2) A wig made of human hair, worn at Rome during the Empire.

=Gauze.= A light, transparent silk texture, supposed to have been invented at Gaza in Palestine; whence the name.

=Gavotte= (It. _gavotta_). A lively dance-tune in two-fourth time, consisting of two sections, each containing eight measures.

=Gehenna= (Heb. _Ge-hin-nom_, i. e. the valley of Hinnom). In this place, on the north of Jerusalem below Mount Zion, is a place called Tophet, where children were sacrificed to Moloch. King Josiah made it the common receptacle for rubbish and carcases, and a fire was kept constantly burning there; hence the Jews used this term to signify “hell.” (Compare HADES.)

=Gemellar=, R. (_gemellus_, twin). A case for holding oil; it was called _gemellar_ from the fact of its being divided into two compartments.

=Gemelled=, Arch. Double; thus a _gemelled bay_ is one divided into two parts; _gemelled arches_, those which are joined two and two.

=Gemelles=, Her. In pairs. (See BARS-GEMELLES.)

=Gemmæ=, Lat. (1) Precious stones, esp. cut or engraved. (2) Drinking-vessels or objects made of precious stones. (3) Pearls. (4) The eyes of a peacock’s tail. The original meaning of the word is a _bud_, _eye_, or _gem_ on a plant; anything _swelling_ and bright.

=Gemoniæ=, or =Gemoniæ Scales=, R. (i. e. steps of sighs). Steps leading to the prison in the forum, on the stairs of which the corpses of criminals were exposed for several days.

=Gems.= Precious stones, especially when carved. (See CAMEOS.)

=Genet=, Her. A spotted animal, something like a marten.

=Genethliaci=, Gr. and R. (γενέθλη, birth). Astrologers who cast “_nativities_.”

=Genius=, R. (_geno_, to beget). The Romans believed the existence of a good genius, or guardian angel, born with every mortal, and which died at the same time with him. _Genius loci_ was the name given to the guardian spirit of a place. [See JUNONES, LARES, PENATES, &c. The superstition has many forms in Christian as well as in pagan art.]

[Illustration: Fig. 351. Genoa Point Lace—Pillow-made.]

=Genoa Lace.= Mention is made of Genoa Lace as early as the 15th century. Genoa was as celebrated for its pillow lace as Venice for its needle-made. The characteristic of this lace was its design, a kind of barleycorn-shaped pattern, radiating into rosettes from a centre. It was

## particularly adapted for the large turnover collar of Louis XIII., and

was produced by plaiting, and made entirely on the pillow.

=Genouillières=, Fr. (1) Steel coverings for the knees. From the 13th century. They were often richly ornamented. (2) In _Fortification_, the sill of the embrasure.

=Genre Pictures.= Those representing scenes of every-day life and manners.

=Geodes.= In Mineralogy, hollow lumps of chalcedony found deposited in the cavities of flints, formed by the chemical action of water.

[Illustration: Fig. 352. “George” Gold Noble, Henry VIII.]

=George.= A gold noble of the time of Henry VIII. (Fig. 352.)

=George, Saint=, Her. The patron saint of England. His red cross on a silver field first appears in English heraldry in the 14th century. (See Fig. 349.)

=George, The=, Her. A figure of St. George on horseback, worn as a pendant to the collar of the Order of the Garter. (See GARTER.)

=Georgic= (γεωργικὸς, rustic; from γῆ, earth, and ἔργον, work). Poems on the subject of husbandry.

=German Silver.= An alloy of nickel, zinc, and copper. The proportions recommended are nickel 25, zinc 25, copper 50.

=Gerrhæ.= Persian shields made of wicker-work.

=Ghebres=, Pers. Fire-worshippers.

=Ghibellines.= An Italian faction, 13th century, who supported the German Emperors against the _Guelphs_, who stood by the Pope. The war-cry of the Guelphs was taken from the name of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, of the house of _Wolf_; that of the Ghibellines from _Weiblingen_, a town of Würtemberg, the seat of the Hohenstauffen family, to which Conrad, Duke of Franconia, belonged. These two dukes were rivals for the imperial throne of Germany.

=Ghoul=, =Ghole=, Pers. A demon who fed on dead bodies of men.

=Giallo=, =Giallolino=, =Gialdolino=, It. Pale yellow. (See MASSICOT.)

=Giaour=, Turkish. An unbeliever in Mohammed.

=Gigantomachia=, Gr. A favourite subject of Greek art, representing the War of the Giants, sons of Cœlus and Terra, against Jupiter. They “heaped Ossa on Pelion” to scale heaven, and were defeated by Hercules. They are represented as of vast stature and strength, having their feet covered with scales. A beautiful cameo in the Naples Museum represents Jove in his chariot subduing the giants. In 1875 the German expedition found among the ruins of a temple at Pergamus a series of sculptures of almost colossal proportions, representing, as Pliny describes them, the Wars of the Giants. These sculptures are now in the Berlin Museum.

=Gillo=, R. A wine-cooler, of earthenware.

[Illustration: Fig. 353. Gimmel Rings. The device of Cosmo de’ Medici.]

=Gimmel Ring=, Her. Two, sometimes three annulets interlaced. (Fig. 353.)

=Gingham= (Javanese _ginggan_). Cotton cloth, woven from dyed yarns; distinguished from cloth printed or dyed _after_ weaving.

=Ginglymus=, R. (γίγγλυμος). A hinge moving in a socket.

=Gingrinus=, R. (γίγγρας). A flute used at funerals.

[Illustration: Fig. 354. Gipcière.]

=Gipcières.= Richly ornamented leather purses of the 14th and 15th centuries. They were often engraved with religious mottoes. (Fig. 354.)

=Gipon.= Probably the same as _gambeson_.

=Girandole.= A large kind of branched candlestick.

=Girdled=, =Girt=, Her. Encircled or bound round.

[Illustration: Fig. 355. Girdle of a Flemish lady of the 15th century.]

=Girdles.= These were the most beautiful and costly articles of dress during the Middle Ages. They were frequently made entirely of gold or silver, decorated with cameos, precious stones, &c. Besides the knightly sword; the purse, dagger, rosary, or penner and ink-horn and other objects were suspended from the girdle. From this word the waist was called the _girdlestead_, or place (_sted_) of the girdle. The girdles of ladies were equally splendid, and frequently depended nearly to the ground, as in Fig. 355. The girdle is an attribute of St. Thomas, from a legend that the Virgin, pitying his weakness of faith, threw down to him her girdle, after her assumption into heaven.

=Girgillus=, R. A roller turned by a windlass, for drawing up the bucket of a well. (See JACK.)

=Girouette.= (See EPI.)

=Girt=, Her. (See GIRDLED.)

=Gisarme.= A scythe-shaped weapon with a pike, fixed on a long staff.

=Gittern=, O. E. A small guitar, strung with catgut.

=Givre.= (See WYVERN.)

=Glabrous= (Lat. _glaber_). Smooth, bald.

=Glade= (Norman _glette_, a clear spot among clouds). An opening or passage in a wood through which the light may shine.

=Gladiators= were first exhibited at Rome, B.C. 264, at a funeral. The practice had its origin in that very ancient one of slaughtering slaves and captives on such occasions. Subsequently it became more general. The different classes of gladiators, distinguished by their arms and other circumstances, were: _Andabatæ_, who wore helmets without any opening for the eyes, and therefore fought blindfold; _Essedarii_, who fought from chariots (ESSEDÆ); _Hoplomachai_, who wore heavy defensive armour; _Laqueatores_, who carried a sort of lasso or noose; _Meridiani_, who fought in the middle of the day, and were very slightly armed; _Mirmillones_, so called from their having the image of a fish (mormyr) on their helmets; _Retiarii_, armed with a trident and a net. Others, as _Samnites_, _Thraces_, &c., were named from the nation whose fashion of armour they adopted. The fights of gladiators were favourite subjects of Roman art, and it is assumed that in cases where no actual combats took place at a funeral, they were represented on the walls of tombs in sculpture or paint. The most celebrated statues of the kind are the so called “Dying Gladiator” in the museum of the capitol at Rome, and the Gladiator of the Borghese collection.

=Gladiolus.= Diminutive of GLADIUS, and synonym of LIGULA. (See both words.)

[Illustration: Fig. 356. Roman sword.]

[Illustration: Fig. 357. Gallic swords.]

=Gladius=, R. A general term, including all the different kinds of swords or glaives, but denoting more particularly the two-edged swords used by the Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. Fig. 357 represents two Gaulish swords, the form of which may easily be guessed, even though they are in the scabbard; Fig. 356 is a Roman _gladius_.

=Glaive.= A blade on a pole having its edge on the outside curve, used by foot-soldiers in the 15th century.

=Glans=, Gr. and R. (lit. an acorn). A large leaden slug, of long oval form, which was hurled by a sling in place of stones.

[Illustration: Fig. 358. Venetian Glass Vase, 16th century.]

=Glass.= The discovery is lost in remote antiquity. Pliny gives a legend which ascribes it to chance. Glass bottles in Egypt are represented upon monuments of the 4th dynasty (at least 2000 years B.C.). A vase of greenish glass found at Nineveh dates from B.C. 700. Glass is found in the windows at Pompeii; and the Romans stained it, blew it, worked it on lathes, and engraved it. Pliny mentions, as made by the Romans in his time, glass coloured opaque, red, white, black (like _obsidian_), or imitating jacinths, sapphires, and other gems; also _murrhine glass_. This last was either an imitation of fluor-spar, or a kind of agate, or fluor spar. The Romans also made _mosaic_ or _millefiori_, in which the threads of colour are melted into a rod, so that at every section the whole pattern appears; and _cameo glasses_, in which a paste of one colour is laid over another, and the whole then carved into the required design; _gold leaf_ was also worked into the substance or fixed on the surface. A gate at Constantinople took its name from the glass works near it, but little is known of the Byzantine art, nor of earlier European art than the 13th century. In mediæval times stained glass windows, in leaden frames, were constructed with great success in England, France, and Flanders. In the 13th century they appear in Italy. The Venetian art took its impulse from the capture of Constantinople in 1204. Its peculiar beauty is derived from the curved forms and tenuity of substance obtained in blowing. (Fig. 358.) There are six kinds of Venetian glass. (1) Vessels of colourless or _transparent glass_, or of single colours, generally blue or purple. (2) _Gilt_ or _enamelled glass_. (3) _Crackled glass_, having a surface rough and divided irregularly into ridges. (4) Variegated or _marbled opaque glass_, called _schmeltz_; the most common variety is a mixture of green and purple, sometimes resembling jasper, sometimes chalcedony; other varieties are imitations of lapis lazuli and tortoise-shell; and _avanturine_, which is obtained by mingling metallic filings or fragments of gold leaf with melted glass. (5) _Millefiori_, or _mosaic glass_, in imitation of the old Roman process. (6) _Reticulated_, _filigree_, or _lace glass_. The varieties contain fine threads of glass, generally coloured, but sometimes milk-white, included in their substance. The lightness and strength of the Venetian glass are due to its not containing lead like our modern flint glass. Venetian _mirrors_ were for a long period widely celebrated. The oldest example of the German _drinking-cups_, ornamented with paintings in enamel, is of the date of 1553. The designs are commonly armorial bearings. From the beginning of the 17th century the Bohemian manufactories supplied _vases_ enriched with ornamental subjects, particularly with portraits engraved upon the glass. The art of _wheel engraving upon glass_ flourished in France under Louis XVI. In modern times this kind of ornamentation is produced by the agency of hydrofluoric acid. “Coarse glass-making in England was, in Sussex, of great antiquity.” (_Fuller._) “The first making of Venice glasses in England began in London, about the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by one Jacob Vessaline, an Italian.” (_Stow._)

=Glass-glazed Wares.= (See GLAZED WARES.)

=Glaucous= (γλαυκός). Of a sea-green colour, or a greyish blue.

[Illustration: Fig. 359. Flemish stone-ware Cruche, 17th century.]

=Glazed Wares.= Almost immediately after the invention of Ceramic manufacture, the application of _glaze_ or _coloured enamel_ must have improved it. What we term _glaçure_ is a light varnish which enlivens and harmonizes the porous surface of terra-cotta. In its simple state it is a mixture of silex and lead, and in this state it is transparent, as we find it on _antique vases_; when vitrifiable, and mixed with tin, as in the case of _majolicas_, it is called enamel; and when of vitrifiable and earthen substance, such as can only be melted at the temperature required for the baking of the paste itself, it is known as GLAZE, or _couverte_, and can be identified in the Persian faiences and Flemish stone-ware. (Figs. 359, 360.) (See _Burty_, _Chefs-d’œuvre of the Industrial Arts_.)

[Illustration: Fig. 360. German enamelled stone-ware Cruche, date first half of the 16th century.]

=Glazing.= In oil painting, the application of thin layer of colour to finally modify the tone. In pottery, a vitreous covering over the surface. (See GLAZED WARES.)

=Globe=, held in the hand, is the emblem of power.

=Globus=, R. A military manœuvre employed by a body of Roman soldiers when surrounded by superior forces; it consisted in forming a circle facing in every direction.

[Illustration: Fig. 361. Glory. Vesica Piscis in Ely Cathedral.]

=Glory=, =Nimbus= or =Aureole=, the Christian attribute of sanctity, is of pagan origin, common to images of the gods, and Roman, even Christian, emperors. Satan in miniatures of the 9th to 13th century wears a glory. The earliest known Christian example is a gem of St. Martin of the early part of the 6th century. The glory round the head is properly the nimbus or aureole. The oblong glory surrounding the whole person, called in Latin “vesica piscis” (Fig. 361), and in Italian the “mandorla” (almond) from its form, is confined to figures of Christ and the Virgin, or saints who are in the act of ascending into heaven. When used to distinguish one of the three divine Persons of the Trinity, the glory is often cruciform or triangular: the square nimbus designates a person living at the time the work was executed. In other instances it is circular. Coloured glories are variously symbolical. (_Mrs. Jameson_, “_The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art_.”)

=Gloves.= In the 14th century already _gloves_ were worn, jewelled on the back, as a badge of rank. “They were worn in the hat,” says Steevens, “as the favour of a mistress, or the memorial of a friend, and as a mark to be challenged by an enemy.” A glove of the 17th century is described “of a light buff leather, beautifully ornamented with spangles and needlework in gold and silver threads, with a gold lace border, and silk opening at the wrist.” Gloves were called “cheirothecæ,” hand-coverers, by the Greeks and Romans; they were made without separate fingers, the thumb only being free. A legend current at Grenoble affirms that St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary, was a knitter of gloves.

=Gluten.= In wax painting, the compound with which the pigments are mixed.

=Glyphs=, Arch. The flutings of an ornament or grooving forming the segment of a circle. (See DIGLYPH, TRIGLYPH.)

=Glyptics.= The art of engraving on precious stones.

=Glyptotheca=, Gr. and R. (1) A gallery for sculpture. (2) A collection of engraved stones.

=Gnomon=, Gr. and R. The iron pin or index, which, by the projection of its shadow, marks the hour upon a sun-dial.

=Goal.= (See META.)

=Goat.= The emblem of lasciviousness.

=Gobelins.= Celebrated Royal French manufactory of tapestry, named from the successors of Jean Gobelin, who brought the art to Paris in the 15th century from Rheims. [See _Burty_, _Chefs-d’œuvre of Industrial Art_.]

=Godenda=, O. E. A pole-axe, having a spike at its end; 13th century.

=Goderonné=, =Gouderonné= (Needlework). A fluted pattern of embroidery in vogue in the 16th century.

[Illustration: Fig. 362. Egyptian Diadem of gold and lapis lazuli of the ancient Empire, found in the tomb of Queen Aah-Hotep.]

=Gold.= It is probable that the earliest recorded mark upon units of value was the image of a sheep or an ox; hence money in Latin is called _pecunia_, from _pecus_, cattle, the original form of barbaric wealth, for which gold was the substitute. The wealth of Abraham in silver and gold, as well as in cattle, is mentioned in Genesis. No coins of gold or silver have been found in EGYPT or NINEVEH, although beautiful specimens of the goldsmith’s art have been recovered from the tombs of both countries. The HEBREWS, taught by the Egyptians, made their ark, mercy-seat, altar of incense, seven-branched candlestick, and other golden ornaments, even in the desert of Sinai. The seven-branched candlestick is represented in sculpture on the arch of Titus at Rome. At BABYLON and NINEVEH gold is said to have been lavishly applied in gilding sculpture, and even walls; but it is suggested that an alloy of copper, the _aurichalcum_ of the Greeks, was the metal in reality used for this purpose. The heroes of the Greek epic had golden shields and helmets; breastplates and other large pieces of golden armour are among the recent discoveries at Mycenæ; at Kourioum in the island of Cyprus also great stores of golden ornaments of a very early age have been discovered. In SCYTHIAN tombs in Russia also, about Kertch, beautiful relics of Grecian work in gold have been found, showing that in the very earliest ages the skill and taste applied to this art were not less than those of later times. The gold jewellery of ancient India also excelled that of modern date, but none, before or since, ever equalled the great age of GREEK art. Pausanias describes a statue of Athene, made by Pheidias, and kept in the Parthenon at Athens, of ivory and gold—_chryselephantine_—delicately worked all over; and a still larger statue of Jupiter, of the same materials. Native gold alloyed with one-fifth silver was greatly prized by the Greek artists, who gave it the name of _electrum_. Examples of this electrum are rare; there is a vase at St. Petersburg. The ROMANS used to pay enormous prices for their household plate; for an example, the bowl of Pytheas, on which were represented Ulysses and Diomed with the palladium, fetched 10,000 denarii, or about 330_l._ _per ounce_. Few specimens of Roman art have escaped destruction. (Fig. 7.) Of the age of BYZANTINE splendour we are told that the Emperor Acadius, early in the 5th century, sat on a throne of massive gold, his chariot being also of gold, &c. In the 9th century the throne of Theophilus was overshadowed by a tree of gold, with birds in the branches, and at the foot two lions all gold. The lions roared and the birds piped in the branches. A remarkable wealth of ancient goldsmith’s work has been found in IRELAND, consisting principally of personal ornaments. In the 9th and 10th centuries the Irish workmanship was unsurpassed in Europe. It consisted principally of objects for religious use, and is characterized by a filagree of extraordinary richness, akin to the intricate traceries of the Irish illuminated work on MS. of the same date and derivation. In the 10th and 11th centuries there was a great revival of art throughout Europe. In GERMANY, the abbey of Hildesheim, under Bishop Bernward, became the centre of a school of goldsmiths, and some beautiful specimens of hammered gold, by the bishop’s hand, are preserved.

[Illustration: Fig. 363. Greek Ear-ring of gold, and part of a necklace. (_See also Fig. 276._)]

=Gold=, in Christian art. (See YELLOW.)

=Gold, Cloth of=, is mentioned in the Pentateuch, and was common throughout the East in all ages. It was originally wrought, not in rounded wire but flat, as the Chinese, the Indians, and the Italians (their _lama d’oro_) weave it now. The early Roman kings wore tunics of gold, and the Romans used it as a shroud for burial. King Childeric, A. D. 482, was buried at Tournai in a mantle of golden stuff. It was much favoured in England for church vestments, and by royalty, especially by Edward IV. and Henry VIII. and the nobility of their time. (The different varieties are described in their order. See ACCA, ARESTE, BATUZ, CHRYSO-CLAVUS, CICLATOUN, DORNECK, SAMIT.)

=Goldbeater’s Skin=, prepared from a membrane found in the stomach of the ox, is used to separate leaf-gold in the process of gold-beating.

=Golden Fleece.= An Order of Knighthood instituted on the 10th of January, 1429, by Philip, Duke of Burgundy. The COLLAR is composed of double steels, interwoven with flint-stones, emitting sparks of fire, at the end whereof hangs on the breast a Golden Fleece. The fusils are joined two and two together, as if they were double BB’s (the cyphers of Burgundy). The _flint-stones_ are the ancient arms of the Sovereigns of Burgundy, with the motto “_Ante ferit quam flamma micet_.” (See Fig. 342.) The motto of the Order is “_Pretium non vile laborum_.” There are four great officers, viz. the Chancellor, Treasurer, Register, and a King of Arms, called _Toison d’Or_. The BADGE consists of a Golden Fleece, suspended from a flint-stone, which is surrounded with flames of gold.

=Golden Spur.= An Order of Knighthood said to have been instituted by Pius IV., at Rome, in 1559. They are sometimes spoken of as the CHEVALIERS PIES or PIORUM, and must be distinguished from those who are created knights on the coronation or marriage days of Emperors and Kings, and who receive at the same time the _Spurs of Honour_. These alone are entitled to the appellation of EQUITES AURATI. [Cf. _Peter de Bellet_, _Favin_, &c.]

=Golden Stole= of Venice. (See STOLA D’ORO.)

=Golione=, O. E. A kind of gown.

=Gondola=, It. A Venetian pleasure-boat or barge.

=Gonfalon= or =Gonfanon=, Fr. (1) A richly-worked pointed banner carried upon a lance; 13th century. (2) An ecclesiastical banner.

=Gonfalonier=. The bearer of a gonfalon.

=Goniometer= (γωνία, an angle, &c.). An instrument for measuring the angles of crystals.

=Gonjo=, O. E. (14th century). Said to be the _gorget_.

=Gopouras=, Hind. The pyramid-shaped door of the Hindoo temples. _Dwararab’ha_, or door of splendour, was the name given to a door with one or two tiers; _dwarasala_, or door of the dwelling, a door with two or four tiers; _dwaraprasada_, or propitious door, a door with three to five tiers; _dwaraharmya_, or door of the palace, a door with five to seven tiers; lastly, _dwaragopouras_, or door-tower with seven to sixteen tiers.

=Gorged=, Her. Wearing a collar.

=Gorget=, Fr. A defence or covering for the neck.

[Illustration: Fig. 364. Gorgoneia.]

=Gorgoneia.= Masks of the Gorgon’s head, which were fixed as bosses upon walls or shields.

=Gossamer=, O. E. (properly _God’s summer_). The name is attributed to an old legend that the fine filaments so called are the fragments of the winding-sheet of the Virgin Mary, which fell away from her as she was taken up to heaven.

=Gothamites=, O. E. The inhabitants of the village of Gotham in Northumberland, renowned for their stupidity. A reprint of the tale called “The Wise Men of Gotham” appeared in 1840.

=Gouache=, Fr. This term is applied to the use in water-colour painting of opaque colours more or less mixed and modified with white. The process is extremely ancient, known to the Chinese and Indians of the earliest times, and to the Greeks and Romans. It was the method used by mediæval illuminators. Its result is a velvety reflection of the light.

[Illustration: Fig. 365. Gourd-shaped bottle. Anatolian.]

=Gourd of Noah.= A piece of ancient blue faience from Asia Minor. According to the tradition current in the country, these vessels, which are in great veneration, would go back to such remote antiquity that it was by one of them that Noah was betrayed into the first act of inebriety recorded in history. (_Jacquemart._)

=Gouttée=, =Guttée=, Her. Sprinkled over with drops of gold, silver, blue (tears), red (blood), or black (_poix_).

=Gown= (British _gwn_, Norman _gunna_). The men wore gowns in the Middle Ages, the women at all times.

=Grabatus=, R. (κράβατος). A sort of low framework, consisting of a network of cords, used to support a mattress; it was the least comfortable kind of bed; whence the French word _grabat_ to denote a sorry kind of bed.

=Gradient=, Her. Walking.

=Gradus=, R. A flight of steps leading to a temple; the tiers of seats in a theatre or amphitheatre, &c.

=Græcostasis.= A part of the Roman forum, where the Greek ambassadors stood to hear the debates.

=Graffiti=, It. Lines drawn with a graver upon clay or plaster. (See SGRAFFITI.)

=Grafted=, Her. Inserted and fixed.

=Grand-garde=, Plate armour to cover the breast and left shoulder, worn outside the usual armour in jousting at tournaments.

=Grand Quarters=, Her. The four primary divisions of a shield when it is divided per cross or quarterly.

=Graphite.= Plumbago.

=Graphometer.= A mathematical instrument, called also a semicircle.

=Graphotype.= A method of producing book illustrations for printing along with type, without the art of an engraver.

=Grass-green.= (See CHRYSOCOLLA.)

=Graver= or =Burin=. An engraving-tool. (See CHALCOGRAPHY.)

=Grazioso=, It. In Music, an intimation to perform the music smoothly and gracefully.

=Greaves.= Plate armour for the legs.

=Grece=, O. E. A step, or flight of stairs. (See GRYSE.)

=Greeces=, Her. Steps.

=Greek Lace.= A kind of cutwork, described under LACE (q.v.).

=Green=, in Christian art, or the emerald, is the colour of spring; emblem of hope, particularly hope in immortality; and of victory, as the colour of the palm and the laurel.

=Green.= (See CARBONATES OF COPPER, OXIDES OF COPPER, SCHEELE’S GREEN, SAP GREEN, CHROME GREEN, &c.)

=Green Bice.= Green cinnabar. (See CHROME GREEN.)

=Green Earth= (burnt terra verde) is a brown pigment, very useful for landscape painting in oil colours; it is not affected by exposure to strong light or impure air.

=Green Lakes.= (See PURPLE LAKES.)

=Green Verditer.= (See VERDITER.)

=Gregorian Calendar.= The calendar as reformed by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582.

=Gregorian Music.= A collection of chants, originally compiled by Gregory I. (the Great), A. D. 600. “It was observed by St. Gregory, a great musician of his time, that the _Ambrosian Chants_, handed down traditionally to a great extent, had become corrupted; he therefore subjected them to revision, and added other modes and scales to those four which Ambrose had retained. This was done by taking away the upper tetrachord from the Ambrosian scales, and placing it below the lower tetrachord.” (See _Music_, by the Rev. J. R. Lunn, B.D., in _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_.)

=Grey=, in Christian art, the colour of ashes, signified mourning, humility, and innocence accused.

=Greybeards=, O. E. Stone-ware drinking-jugs, with a bearded face on the spout.

=Gridiron= (It. _la graticola_). The attribute of St. Lawrence.

=Griffin.= (See GRYPHUS.)

=Grinding.= Pigments are generally ground in poppy or nut oil, which dry best and do not deaden the colours. It is essential that these oils be in the purest state, bright and clear. A good oil ought to be so dry in five or six days that the picture can be repainted.

=Griphus=, Gr. and R. (γρῖφος). Literally, a fishing-net, and thence a riddle propounded by guests at a banquet.

=Grisaille=, Fr. A style of painting _in grey_, by which solid bodies are represented as if in relief; adapted for architectural subjects.

[Illustration: Fig. 366. Groat of Edward III.]

=Groat.= An old English silver coin, equal to 4_d._ In England, in the Saxon times, no silver coin larger in value than a penny was struck, nor after the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who about 1351 coined _grosses_ or great pieces, which went for 4_d._ each; and so the matter stood till the reign of Henry VII., who in 1504 first coined shillings.

=Grogram= (Fr. _gros-grains_). A coarse woollen cloth with large woof and a rough pile. Grogram gowns were worn by countrywomen, 15th to 17th centuries. _Fairholt_ says that the mixed liquor called _grog_ obtained its name from the admiral who ordered it to be given to the sailors; who from wearing a grogram coat was called “Old Grog.”

=Groin=, Arch. The angular curve formed at the intersection of a vaulted roof; the line made by the intersection of arched vaults crossing each other at any angle. (See Fig. 173.)

=Grolier Scroll.= A beautiful and elaborate style of decoration for bookbinding, introduced by _Grolier_, a celebrated patron of bookbinding, in the 15th century.

=Groma= and =Gruma=, R. A quadrant; an instrument used by land-surveyors. In the plural, _grumæ_ denotes the intersection of two roads cutting each other at right angles.

[Illustration: Fig. 367. Grotesque from a stall in Rouen Cathedral.]

=Grotesques=, Arch. (It. _grottesco_, the style in which grottoes were ornamented). Figures of a monstrous, comic, or obscene character, which were spread in profusion over the façades of churches by mediæval artists (_ymaigiers_); in stone and in wood; on choir-stalls and the wood-work and wainscoting of interiors. Figs. 367, 368 represent figures upon the stalls and columns in Rouen Cathedral.

[Illustration: Fig. 368. Grotesque decoration from the Cathedral at Rouen.]

=Grounds= or =Priming=. In painting, the first coat of colour laid all over the canvas, upon which the picture is to be painted.

=Grus=, Lat. (_a crane_). A constellation of the southern hemisphere.

=Gry.= A measure containing ⅒ of a _line_. A _line_ is ⅒ of a _digit_, a _digit_ is ⅒ of a foot, and a (philosophical) foot is ⅓ of a pendulum whose vibrations, in the latitude of 45°, are each equal to one second of time, or ¹⁄₆₀ of a minute.

[Illustration: Fig. 369. Heraldic Griffin.]

=Gryphus=, =Griffin=, Gen. (γρύψ). A fabulous animal, represented with the body of a lion, and the head and wings of an eagle. In ancient art it was applied in the decoration of friezes, one of the finest specimens being that at the temple of Antoninus and Faustina at Rome. It was a heraldic symbol among the Scythians, and is the ancient crest of the city of London. As an emblem this monster symbolizes the destroying power of the gods.

=Gryse=, =Grece=, =Tredyl=, or =Steyre=, O. E. A step, a flight of stairs.

=Guacos= or =Huacos=, Peruv. The consecrated burial-places of the ancient Peruvians.

[Illustration: Fig. 370. Passant guardant.]

=Guardant=, Her. Looking out from the field, as the lions in Fig. 370.

=Guazzo=, It. A hard and durable kind of distemper painting, used by the ancients, calculated to resist damp and to preserve the colours.

[Illustration: Fig. 371. Gubbio Cup, 1519. Louvre Museum.]

=Gubbio=. A celebrated Italian botega of ceramic art, founded in 1498 by Giorgio Andreoli, the reputed inventor of the secret of metallic lustres. Fig. 371 is a cup bearing upon a fillet the inscription “_Ex o Giorg._,” “of the fabric of Giorgio.”

=Gubernaculum=, R. (_guberno_, to direct). A rudder; originally an oar with a broad blade, which was fixed, not at the extremity, but at each side of the stern. A ship had commonly two rudders joined together by a pole.

=Guelfs= or =Guelphs=. (See GHIBELLINES.)

[Illustration: Fig. 372. Badge of the Gueux.]

=Gueux, Badge of the.= The celebrated Netherlandish confraternity of the Gueux (or Beggars), which had its origin in a jest spoken at a banquet, assumed not only the dress, but the staff, wooden bowl, and wallet of the professional beggar, and even went so far as to clothe their retainers and servants in mendicant garb. The badge represents two hands clasped across and through a double wallet.

=Guidon=, Fr. (1) The silk standard of a regiment; (2) its bearer.

=Guige=, Her. A shield-belt worn over the right shoulder.

=Guild=, O. E. (Saxon _guildan_, to pay). A fraternity or company, every member of which was _gildare_, i. e. had to pay something towards the charges. Merchant guilds first became general in Europe in the 11th century. (See _Anderson’s History of Commerce_, vol. i. p. 70.)

[Illustration: Fig. 373. Base ornamented with guilloche.]

=Guilloche.= A series of interlaced ornaments on stone, resembling network.

[Illustration: Fig. 374. Band with the guilloche ornament.]

=Guilloched.= Waved or engine-turned.

=Guimet’s Ultramarine.= A valuable substitute for the more costly preparation. It is transparent and durable.

=Guimet’s Yellow= is the deutoxide of lead and antimony, useful in enamel or porcelain painting.

=Guinea.= An English coin first struck _temp._ Car. II., and so called because the gold was brought from the coast of _Guinea_ (the Portuguese _Genahoa_). It originally bore the impress of an elephant. The sovereign superseded it in 1817.

=Guisarme.= An ancient weapon of the nature of a pike or bill. (See _Meyrick_.)

=Guitar= (Spanish _guitarra_). A stringed musical instrument, played as a harp with the fingers.

=Gules=, Her. (Fr. _gueules_). Red, represented in engraving by perpendicular lines.

=Gum-arabic= dissolved in water constitutes the well-known vehicle for water-colour painting—_gum-water_.

=Gunter’s Line.= A line of logarithms graduated on a ruler, for practical use in the application of logarithms to the ordinary calculations of an architect, builder, &c. Other similar instruments invented by the great mathematician (+ 1626) are _Gunter’s Quadrant_ and _Gunter’s Scale_, used by seamen and for astronomical calculations.

=Gurgustium=, R. A cave, hovel, or any dark and wretched abode.

=Gussets= were small pieces of chain mail at the openings of the joints beneath the arms.

=Guttæ=, Arch. (drops). Small conical-shaped ornaments, used in the Doric entablature immediately under the mutule beneath the triglyph. (See Fig. 265.)

=Guttée=, Her. (See GOUTTÉE.) Sprinkled over.

=Gutturnium=, R. (_guttur_, the throat). A water-jug or ewer; it was a vessel of very elegant form, and was used chiefly by slaves for pouring water over the hands of the guests before and after a meal. (See ABLUTIONS.)

=Guttus=, R. (_gutta_, a drop). A vessel with a very narrow neck and mouth, by means of which liquids could be poured out drop by drop; whence its name. It was especially used in sacrifices, and is a common object upon coins of a religious character.

=Gutty=, Her. Charged or sprinkled with _drops_.

=Gwerre=, O. E. The choir of a church.

=Gymmers=, O. E. Hinges. (The word is still used.)

=Gymnasium=, Gr. (γυμνάσιον; γυμνὸς, stripped). A large building used by the Greeks, answering to the Roman _palæstra_, in which gymnastics were taught and practised. There were also attached to it assembly rooms for rhetoricians and philosophers.

=Gynæceum=, Gr. (from γυνὴ, a woman). That part of the Greek house which was set apart for the women. (See DOMUS.)

=Gypsum= (Gr. γύψος). The property of rapid consolidation renders gypsum very available for taking casts of works of art, &c. It is much employed in architectural ornaments. The gypsum of Paris is called _Montmartrite_, and forms the best _Plaster of Paris_, as it resists the weather better than purer sorts. It contains 17 per cent. of carbonate of lime. (See also ALABASTER.)

=Gyron=, Her. A triangular figure, one of the subordinaries.

[Illustration: Fig. 375. Gyronny.]

=Gyronny=, Her. A field divided into gyrons.

H.

=H=, as an old Latin numeral, denotes 200, and with a dash above it (H̅) 200,000.

=Habena=, R. (_habeo_, to hold). A term with numerous meanings, all of which were connected more or less with the idea of a thong or strap. In the singular, it signifies a halter; in the plural, _habenæ_, reins.

=Habergeon=. A coat of mail, or breastplate.

=Habited=, Her. Clothed.

=Hackbut= or =Hagbut=. Arquebus with a hooked stock.

=Hackney Coach= (from the French _coche-à-haguenée_). The _haguenée_ was a strong kind of horse formerly let out on hire for short journeys.

=Hadrianea=, R. Small buildings in which Christians were allowed to meet, in virtue of an edict granted in their favour by the Emperor Hadrian.

=Hæmatinon=, R. (αἱμάτινον, of blood). A kind of glassy substance of a beautiful red, and susceptible of taking a fine polish. It was used to make small cubes for mosaic or small works of art.

=Hagiographa= (_sacred writings_). A name applied to those books of Scripture which, according to the Jewish classification, held the lowest rank in regard to inspiration. These are the books of Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles.

=Hair.= The _Assyrian_ monarchs are represented with beard elaborately plaited, and hair falling in ringlets on the shoulder, which may have been partly artificial, like that of the Persian monarchs, who, according to Xenophon, wore a wig. Both the hair and beard were dyed, and the eyes blackened with kohl, &c. (_Layard._) The _Egyptians_ kept the head shaved, and wore wigs and beard-boxes. The _Hebrews_ generally wore the hair short, but the horse-guards of King Solomon “daily strewed their heads with gold dust, which glittered in the sun.” (_Josephus._) The ancient _Greeks_ wore their hair long. The _Athenians_ wore it long in childhood, had it cut short at a solemn ceremony when they became eighteen years of age, and afterwards allowed it to grow, and wore it rolled up in a knot on the crown of the head, fastened with golden clasps (_crobylus_, _corymbus_). Women wore bands or coifs (_sphendone_, _kekryphalus_, _saccus_, _mitra_). Youths and athletes are represented with short hair. The favourite colour was blonde (_xanthus_); black was the most common. The ancient _Romans_ also wore long hair; about 300 B.C. the practice of wearing it short came in (_cincinnus_, _cirrus_). The Roman women anciently dressed their hair very plainly, but in the Augustan period adopted some extravagant fashions. Each of the gods is distinguished by his peculiar form of hair: that of Jupiter is long and flowing; Mercury has close curling hair, &c. The _Danes_, _Gauls_, and _Anglo-Saxons_ wore long flowing hair, and the shearing of it was a punishment: when Julius Cæsar conquered the Gauls, he cut off their long hair. Among the early _Frankish_ kings long hair was the privilege of the blood royal. From the time of _Clovis_ the French nobility wore short hair, but as they grew less martial the hair became longer. François I. introduced short hair, which prevailed until the reign of Louis XIII., which was followed by the period of periwigs and perukes of Louis XIV. The variations from the Conquest to the last generation in _England_ are so striking and frequent that each reign may be distinguished by its appropriate head-dress. (Consult _Fairholt’s Costume in England_, _Planché’s Cyclopædia of Costume_, &c.)

=Hair-cloth.= (See CILICIUM.)

=Hair Pencils= or =Brushes= are made of the finer hairs of the marten, badger, polecat, camel, &c., mounted in quills or white iron tubes. The round brushes should swell all round from the base, and diminish upwards to a fine point, terminating with the uncut ends of the hair. (See FITCH.)

=Halbert.= A footman’s weapon in the form of a battle-axe and pike at the end of a long staff.

=Halcyon.= The ancient name of the _Alcedo_ or king-fisher; hence—

=Halcyon Days=, i. e. the calm and peaceful season when the king-fisher lays its eggs in nests close by the brink of the sea; i. e. seven days before and as many after the winter solstice.

“Seven winter dayes with peacefull calme possest _Alcyon_ sits upon her floating nest.” (_Sandy’s Ovid, Met._ b. xi.)

=Hall-marks.= The Goldsmiths of London formed their company in 1327, and were incorporated by charter in 1392. The hall-marks, in the order of their introduction, are as follows:—1. The leopard’s head, called the king’s mark. 2. The maker’s mark, originally a rose, crown, or other emblem with or without initials. 3. The annual letter, in the order of the alphabet from A to V, omitting J and U. This mark is changed every twenty years. 4. The lion _passant_, added in 1597. 5. Instead of the leopard’s head (1) for the king’s mark, the lion’s head _erased_, introduced in 1697 when the standard was changed, and, 6, a figure of Britannia substituted for the lion _passant_ (4) at the same time. Plate with this mark is called _Britannia_ plate. The old standard (of 11 oz. 2 dwt. pure gold in the lb.) was restored in 1719. 7. The head of the reigning sovereign in profile, ordered in 1784, when a fresh duty was laid upon plate.

=Halling=, O. E. Tapestry.

=Hallowmas=, Chr. The feast of All Souls, or the time about All Souls’ and All Saints’ Days, viz. the 1st and 2nd of November; and thence to CANDLEMAS, or the 2nd of February.

=Halmos=, Gr. and R. A vessel of round form, supported on a raised stand entirely distinct from the vessel itself; it was used as a drinking-cup.

=Halmote= or =Halimote=. The Saxon name for a meeting of tenants, now called a _court baron_.

=Halteres= (Gr. ἁλτῆρες), in the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans, were masses of lead, iron, or stone held in the hands to give impetus in leaping, or used as dumb-bells.

=Ham= (Scotch _hame_). A Saxon word for a place of dwelling, _a home_; hence “HAMLET.” “This word,” says Stow, “originally meant the seat of a freeholder, comprehending the mansion-house and adjacent buildings.”

=Hama=, Gr. and R. (ἄμη or ἅμη). A bucket used for various purposes.

=Hamburg White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.)

=Hames= or =Heames=, Her. Parts of horses’ harness.

=Hammer= or =Martel=, Her. Represented much like an ordinary hammer.

=Hamus= or =Hamulus=. A fish-hook.

[Illustration: Fig. 376. Hanaper.]

=Hanaper=, O. E. (Mod. _hamper_). A wicker basket. (Fig. 376.) Writs in the Court of Chancery were thrown into such a basket (_in hanaperio_), and the office was called from that circumstance the Haniper Office. It was abolished in 1842.

=Handkerchiefs= embroidered in gold were presented and worn as favours in the reign of Elizabeth. Paisley handkerchiefs were introduced in 1743.

[Illustration: Fig. 377. Bronze door-handle. Roman.]

=Handle=, Gen. In antiquity the leaves of a door were fitted with handles like those of our own day. Fig. 377 represents a bronze handle consisting of a double ring. Of these, the inner one could be raised so as to allow a person’s hand to take hold of it, and draw the door his own way. This work of art is at the present time in the Museum of Perugia.

=Handruffs=, O. E. Ruffles.

=Handseax=. The Anglo-Saxon dagger.

=Hanger=, O. E. A small sword worn by gentlemen with morning dress in the 17th century.

=Hangers= or =Carriages=, O. E. Appendages to the sword-belt from which the sword hung, often richly embroidered or jewelled.

=Hanselines= (15th century). Loose breeches. (See SLOP.)

=Haphe=, Gr. and R. (ἁφὴ i.e. a grip). The yellow sand with which wrestlers sprinkled themselves over after having been rubbed with oil. The object of this sprinkling was to enable the wrestlers to take a firmer grasp one of the other.

=Hara=, Gr. and R. A pig-sty, especially for a breeding sow. The term also denoted a pen for geese.

=Hare=, Chr. In Christian iconography the hare symbolizes the rapid course of life. Representations of this animal are met with on lamps, engraved stones, sepulchral stones, &c.

=Harlequin= (It. _Harlequino_, or little Harlay). The name is derived from that of a famous Italian comedian, who appeared in Paris in the time of Henri III., and from frequenting the house of M. de Harlay was so called by his companions. (_Ménage_.)

=Harmamaxa=, Gr. and R. (ἁρμ-άμαξα). A four-wheeled carriage or litter covered overhead, and enclosed with curtains. It was generally large, and drawn by four horses, and richly ornamented. It was principally used for women and children.

=Harmonica.= A musical instrument consisting of a number of glass cups fixed upon a revolving spindle, and made to vibrate by friction applied to their edges. These “musical glasses” are described in a work published in 1677. A _harpsichord-harmonica_ is a similar instrument, in which finger-keys like those of a pianoforte are used. (See the article in _Encyl. Brit._, 8th edition.)

=Harmonium.= A musical instrument having a key-board like a pianoforte, and the sounds (which resemble those of organ pipes) produced by the vibration of thin tongues of metal.

=Harp.= The EGYPTIANS had various kinds of harps, some of which were elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The name of the harp was _buni_. Its frame had no front pillar. The harps represented on the monuments varied in size from 6½ feet high downwards, and had from 4 to 28 strings. A beautiful Egyptian harp, in the Louvre collection, is of triangular shape with 21 strings, but, like all the harps represented on the monuments, it has no fore-pillar. The strings were of catgut. ASSYRIAN sculptures also represent harps. These also had no front pillar, and were about 4 feet high, with ornamental appendages on the lower frame. The upper frame contained the sound-holes and the tuning-pegs in regular order. The strings are supposed to have been of silk. The GREEK harp, called _kinyra_, resembled the Assyrian, and is represented with 13 strings: it is an attribute of Polyhymnia. The ANGLO-SAXONS called the harp the _gleo-beam_, or “glee-wood;” and it was their most popular instrument. King David playing a harp is represented on an A.S. monument of the 11th century. It was the favourite instrument of the GERMAN and CELTIC bards, and of the SCANDINAVIAN skalds. It is represented with 12 strings and 2 sound-holes, and having a fore-pillar. A curious IRISH harp of the 8th century, or earlier, is represented in Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland,” having no fore-pillar. The FINNS had a harp (_harpu_, _kantele_) with a similar frame, devoid of a front pillar. In CHRISTIAN ART a harp is the attribute of King David and of St. Cecilia. St. Dunstan is also occasionally represented with it. In Heraldry the harp is the device and badge of Ireland. The Irish harp of gold with silver strings on a blue field forms the third quarter of the royal arms.

=Harpaga=, =Harpago=, Gr. and R. A general term, including any kind of hook for grappling; more particularly a military engine invented by Pericles, and introduced into the Roman navy by Duillius. It consisted of a joist about two yards and a half long, each face of which was coated with iron, and having at one end a harpoon of iron or bronze; the other end was fitted with an iron ring, to which a rope was attached, so as to enable it to be drawn back when it had once grappled a ship or its rigging. _Harpago_ or _wolf_ was the term applied to a beam armed with a harpoon, which was employed to break down the tops of walls, or widen a breach already made. [A flesh-hook used in cookery to take boiled meat out of the caldron.]

=Harpastum=, R. A small ball employed for a game in which the players formed two sides. They stationed themselves at some distance from a line traced on the ground or sand where the _harpastum_ was placed. At a given signal each player threw himself upon the ball, in order to try and send it beyond the bounds of the opposite party.

=Harpies=, Gen. (Ἅρπυιαι, i. e. the Snatchers). Winged monsters, daughters of Neptune and Terra, three in number, viz. _Aëllo_ (the tempest), _Ocypetê_ (swift-flying), and _Cêlêno_; representing the storm-winds. They had the faces of old women, a vulture’s body, and huge claws; they were the representatives of the Evil Fates, and the rulers of storms and tempests. In Christian iconography the Harpies symbolize the devil and repentance. [In the so called “Harpy tomb” in the British Museum they are represented carrying off Camiro and Clytia, the daughters of Pandarus of Crete, as a punishment for his complicity with Tantalus in stealing ambrosia and nectar from the table of the gods.]

=Harpsichord.= A musical instrument intermediate between the _spinet_, _virginals_, &c., and the _pianoforte_, which supplanted it in the 18th century. It may be described as a horizontal harp enclosed in a sonorous case, the wires being struck with jacks armed with crow-quills, and moved with finger-keys.

=Harquebus.= An improvement of the hand-gun introduced in the 15th century, applying the invention of the _trigger_.

=Hart.= A stag in its _sixth_ year.

=Hart= or =Hind=, in Christian art, originally typified solitude and purity of life. It was the attribute of St. Hubert, St. Julian, and St. Eustace.

[Illustration: Fig. 378. Heraldic Hart.]

=Hart=, Her. A stag with attires; the female is a hind.

[Illustration: Fig. 379. Hasta—Roman ceremonial spear.]

=Hasta= (Gr. ἔγχος). A spear used as a pike for thrusting, or as a missile for hurling from the hand, or as a bolt from an engine. Homer defines the spear as “a pole heavy with bronze.” The _hasta amentata_, for hurling, had a leathern thong for a handle (_amentum_) in the middle; _hasta pura_ was a spear without a head, and was a much-valued decoration given to a Roman soldier who had saved a citizen’s life; _hasta celibarium_ was a spear which, having been thrust into the body of a gladiator as he lay dead in the arena, was afterwards used at marriages to part the hair of the bride. A spear was set up before a place where sales by auction were going on, and an auction-room was hence called HASTARIUM. Different kinds of spear were the _lancea_ of the Greeks; the _pilum_, peculiar to the Romans; the _veru_, _verutum_, or “spit,” of the Roman light infantry; the _gæsum_, a Celtic weapon adopted by the Romans; the _sparrus_, our English spar or _spear_, the rudest missile of the whole class; and many others mentioned under their respective headings in this work.

=Hasta Pura.= In Numismatics, a headless spear or long sceptre, an attribute of all the heathen deities; a symbol of the goodness of the gods and the conduct of providence, equally mild and forcible.

=Hastarium=, R. A room in which sales were made _sub hasta publica_, that is, by public auction, under the public authority indicated by the spear. The term also denoted a list or catalogue of sale.

=Hastile=, R. (_hasta_). The shaft of a spear, and thence the spear itself, a goad, &c.

[Illustration: Fig. 380. Costume of a nobleman in Venice (16th century), showing the Hat of the period.]

=Hat= (A.S. _haet_, a covering for the head). Froissart describes hats and plumes worn at Edward’s court in 1340, when the Garter order was instituted. Hats were originally of a scarlet-red colour, and made of “a fine kinde of haire matted thegither.” A remarkable series of changes in the fashion of hats is given in _Planché’s Encyclopædia of Costume_. Our illustration represents a young Venetian noble of the Middle Ages. (See also the illustrations to POURPOINT, BIRETTA, BOMBARDS, CALASH, CAPUCHON, CHAPEAU, CORONETS, &c.)

=Hatchment=, Her. (for _atchievement_). An achievement of arms in a lozenge-shaped frame, placed upon the front of the residence of a person lately deceased, made to distinguish his rank and position in life.

=Hauberk= (Germ. _Hals-berg_, a throat-guard). A military tunic of ringed mail, of German origin, introduced in the 12th century.

=Haumudeys=, O. E. A purse.

[Illustration: Fig. 381. Hauriant.]

=Hauriant=, Her. Said of fishes upright, “sucking the air.” (Fig. 381.)

=Hautboy.= A wind instrument of the reed kind.

=Haversack= (Fr. _havre-sac_). A soldier’s knapsack.

=Hawk=, Egyp. This bird symbolizes the successive new births of the rising sun. The hawk is the bird of Horus. It stood, at certain periods, for the word _God_, and, with a human head, for the word _soul_. The sun (_Ra_) is likewise represented with a hawk’s head, ornamented with the disk.

=Head-piece.= An ornamental engraving at the commencement of a new

## chapter in a book.

=Head-rail.= The head-dress worn by Saxon and Norman ladies.

=Healfang=, A.S. The pillory, or a fine in commutation. “_Qui falsum testimonium dedit, reddat regi vel terræ domino_ HEALFANG.”

=Heang-loo=, Chinese. An incense-burner.

[Illustration: Fig. 382. Inscription, with hearts, found at Alise.]

=Heart.= On numerous Christian tombs hearts maybe seen sculptured. Many archæologists have attempted to explain their meaning as symbols, but without entering on an unprofitable discussion of that question, it may be noticed that, in many cases, what archæologists have supposed to be hearts were nothing but ivy-leaves, which served as marks of separation between different words or sentences. Fig. 382 represents an inscription at Alise in which ivy-leaves figure, together with an ornament which some would insist were flames, if they were to take the leaves for hearts. When inscriptions, however, are defaced, the shape of the leaves is not nearly so distinguishable as in the figure. [One of the most frequent methods in which this emblem is introduced in Christian art is that the Saviour, or the Virgin Mary, is represented opening the breast to display the living heart—the natural symbol of Love, Devotion, or Sorrow. The Heart is an attribute of St. Theresa, St. Augustine, and other saints. The flaming heart is the emblem of charity. The heart pierced by seven daggers symbolizes the “seven sorrows” of Mary.]

=Hecatesia=, Gr. (Ἑκατήσια). Festivals held at Athens in honour of Hecatê.

=Hecatomb=, Gr. and R. (ἑκατόμβη). A sacrifice offered in Greece and Rome under special circumstances, and at which a hundred head of cattle (ἑκατὸν) were slain; whence the name of the festival. [The term was generally applied to _all_ great sacrifices, of much less extent than that implied by its etymological meaning.]

=Hecatompylæ=, Gr. (ἑκατόμ-πυλαι). The city with a hundred gates; a name given to the Egyptian Thebes.

=Hecatonstylon=, =Hecatonstyle=, Gr. and R. (ἑκατὸν and στῦλος). A portico or colonnade with a hundred columns.

=Hecte= or =Hectæus=, Gr. = a sixth (R. _modius_). In dry measure, the sixth part of the medimnus, or nearly two gallons English. Coins of uncertain value bore the same name; they were sixths of other units of value.

=Hegira= (Arabic _hajara_, to desert). The flight from Mecca, 16th July, A. D. 622, from which Mohammedan chronology is calculated.

=Helciarius=, R. One who tows a boat. He was so called because he passed a rope round his body in the way of a belt, the rope thus forming a noose (_helcium_).

=Helepolis=, Gr. and R. (ἑλέ-πολις, the taker of cities). A lofty square tower, on wheels, used in besieging fortified places. It was ninety cubits high and forty wide; inside were nine stories, the lower containing machines for throwing great stones; the middle, large catapults for throwing spears; and the highest other machines. It was manned with 200 soldiers. The name was afterwards applied to other siege engines of similar construction.

=Helical=, Arch. (ἕλιξ, a wreath). A spiral line distinguished from _spiral_. A staircase is _helical_ when the steps wind round a cylindrical newel; whereas the _spiral_ winds round a cone, and is constantly narrowing its axis. The term is applied to the volutes of a Corinthian capital. (See HELIX.)

=Heliochromy= (Gr. ἥλιος, the sun, and χρῶμα, colour). Process of taking coloured photographs.

=Heliopolites=, Egyp. One of the nomes or divisions of Lower Egypt, capital An, the sacred name for Heliopolis near Cairo.

=Heliotrope.= The _Hæmatite_ or _blood-stone_; a siliceous mineral of a dark green colour, commonly variegated with bright red spots.

=Heliotropion=, Gr. A kind of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.)

=Helix=, Arch. (ἕλιξ, anything spiral). A small volute like the tendril of a vine placed under the Corinthian abacus. They are arranged in couples springing from one base, and unite at the summit.

=Hellebore.= A famous purgative medicine among the ancient Greeks and Romans. Philosophers prepared for work by drinking an infusion of the black hellebore, like tea. The best grew in the island of Anticyra in the Ægean Sea, and the gathering of it was accompanied by superstitious rites.

[Illustration: Fig. 383. Helm of a Gentleman or Esquire.]

=Helm=, =Helmet=, Her. Now placed as an accessory above a shield of arms. Modern usage distinguishes helms according to the rank of the wearer. The term _helm_ was applied by both Saxons and Normans, in the 11th century, to the conical steel cap with a nose-guard, which was the common head-piece of the day, and is depicted in contemporary illuminations, sculptures, and tapestries. Afterwards it was restricted to the _casque_, which covered the whole head, and had an aventaile or vizor for the face. The use of the _helm_ finally ceased in the reign of Henry VIII.

[Illustration: Fig. 384. Helmet or Burgonet of the 16th century.]

=Helmet.= The diminutive of HELM, first applied to the smaller head-piece which superseded it in the 15th century. (See GALEA, ARMET, BASCINET, BURGONET, CASQUE, CHAPELLE LE FER, &c.)

=Hemi-= (Gr. ἡμι-). Half; used in composition of words like the Latin _semi_ or _demi_.

=Hemichorion= (ἡμιχόριον). (See DICHOREA.)

=Hemicyclium=, Gr. and R. (ἡμι-κύκλιον). A semicircular alcove, to which persons resorted for mutual conversation. The term was also used to denote a sun-dial.

=Hemina=, Gr. and R. (ἡμίνα, i. e. half). A measure of capacity containing half a sextarius (equal to the Greek _cotyle_ = half a pint English).

=Hemiolia=, Gr. and R. (ἡμι-ολία, i. e. one and a half). A vessel of peculiar construction employed especially by Greek pirates.

[Illustration: Fig. 385. Sun-dial (Hemisphærium).]

=Hemisphærium=, R. A sun-dial in the form of a hemisphere; whence its name. (Fig. 385.)

=Hemlock=, the _Conium maculatum_ of botanists, was the poison used by the ancient Greeks for the despatch of state prisoners. Its effects are accurately described in Plato’s description of the death of Socrates.

=Heptagon= (Gr. ἑπτὰ, seven, and γώνη, an angle). A seven-sided figure.

=Hepteris=, Gr. and R. (ἑπτ-ήρης). A ship of war with seven ranks of oars.

=Heræa.= Important Greek festivals, celebrated in honour of Hera in all the towns of Greece. At Argos, every fifth year, an immense body of young men in armour formed a procession, preceded by a HECATOMB of oxen, to the great temple of Hera, between Argos and Mycenæ, where the oxen were slaughtered, and their flesh distributed to the citizens.

=Herald= (Germ. _Herold_). An officer of arms. The heralds of England were incorporated by Richard III. The college now consists of three kings of arms, six heralds, and four pursuivants. The office of Earl Marshal, the supreme head of the English heralds, is hereditary in the family of the Duke of Norfolk. There is another herald king styled “Bath,” who is specially attached to that order; he is not a member of the college. The chief herald of Scotland is styled Lord Lyon King of Arms; that of Ireland, Ulster King of Arms. _Chester herald_ is mentioned in the reign of Richard II., _Lancaster king of arms_ under Henry IV. (See MARSHAL, KINGS OF ARMS, &c.)

=Heralds’ College.= A college of heralds was instituted in Rome by Numa Pompilius, and the office was held sacred among the most ancient Oriental nations. The institution was imported into England in the Middle Ages from Germany, a corporation of heralds, similar to the _collegium fetialium_ of Rome, having been established in England in 1483 by Richard III. (See _Pitiscus_, tom. i., and _Hofmann_, tom. ii.)

=Hermæ=, Gr. and R. (Ἑρμαῖ). Hermæ, a kind of pedestals surmounted only by the head, or, in some cases, the bust of Hermes. Great reverence was felt for these statues. Houses at Athens had one before the doors; they were also placed in front of temples, near tombs, at street corners, or as mile-stones on the high roads. _Hermuli_, or small _Hermæ_, were a common ornament of furniture, as pilasters and supports. The same name is applied to similar statues having a man’s head. This statue was probably one of the first attempts of art at plastic representation. The _phallus_ and a pointed beard originally were essential parts of the symbol. In place of arms there were projections to hang garlands on. Then a mantle was introduced from the shoulders. Afterwards the whole torso was placed above the pillar; and finally the pillar itself was shaped into a perfect statue. All these gradations of the sculptor’s art are traceable in existing monuments.

=Hermæa.= Festivals of Hermes, celebrated by the boys in the gymnasia, of which Hermes was the tutelary deity.

=Hermeneutæ=, Chr. (ἑρμηνευταί). Literally, interpreters. In the earliest ages of the Church, these were officials whose duty it was to translate sacred discourses or portions of Holy Scripture.

=Herne-pan=, O. E. (for _iron-pan_). Skull-cap worn under the helmet.

=Heroum=, Gr. (ἡρῷον, i. e. place of a hero). A kind of ÆDICULA (q.v.), or small temple, which served as a funeral monument. Several representations of Roman HEROA may be seen in the British Museum, representing funeral feasts in a temple, carved on the face of a sarcophagus (in the Towneley collection).

=Herring-bone Masonry.= Common in late Roman or early Saxon walls, where the ornamental lines take a sloping, parallel, zigzag direction.

=Herygoud=, O. E. A cloak with hanging sleeves.

=Heuk= or =Huque=, O. E. (1) Originally a cloak or mantle worn in the Middle Ages; then (2) a tight-fitting dress worn by both sexes. (_Fairholt_; see also _Planché_, _Encyclopædia_.) There appears to be great uncertainty as to the character of this garment.

=Hexaclinon=, Gr. and R. (ἑξά-κλινος). A dining or banqueting couch capable of holding six persons.

=Hexaphoron=, Gr. and R. (ἑξά-φορον). A litter carried by six porters.

=Hexapterygon=, Chr. (ἑξα-πτέρυγον). A fan used by Greek Catholics, and so named because it has on it figures of seraphim with six wings. (See FAN and FLABELLUM.)

=Hexastyle=, Arch. (ἑξά-στυλος). A façade of which the roof is supported by six columns.

=Hexeris=, Gr. (ἑξ-ήρης). A vessel with six ranks of oars.

=Hiberna= or =Hyberna=, R. A winter apartment. The halls in a Roman country house were built to face different ways according to the seasons; _verna_ and _autumnalis_ looked to the east; _hyberna_, to the west; _æstiva_, to the north.

=Hidage=, =Hidegild=, A.S. A tax payable to the Saxon kings of England for every _hide_ of land. The word is indifferently used to signify exemption from such a tax.

=Hidalgo= (Span. _hijo d’algo_, son of somebody). An obsolete title of nobility in Spain.

=Hieroglyphics=, Egyp. (ἱερὸς, sacred, and γλύφω, to carve). Characters of Egyptian writing, the letters of which are figurative or symbolic. There are three kinds of Egyptian writing, the _hieroglyphic_, the _hieratic_, and the _demotic_. Clement of Alexandria says that in the education of the Egyptians three styles of writing are taught: the first is called the epistolary (_enchorial_ or _demotic_); the second the _sacerdotal_ (_hieratic_), which the sacred Scribes employ; and the third the _hieroglyphic_. Other nations, as for instance the ancient Mexicans, have likewise employed hieroglyphics.

=Hieromancy=, Gr. and R. Divination from sacrifices.

=Hieron=, Gr. (ἱερὸν, i. e. holy place). The whole of the sacred enclosure of a temple, which enclosed the woods, the building, and the priests’ dwelling-place.

=High-warp Tapestry.= Made on a loom, in which the warp is arranged on a vertical plane,, as the Gobelins. _Low-warp tapestry_ is made on a flat loom, as at Aubusson, Beauvais, and other places. It is made more rapidly, and is inferior in beauty to the former.

=Hilaria.= A great Roman festival in honour of Cybele, celebrated at the vernal equinox. It consisted chiefly of extravagant merry-making to celebrate the advent of spring.

=Hippocampus=, Gr. and R. A fabulous animal, which had the fore-quarters of a horse ending in the tail of a dolphin. [It is imitated from the little “sea-horse” of the Mediterranean, now common in aquariums; and in mural paintings of Pompeii is represented attached to the chariot of Neptune.]

=Hippocentaur.= A fabulous animal, composed of a human body and head attached to the shoulders of a horse. (See also CENTAUR.)

=Hippocervus=, Chr. A fantastic animal, half horse and half stag; it personifies the pusillanimous man who throws himself without reflection into uncertain paths, and soon falls into despair at having lost himself in them.

=Hippocratia=, Gr. Festivals held in Arcadia in honour of Neptune, who, by striking the earth with his trident, had given birth to the horse.

[Illustration: Fig. 386. Ground-plan of a Hippodrome.]

=Hippodromus=, Gr. and R. The Greek name for an arena for horse and chariot races, in contradistinction to the stadium, which served for foot-racing. Fig. 386 represents the hippodrome at Olympia, taken from Gell’s _Itinerary of the Morea_. The following is the key to the plan:—1, 2, and 3 are _carceres_; A, the space included between the stalls or _carceres_; B, starting-place for the chariots; C, the colonnade; D, the arena; E, the barrier; F, the goal; G, the space occupied by the spectators. [The word was also applied to the races themselves.] (See also CIRCUS.)

=Hippogryph.= A mythical animal represented as a winged horse with the head of a _gryphon_.

=Hippopera=, Gr. and R. (ἱππο-πήρα). A saddle-bag for travellers on horseback. (See ASCOPERA.)

=Hippotoxotes= (ἱππο-τοξότης). A mounted archer. The Syrians, Persians, Medes, Greeks, and Romans had mounted archers among their light cavalry.

=Histrio.= An actor. The GREEK dramas were originally represented on the stage by one performer, who represented in succession the different characters. Æschylus introduced a second and a third actor. The actors were all amateurs, and it was not until a later period that the histrionic profession became a speciality. Sophocles and Æschylus both probably acted their own plays. The ROMAN name for an actor, _histrio_, was formed from the Etruscan _hister_, a dancer. The earliest _histriones_ were dancers, and performed to the music of a flute; then Roman youths imitating them introduced jocular dialogue, and this was the origin of the drama. After the organization of the theatres, the _histriones_ were subjected to certain disabilities; they were a despised class, and excluded from the rights of citizenship. The greatest of _histriones_ in Rome were Roscius and Æsopus, who realized great fortunes by their acting.

=Hobelarii=, Med. Lat. (See HOBLERS.)

=Hoblers=, A.S. Feudal tenants bound to serve as light horsemen in times of invasion.

=Hob-nob=, O. E. (Saxon _habban_, to have; _næbban_, not to have). “Hit or miss;” hence a common invitation to reciprocal drinking.

=Hock-day=, =Hoke-day=, or =Hock Tuesday.= A holiday kept to commemorate the expulsion of the Danes. It was held on the second Tuesday after Easter. _Hocking_ consisted in stopping the highway with ropes, and taking toll of passers-by.

=Hocus-pocus.= Probably a profane corruption of the words _hoc est corpus_ used in the Latin mass.

=Holocaust.= A sacrifice entirely consumed by fire.

=Holosericum= (Gr. ὅλον, all; σηρικόν, silk). A textile _all silk_.

=Holy Bread=, =Holy Loaf=, or =Eulogia= (Lat. _panis benedictus_). This was not the eucharistic bread (which was used in the wafer form for the Communion), but ordinary leavened bread, blessed by the priest after mass, cut up into small pieces and given to the people.

=Holy-bread-skep=, O. E. A vessel for containing the holy bread.

=Holy Water Pot=, Chr. A metal vessel frequently found at the doors of Roman Catholic churches, to contain the consecrated water, which was dispensed with the _aspergillum_.

=Holy Water Sprinkler= or =Morning Star=, O. E. A military club or flail set with spikes, which _sprinkled_ the blood about as the _aspergillum_ sprinkles the holy water.

[Illustration: Fig. 387. Holy Water Stone (Renaissance).]

=Holy Water Stone= or =Stoup=, Chr. A stone receptacle placed at the entrance of a church for holding the holy water.

=Honeysuckle Pattern.= A common Greek ornament, fully described by its name. (See FLEURON.)

[Illustration: Fig. 388. Honiton Guipure.]

=Honiton Guipure.= Lace was made in Devonshire, as well as in other parts of England, of silk and coarse thread until 1567, when the fine thread now used was introduced, it is said, by Flemings, who had escaped from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva. (See OLD DEVONSHIRE.) Honiton lace owes its great reputation to the sprigs made separately on a pillow, and afterwards either worked in with the beautiful pillow net or sewn on it. This net was made of the finest thread from Antwerp, the price of which in 1790 was 70_l._ per pound. (See MECHLIN LACE, 18th century.) Heathcoat’s invention, however, dealt a fatal blow to the trade of the net-makers, and since then Honiton lace is usually made by uniting the sprigs on a pillow, or joining them with a needle by various stitches, as shown in the engraving.

=Honour=, Legion of. Instituted 3rd June, 1802, by Napoleon I. as first consul.

=Hoodman-blind.= Old English for BLINDMAN’S BUFF (q.v.).

=Hoods= (A.S. _Hod_) were probably introduced by the Normans. They are constantly represented, with great variation of fashion, in illustrations of the 11th to 18th century, as a part of the costume of both sexes. They were finally displaced by caps and bonnets in the reign of George II. (See CHAPERON, COWL.)

=Hoops=, in ladies’ dress, were introduced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, displacing the FARTHINGALE; and were finally abandoned in that of George III.

=Hop-harlot=, O. E. A very coarse coverlet for beds.

=Horatia Pila=, R. A pillar erected at the west extremity of the Roman forum to receive the trophy of the spoils of the three Curiatii brought back by Horatius.

=Horns.= A portion of a lady’s head-dress, mentioned in the 13th century. They appear to have been formed by the foldings of the _gorget_ or _wimple_, and a disposition of the hair on each side of the head into the form of rams’ horns. For the horned head-dress of the 15th century, see the illustration to CORONET.

=Horologium.= (1) _Sundials_ preceded all other instruments for the measurement of time. The _gnomon_ or _stocheion_ of the GREEKS was a perpendicular staff or pillar, the shadow of which fell upon a properly marked ground; the _polos_ or _heliotropion_ consisted of a perpendicular staff, in a basin in which the twelve parts of the day were marked by lines. (2) The _clepsydra_ was a hollow globe, with a short neck, and holes in the bottom; it measured time by the escape of water, and was at first used like an hour-glass to regulate the length of speeches in the Athenian courts. The escape of water was stopped by inserting a stopper in the mouth, when the speaker was interrupted. Smaller _clepsydrata_ made of glass and marked with the hours were used in families. A precisely similar history applies to the _horologia_ of ROME.

=Horreum= (dimin. _horreolum_), R. (1) Literally, a place in which ripe fruits were kept; a granary, or storehouse for grain; _horreum publicum_ was the public granary. (2) Any storehouse or depôt; _horrea subterranea_, cellars. (3) It was applied to places in which _works of art_ were kept, and Seneca calls his library a _horreum_.

=Horse.= In Christian art, the emblem of courage and generosity; attribute of St. Martin, St. Maurice, St. George, and others. The Chinese have a _sacred horse_, which is affirmed to have appeared from a river to the philosopher Fou-hi, bearing instruction in eight diagrams of the characters proper to express certain abstract ideas.

=Horse-shoe=, Arch. A form of the stilted arch elevated beyond half the diameter of the curve on which it is described. (See ARCH.)

=Hortus= (dimin. _hortulus_), R. A pleasure-garden, park, and thence a kitchen garden; _horti pensiles_ were hanging gardens. The most striking features of a Roman garden were lines of large trees planted in regular order; alleys or walks (_ambulationes_) formed by closely clipped hedges of box, yew, cypress, and other ever greens; beds of acanthus, rows of fruit-trees especially of vines, with statues, pyramids, fountains, and summer-houses (_diætæ_). The Romans were fond of the art of cutting and twisting trees, especially box, into figures of animals, ships, &c. (_ars topiaria_). The principal garden-flowers seem to have been violets and roses, and they had also the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, amaranth, and others. Conservatories and hot-houses are frequently mentioned by Martial. An ornamental garden was also called _viridarium_, and the gardener _topiarius_ or _viridarius_. The common name for a gardener is _villicus_ or _cultor hortorum_. (Consult _Smith’s Dict. of Ant._)

=Hospitium=, R. (_hospes_, a guest). A general term to denote any place in which a traveller finds shelter, board, and lodging. [The word had a very wide meaning of _hospitality_, regulated in all its details by the religious and social and politic sentiments of the nations.]

=Hostia=, R. (_hostio_, to strike). A victim offered in sacrifice.

=Hot Cockles=, O. E. A game common in the Middle Ages.

=Hot-houses=, O. E. The name for Turkish baths; 16th century.

=Houppeland=, O. E. A very full loose upper garment with large hanging sleeves; 14th century. It was probably introduced from Spain, and was something like a cassock.

=House.= (See DOMUS.)

=Houseling Bread=, O. E., Chr. (See SINGING-BREAD, HOWSLING BELL.)

=Housia= or =Housse=, O. E. An outer garment, combining cloak and tunic; a tabard.

=Howsling Bell=, O. E. The bell which was rung before the Holy Eucharist, when taken to the sick.

=Howve= (Saxon, from the old German _hoojd_). A hood. A common phrase quoted by Chaucer, “to set a man’s _howve_,” is the same as to “set his cap,” _cap_ him or cheat him.

=Huacos.= (See GUACAS.)

=Huircas= or =Pinchas=, Peruv. Subterranean aqueducts of the ancient Peruvians, distinct from the _barecac_ or open conduits.

=Hullings= or =Hullyng=. Old English name for hangings for a hall, &c.

=Humatio=, R. (_humo_, to bury). The act of burying, and thence any mode of interment whatever.

=Hume’s Permanent White.= SULPHATE OF BARYTES (q.v.).

=Humerale.= (See ANABOLOGIUM, AMICE.)

=Humettée=, Her. Cut short at the extremities.

[Illustration: Fig. 389. Hunting Flask of Jaspered Ware, 1554–1556. Louvre Museum.]

=Hunting Flask.= M. Jacquemart thinks that that represented in Fig. 389 may be reasonably attributed to Palissy. It is glazed in green, and diapered with little flames of a deeper shade. Upon the body, in relief, is the escutcheon of the celebrated Anne de Montmorency, round it the collar of St. Michael, and on each side the Constable’s sword supported by a mailed arm and the motto of his house, “A Planos” (unwavering). A mask of Italian style and rayonnated suns complete the decoration of this curious sealed earthenware.

=Hurst=, Her. A clump of trees.

=Hurte=, Her. A blue roundle.

=Hutch=, O. E. (Fr. _huche_). A locker, which generally stood at the foot of the bed, to contain clothes and objects of value. It was commonly used for a seat.

=Huvette=, Fr. A close steel skull-cap.

=Hyacinth.= (1) A precious stone of a violet colour. (2) The colour formed of red with blue, blue predominating. (3) The flower hyacinth among the ancient Greeks was the emblem of death.

=Hyacinthia=, Gr. A national festival, celebrated annually at Amyclæ by the Amyclæans and Spartans, in honour of the hero Hyacinthus, who was accidentally killed by Apollo with a quoit.

=Hyalotype= (ὕαλος, glass, and τυπεῖν, to print). An invention for printing photographs from the negative on to glass, instead of paper.

=Hycsos=, Egyp. (lit. impure). A people of unknown origin, nomad tribes, but not savages, as has hitherto been believed, who came from Sinai, Arabia, and Syria. They are known as _Poimenes_ (the Shepherds), _Mentiou Sati_, _Asian Shepherds_, and even _Scourges_, from their invasion of some part of Eastern Egypt.

[Illustration: Fig. 390. Hydra with seven heads.]

=Hydra=, Gr. (a water-serpent). A hundred-headed monster of Greek mythology, sprung, like the Chimæra, from Typhon and Echidna; he was killed by Hercules. In Heraldry the hydra is represented with only nine heads. The illustration (Fig. 390) is of the device adopted by Curtio Gonzaga, an Italian poet, to symbolize the constancy of his love, with the motto, “If I kill it, more strong it revives.”

=Hydraletês=, Gr. (1) A mill for grinding corn, driven by water. (2) A waterfall or current of water.

=Hydraulis=, Gr. (ὕδρ-αυλις). A water-organ. The hydraulic organ, invented about B.C. 200, was really a pneumatic organ; the water was only used to force the air through the pipes. It is represented on a coin of Nero in the British Museum. Only ten pipes are given to it, and there is no indication of any key-board. It had eight stops, and consequently eight rows of pipes; these were partly of bronze, and

## partly of reed. It continued in use so late as the 9th century of our

era.

[Illustration: Fig. 391. Hydria, or Water-jug, in black glaze.]

=Hydria=, Gr. A large, heavy vessel, used principally for holding a store of water. It is represented urn-shaped, with a broad base and a narrow mouth, sometimes with one and sometimes with two handles at the top, and smaller ones on the belly. The name is applied to other pails of bronze or silver, &c. (Fig. 391.)

=Hydriaphoria=, Gr. (water-bearing). (1) Funereal ceremonies performed at Athens in memory of those who had perished in the deluges of Ogyges, Deucalion, &c. (2) A service exacted from married alien women in Athens by the female citizens, when they walked in the great procession at the Panathenaic feasts, and the former carried vessels of water for them.

=Hydroceramic= (vessels), Gr. Vessels made of a porous clay, in which liquids were put for the purpose of cooling them; they were a kind of _alcarazas_.

=Hydroscope.= Another name for the clepsydra. (See HOROLOGIUM.)

=Hypæthral=, Gr. and R. (lit. under the sky, or in the open air). The term was applied to any building, especially a temple, the _cella_ of which had no roof. On the roofs of Egyptian temples, hypæthral temples are arranged with regard to astronomical observations, by which the calendar was regulated.

[Illustration: Fig. 392. Hypæthrum.]

=Hypæthrum=, Gr. and R. A grating or _claustra_ placed over the principal door of a temple for the purpose of admitting light into a part of the _cella_. Fig. 392 shows one of the bronze doors of the Pantheon at Rome, with its _hypæthrum_.

=Hyperthyrum=, Gr. and R. (over the door). A frieze and cornice arranged and decorated in various ways for the decoration of the lintel of a door.

=Hypocastanum.= Greek for CHESNUT BROWN (q.v.).

[Illustration: Fig. 393. Hypocausis of a Roman villa at Tusculum.]

=Hypocaust=, Gr. and R. (ὑπό-καυσις and ὑπό-καυστον). A furnace with flues running underneath the floor of an apartment or bath, for heating the air. Fig. 393 represents the sectional elevation of a bath-room discovered in a Roman villa at Tusculum. Fig. 394 represents a _hypocausis_ discovered at Paris in the old Rue de Constantine, near Notre Dame.

[Illustration: Fig. 394. Hypocausis discovered at Paris.]

=Hypogeum=, Arch. A building underground; a sepulchral vault. They form a principal part of Egyptian architecture of every period. The Greek term is a synonym of the Latin CONDITORIUM (q.v.)

=Hyporchema=, Gr. A lively dance, accompanied by a mimic performance, at the festivals of Apollo among the Dorians. A chorus of singers danced round the altars, and others acted comic or playful scenes.

=Hypotrachelium= or =Cincture=, Arch. The part of the Doric capital included between the astragal and the lower annulets or fillets.

=Hysteria=, Gr. (from ὗς, a pig). Greek festivals, in which swine were sacrificed in honour of Venus.