CHAPTER X

Gothic Art in Normandy[314]

The cathedral was perfected slowly and passionately. The Romans brought to it their force, their logic, their serenity. The Barbarians brought to it their naïve grace, their love of life, their dreamful imaginations. From this unpremeditated collaboration sprang a work modelled by times and places. It is the French genius and its image. It did not progress by fits and starts; it was not the servant of pride. It mounted in the course of centuries to complete expression. And that expression, one throughout the country, varies with each province, with each fraction of a province, just enough to make interesting the chain that joins all the pearls of this monumental necklace of France.

--RODIN, _Les cathédrales de France_.[315]

Virtually the land conquered by the vikings received its civilization from monasteries. Like Burgundy, Normandy was a very Egypt, a Thebaid, for the number of its religious houses. Each baron sought to have one on his domain. In the capital of the duchy was St. Ouen, whose abbot owned half the city; on the same Seine lay Jumièges, a center of letters and arts, and farther down the river was St. Wandrille, "nursery for saints"--three noted houses that inherited directly the apostolate of Celtic Columbanus. From St. Wandrille went monks to establish Fécamp, favorite of the Norman dukes, with an early-Gothic church equal to a cathedral. Other monks from Fontenelle reorganized the most romantic pile of monastic buildings in the world, Mont-Saint-Michel, guarded by the patron of the kingdom of France, _Sanctus Michael in periculo maris_.

When that man of genius, William of Volpiano, abbot of St. Bénigne, at Dijon, came to Normandy to reform its houses, he himself rebuilt the abbatial church at Bernay which architecturally is an ancestress for such Romanesque work as Cerisy-la-Forêt, Lessay, the Caen abbatials, and St. Georges de Boscherville. At Mortain, at St. Sauveur-le-Vicomte, at St. Évroult, were monastery churches, and the picturesque ruins of Hambye cause one to mourn that Primary Gothic abbatial wrecked by the Revolution. St. Pierre-sur-Dives and the collegiate at Eu are later monastic works of the province. For its influence as a world power--what we may call the Cluny of Normandy--was Bec abbey that became, under Lanfranc the Lombard, and St. Anselm the Piedmontese, the intellectual leader of the West. Its mammoth church has gone the way of Cluny's--scarcely stone left on stone.

BEC ABBEY[316]

O beata solitudo! O sola beatitudo! --(Inscription on a Benedictine monastery in France.)

In Bec, theology for the first time spoke the language of philosophy. Herlouin, an unlettered knight, who learned to write only at forty, founded, in 1034, an abbey on his lands on the banks of a beck in the valley of Brionne. With the monks who gathered round him, he was engaged in building with his own hands his convent when, one day in 1042, Lanfranc of Pavia arrived in their midst, the learned one needed by those simple, good men. Lanfranc had been teaching at Avranches, and was journeying to Rouen when brigands seized him in a forest near Bec, stripped and tied him to a tree to perish. Before aid came to him, as he faced death during long hours--learning that despite his scholarship he was incapable of reciting one single psalm to support his soul--a new comprehension of life dawned on him, and he vowed himself to the triumph of religion.

The school which he opened in Bec abbey soon drew students from all parts of Europe. From northern Italy came young Anselm, destined twice to succeed his master, in Bec as prior, in Canterbury as archbishop. Lanfranc, practiced in the affairs of the world, a born statesman, was better fitted to be primate of England than was Anselm with his childlike, tender nature, and his subtle, speculative brain. Bec gave still a third archbishop to the see of Canterbury, Theobald, the patron of St. Thomas Becket; Martin, whilom abbot of Bec, built Peterborough Cathedral.

For thirty-three years St. Anselm wrote and taught in Bec abbey, student first, then monk, then prior, and in 1078 abbot. There at night, while all the house slept, he wrote the books which have won for him the title of founder of the Christian philosophy of the Middle Ages. A forerunner of scholasticism, he was among the first to set forth the conformity of Christian doctrine with human reason. Dante places him in Paradise among the great contemplatives. The union of the mystic and the rational in theology, in the Norman abbey ruled by Anselm, started impulses which were to pass down through the centuries. An immediate result was the quickening of the mental life of the XII century. Among St. Anselm's pupils at Bec was Anselm de Laon, whose classes, with those of Guillaume de Champeaux, are regarded as the nucleus of the University of Paris.

What is of interest to us here is that, from the hour of the opening of men's minds to scholastic learning, rose the architecture of France, that the giant energy which built cathedrals had its source in a faith that _believed in order that it might understand_, which is St. Anselm's own proposition, _Credo ut intelligam_, as well as it is the apogee flight reached by Plato, what the Greek philosopher called _the wings of the soul_. And Plato's peer, XIII-century Aquinas, voiced the Greek's vision, and repeated Anselm's thought, in a hymn whose subtle stanzas are sung daily over Christendom: "_Præstat fides supplementum sensuum defectui_" ("Faith for all defects supplying where the feeble senses fail"). Anselm, with his "face of an angel," naïvely enthusiastic over his metaphysical proof of God, writing alone in Bec, in the silence of the night, was digging unaware the foundations for Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, and those other visions of the Beyond to which man gave tangible shape in the scholastic-trained centuries because, _believing_, he _understood_.

Sorely against his will St. Anselm left the peace of Bec to take up the duties of England's primacy in an hour when the eternal lay-ecclesiastical controversy was embittered. The wanton and despotic William Rufus was the opponent who overwhelmed him. His sole friends were the little people for whom, at that time, any churchman who maintained independence against layman tyranny was a champion of civic liberties. The scholar of Bec was the only prelate of the many crossing from Normandy to England who displayed loving kindness for the downtrodden Saxons. Homesick in England, St. Anselm used pathetically to sign his letters to his intimates, "Brother Anselm by the heart, Archbishop of Canterbury by coercion."

At Le Bec-Hellouin to-day little remains of the abbatial whose choir once soared on twenty immense piers. Again and again the church was reconstructed. In 1077 Archbishop Lanfranc crossed the Channel for a dedication. Early in the XIII century the master-of-works at Rouen, Enguerrand, proceeded to Bec to superintend a new Gothic edifice. A fire in 1263 caused another renewal of the choir. In the Rayonnant day the nave was rebuilt on the same lines as St. Ouen's abbatial. The religious wars of the XVI century damaged the church, whose demolition was continued as late as 1814. What now remains are a portion of the transept, a chapter house of the XII century, and the isolated tower of St. Nicholas (1467-80), another memorial of Normandy's rejoicing to be free of foreign rule. Eight large statues adorn its upper walls.

Bec had been pillaged by Henry V's troops before Jeanne d'Arc's advent, and the abbot then appointed by the invaders was one of the sixty university professors and ecclesiastics who condemned the Maid to death in Rouen, 1431. Ten abbots of Normandy thus tarnished their great names, but it is well to bear in mind that in each case the delinquent monastery had recently been sacked because of its patriotic stand against the foreigners, and that it was governed by a tool of the victors. Fifty Norman abbeys honored themselves by their absence from the torture of a young girl who had all England against her, half of France, as well as the perverted learning of Paris University.

NORMANDY'S ROMANESQUE SCHOOL[317]

The Christian world made no mistake when, in calm confidence, it sought, under the wing of the Benedictine abbeys, that strong education of the Western races which made possible all the marvels of faith, courage, fervor, and humility with which Europe was illuminated from the XI to the XV century, from Gregory VII to Jeanne d'Arc.

--CHARLES DE MONTALEMBERT, _The Monks of the West_.

Normandy's hardy personality showed at its best in her Romanesque monastic churches. Their design is decisive and vast, their construction solid--the Norman excelled in masoncraft--and as art they have never been surpassed for grave impressiveness. In the Norman minsters is a primeval energy admirably restrained, a massive grace, a something of reasoned simplicity lost in the Gothic cathedrals of the region. One who fell under the spell of Normandy's Romanesque architecture has told how its repose "appeals to men and women who have lived long and are tired, who want rest, who have done with aspiration and ambitions, whose life has been a broken arch.... The quiet strength of these lines, the solid support of the moderate lights, the absence of display, of effort, of self-consciousness, satisfy them as no other art does. They come back to it to rest after a long cycle of pilgrimage--the cradle of rest from which their ancestors started."[318]

No church earlier than the year 1000 has survived in Normandy. The Norseman, while still an unbaptized buccaneer, laid low every Merovingian and Carolingian edifice. All was in ruin. "From Blois to Senlis," says the old record, "not an acre is plowed, for none dare work in the fields." Then, Rollo, chief of the marauders, baptized in Rouen, settled down in the duchy granted him in fief by the harassed king of France. In an incredibly short time the erstwhile pagans became the most indefatigable of church builders. For Normandy, the date 911 is as important a landmark as is 910 for Burgundy, the year of Cluny's foundation.[319]

The Norman Romanesque school made general use of the roll molding at window and portal, of griffes at the base of piers, blind arcading, intercrossing wall arches (that became monotonous in the Anglo-Norman school), and very frequently it contrived an interior passage at the clearstory level, whose effect was heightened by the use of arches of different designs in its outer and inner walls.

Certain archæologists contend that the predominant influences in the development of Norman Romanesque were Lombard, and that in this it differed from other French schools which in main part derived from local Carolingian work. As the Norman's creative genius was not on a par with his constructive abilities, it seems reasonable to look for foreign influence when finding its school precociously formed by the middle of the XI century. The Lombards used, before the Normans, the alternate system of ground supports, cubic capitals, transverse arches, compound piers, crypts, and raised choirs, and their most striking feature of exterior decoration was the arched corbel table that made a continuous cornice. Mr. Arthur Kingsley Porter says that diagonals were used in Lombardy early in the XI century as an expedient to economize wood, groin vaults being molded on a temporary wooden substructure, but as the Lombard never counterbutted his intersecting ribs, such vaults proved unsatisfactory and were given up after 1120. If the Norman had an early knowledge of diagonals through the Lombard, like the Lombard he failed to derive from them their constructive consequences. That fact of creative genius no one can deny to the Ile-de-France. Even if the controversy as to who first used Gothic ribs should be decided in favor of the Anglo-Norman school, and behind their use of it, traced to Lombardy's Romanesque builders, none of them saw in it what Abbot Suger did--the radical member of a new system of building.

William of Volpiano, a Lombard, and an architect as well as a reformer, spent many active years in Normandy, where he died in 1031. At Fécamp he is said to have trained a group of masons. A decade after his death, Lanfranc, born in northern Italy, became a leader in the duchy, and under him was built the present nave of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen. It seems very natural to suppose that such men, alert as they were to architectural progress, should have exerted influence on the Norman school. However, M. Lefèvre-Pontalis thinks it wiser not to exaggerate the immediate influence from beyond the Alps. He holds that the Romanesque school of Normandy proceeded in main part from the same element as the other pre-Gothic schools of France, elements derived somewhat from Barbarian sources, but chiefly from Rome's occupation of Gaul. In the case of Normandy the Barbarian influences would be largely Scandinavian, and there has been considerable speculation over the Norseman's wooden structure and the Norman's partiality for the pleated capital.

Mr. John Bilson is unsympathetic to Mr. Kingsley Porter's ideas of Lombard influence in Normandy, and he considers the early dates ascribed to Lombard diagonals most improbable. Why, he asks, if the solution was reached in Lombardy about 1025, did it take three quarters of a century for the Normans, directly in contact with the builders of Italy, to arrive after long experimenting at the same intersecting ribs? He claims that the Ile-de-France was indebted to Normandy for diagonals, which were not in use in the royal domain before 1130, but that, once that school came into possession of intersecting pointed arches and flying buttresses, it developed from them a new system of construction, clothing it with a new expression, which we call Gothic. The controversy is by no means closed.

Normandy's Romanesque school spread far afield.[320] It passed into Picardy and penetrated as far south as Chartres. It crossed the Channel with the adventurers who descended on England, and with other free lances who carved out distant kingdoms for themselves, its characteristics appeared in southern Italy and Sicily.

The ornamentation of the Norman school came in part from Oriental or Byzantine sources already in use in the Carolingian era, and in part from Scandinavian. Unlike Burgundy, this province, despite its good stone, never won distinction in sculpture either in the Romanesque or the Gothic day. Never was Norman decoration equal to Norman construction, otherwise this school would be without a peer. Its ornamentation lacks variety and imagination. Geometric designs were endlessly repeated. Both in England and in Normandy the traveler grows weary of the zigzag or chevron motive, taken from Merovingian interlacings, or Carolingian triangular outlines, and very weary, too, of its variants, the dog-tooth or star ornament, and the fret or meander which reproduced a classical motive. The Carolingian billet molding was also overused. Such monotony of decoration was probably the defect of a good quality--caution and thoroughness. The Norman seldom attempted what he could not put through, hence his churches were usually completed, even to having their towers crowned by stone spires. The builders of the Ile-de-France were less cautious, but more sublime.

THE ROMANESQUE ABBEY CHURCH OF JUMIÈGES[321]

Aucun pays n'avait fourni au moyen âge plus de missionnaires chrétiens qu'Irlande, ni d'hommes empressés de répandre chez les nations étrangères les études de leur patrie.--A. THIERRY.

The first Romanesque church of Normandy with architectural pretensions, the first to present the regional school fully formed, was the abbatial of Jumièges, begun about 1040. That virile, rugged "château de Dieu" stands on a semi-island of the Seine where the river makes a gracious twenty-mile meander, or rather, there stand the "incredible masses of masonry" which are the ruins of Jumièges, a wall of the big central lantern, a roofless nave, and two gaunt façade towers, the only Norman towers entirely of the XI century. In all France is no more austere, stark, and grandiose a ruin.

How from such a predecessor as Bernay's abbatial the Norman could immediately evolve an architectural feat as tremendous as Jumièges seems explicable only by some strong exterior impetus. Here is the Lombard alternance of ground supports over whose origin in Normandy much printer's ink has been spilled. As the Lombard groin vault embraced two bays, a strong pier was needed only for the transverse arch separating the large square vault sections; or if a timber roof was used, a reinforced pier was required only for the bigger tiebeams. Now, at Jumièges, the lower structure proves (say certain archæologists) that never was a masonry roof planned for, so it is probable that the open timber roof required heavy tiebeams only at every other bay, hence an alternance of substantial and slight piers to correspond to the alternance of big beams and little beams. Jumièges also used the Lombard engaged shaft. Its uniform _hautes colonnes_, without capitals, rise from soil to roof, serving as interior buttresses, and some say as supports for the tiebeams, since they rose too high to be intended for a masonry roof. They bind together the three stories, and æsthetically their rhythm breaks the monotony of the plain walls. Mr. John Bilson thinks that the wall shafts of Jumièges can have had no other motive than to support a vault over the principal span, and cannot have been the supports of mere tiebeams. They may have been planned, suggests Prof. Baldwin Brown, to carry an undergirding arch such as occurs beneath some wooden roofs.

Normandy's invention of the sexpartite vault came about, thinks M. Anthyme Saint-Paul, through her predilection for multiple lines. With such Gothic vaults--each section of which embraced two bays--she proceeded to reroof various of her Romanesque abbatials, whose already existent alternated piers were thus made logical. Almost it would seem as if the presence of ground supports, substantial and slight, had called into being the new type of masonry roof. St. Denis used a sexpartite vault in 1140, and M. Lefèvre-Pontalis suggested, at one time, that Normandy derived the idea from the Ile-de-France. In the royal domain, however, no steps are to be found leading up to it, whereas in Normandy can be seen sexpartite vaults of primitive design, such as those covering the Abbaye-aux-Dames, which consist merely of two diagonals with a transverse rib crossing their apex. In the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, where the timber roof of the nave was replaced by a Gothic vault as early, perhaps, as 1135, the vault web is warped to the intermediate transverse rib. It has been suggested that the sexpartite vault originated from the employment of the diaphragm arch.

Jumièges abbey church was dedicated "with great spiritual joy," so an old chronicle relates, by saintly Archbishop Maurille of Rouen, in the presence of William the Conqueror and Matilda. Maurille had been trained at Fécamp under the great William of Volpiano. A Gothic choir, added to the abbatial later, was blown up after the Revolution by a contractor who acquired the monastery in order to sell its stones as building material. Under the flank of the now roofless nave nestles a ruined little church of the XIV century, St. Peter its tutelary. Two of its bays incorporate parts from a Carolingian church built by Rollo's son, William Longsword (928-943). They are of archæological interest in being the oldest examples extant of twin arches beneath a common arch for the tribune-opening on the middle vessel. The arrangement became popular in the Romanesque churches of Normandy and England, and can be seen at Mont-Saint-Michel, Rochester, Ely, Gloucester, Peterborough, and Winchester.

Jumièges was an ancient foundation of Clovis II and Queen Bathilde. They granted forests on the Seine to St. Philibert (d. 684), who had been an intimate at the Merovingian court, of St. Ouen and St. Wandrille. To obtain the Celtic rule of Columbanus at its source, Philibert visited Luxeuil and Bobbio, and he dedicated a chapel of his abbatial at Jumièges to the Irish missionary. His own cult was to crop out at Tournus and Dijon when the Norse piratical inroads drove the inmates of wrecked monastic houses into Burgundy.

Jumièges was a scene of pillage and massacre during the last acts of the Capet-Plantagenet duel, when Henry V, the victor of Agincourt, overran Normandy. The abbot, then appointed, sat in judgment on St. Jeanne in 1431, and fell down dead three months later. After Charles VII had entered Rouen as conqueror, in 1449, he retired to Jumièges. During the feasts of rejoicing _la dame de beaulté_, Agnes Sorel, died in a manor close by, and her memorial stone in Jumièges abbatial recorded her "pitiful loving kindness to all men and especially the poor and children." Days of decline came for Jumièges under her commendatory abbots. A XVII-century revival of learning was led by the reformers of the Congregation of St. Maur, but the famous establishment went under completely during the Revolution. The sequence is the same for most French abbeys.

Farther down the Seine, at what once was Fontenelle, stand the less imposing ruins of St. Wandrille's abbatial, consisting of a transept of the XIII century and a Flamboyant Gothic cloister, whose _lave-mains_ is a gem of Renaissance delicacy. The house was founded in 649 by St. Wandrille, of Merovingian blood. Like his friend, Philibert of Jumièges, he sought the rule of St. Columbanus at its fountainhead, though the more equable rule of St. Benedict was to prevail in French religious establishments before the VII century closed. St. Wandrille trained many of the saints who planted monasteries over northern France, and in later centuries the Duke of Normandy chose monks from St. Wandrille's abbey to institute a Benedictine house of prayer on the rock of St. Michael-in-peril-of-the-sea.

THE ROMANESQUE ABBATIALS AT CAEN[322]

Clochers légers, clochers aigus, Clochers de France, Par quel attrait d'élan pieux Emportez-vous si vite et si haut dans les cieux Nos regards et notre espérance?... Longs et pareils à ces lances pointus Que les géants piquaient au sol, Vous montiez d'un seul jet pour défier le vol Des hirondelles éperdues. --GEORGES LAFENESTRE, "Clochers de France."[323]

Caen played a prominent part in the builder's story of Normandy. It has been called the Romanesque Mecca. Its church of St. Nicolas (c. 1180-93), one of the most interesting Romanesque edifices of the duchy, is dismantled, but the Abbaye-aux-Hommes or St. Étienne, and the Abbaye-aux-Dames, or Ste. Trinité, are in good repair. All the world knows how William the Conqueror and his good and gentle Matilda of Flanders each founded an abbey in Caen, "that God might be served by both sexes and thus pardon their transgression." Their marriage disobeyed Church regulations concerning consanguinity and a canonical atonement was required. Matilda's tomb rests in the middle of the choir she built. Her epitaph was inscribed in letters of gold: "Consoler of the needy, lover of piety, a woman who, having lavished her treasures in good works, was poor to herself, but rich to the unfortunate. Thus she sought the fellowship of eternal life on the second of November, 1083."

[Illustration: _The Crypt of the Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen (1059-1066)_]

The Abbaye-aux-Dames, begun about 1059, was dedicated in 1066 by the same Archbishop Maurille who blessed the new church at Jumièges. A few weeks after the ceremony, William descended on England, which his knights and villeins conquered to the chant of the _Chanson de Roland_, written by some unknown poet who, like themselves, looked to the Archangel of the Peril for inspiration. Yet a few decades more and Roland's war song was sung by the first crusaders before Jerusalem. Architecture, crusades, language, literature--many were the vital movements then coming to birth.

On the day of the blessing of Matilda's convent of the Holy Trinity, her little daughter, Cécile, was laid on the altar and dedicated to God's service. For almost fifty years her aunt, Matilda, daughter of Richard II and the fair Judith of Brittany, ruled the Abbaye-aux-Dames, and then Cécile succeeded as second abbess; _Dame de la ville de Caen_, her brother Henry I of England called her. Cécile was one of the learned ladies of her day, having studied philosophy and belles-lettres under the patriarch of Jerusalem. One recalls that it was a contemporary abbess--at St. Odile in Alsace--who made the first attempt to compile an encyclopedia. Several English princesses were nuns of the Trinité, among them the daughters of Henry III and Edward I. In a later century Charlotte Corday was a pupil of the convent.

It has been thought that Gundulf, a monk of Bec, called to Caen by Lanfranc, was architect of the Abbaye-aux-Dames, where his mother had retired as a nun. This learned and pious man had entered Bec in the same year as St. Anselm, and when he had become the bishop of Rochester he remained faithful to Anselm, then the primate of England, facing bitter troubles with the king. The saint came to attend the good bishop on his deathbed. Gundulf rebuilt Rochester Cathedral, whose crypt and western bays are of his time (1076-1108); Rochester Tower, too, he raised, and the chapel of St. John in London Tower. It was said of him that he was the most skilled of all men in masoncraft.

The apse of the Trinité is considered one of the best things in Caen. It stands over a crypt whose sixteen piers are in four rows. When the choir was renovated, after 1100, some of its sculptures were modeled on certain Byzantine ivories that had been brought as gifts to Abbess Cécile by her crusading brother. The abbatial's triforium is a blind arcade behind whose wall was essayed some very primitive flying buttresses. The present sexpartite vault was an early trial of that Norman form of the Gothic masonry roof, and is really a quadripartite vault divided by a transverse rib, the web being unwarped to that intermediate member. Though the XII century replaced the original timber roof of the Trinité by this sexpartite one, exactly when it was done is not known. But those interested in claiming priority for Normandy in the use of diagonal ribs place it before the sexpartite vaulting of St. Denis. The XIII century added a handsome Gothic chapel to the transept of Matilda's convent church.

As the expiatory abbatial erected by the Conqueror was on a far larger scale than the Abbaye-aux-Dames, it took longer to build; perhaps the same Gundulf of Bec and Rochester was its architect. Over the aisles are deep tribunes, some of whose bays have retained their primitive vaults of the same type as those at Tournus in Burgundy--half barrels placed side by side on lintels at right angles to the axis of the church. The original roof of the principal span was replaced by the actual sexpartite vault (whose web is warped to the six branches) about 1130, said M. Régnier; other archæologists have placed it a generation later. By the addition of a sexpartite vaulting the much-discussed Lombard alternate piers were no longer inconsequent. The height to which the wall shafts of the nave are carried indicates that the cowled architect had not purposed originally to cover his main span with a stone roof. When the Gothic vaulting was added the clearstory was changed in the interior of the church, but the exterior was left as first built.

William and Matilda made Caen their chief residence in Normandy, and Lanfranc was brought from Bec in 1063 to be prior of the duke's new monastery. He opened a school in Caen to which his pupil, Pope Alexander II, sent his relatives as scholars. In the peaceful cloister of St. Étienne the able Italian composed a treatise--to counteract Berengar's heresy on the Eucharist--which is considered a small masterpiece of Christian controversy. Lanfranc was dialectician, administrator, builder, subtle lawyer, and statesman. His genius reached its highest development in the organization of a Norman hierarchy for England. He rebuilt his own church at Canterbury, and two former monks of St. Étienne, Caen, rebuilt the cathedral of Winchester and St. Alban's abbey. Other memorials of Lanfranc's primacy in England are the crypt and eastern end of Gloucester Cathedral, the work of a monk of Mont-Saint-Michel, the crypt at Worcester, choir chapels and ambulatory at Norwich, and the western transept of Ely Cathedral, erected by a monk from St. Ouen, Rouen. It is said that during the century and a half from the Conqueror to John Lackland the Norman prelates in England erected over four hundred churches as expiatory offerings for the grievous wrong perpetrated in the Norman conquest.

In Caen, Lanfranc built the nave of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, a monument of magnificent proportions, compact, tranquil, and sincere. When archbishop of Canterbury he returned to Caen in 1077 for the dedication of his abbey church. Another ten years and in St. Étienne's choir took place the sinister burial of William the Conqueror. In the town was raging a fierce conflagration which was to wipe out half the place. As they lowered into the tomb the proud and wrathful overman whose strength had been so pitiless, whose will so inflexible, a poor townsman stepped forth to forbid the burial, claiming he had been robbed of that special parcel of land. In the disorders that ensued the corpulent body of the dead king was injured, and though incense was burned to purify the infected air, the people deserted the church in horror. _Sic pulvis es._

In 1210 the Romanesque choir of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes was replaced by the present Gothic one. Normandy apparently used annulets about the clustered shafts at a much later date than the Ile-de-France, and it continued to employ its pre-Gothic zigzag decoration. The chapels round the choir were made to open one on the other above low dividing walls; Bayeux and Coutances repeated this, as they did the turrets at the birth of the apse. The exterior aspect of the edifice was enhanced by a row of small rose windows each of which lighted a bay of the choir's tribune. A generation later the same arrangement was employed in the collegiate church at Mantes.

The new Gothic choir of St. Étienne at Caen was joined with skill to Lanfranc's grave Romanesque nave. Maître Guillaume is cited as architect of the new works, and he probably crowned the two western towers that so grandly dominate the city. Few architectural views in France surpass the stark majesty of the fortresslike church built by the Conqueror, as it appears from across the town, from the rue des Chanoines, when one stands near the convent church of Queen Matilda. St. Étienne's towers were the prototypes for the other notable ones at Caen.

During the XVI-century religious wars the Abbaye-aux-Hommes was twice pillaged and the Calvinists scattered the Conqueror's ashes. They stripped the roofing of its lead, which soon caused the collapse of the central lantern and the choir vaults. During two generations the great church lay unused save as a stone quarry. Then the prior, Jean de Baillehache, in 1609, undertook a restoration, carried through so judiciously that were it not for the monastery's official record, and a slight poverty in the sculpture, it would be impossible to detect the new parts from the old.

For the making of towers Caen is a queen city. In descending the rue des Chanoines one passes the church of St. Pierre, whose much-admired Renaissance apse (1518-45) was the work of a regional master, Hector Sohier. But it is the tower of St. Pierre which is its glory and the boast of Normandy. It served as model for belfries throughout the duchy and in Brittany. Built from 1308 to 1317, it stands as proof that the tradition of Apogee Gothic continued till the opening of the Hundred Years' War. Apart from the natural rise and fall of things human various causes contributed to the decline of Gothic art after the XIII century. A soulless mechanical dexterity that crystallized the principles of Gothic architecture succeeded to the creative genius that had made glorious the reigns of Philippe-Auguste and Louis IX. Symbolism and true mysticism gave place to doubt, and--when internal dissensions and foreign invasion rent the land--to superstition. With the blurring of spiritual vision passed the vigor of construction.

The XIV century in France opened under a king who debased the coinage, overtaxed the clergy, persecuted the Jews, and who, by the outrage of Anagni, struck a fatal blow at the prestige of the papacy. Soon followed the Black Death, when a third of Europe's population perished. Radical deterioration of the national art set in after France "went to pieces at the Battle of Crécy" (1346). The royal domain was a field of brigandage: "From the Loire to the Seine, and from the Seine to the Somme, the peasants being killed, all the fields lay uncultivated, and this during many years," wrote Bishop Bérenger of Le Mans. In Paris Cathedral a foreigner was crowned king of France.

What horrors reigned in Normandy, many an old record relates. More than a thousand patriot leaders perished when English gold was given for each decapitated corpse. "Houses are without occupants, fields without workers," wrote a XV-century bishop of Lisieux. Bedford's troops pillaged and massacred. Near Falaise twelve thousand civilians were butchered in one day. "The land of Normandy was grievously oppressed and _le pauvre peuple détruit_," wrote Monstrelet. "Men and women fled for their lives, by land and by sea, as if in peril of fire. Nobles gave up their fiefs, clerks their benefices, burghers their patrimony, rather than take oath to the invader."[324] _Normannia nutrix_ lay almost uninhabited.

Such is the French version. Naturally the English outlook was different. "The false Frenchman," sings Drayton in his Agincourt ballad. Freeman falls into a vein of self-congratulation. "Go from France proper into Normandy," he writes, "and you at once feel that everything is palpably better; men, women, horses, cows, all are on a grander, better scale. The good seed planted by the old Saxon and Danish colonists, and watered in aftertimes by Henry V and John, Duke of Bedford, is still there. It is not altogether choked by the tares of Paris."

Gothic art deteriorated, but so persistently lingered the simplicity, the spiritual poignancy of the XIII century that in the late-Gothic day it was still possible to produce the mystic loveliness of Riom's Madonna of the Bird, and the humble prayerfulness of Solesmes' Magdalene.

In the unspoiled years of the XIV century was built the tower of St. Pierre, at Caen. Its shaft rises in a virile, unbroken ascent from soil to spire tip. On the busiest street corner of the city it stands like a perpetual call to recollection and joy. The Norman will boast with legitimate pride that it is the most beautiful tower in France, excelling those of Chartres and Senlis, whose shafts, he will tell you, are either too high or too short, whereas his loved tower of St. Pierre has spire and shaft in perfect accord. When Caen added this stately monument to its wealth of churches it was as rich a metropolis as Rouen, and it had contributed more than London toward the ransom of Richard Coeur-de-Lion from Teuton captivity. Just before the defeat of Crécy, this, the intellectual capital of Normandy, was besieged by English troops, and all its wealth pillaged, and its streets strewn with dead. Amid havoc wrought, the towers of the Abbaye-aux-Dames were destroyed.

[Illustration: _Belfry of St. Pierre at Caen (1308-1317). Prototype for the Gothic Towers of Normandy and Brittany_]

All over the department of Calvados are towers.[325] A Romanesque one crowns the church of Vaucelles, a suburb of Caen. At Ifs, and near Bayeux, at St. Loup (c. 1180), are others. The monk's church of Norrey, a dependency of St. Ouen, at Rouen, noted for the lavishness of its foliate ornamentation, has a tower of the XIII century, and near it, also ten miles from Caen, is Secqueville's Gothic beacon. There are belfries at Bernières-sur-mer (c. 1150), at Langrune, Thaon, Tour, and Basly.

Three of the most beautiful towers in Calvados crown the abbatial of St. Pierre-sur-Dives, an edifice, too much a patchwork of five centuries to be altogether pleasing, but linked with a memorable hour of the Gothic story, 1145. Popular enthusiasm then aided Abbot Haimon to reconstruct his church, as he wrote, in a much-quoted letter to the English monks at Tutbury. The same wave of fervor was raising the Primary Gothic towers of Chartres and Rouen. The western towers of St. Pierre-sur-Dives are of Haimon's day only in their lower stories; that to the south has a XIII-century top, and that to the north was finished in the XIV century.[326]

Throughout the final phase of Gothic, Normandy continued to excel in towers. Witness Rouen's Flamboyant beacons. In quiet country places and lesser towns rise belfries as stately as those of cathedrals: at Carville is the "Giant of the Valley" (1512-14), at Harfleur is a most beautiful tower, and still another at Verneuil (1506-30), built by a son of the town, Arthur Fillon, curé of St. Maclou, Rouen, and vicar-general of that lover of noble structures, Cardinal Georges d'Amboise; when he became bishop of Senlis, he helped to finish the Flamboyant Gothic transept of that cathedral.

THE ROMANESQUE ABBATIAL OF ST. GEORGES DE BOSCHERVILLE[327]

I have borne for forty-two years with happiness the sweet yoke of the Lord.--ORDERICUS VITALIS (xii century).

From Rouen a pleasant six-mile walk through the forest of Roumare leads to the abbatial of St. Georges de Boscherville, an example of the best Anglo-Norman Romanesque. Some have thought it belongs to the first decade of the XII century, but M. Besnard places it a generation earlier. Mr. John Bilson claims that, like its contemporary, the cathedral at Durham, the piers show that from the start the design was to construct ribbed groin vaults over the wide span, and he thinks that the same is true for the now disused Romanesque abbatial of St. Nicolas, at Caen (1083-93), building twenty years before Durham's choir. He has cited the diagonals of Lessay's choir and those of the transept of Montvilliers as the primitive Gothic of Normandy, vaults which M. de Lasteyrie considered to be contemporary with Suger's St. Denis. The German archæologists, Dehio and von Bezold, give priority to Normandy.

The actual intersecting ribs at St. Georges de Boscherville are a XIII-century reconstruction. So solid were the church walls made that no flying buttresses have been needed. The tribune at the end of each arm of the transept is supported by an isolated pillar, apsidal chapels project from the eastern wall of the transept, and the central lantern is one of the best in Normandy. The entire church, save its west façade flanked by slender turrets, was the work of some six or seven years only. About 1157, under Abbot Victor, was erected the chapter house that nestles beneath the transept's northern arm. The French students who did not know, or who have not accepted, Mr. John Bilson's theory of Anglo-Norman priority in the use of the essential organ of Gothic architecture, have claimed that the diagonals of St. Georges' chapter house are among the earliest extant of the province, of the same decade as the vaulting of the lower hall of St. Romain's tower at Rouen. Mr. John Bilson's championship of Anglo-Norman pioneer work, and Mr. Arthur Kingsley Porter's theory of Lombard priority, have both found supporters among leading French archæologists; the English scholar is patriotically disgruntled at the American's advocacy of the Italian claims.

It would seem that during the XI century the Normans, like the Lombards, used what Mr. Bilson calls ribbed groined vaults, occasionally, for one reason or another. The Norman developed tentatively the ribbed vault, always associating it with the semicircular arch, and without comprehending the wonderful results that were to be derived from concentrating the weight of a masonry roof at fixed points. The possibility of those results was perceived first in the Ile-de-France, and from there, when Gothic architecture had taken on its special characteristics, it entered Normandy by way of the Seine at Rouen and Boscherville, then at Fécamp and Lisieux. The first Gothic cathedrals of Normandy show purely French influence and only gradually were regional ogival traits developed. In the controversy as to who first used diagonals, one can take whichever side one prefers; the question remains open. Light will be thrown on it, doubtless, by a forthcoming paper by Mr. Bilson in the _Archeological Journal_, tracing the evolution of the diagonal rib in Normandy.

The abbey at Boscherville was founded by the lord of Tankerville, high chamberlain of the Conqueror and Henry I. In its abbatial, when his grandson, hereditary constable of Normandy, was knighted, he laid his sword on the altar, and to redeem it presented property to the monastery. If we would comprehend the society that built these churches, we must understand that such donations were voluntary and a matter of civic pride. "If I cannot myself attend to the works of God," runs an ancient deed of gift, "at least I can assure a home for those with whom God loves to dwell. It is only natural to enrich our Holy Mother the Church, and thus to take a hand in caring for Christ's poor."

THE GOTHIC ABBATIAL AT FÉCAMP[328]

It is a usage bequeathed to us from our ancestors, never to let anyone depart from our abbey without a gift.

--(From an old Latin chronicle of Fécamp.)

If one would enjoy, without critical comparison, the Gothic of Normandy, her churches should be visited before the taste has become sensitized by loiterings in the Ile-de-France. In that classic region of the national art is found a simplicity, a purity, a restraint, a something of imaginative genius that makes of its work the touchstone by which all other manifestations of Gothic are judged. Of the Norman churches, the Trinité, at Fécamp, is most closely related to the Primary Gothic work of the royal domain. Its architect must certainly have come from the Ile-de-France. Monks trained in the Celtic rule by St. Wandrille founded Fécamp, which was wrecked by Norse pirates in 876. William Longsword, the first duke's son, built his palace here, and his son, Richard I the Fearless (d. 996), began a new monastery. In his will Richard ordered: "Bury not my body within the church, but deposit it on the outside, immediately under the eaves, that the dripping of the rain from the holy roof may wash my bones as I lie and may cleanse them of the spots of impurity contracted during a negligent and neglected life." He desired that on every Friday a sarcophagus be filled with wheat and grain for the poor. His son, Richard II the Good (d. 1020), finished Fécamp abbatial, and was laid to rest beside his father. The dukes of Rollo's line especially favored Fécamp, which held a front rank among Normandy's institutions, and was the richest of her monasteries down to the Revolution. Henry Plantagenet presented Fécamp town to the monastery.

After Duke Richard the Good had brought that man of administrative genius, William of Volpiano, into his duchy to reorganize its spiritual life, architectural activities took on new vigor. William himself directed the construction of Bernay's[329] church; the abbatial of Mont-Saint-Michel rose when he reformed that house; and the church of Jumièges followed immediately after his reformation there. The Blessed William, in his thirst for souls, used to loiter at the crossroads to gather in the stricken of body or spirit. He passed away in Fécamp in 1031, and his ashes are still preserved in a chapel of the present Gothic abbatial. In 1034, in the Romanesque Trinité, Robert the Magnificent gathered the chief men of Normandy to have them swear allegiance to his sturdy little bastard son of seven, who was to be known in history as William the Conqueror, after which Duke Robert started on his pilgrimage to the East, from which he was never to return. The abbey church of Fécamp long consisted of the nave begun by Richard I, and a choir built by Abbot Guillaume de Ros (1082-1108), under whose rule the Trinité won the admiration of Europe. He is said to have introduced into Normandy the ambulatory and its radiating chapels. Two of the radial chapels which he constructed at Fécamp have survived. While they were building, there lived in the Trinité convent, as prior, Herbert de Lozinga, who, obtaining the bishopric of Norwich, erected on the Norfolk downs a stately Norman cathedral (1096-1119). Abbot Guillaume de Ros carried out the instructions of Richard I to give a loaf of bread to every beggar asking it, and when Fécamp was dissolved at the Revolution its abbot was distributing daily some twelve thousand free loaves of bread.

In 1169 fire wrecked the Romanesque Trinité, whereupon the present Gothic edifice was begun immediately, and in it two of the groin-vaulted chapels from the choir of Guillaume de Ros were incorporated. Abbot Henri de Soullay (1139-87) built the Primary Gothic choir, transept, and half of the nave. After the fifth bay of the nave a new architect took up the work, as is shown by differences in the pier profiles, but the cessation of activities must have been of short duration, as the church is homogeneous. The nave was finished under Abbot Raoul d'Argence (1190-1220), who organized Normandy's first literary academy--a confraternity of jongleurs. Its character was more Norman than the choir, though regional traits had early appeared in the turrets at the birth of the apse and the square central lantern.

To increase the impression of length in the nave its side walls were marked by double the number of arcades that divide the middle church from the aisles. This was accomplished by introducing a fifth rib into each vault section of those side corridors, which rib fell on a shaft engaged in the side walls. Like the minsters of England, Fécamp is more remarkable in its length than in its height.

Abbot Thomas de Saint-Benoît (1297-1307) decided to suppress the deep gallery over the choir's ambulatory, making the chapels that open on the curving aisle of exceptional height. He changed the southern aisle, giving it a coldly elegant Rayonnant aspect, but happily not that to the north, or we would have lost the two interesting Romanesque chapels of Abbot Guillaume de Ros. Some of Fécamp's later abbots were Clement VI, builder of the palace of the popes at Avignon and of the Chaise Dieu in the mountains of Auvergne, and an abbot of the patriotic Estouteville family, who was driven out by the English when Fécamp was besieged in 1415. The tool who succeeded him sat in judgment on Jeanne d'Arc.

The abbot of Fécamp during the transitional Flamboyant Renaissance day was Cardinal Antoine Boyer (1492-1519), a Mæcenas who adorned his beautiful church with Italian marbles. He had sculptured, in the same studio at Genoa that provided Louis XII with the Orléans tombs for St. Denis, an Entombment more spectacular in character than the famous one at Solesmes. Girolamo Viscardo made for him a tabernacle (for the choir's procession path), after the style of Mino da Fiesole. The lovely marble screens that close the side chapels are due to this generous prelate. For him Jacques Le Roux, the noted architect of Rouen, lengthened the Lady chapel. The only later change of importance in the Trinité was the erection of its neo-classic façade.

THE GOTHIC ABBATIAL AT EU[330]

La Nature a bien des manières de sourire. La Normandie est le plus beau sourire de la nature temperée.--O. RECLUS.

The tutelary of Eu is St. Laurence O'Toole, archbishop of Dublin, son of a prince in Leinster, an active continuer of the reforms begun by St. Malachy of Armagh, who died in St. Bernard's arms at Clairvaux. St. Laurence had crossed the Channel to plead with Henry Plantagenet for certain of his flock in disgrace (1180). Arriving at Eu's convent, then belonging to the congregation of St. Victor, he felt a premonition of his approaching death, and exclaimed, as he crossed the threshold, "Here is my abode of rest forever." He was worn out in the struggle to uphold the weak against the strong in those difficult years of the Anglo-Norman seizure of the eastern coast of Ireland. As his end drew near a monk suggested that he make his testament. "I thank God that I have nothing to bequeath," he said.

So impressive was the death of Archbishop Laurence in Eu monastery that the little people of the Lord soon began to pray beside his tomb. When the monks reconstructed their church they placed the saintly man's relics in the new crypt. From 1186 to 1226 the choir, transept, and one bay of the nave were built without interruption, in a Gothic more of the Ile-de-France than regional, though the placing of towers between transept and choir and the central lantern followed the Norman tradition.

Archbishop Laurence O'Toole was canonized in 1225, and to the joyous ceremony when his relics were set above the high altar came the archbishop of Rouen--then building his cathedral, and Bishop Geoffrey, the "shining man of Eu by whom the throne of Amiens rose into immensity." For eight days the throng pressed to pray near the relics of the canonized Irish prelate, and with the gifts that poured in the monks were able to finish their nave by 1230. It is a gem of Norman Gothic, sober, elegant, of perfect unity. The first plan called for tribunes over the aisles, as in the choir. Before they were constructed, however, the idea was given up, but it was decided to keep the arches by which the tribunes would have opened on the middle church. The same effect of false tribunes had been used earlier in the nave of Rouen Cathedral.

In 1426 lightning caused the collapse of the central tower, and in the reconstruction of the transept and choir, undertaken after the invaders were driven from Normandy, Flamboyant work was set side by side with Primary Gothic. From 1511 to 1534 rose the transept's florid south façade. After the Revolution the church of St. Laurent was restored by the Orléans family, who own the château and park at Eu.

MONT-SAINT-MICHEL[331]

Chaque peuple a son ange, disait Daniel le prophète. Le nôtre ne peut pas, même indignes nous délaisser.... Plus encore que Saint Jacques était le patron des espagnols, Saint Michel voulut être le Baron de France. Il mit les trois lys dans ses armes et fit passer sur le royaume l'éclair de son glaive. Avoir suscité Jeanne d'Arc et par elle libéré la France.... Voilà bien le plus beau miracle dû à l'archange. Il constitue pour le pays une promesse de perennité.--JOSEPH LOTTE (born in Normandy, 1875; killed in the World War, 1914).

Surpassing all the abbeys of Normandy is the outpost of the archangel that lies offshore, at the junction of Normandy and Brittany, a conicle mass of "rock on rock, keep on keep, century on century," sand-locked one hour, and the next rising from the Atlantic. _Tremor immensi oceani_ is the motto of the Mount. Before the days of crusaders it was one of Europe's chief points of departure for the Eastern pilgrimage. Like Jerusalem, it has been one of the sites of the earth that has impressed itself with historic signification on the imagination of mankind.

Many have felt the kindred spirit of the _Chanson de Roland_ and the granite, military monastery. They are both of the same high lineage. To the paladin Roland, dying at Roncevaux, as he held up his right glove to God, his suzerain, there came, to fetch his soul to Paradise, the very special St. Michael of the Mount that stood in peril of the sea, in _periculo maris_.[332] Scholars think that the most virile, the most heroic of the _chansons de geste_, wherein already was _la douce France_ loved beyond the regional cradle, was composed by a Norman who lived in the marches within the cult of the Angel of the Peril.[333]

[Illustration: _The Hall of the Knights at Mont-Saint-Michel (1203-1228). Second Story of the Merveille_]

Alas, in our day Mont-Saint-Michel-au-péril-de-la-Mer is in very deadly peril of the land, for it looks as if the covetousness of financiers was to defraud France of this rock of glory "_qui s'émeut et s'achève en prière_." Dikes and dams, to reclaim coast lands, will before long cause the historic crag to rise from green woods as it did some geological periods ago.

Citadel, palace, cloister, church, and town, the Mount is a thing of romance that not all the vulgarity of daily tourist crowds can tarnish. Charlemagne himself chose its tutelary archangel for the national patron saint, and the cowled guardians here were in truth through long centuries what the great emperor called monks: "Knights of the Church, of the willing vassalage and chivalry of Christ."

The Northmen destroyed the ancient shrine. Then Richard the Fearless, grandson of the pirate Rollo, placed on the rock the sons of St. Benedict, trained at St. Wandrille. Richard II, in 1017, came to the Mount to ask a blessing on his union with Judith of Brittany, whose beauty was such that the old chronicle exclaimed _corpore et moribus usque ad miraculum elegantem_. The duke's marriage gift enabled the monks to supplant their Carolingian church by a bigger one. The discarded X-century chapel was discovered in 1909 by M. Paul Gout, the Mount's latest historian. Until 1780 it had been used as Notre Dame-sous-Terre, but during the building of the foundations for the ugly west façade of the upper church it was walled up.

With Richard the Good's donation, Abbot Hildebert II erected his new church on the very summit of the rock, but as there was not sufficient level space, he built out from the hillcrest a platform of masonry to support the nave. From William of Volpiano's school at Fécamp came skilled journeymen. The church at Mont-Saint-Michel was begun in 1020, and still building in 1057. Abbot Roger I, formerly chaplain to William the Conqueror, erected the nave. William prayed at the Mount before undertaking the conquest of England, and the abbot fitted out for him an entire fleet.

In 1103 the northern wall of the Romanesque nave collapsed one night as the monks were chanting matins in the choir. It was restored immediately in the same style, and Abbot Roger II took the opportunity to reconstruct the monks' quarters. Above the crypt called Aquilon (c. 1112) he built a cloister, which later was vaulted with diagonals, and over that _promenoir_ was made a dormitory on the same level as the church. During the years that followed the Mount was governed by a man of genius, Robert de Torigni (1153-80), whose chronicle is the most important history of France for that epoch. In the _promenoir_ he entertained, at a banquet in 1158, his sovereign, Henry II, and Aliénor of Aquitaine. They chose him as godfather for their daughter, who, later, as queen of Castile, built the convent church of Las Huelgas by Burgos. Abbot Robert was a pupil of Bec, whose higher standards of intellectual life he brought to the Mount, where he formed a library, built monks' quarters, and added western belfries to his abbatial, though the façade of his day no longer exists.

As the XIII century opened, Normandy became once more a part of the royal domain, after being three centuries under dukes of its own. When Rollo's strong breed ended in the debased John Lackland, the northern province gladly accepted Philippe-Auguste as ruler. How whole-heartedly, how unreservedly French it became it was to prove by its heroic resistance to the English invaders during the Hundred Years' War.[334]

In the frays of 1203, fire had spread from the town that hugged the rock's edge, to the monastic buildings on the summit. Philippe-Auguste, always wisely conciliatory toward new subjects, contributed toward the restorations. With the gift from the king under whom most of the Gothic cathedrals of France were begun, Abbot Jourdan (1191-1212) built the supreme architectural work of the citadel, what is called the Merveille, and a marvel indeed are its three stories that rise, one above the other, hall over hall, two hundred feet in height above the sea, ridged heavily outside by stout buttresses and graced within by pillars, arches, and a sky-gazing cloister.

From the brain of some unknown cowled genius sprang this _mâle_ and splendid conception, built in the very prime of Gothic. Who else but one enamored of meditation would have set his cloister atop of his monastery under the open sky, or have opened on that courtyard of peace a monks' refectory, where, in a flooded stillness of light, the brethren could sit pondering as they listened to one of their number reading from the stone lectern the book which is the spirit of Bernard of Clairvaux incarnate: "Give all for all; seek nothing; call for nothing back. Thou shalt be free in heart and the darkness shall not overwhelm thee." And around them there spread the wide horizon of the sea one hour, of the white ashes of sand the next.

Pacing the lovely skyward cloister one has time to brood on life and death, on God and one's own soul; it refutes a hundred calumnies against monastic life just by being what it is. Serious men enamored of voluntary seclusion carved it unstintingly and set its columns quaintly in triangular order. Love and science contrived the diffused, soothing luminousness of the brothers' dining hall. The present gable windows there are innovations. Originally when one entered one could discern no window, and yet light was everywhere. The side walls, that from the door appear to be blind arcades, are in reality a succession of narrow panel windows--thirty to a side--deeply recessed in stone embrasures that are triangular in shape, because they serve the purpose of buttresses. To have carried the exterior buttress ridges to such a height as is this refectory, set audaciously up in the sky on the Merveille's third story, would have been an awkward procedure; so the nameless monk-architect, because he was a XIII-century man, let his genius lead him, and, "master of the living stone" that he was, contrived a supreme beauty of decoration out of a structural necessity.

The Merveille was erected under a succession of abbots, in one consecutive radiant effort, from 1203 to 1228--a Titan's work. Each of its three stories is divided into two halls; on the ground floor are the almonry, where the pilgrims fed, and a groin-vaulted cellery or storehouse; the top story, as we have seen, consists of open cloister and monks' refectory; and between the upper and lower stories are two of the most vigorous halls ever built; that over the almonry called the Salle des Hôtes because in it were entertained the guests of the monastery, and that to the west, over the cellery, acquiring the name Salle des Chevaliers, from the Order of the Knights of St. Michael, whose members met here. The latter is divided by rows of stout pillars, and served as the common room of the community, where the tireless scholar-scribes illuminated missals and copied manuscripts.

The charter for the military Order of the Archangel, founded in 1469 by Louis XI, welded the name of St. Michael, whom every good Frenchman knew kept a specially friendly eye on France, with that of Jeanne the Maid, who had quitted Domrémy-on-the-Meuse because the voice of her dear archangel rang insistent in her ear: _Fille Dè, va! Je serai à ton ayde. Va!_ It was St. Michael who first roused her to the sense of the great misery there was in the kingdom of France, and in her hour of victory after Orléans she spoke of going to the rescue of the besieged Mount in Normandy. At her trial in Rouen she dwelt on the comfort he had given her.[335] He appeared to her, she said, in the guise of "_un très vrai prud'homme_"--the term loved of St. Louis, who once told Joinville that to be _prud'homme_ meant to be knight in heart, as well as outward bearing. "I believe the words of St. Michael who appeared to me," said Jeanne, at her trial, "as firmly as I believe that Our Lord Jesus Christ suffered death and passion for us. And what leads me so to believe is the good counsel, comfort, and good doctrine St. Michael gave me."

On the completion of the Merveille, the monks continued building. They had finished the officiality hall by the entrance gate of the monastery before the visit of St. Louis to the Mount in 1254, when he came to return thanks for his safety during his late crusade. The XIV century added more defenses till the rock became the most forceful example of mediæval military architecture. Strong walls were needed during its siege by the English who invaded Normandy under Henry V. The Mount's abbot, Robert Jollivet, whose name figures among the well-paid judges at Rouen in 1431, allied himself with the victorious foreigners who had quickly overrun the province. His monks repudiated him, led by their prior, Jean Gonault. Defended by the gallant knight Louis d'Estouteville, they endured the longest siege recorded in history, 1415 to 1450, when, as Jeanne had proclaimed, the invaders were "_boutés tous hors de France_."[336]

In 1429, during the memorable siege, the Romanesque choir of Mont-Saint-Michel's abbey church collapsed. It was impossible then to rebuild it; they had even to sell their altar vessels to carry on the defense. When Normandy was again a part of France the erection of a new choir was undertaken by the abbot of the Mount, who was none other than the distinguished Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville, the chief agent in the vindication of Jeanne d'Arc's memory. His layman brother had directed the defense of the Mount during many years. In 1450 were laid down the crypt's nineteen mammoth piers, among the most powerful ever planted. The upper church reached its triforium story by 1469, the year when Louis XI came to the rock to establish his new Order of knighthood, and about 1513 the choir was completed. Many hold it to be superior to all other late-Gothic works in France. There are no capitals, the moldings die away in the shafts, the triforium is glazed. It belongs to the fleeting splendor of Flamboyant art, but without capriciousness. There is no overexuberance, no virtuosity in this vigorous, glad memorial of the nation's reconquered freedom:

Sainte Jeanne went harvesting in France, And oh! what found she there? The brave seed of her scattering In fruitage everywhere. And where her strong and tender heart Was broken in the flame, She found the very heart of France Had flowered to her name.[337]

Building activities at the embattled abbey ceased after the erection of its beautiful florid choir. The evil consequences of commendatory abbots--those named by royal whim--bore bitter fruit from end to end of France in the relaxed spiritual life of the monasteries. The XVII-century reformers of the Congregation of St. Maur found the Mount's abbot to be a princeling of Lorraine, five years of age. Those scholarly Benedictines carried on excellent research work in local history, but to their neo-classic generation Gothic art was a sealed book.

Deplorable changes went on during three hundred years: an apsidal chapel of the church was made into a staircase, irregular windows were opened in the halls of the Merveille, the cloister was planted as a garden, to the deterioration of the lower structures, and when, in 1776, fire weakened the abbatial, its three westernmost bays were demolished and the present ugly façade put up. After the Revolution pillaged the monastery it became a state prison called Mont Libre, and so continued until 1863. The church was floored midway to serve as a convicts' hat factory. The modern restoration of Mont-Saint-Michel has been, like that which saved the palace of the popes at Avignon, a truly national benefit.

THE CATHEDRAL OF ROUEN[338]

One can say that nothing great ever was accomplished in the Church without women bearing a part. A host of them stood among the martyrs in the amphitheater; they disputed with the anchorites the possession of the desert. Constantine set up the Labarum on the Capitol, and St. Helena raised the True Cross on the walls of Jerusalem. Clovis, at Tolbiac, invoked the God of Clotilda. Monica's tears won the conversion of Augustine. Jerome dedicated the Vulgate to the piety of two Roman ladies, Paula and Eustochium. The first lawmakers of monkish life, Basil and Benedict, were seconded by their sisters, Macrina and Scholastica. The Countess Matilda held up the tottering throne of Gregory VII. The wise judgment of Queen Blanche dominated the reign of St. Louis. France was saved by Jeanne d'Arc. Isabella of Castile led in the discovery of the New World. And in times closer to our own we see St. Teresa mixing with bishops, doctors, and the founders of Orders by which the reform in Catholic ranks was operated. We see St. Francis de Sales cultivating like a rare flower the soul of Madame de Chantal, and St. Vincent de Paul passing over to Louise Marillac the most admirable of his designs, the establishment of the Sisters of Charity.--FRÉDÉRIC OZANAM.

So much for the abbey churches of Normandy. Many another might be described, but with six Gothic cathedrals to consider, one must refrain. Of the six--Rouen, Lisieux, Évreux, Séez, Bayeux, and Coutances--that of Rouen shows the earliest Gothic work and its character is more French than Norman, as if the river, flowing down from Paris, carried with its waters the characteristics of the art life astir on the banks of the Seine, Oise, Aisne, and Marne.

The least local of Normandy's cathedrals, Our Lady's church at Rouen, has a magnetism distinctly its own--from its florid romantic west front, the most lavish screen ever set up, to the imposing sentry columns that guard its sanctuary. The northwest tower is Normandy's best Primary Gothic, the southwest tower the supremest belfry that sprang up to commemorate the freeing of France from foreign yoke. The façades of the transept and the Lady chapel (whose tombs mark dates in the art history of France) rank with perfect Rayonnant work. Its storied windows are among the richest ever dight by mediæval guildsmen.

Not but that a dozen flaws might be picked in the metropolitan church at Rouen. Were it to be strictly ranked among French cathedrals, it could not be placed among the foremost. But it has gone on embellishing itself century after century with a self-respect so sincere that few care to dispute its claim to stand in the front rank.

On a first visit to Rouen many an amateur prefers the regularity of St. Ouen's abbatial, which in size equals Westminster Abbey.[339] St. Ouen, the classic of Rayonnant design, geometric in tracery, accentuating the ascending line, coldly perfect in construction, possessed still the true _sursum corda_ of Gothic, though the art was fast crystallizing into formulas. The capitals were lessened, and the glazed triforium united to the clearstory in a single composition. Made of fine-textured gray stone St. Ouen is a stately vessel, but, add the critics, "its uniform excellence is average." Gothic lore has not degenerated, but has simply gone too far in the development of its principles, says the mechanical artistry of the last built of the great monastic churches of France, planned before the tragedies of the Hundred Years' War had petrified the national genius.[340]

The cathedral of Normandy's capital is not uniform, but its excellence surpasses the average. It is not homogeneous, its proportions are not absolutely harmonious, but it has profundity, personal character, and flashes of genius. The better it is known the deeper grows affection for it, which is not the case with St. Ouen. In the latter one feels that the cult is the main concern; in the cathedral there is piety of heart.

The early history of Sainte-Marie at Rouen follows the usual course. Norse marauders wrecked the ancient cathedral. Rollo, the first duke, endowed another which was radically reconstructed under an XI-century archbishop, a son of Duke Richard II. In 1063, that Romanesque church was dedicated by Archbishop Maurille (whose tomb is in the present ambulatory) in the presence of William the Conqueror and his good Matilda. Vestiges of the Romanesque edifice are in the first bay of the choir aisle. In it were interred the prodigious Rollo, the Norwegian sea-robber, who sacked half Normandy, sailed up the Seine to terrorize Paris, and up the Loire to overrun Auvergne and Burgundy, and yet, no sooner was he granted the duchy of northern France than the buccaneer gave way to a ruler whose laws were so respected that golden bracelets were left exposed and remained unstolen for years in the forest of Roumare. Rollo was baptized a Christian in Rouen, in 912, and there he wedded a Carolingian princess. When his son, William Longsword, died in 945, he was wearing a gold key that opened a casket containing a monk's robe for his burial; the new rulers were swift to comprehend that monasteries were the chief civilizers in that formative age.

Near Rouen, in 1087, died the Conqueror, sixth in descent from Rollo. "Pirate jostled statesman" in him, too. Mortally wounded at Mantes, he was brought to the priory of St. Gervase--beneath which suburban church still exists intact a V-century crypt--and as he heard the bells of Rouen Cathedral ringing, there rose to haunt him the curses, not loud but deep, of the oppressed Anglo-Saxons, and most piteously he petitioned the Queen of Heaven to draw Her Son's attention to all the religious houses he had built for the people's good on both sides of the Channel. No sooner was he dead than his retainers stripped and robbed him, and through private charity he was carried to his horror-inspiring burial at Caen.

To Rouen, because of its generosity to him in his captivity, Richard Coeur-de-Lion bequeathed his heart. In 1203 the last duke of Normandy, John Lackland, fled from Rouen after the murder of his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, of which the popular voice accused him. Philippe-Auguste entered the city in triumph in 1204, and the building of the new Gothic cathedral started apace.

Notre Dame at Rouen is associated closely with the return of Normandy under French rule. On Easter night, 1200, fire ravaged the city and its chief church. Whether the cathedral then wrecked was that blessed in 1063 by Bishop Robert de Maurille is uncertain. Some think that it was a Romanesque choir and transept which were burned, and a recently built Primary Gothic nave. It may have been an entirely new Gothic church which was destroyed. At any rate, the northwest tower, named after the VII-century bishop, Romanus, and the side doors of the main façade escaped the fire. The preservation of the tower was due, probably, to its position beyond the side aisle. The doors, built about 1180, are ornamented with Oriental incrustations such as are to be seen in the cathedral at Genoa, with which seaport Rouen had trade links.

The Tour Saint-Romain, whose prototypes were the towers at Étampes, Vendôme, and Chartres, was long counted as the oldest Primary Gothic work extant in Normandy, with the chapter house at St. Georges de Boscherville and the chapel of St. Julien, Petit-Quevilly.[341] But as many archæologists now say that the Gothic vault of St. Étienne's nave at Caen may be 1130 just as well as 1160, and that there are still earlier diagonals in the duchy, it remains an open question where the oldest extant ogival work of Normandy is. Mr. John Bilson claims that the diagonals of Lessay's choir pre-date any in the Ile-de-France. However the controversy over the priority of diagonals may be decided, the tower of St. Romain is the first Norman monument that shows the incontestable influence of Gothic of the Ile-de-France type.

The spirit of religious ardor that expressed itself in the northwest tower of Rouen Cathedral was described by Bishop Hugues d'Amiens in a letter, in 1145, to a brother prelate. He tells how volunteers were quitting Normandy to aid in the making of the new tower at Chartres: "In like manner, a large number of the faithful of this, our diocese, and of neighboring regions, put themselves to work on the cathedral church, their mother, forming associations to which no one is admitted unless he has confessed his sins, fulfilled his penances, laid down at the foot of the altar every enmity and revenge, and become reconciled with his enemies in a true peace. Under the lead of one in the band, who is chosen as chief, the people drag heavy wagons in humility and silence." The writer of this famous letter had been a monk of Cluny, and while ruling the see of Rouen he taught school there; he had inherited the traditions of Bec's scholarship through Anselm of Laon. The lower hall of the cathedral tower then begun is considered faultless. Before the close of the century the upper hall was completed, but the belfry story was not added till the late-Gothic day.

After the fire of 1200 work on the new cathedral was pushed on with energy. A master called Jean d'Andely is cited as the architect, a native, probably, of Les Andelys farther up the Seine, where there are two churches so closely resembling the cathedral of Rouen that they are doubtless from the same hand.[342] Another architect, named Enguerrand, is mentioned as quitting work on the cathedral of the capital in 1214, to undertake the abbatial at Bec. A keystone of Notre Dame, of the date 1233, is inscribed by one Durand, mason. He is thought to have been the son-in-law of the original architect, Jean d'Andely.

The first plan of Rouen Cathedral called for tribunes over the aisles, but the idea was given up in order to have the side aisles twice as high as originally designed. The arches by which the tribunes would have opened on the central vessel were retained, however, as was done later with the false tribunes of the abbey church at Eu. In the side aisles, resting on the capitals of the nave's piers, are ringed colonnettes that rise to the ledge above--a ledge constructed to catch the tribune's diagonals (which never were built). By this graceful expedient they cloaked architectural members prepared but not used. The passageway carried from pier to pier above the main arcade of the nave is exceptional. An apsidal chapel projects from each arm of the transept, as in the Romanesque edifices of the region.

The archbishop under whom Notre Dame of Rouen was begun was Walter of Coutance, _Gautier-le-magnifique_ (1184-1207), who willed his fortune to the cathedral, since it was he, devoted public servant of the Plantagenets, and long the chief justice of England, who had urged the chapter to sell its treasure to help ransom Coeur-de-Lion from captivity after the Third Crusade. He himself went as hostage into Germany in order that Richard might be released before his full ransom was raised. Learned, liberal, and affable, Bishop Walter was a man of whom all spoke well.

The choir of Rouen Cathedral showed more the regional characteristics; the arches were more acute and the moldings multiple. The circular piers about the sanctuary have Norman round capitals. We know that in 1235 a bishop was buried in the choir, which must have been entirely finished when, in 1255, St. Louis spent Easter in Rouen as the guest of his friend and counselor, Archbishop Eudes Rigaud (1247-74), a Franciscan, who was to accompany the king on his fatal crusade. The choir's upper windows were reconstructed during the XV century.

About 1280, architect Jean Davy began the south façade of the transept, the Portail de la Calende, so called because there was carved there a mythical animal of that name, considered in ancient times as a symbol of the Saviour, since the superstition was that the sight of a Calende cured illness. The transept façades of Rouen are among the best works of the Rayonnant phase. Their sculpture, says M. Enlart, has not yet the fluid indecision of XIV-century draperies. A pronounced feature of that period are the openwork gables, which, though they may be superbly decorative, are none the less a step away from constructive sincerity, since drip stones made of lacework masonry fail to fulfill their practical function.

The northern door of the transept was named from the canon's library beside it. It, too, like the earlier Calende portal, was paneled with medallions over which many a pharisee has shaken his head. The Middle Ages were neither pharisaic nor prudish. Rouen's little sculptured groups are merely fantastic and popular. They embody no satire against the clergy, as some would intimate; nor are they obscene. To place a centaur or an acrobat in proximity to a scriptural group seemed then no more profane than to illuminate the margins of missals with meaningless frolics. Leeway was allowed the artistic imagination, which here ran largely to grotesques. The medallions of the Calende door were in better sequence and of more vigorous character than those of the Portail des Libraires. Beside this latter entrance is the courtroom of the archepiscopal palace adorned with statues representing Solomon's judgment, in souvenir of the old usage of rendering justice before church doors.

From 1302 to 1320 rose the Rayonnant Gothic Lady chapel of impeccable mechanical skill but not inspired. Long centuries later, during the Revolution, its tomb of the cardinals d'Amboise,[343] in which Gothic sculpture culminated, escaped destruction because the axis chapel served as a granary. Clement V, the builder of Bordeaux' Rayonnant choir, arranged that his nephew, who was archbishop of Rouen and had got into difficulties with the Norman nobles, should exchange his see with Gilles Aycelin, the prelate who was erecting Narbonne Cathedral, brother of the bishop-builder of Clermont's nave. A little later another archbishop of Rouen became the Avignon pontiff who built the audience hall and the chief chapel of the palace on the Rhone. Other XIV-century additions to Rouen Cathedral are the side chapels; every guild and corporation craved thus to honor its own particular patron.

Those contemporary works, Rouen's Lady chapel, the choirs of Bordeaux and Narbonne, Avignon's halls, belong to the phase of the national genius which we call Rayonnant because of its geometric window tracery, a phase aptly designated as metallic by M. Gonse. Artists were fast losing their exquisite feeling for the silhouette; the vertical line was over-accentuated; triforium and clearstory had become one composition. Pitiless logic was drying up the spring of inspiration. When the cathedral of Rouen remade three bays of the nave's triforium, the model taken was the geometric design of that masterpiece of Rayonnant Gothic, the abbatial of St. Ouen. Before the XIV century closed the façade of the cathedral was redressed with arcatures and statues like the west frontispieces of Wells, Salisbury, and Litchfield.

The XV century carried through the chief supplementary works of Sainte-Marie of Rouen in a style frankly florid. Normandy, Artois, and Picardy reveled in the last development of the national art, regions all of them having close links with England. For if much of Flamboyant Gothic was indigenous, as M. Anthyme Saint-Paul contends, if it enveloped and absorbed Rayonnant Gothic, it seems fairly well proved that its two most pronounced traits, the flamelike window tracery and arches of double curvature, came from England. M. Enlart says that ramified vaults were built at Ely, Lincoln, and Litchfield, during the XIII century. By 1304 accolade arches were used; at Merton College, Oxford, is a flame-tracery window of 1310, features not to be found in France before 1375.[344] In the Rayonnant phase lines break; in the Flamboyant they undulate. Rayonnant capitals were diminished; capitals disappeared altogether in the later period, and molds melted into the piers.

Normandy expressed her renewed national dignity with enthusiasm in the flowery, happy architecture we call Flamboyant:

Le Temps a laissié son manteau De vent, de froidure et de pluye, Et s'est vestu de broderye De soleil raiant, cler, et beau.

So sang Charles, Duke of Orléans, come back from twenty years in English prisons to witness the expulsion of the invader from Normandy:

Il n'y a beste ne oiseau Que en son jargon ne chante ou crye; Le Temps a laissié son manteau De vent, de froidure et de pluye.[345]

How they built in Rouen! With what vim and emancipated energy! St. Ouen carried forward its nave and raised a central tower. From 1437 to 1480 was built the gallant little church of St. Maclou with a central tower that is one of the best in Normandy, and whose curving front of five arcades is profusely elegant. Similarly large, ornate portals became the vogue in late-Gothic Norman construction. St. Maclou is to the Gothic art of the XIII century what the reel is to the minuet, said an English architect.[346]

In the cathedral of Rouen one noted master succeeded another. Guillaume Pontifs put the belfry on St. Romain's tower (1463-77); built the canon's library, to which he made a staircase from the cathedral's transept; and made the decorated portico leading from the rue St. Romain to the court before the Portail des Libraires. No approach to a church possesses more entirely the atmosphere of the Middle Ages than that. Pontifs began a masterpiece of Flamboyant architecture, the Tour de Beurre (1485-1509), that, as it rises, grows more and more sumptuous, though it never loses its architectural lines. Unfortunately the stone used was of poor quality, which necessitated a coarse sculpture. The transition from square to octagon was gracefully achieved by the one constructive arrangement which originated during the final stage of the national art: to unify the design, flying buttresses were sprung from the corner turrets and the face-shafts to the octagon.[347]

From 1497 to 1507 the master-of-works at Rouen Cathedral was Jacques Le Roux, who continued the Tour de Beurre, finished by his nephew, Rouland Le Roux (1507-20), an artist of the first order. He redressed the upper part of the main frontispiece in order to put it into character with the Tour de Beurre and St. Romain's belfry. After completing the middle portal of the façade he reconstructed the central tower, whose platform he raised a story higher. When Rouen's lantern tower was burned in 1822 the present iron skeleton was contrived, a structure too mechanical to be architecture, but of good effect in the distant views of the city.

The oft repeated renewals of the famous frontispiece of Rouen Cathedral account for its failure to express the interior church structurally, but though merely a screen, it is deservedly popular, "one of the dreams of the Middle Ages," M. Émile Lambin has called it. By moonlight its effect is romantic, almost spectacular. Most popular, too, is another work of Rouland Le Roux, the Palais de Justice which he built with Roger Ango, from 1493 to 1507, for the parliament of Normandy. A pomp and a pageantry carried almost to folly distinguished the generations that raised monuments such as these. In 1520, when Francis I met Henry VIII, not far from Rouen, at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, many a lord, says the chronicler, carried on his back his mills and his forests and his meadows. One of the most curious houses in France, Rouen's Hôtel du Bourgtherould, now a bank near the Old Market, is decorated exteriorly by reliefs of the Field of the Cloth of Gold.[348] M. Léon Palustre discovered that the sculpture on its tower, originally polychrome, was a copy of a Flemish tapestry in the possession of that prince of pageantry, Philippe le Hardi of Burgundy.

The archbishop of Rouen from 1493 to 1510 was none other than the Mæcenas of his age, Cardinal George I d'Amboise, chief minister of Louis XII. All over France we have traced the work of that art-loving family--at Paris, Cluny, Clermont, Chaumont, Albi. A nephew of the same name held the see here until 1545, and saw to the erection of his uncle's tomb, designed by Rouland Le Roux, with sculpture by artists of the Michel Colombe tradition as well as those of the Italian Renaissance.

Rouen was so active a center for glassmaking that, in 1317, Exeter obtained windows here, as did Gloucester and Merton College, Oxford. Next to Troyes, Rouen contained the richest collection of colored glass in France. Until the Revolution her eighty lesser churches were filled with it. The best windows left are six lancets in the ambulatory of the cathedral. They belong to the XIII-century school of Chartres and are exceptional in being the only signed windows; "Clement of Chartres" was their maker. The first, given by a company of boatmen, relates the legend of St. Julian Hospitator, who ferried strangers day and night over the river, a story recounted by Gustave Flaubert, a son of Rouen.[349] The other five lancets are of the _Biblia pauperum_ type, teaching dogma to the people. The cold, limpid hues of the XIV century appear in the Lady chapel, and in the chapel of St. Jeanne d'Arc is an interesting Pentecost window of that century; contemporary are the apse lights in the upper choir, where the unsuccessful experiment was tried of continuing the subject from one panel to another--here the arms of the Crucified Lord extend into the lateral lights. The cathedral's west rose is of the XV century; in the transept is a XVI-century window devoted to the ancient bishop Romanus. The abbatial of St. Ouen has, with the choir of Évreux, the best array extant of XIV-century canopy glass figures. So loath were the vitrine artists to give up an architectural design in glass that when the XV century composed scenes instead of single figures for each panel, even those small groups were set in grisaille frames.

The iconoclastic 1562 worked havoc in Rouen. For twenty-four hours a Huguenot mob wrecked tombs, altars, and windows in the cathedral, to such an extent that it lay unused during half a year. One mourns the loss of the cenotaph of good Charles V, made in 1369 by the same Jean de Marville who designed the famous Dijon tomb of the king's brother. Ten years later, in 1572, the Rouen Catholics retaliated by massacring some eight hundred Calvinists in the city on St. Bartholomew's Day.

In the World War Rouen became almost an English city again. This time, however, England, the ancient combatant of France, came not as a detested invader, but as her ally in dire years of distress. It is pleasant to learn that devotion to the Maid of Orleans was not infrequent among the English troops of 1914-18.

JEANNE D'ARC'S TRIAL IN ROUEN[350]

De ma part, je répute son histoire un vrai miracle le Dieu. La pudicité que je vois l'avoir accompagnée jusques à sa mort, même au milieu des troupes; la juste querelle qu'elle prit; la prouesse qu'elle y apporta; les heureux succès de ses affaires; la sage simplicité que je recueille de ses réponses au interrogatoires qui lui furent faits par les juges du tout voués à sa ruine; ses prédictions qui, depuis, sortirent effet; la mort cruelle qu'elle choisit dont elle se pouvoit garantir s'il y eût de la feintise en son fait; tout cela dis-je, me fait croire (joint les voyes du ciel quelle oyoit) que toute sa vie et histoire fut un vrai martyre de Dieu.--Testimony of ÉTIENNE PASQUIER (1529-1615).

So swiftly followed the fruitage of the sacrifice offered up in the Vieux-Marché on May 21, 1431, that in every part of the ancient city of Rouen sprang up exuberant, vigorous, Flamboyant monuments. The most momentous and the saddest happening in the history of Normandy's capital was the burning at the stake of Jeanne la Pucelle whose relief of Orléans, only two short years before, had saved the nation in its last gasp.

From the church of St. Saviour on the market place they brought her the cross for which she begged on that tragic morning, that the pillory on which her Lord had hung might be held up before her eyes, to strengthen her in her last hour. Long afterward, in 1450, Massieu, the priest-sheriff of her trial, a weak man but less unsympathetic than many in that grim gathering of rascals, testified: "The English feared her more than the whole army of the king of France.... It was they who held the trial and paid its costs. She was taken to the Viel-Marché, having beside her Brother Martin and me, and accompanied by more than eight hundred men at arms, with spears and swords. On the way she made pious lamentation so touchingly that my companion and I could not keep back our tears. She recommended her soul to God and the saints with such devotion that those who heard her wept. All distressed, she exclaimed, 'Rouen, Rouen, must I die here!'"

When the Old Market was reached Jeanne heard herself sermonized as a limb of Satan, a blasphemer guilty of diabolical malice, of pernicious crimes, and infected with the leprosy of heresy. Her sentence read, she fell on her knees and addressed to God prayers so ardent that even the foreign masters of Rouen were moved. Her dear St. Michael she petitioned, too. "As soon as the flames reached her," relates an eyewitness, "she cried out more than six times, '_Jhésus!_' and then a final time, in a loud voice, with her last breath, '_Jhésus!_' And her cry was heard from end to end of the market place, and almost everyone was weeping.... A shiver passed over the assembly.... The people pointed at her judges and said that Jeanne was the victim of a great injustice.... They murmured that such an evil deed should have taken place in their city.... That evening the executioner went to the Dominican convent and confessed in fear, 'I have burned a saint!'... The secretary of the English king turned away from the lamentable spectacle, muttering: 'We are lost. We have burned a saint!" Surrounded by her brutal jailers, at dawn that May morning, Jeanne had said, with confidence, "With God's aid, I shall be this night in His Kingdom of Paradise." As her final cry to her Redeemer rang out, a canon of Rouen Cathedral prayed aloud, "Would to God my soul were where I believe is the soul of this Maid."

The young priest-secretary, the clerk of the court, Manchon, who took down her trial (and let his irresistible admiration for her run over in marginal notes, "_Superba responsio!_"), testified later: "Never did I weep so much over any grief that has come to me, and for a month I could not be appeased. I bought a little missal with the money that came to me from the trial, that I might have cause to remember her in my prayers." The verdict of all impartial men in Rouen, that somber May morning of 1431, was that the whole business from beginning to end had been violence and injustice.[351]

A packed jury had judged her. The president of the tribunal, the renegade selected to prove a saint a sorceress, was Bishop Pierre Cauchon, driven from his see of Beauvais by loyal Frenchmen, as the enemy of his own country. Because the see of Rouen was unoccupied, the English preferred to hold Jeanne's trial there rather than at Paris, where the bishop was not their creature. How abject a tool Cauchon was is to-day shown by old receipts which prove that he was the recipient, on each day of the trial, of a hundred _sols tournois_. For the same ignoble reason many a learned professor "charged his soul."

There was not the faintest shadow of fair play in the process. After Maître Jean Lohier had said to Cauchon that the proceedings were not valid because Jeanne was allowed no counsel, nor were the hearings in public court, and those present had not freedom to express their true opinion, that honest Norman lawyer saw that his only safety lay in quitting the city. "It is an affair of hate," he said to young Secretary Manchon one day as they stood together in Rouen Cathedral. "Deliberately they try to trap her. If only she would not say in regard to her apparitions, 'I know for certain,' but, 'It seems to me,' I do not see how she could be condemned."

Some canons of the cathedral who criticized the trial were thrown into prison, and the English locked up a citizen who remarked that since Jeanne had been judged innocent by the doctors at Poitiers, in a court presided over by the archbishop of Rheims, a second trial was illegal. Three of the younger judges who at first dared to give their true opinion were berated by Cauchon, who bade them quit their ecclesiastical quibbling and let the jurists decide the matter. The testimony of the aged bishop of Avranches, then a resident of Rouen, was set aside because he advised that in matters doubtful touching the faith the case should be referred to a council or to the pope. Because Massieu, the humble court usher, said to a townsman, "I can see nothing but goodness and honor in her," he was threatened with a prison cell where never again would he see sun or moon. The secretaries, Manchon and Boisguillaume, were beaten by the English. A man on the street who spoke well of Jeanne was chased by Lord Warwick with a drawn sword and almost killed. Passions ran high. Lord Stafford drew his dagger on Jeanne in her cell one day because she said that the English would be driven out of France. Even after her execution, when a Dominican in the city spoke kindly of her, he was flung into prison for a year.

Her judges sought to tire Jeanne out by long hours of interrogation; the lawyers themselves came away exhausted from the sessions. Virulent against her was Beaupère, rector of Paris University, who, when routed by the young girl's replies, called her sly. When Cauchon wished to have it appear that she refused to submit to the Church, he made the scribes omit her statement that gladly she appealed to a general council or to the pope. "Ah," cried Jeanne, "you write all that is against me, but you do not write anything for me." The lawyers' subtle questions rained on her thick and fast till she would call them to order with admirable courtesy, "_Beaux seigneurs, faites l'un après l'autre_." Whenever she wished to make no reply to a question came her concise, "_Passez outre_." Secretary Manchon testified before an inquest, twenty years later, "Never could Jeanne have defended herself as she did in so difficult a cause, against so many and such learned doctors, if she had not been inspired."

Sublime to tears are some of the answers made by this young country girl not yet twenty, who could barely read and write, who knew only _Pater_ and _Ave_. When sheeringly asked were she in a state of grace, she replied: "A serious question to answer. If I am, may God keep me so; if I am not, may God put me in his grace. I would rather die than not have God's love." Awe fell on the assemblage and for that day the session broke up.[352]

Yet Jeanne was very human at her trial, too. It was just the well-brought-up country maid, the Jeannette they all loved in Domrémy, who boasted before those callous men: "For sewing and for spinning, I fear no woman in Rouen." Those housewives of Rouen, the "little people of the Lord," to whom Jeanne's thoughts turned in homely fashion, dared only murmur beneath their breath that her process was "a crying injustice," and shame it was that so evil a _cause célèbre_ should take place in their good town. Rouen was terrorized into silence by her foreign master.

Jeanne's five months' imprisonment and final execution at Rouen was a political crime covered with the cloak of religious zeal by a very genius of hypocrisy. John Plantagenet, Duke of Bedford, together with the boy king's great-uncle, the cardinal of Winchester, were the movers behind the scenes. Jeanne never quitted her prison in the castle built by Philippe-Auguste--only a tower of which is extant to-day. From that stronghold the English governed Normandy. Since the opening of the World War an erroneous inscription, placed by partisan politicians in the wall of the episcopal palace of Rouen, has been changed, for it sought to convey the idea that from the prelate's court of justice Jeanne was led forth to her death. Never did she set foot in that officiality building; she was held from the first day to the last in an English prison. From a dark cell in the tower fortress she was conducted through corridors of the same castle to the hall where sat her judges. Massieu, the usher, used to let her slip into the castle chapel for an _Ave_ as she passed its open door, but even that solace was stopped by Estivet. That venomous agent of Cauchon accused Jeanne of ironic replies ill suited to a woman.[353]

Cauchon tried to coerce the young priest-secretaries of the trial, Manchon and Boisguillaume, to falsify their notes, but they proved incorruptible. And twenty years later they, with Massieu, became the chief vindicators of the Maid when the inquests for her rehabilitation were started. Jeanne had felt their unspoken sympathy. Once with pleasant humor she told them not to ask her the same question twice or she would pull their ears. We know from contemporaries that Jeanne's way of intercourse was natural and friendly, _enjouée_, that her attitude was modesty itself, that her voice had a feminine note of sweetness, that she was strong and comely and well shaped, that her hair was dark.

Born in 1412, by the Meuse, in Domrémy, on the old Roman road from Langres to Verdun, in French territory, on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine, she was not yet eighteen when she crossed the ravaged land in the winter of 1429 to rouse Charles VII, then in Chinon Castle. In March of that year she raised the siege of Orléans; in July she witnessed the coronation of her "_gentil dauphin_" at Rheims; in September occurred the assault on Paris, from which siege Charles VII, counseled by traitors, retired, and all winter Jeanne was kept in semiactivity, though chafing to free the land from the foreign yoke. Especially she longed to go to the aid of the besieged Mont-Saint-Michel, and to liberate from his English prison the poet-duke of Orléans, even, she said, if it meant going to London Tower itself. In May, 1430, she was captured by her enemies, the Burgundians. Jeanne's active mission covered only a year. "Several times in my presence," testified the Duke d'Alençon,[354] her companion in arms, "Jeanne told the king she would last but a year, and to look well that he made right use of her." But Charles VII failed her.

After her capture Jeanne spent some months in prisons in northern France, and finally she was sold to the English for a king's ransom. Never in their minds was there any mistake as to who had turned the tide against them. "They had for her a mortal hate," said, in later years, Pierre Minier, one of the judges cowed by the Duke of Bedford; "they thirsted to bring about her death, no matter by what means."

From December, 1430, to May, 1431, Jeanne's martyrdom at Rouen endured. "An iron cage was made for her, and at night she was chained up," declared Secretary Boisguillaume, at the inquest of 1450. "She was incarcerated in Rouen Castle; her guardians were English soldiery of the lowest type; day and night they kept watch ... they made her the object of their mockeries; often she reproached them for it. Her feet were held in irons which were attached to a post." There were scenes in that dark cell, vouched for by witnesses, which are too painful to transcribe.[355] Only when she fell ill was the severity with which she was treated relaxed, lest by a natural death she escape public burning. One day Estivet so vilified her that she had a relapse of fever. Every detail is set down in the process for her rehabilitation, for which the Dominican Bréhal traveled from end to end of France, gathering testimony from those who had known Jeanne. But the chief instrument of her vindication is the word-for-word record of her trial at Rouen in 1431. Not in all history is there a more personal and appealing document. One can hear Jeanne's very accent in her valiant replies to her tormentors. "_Répondes hardiment_," her voices admonished her.

Why did Charles VII, who, before Jeanne appeared, was about to pass into foreign exile, strike no blow to rescue her who had given him back his kingdom? A difficult question to answer. Charles was no hero, though his quality of perseverance was ultimately to make him the instrument that ended the centuries-old Capet-Plantagenet duel. Charles was surrounded by counselors who were jealous of Jeanne's leadership, who represented her captivity as the result of her headstrong character.

In 1449 Charles, _le bien servi_, but not the duly grateful, entered Rouen "in triumph and magnificence as never king in city." Bells rang out and children cried, "_Noël!_" in welcome. In the cathedral the festal throng gathered. Beside the king stood Jacques Coeur, the merchant-prince, who had provided the funds for the reconquest of Normandy, and whose splendor of apparel on this triumphal entry was so to excite the barons' envy that within four years their machinations had him impeached, despoiled, and banished. He who was building at Bourges the finest bourgeois mansion in France, must have observed with interest the host of Flamboyant monuments then arising in Rouen. With Charles VII came, too, his commander in chief, the great Dunois, who had fought with Jeanne, the half brother of the Duke of Orléans, who that day was singing:

"Resjoys-toy, franc royaume de France! À présent Dieu pour toy se combat."

When Normandy was again French, not many years were to pass before Rouen exonerated herself of the crime of Jeanne's execution. The chief mover of the rehabilitation was the archbishop of the city, the Norman, Guillaume d'Estouteville, son of the hero who in 1415 held Harfleur against the entire army of Henry V, brother of the knight who led the defense of Mont-Saint-Michel, and nephew of Archbishop d'Harcourt, who gave up his see of Rouen to live in exile, rather than swear fealty to a non-French master. Cardinal d'Estouteville saw the propriety of clearing not only Normandy but France and the Church of what had been the political crime of foreigners. Through his efforts Pope Calixtus III, in 1456, revoked the legal decision of 1431, as "iniquitous, malicious, calumnious, and fraudulent." The unworthy Cauchon was excommunicated. A formal reading of the sentence of rehabilitation took place in the big hall of Rouen's episcopal palace: "Considering the quality of the judges and of those who directed the trial, considering that her abjuration was extorted by fraud and violence, in presence of the executioner and under threat of fire, without the accused understanding its full content and terms, considering finally that the crimes charged against her are not proven whatsoever by the process"--thus runs the decree declaring Jeanne's two sentences of condemnation in 1431 to be the work of iniquity. It was ordered that the rehabilitation be read publicly, not alone in Rouen, but in all the chief towns of France.

Rouen celebrated with gladness the justice rendered to the Maid who had saved France in her darkest hour. A solemn procession, in which marched Jeanne's brothers, who had been ennobled by the king, proceeded to the graveyard beside St. Ouen's abbatial, where, twenty-five years earlier, Jeanne had sat alone on a platform above the crowd, just a week before her execution. They had there read to her the twelve accusations--dubbing her witch and wanton--which a doctor of Paris University had drawn up, and then a preacher thundered in vituperation. Jeanne listened gently till she heard Charles VII abused, whereupon she, who had the mystic cult of royalty, lifted up her head bravely: "By my faith, sire," she cried, "my king is a noble Christian. Say what you will of me, but leave my king alone." "Hush her up!" angrily cried Cauchon.

In that cemetery of St. Ouen occurred what now is called proper self-defense on Jeanne's part. She could write her name, but with a smile she signed with a circle, emblem of mockery, and a cross, meaning negation. She hoped to be transferred to the prisons of the Church, where she clamored to be placed. Jeanne signed a paper consisting of seven lines, and afterward they produced an abjuration of fifty lines. Her judge might be a bishop, but never once did she confuse the Church she revered and the unworthy clerics who sat in judgment on her. During the ceremonies of the rehabilitation at Rouen, a great procession marched to the Old Market where had stood Jeanne's funeral pyre, and with solemnity the twelve accusations against her were torn into shreds and burned. Rouen felt happier after rendering that justice, and her renewed self-respect found natural expression in her Flamboyant Gothic monuments.

However, many a long year was to go by before France fully comprehended the martyr of Rouen. Voltaire libeled Jeanne as vilely as the XV-century savants of Paris University. The rationalists of a later day have patronized her as self-hallucinated. But the tide has mounted. "The day that all the bells of the world ring in honor of Jeanne d'Arc, they will sound abroad the glory of France," said Leo XIII, in 1896. The Maid of Domrémy-on-the-Meuse was declared Venerable in 1904, Blessed in 1909, and canonized a saint in 1920. _St. Jeanne d'Arc, ora pro nobis!_

THE CATHEDRAL OF LISIEUX[356]

One must live as one thinks, or else, sooner or later, one finishes by thinking as one lives.--PAUL BOURGET.

Lisieux Cathedral is, with that of Rouen, the least Norman in the province. It claims to be the first built of the Gothic cathedrals of Normandy and the most vigorous. The preceding Romanesque cathedral was grievously damaged by fire in 1136. Arnoul, a prelate who had gone through the disillusioning experience of the Second Crusade, began the present church. Similarities between it and Laon Cathedral, and various other indications, prove that it was building from 1160 to 1190.

Bishop Arnoul, of a line of shrewd Norman diplomatists, profited materially by his ability to keep on good terms with both husbands of Aliénor of Aquitaine, Henry of England, and Louis of France. In Lisieux Cathedral he married Aliénor to Henry II, which act was to take three hundred years of war and Jeanne's sacrifice to undo. Arnoul was the English king's chief adviser before Becket's ascendancy. It is said that he counseled Henry, after his first quarrel with Becket, to detach one by one the English bishops from their primate, which policy of _divide et impera_ came only too easily to an Angevin-Anglo-Norman. Four times did Bishop Arnoul journey to Sens to negotiate for Henry with the pope, during the Becket controversy. Some of the leading men of his day admired the prelate of Lisieux; but soundly honest men such as Abbot Robert de Torigny of the Mount, and the bishop of Chartres, John of Salisbury, distrusted him entirely--the latter remarked on his political sense in bestowing benefits when he wished to convince a man of his point of view.

Under Bishop Arnoul the nave of Lisieux rose in one campaign, a monument severe and pure, fog-colored like the wintry sky over it, say the townsmen. A note of force is imparted by the sturdy cylindrical piers. There is a narthex bay at the western end--a Germanic influence. No trace of vaulting shows in the deep gallery over the aisles, though the triforium arches that open on the central vessel are better suited for a tribune than a blind arcade. Behind that arcade now stands a poorly constructed wall opened here and there by doors, reminding us that once it was the custom for crusaders to store their valuables in the upper galleries of cathedrals.

Some have suggested that Guillaume de Sens was the architect of Lisieux, whose resemblances with his known works at Sens and Canterbury are discernible. Lisieux adhered to the Romanesque tradition of salient transept arms; that to the north lacks a portal; that to the south is an excellent example of plainest Primary Gothic. The transept has an eastern aisle, an arrangement found at Durham, Lincoln, Salisbury, and Peterborough. The first two bays of the choir were built, like the nave, in the XII century; the birth of the apse is marked by a staircase, as at Caen, Boscherville, Fécamp, and Eu.

The ample central tower of Lisieux, not in the first plan, was erected as the choir was gradually extended. In the later-constructed straight bays of the choir, and at the apse, finished under Bishop Jourdain du Hommet, no annulets broke the ascending line of the clustered shafts, quatrefoils were cut in the spandrels, and more and more the structure took on regional characteristics. Arches were set under arches, some of them being acutely pointed, because the Norman preferred to use the same opening of the compass for all his arches, wide or narrow. It gave his eye pleasure to multiply molds, and his sense of exactitude craved a support for every roll molding. Lisieux' choir, however, avoided what was to become an excessive complication of parts in the Anglo-Norman school. The cathedral is essentially vigorous and severe.

In 1226 a fire necessitated repairs, and Bishop Guillaume de Pont-de-l'Arche took the opportunity to make three ambulatory chapels. He built the façade towers whose lower walls retained Romanesque parts of the XI century. When the southwest tower fell in 1553 it was replaced by one of pre-Gothic design. The northwest belfry had as prototype the famous one of St. Pierre at Caen. The axis chapel--longer than the XIII-century one it replaced--is a gem of Flamboyant art. On its walls are some small funereal bas-reliefs erected by the cathedral canons.

The builder of Lisieux' Lady chapel was Pierre Cauchon, president of the tribunal that sentenced Jeanne d'Arc to death. He did not erect his chapel, as some intimate, in expiation of his conduct at Rouen in 1431, for he remained to the end the creature of his country's invaders. His detestation of Jeanne, moreover, was a personal affair, since it had been her triumph at Orléans, creating a national hope, that put heart into the citizens of Beauvais to expel their pro-English bishop. The English sent him to buy Jeanne from her captors. After the happenings in St. Ouen's cemetery, by law Jeanne should have been passed into the control of the Church, but Cauchon ordered her back to her English prison, and when she again donned male attire, and again asserted that she had heard her voices, her unscrupulous enemies were enabled to accuse her of being a relapsed heretic and wanton, to start a new trial, and condemn her to death. Cauchon himself hastened to the fortress to witness Jeanne's "relapse," and with Lord Warwick he is said to have chuckled over it--"This time she's well caught!" The morning that Jeanne was led to her execution she faced Cauchon fearlessly: "Bishop, I die by your hand. Had I been placed in the prisons of the Church, this would never have happened. You have left me in the clutches of my enemies. I call you before God, the great judge, to answer for the wrong you have done me." Even as she so spoke a spirited statue now represents Jeanne in Cauchon's Norman cathedral, while her judge is a condemned felon before the bar of history.

Like Arnoul, builder of Lisieux' nave, Cauchon knew how to act a better part. As rector of Paris University he had been esteemed for his learning. But, coming to the parting of the ways, he chose the broad and easy path, and the rest followed. His influence encouraged the University of Paris in its pernicious betrayal of France after Henry V's invasion. Cauchon won the see of Beauvais by defending Jean Sans Peur of Burgundy, in 1407, when the latter had murdered his cousin, the Duke of Orléans,[357] in the streets of Paris. And in the same hour that he thus truckled for advancement, Jean Gerson, the chancellor of Paris University, denounced the ducal crime--destined to be for France of incalculable consequence--and had his house sacked by Burgundians.

Ten years later, at the Council of Constances, in Switzerland Cauchon upheld the murderer, and Gerson rebuked the crime, whereupon he felt it to be wiser to quit Constances in disguise and to pass his latter life in retirement. Cauchon became the butcher of Jeanne d'Arc, his name forever an infamy; Gerson, dying in poverty and defeat at Lyons, was thought worthy, during two centuries, to be called the author of the _Imitation of Christ_, and before he passed away in July, 1429, it was given to him to learn that the Maid had triumphed at Orléans, and to testify that her mission was of God: _Gratia Dei estensa est in hac puella; a Domino factum est istud_.

Cauchon, ex-bishop of Beauvais, having placed his learning and energies at the service of his country's invaders, ambitiously hoped to obtain Rouen as his thirty pieces of silver, but the Duke of Bedford compromised matters by bestowing on him the lesser see of Lisieux, in 1432. As the national cause prospered the traitor was more and more detested by the populace. When the Burgundian partisans of the English were expelled from Paris, the properties of the bishop of Lisieux in the capital were seized and he himself was mobbed. In 1442 he fell dead suddenly one day while his barber was shaving him. A few years later, when Jeanne was rehabilitated and her judge excommunicated, the populace broke open Cauchon's tomb in the cathedral and flung his bones into the mire. His successor at Lisieux, Bishop Pasquier de Vaux, also one of Jeanne's faithless judges, died alone, deserted, on the day that the French army entered his city as victors, in 1449. The after history of Lisieux Cathedral followed the same course as others in France; 1562 and 1793 wrecked its monuments and smashed its stained glass. In the Flamboyant Gothic church of St. Jacques--where not a capital breaks the ascending line--are some XVI-century windows, making it the first church with such remaining.

Lisieux can boast of no bishop canonized by the Church, but her citizens are doing all in their power to let Christendom know of the gentle Norman girl, Thérèse Martin, the "Little Flower," who died in the odor of sanctity (1897) in the Carmelite convent of the town, before she had reached her twenty-fifth year. Her extraordinary cult, especially among soldiers during the World War, proves that the thirst for sainthood is as strong as ever in the peoples who went crusading and flung themselves toward heaven in cathedrals. Art springs from emotions such as that felt by Frenchmen for the "Little Flower." To ignore such manifestations, as do the rationalists who still are insisting, as dogmatically as before 1914, that France, at root, is the land of Voltaire, is a willful shutting of the eyes to the basic forces that make history.

Those good people of Lisieux who are mystic-minded, who _believe in order that they may understand_, as Anselm taught at Bec near by, as Plato taught in Greece, feel subconsciously that their "Little Flower," who said that only after her death would begin her real mission, is atoning for Pierre Cauchon.[358]

THE CATHEDRAL OF ÉVREUX[359]

Il en coûte cher pour devenir la France. Nous nous plaignons, et non sans droit, de nos épreuves et de nos mécomptes. Nos pères n'ont pas vécu plus doucement que nous, ni recueilli plus tôt et à meilleur marché les fruits de leurs travaux. Il y a dans le spectacle de leurs destinées de quoi s'attrister et se fortifier à la fois. L'histoire abat les prétentions impatientes et soutient les longues espérances.--GUIZOT.

The cathedral of Évreux is not homogeneous like that of Lisieux, but, gathering of different styles though it is, Romanesque, Gothic, early and late, neo-classic, it possesses its own distinct personality. A church of whose choir it has been said by one so competent to compare the cathedrals of his native land as M. Louis Gonse, that it is "one of the fairest bits of Gothic architecture in France," surely can hold its own among more brilliant companions.

Two Romanesque edifices stood in succession on the site, not to speak of the Merovingian and Carolingian cathedrals here. Évreux is the _Evora_ of Gallo-Roman times when it was ranked with Rouen and Tours. St. Patrick came hither in 432 for his consecration as bishop before his apostolate to Ireland. The first of the Romanesque cathedrals was dedicated in 1072 by Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury, but in 1119, when Henry I of England was besieging the city, it was destroyed for strategic purposes, by consent of its bishop, who was in the king's camp. Henry and all his barons gave generous compensation, we are told by Ordericus Vitalis, the English monk who spent most of his life in the Norman monastery of St. Évroult, "delighting in obedience and poverty," writing a history which is the chief XII-century record of the duchy.

The second Romanesque cathedral was begun in 1126. To it belonged the pier arcade of the present nave and the entire westernmost bay, as well as portions of the façade towers. At one time it was thought that the arches adjacent to the transept were part of the earlier church blessed by Lanfranc, inasmuch as they differ from the profiles of the other pier arches. Further study has demonstrated, however, that the entire arcade belongs to the XII century, since it was not the usage, before 1120, to flank a pier's four faces by columns, as was done here throughout.

The second Romanesque cathedral of Évreux was also destined to be of short duration. In 1194, Philippe-Auguste laid the city in ashes as chastisement for John Lackland's black deed. John had allowed a French garrison into Évreux during his intrigues with the French king, while Richard the Lion-hearted was on his crusade. When word came that his brother was returning to his possessions, John, hoping to placate him for his own treachery, invited the French garrison of three hundred to a feast and, it is said, foully murdered them all. The bishop of Évreux had accompanied Richard Coeur-de-Lion to the East and in Cyprus had crowned his bride, Berengaria of Navarre. In the course of time the counts of Évreux became kings of Navarre, through the marriage of Berengaria's sister to the Count of Champagne.[360] The niece of Richard and John, Blanche of Castile, brought in her dowry Évreux to the French Crown, when she married (1200) the son of that wily augmenter, Philippe-Auguste.

The renewal of the cathedral as Gothic proceeded slowly. By 1230 the nave had merely reached the triforium level. A horizontal sculptured band, such as surmounts it, was not used after that date. The clearstory of the nave is contemporary with the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, and when Louis IX came to his mother's dower city, in 1259, for the consecration of its bishop, who was his personal friend, he and the group of building-prelates with him, from Rheims, Rouen, Coutances, and Séez, must have discussed the new works at Évreux with interest. The choir of the cathedral was not undertaken till the close of the century. From 1298 to 1310 it was built in a Rayonnant style fully as advanced as the later abbatial of St. Ouen, at Rouen, with glazed triforium, capitals that are slight bands of foliage, and precocious prismatic profiles. The only distinctly Norman trait is the balustrade of the triforium. As the choir was made fifteen feet wider than the nave, its westernmost bay was canted to join the transept, but the effect is not displeasing.

The Hundred Years' War caused a cessation of works at Évreux. Dire years were they for the city ruled by Charles le Mauvais, a "demon of France," "perfidy in person." He plotted ceaselessly against the national party, not because he leaned to the English side, but that he was obsessed by his own superior claims to the French crown, being by both father and mother directly of St. Louis' line. His high abilities--and he was learned, eloquent, and handsome--were wasted in mischief making. In 1365 he gave up his city of Évreux to the flames. Charles the Wicked is pictured in the cathedral's clearstory windows, in the fourth on the north side of the choir, and across the sanctuary from him, in another light, is his wife, a Valois, sister of the French king, Charles V, and his art-loving brothers at Dijon, Angers, and Bourges. She possessed Mantes by her dower right, and added to its collegiate church the Rayonnant chapel of Navarre, in which are portrait statuettes representing her daughters. Her four brothers, says M. Anthyme Saint-Paul, were the paramount influences in the formation of French Flamboyant Gothic, from 1365 to 1415.

The best array of XIV-century glass[361] in France is that of the choir of Évreux. The windows are not forceful, like XIII-century medallion-mosaics, any more than the Rayonnant stonework framing them resembles hardy Apogee Gothic. The hues, while limpid and pleasing, show none of the lovely half-tones which the Flamboyant-Renaissance day was to achieve. Large plates of glass were employed in order that fewer leads might darken the window. White was overused, as well as the recently discovered yellow, called silver-stain, obtained by fusing the surface of white glass with a solution of silver. Pot-metal glass--that colored in the mass--had hitherto been used exclusively. Effective backgrounds were obtained by damasked patterns. In each panel was a single figure in an architectural setting of grisaille and silver-stain, which frames grew so elaborate, by the middle of the century, that perspective was represented.

The earliest example of a canopy type of window is in Évreux' upper choir--the third light on the north side. It was the gift of the _grand queux_, or cook, of France, Guillaume d'Harcourt, who died in 1327. The two windows presented by the bishop of Évreux, Bernard Cariti (1376-83), show progress in architectural backgrounds, and the donor is drawn from life. In the canted bay of the choir (north) is a XV-century window of the Saintes Maries, whose alleged relics were given to the bishop here by good King René of Anjou. The window commemorates Normandy's newly acquired freedom, hence its portraits of Charles VII, his son, the future Louis XI, and the seneschal of Normandy, Pierre de Brézé. It is also a memorial of the Great Schism of the West, ended by the Council of Constance, at which the bishop of Évreux was present. Foliate designs cover the grisaille lights of the triforium. The quarries (white, parallel pieces of glass framed together in a lead pattern) are enlivened by strips of colored glass and heraldic ornament.

Louis XI built the Lady chapel of Évreux, in whose windows he depicted his coronation. In the lily-petals formed by the Flamboyant tracery of the mullions are pictured the barons who attended the king's investing. Instead of the single figures in each panel, hitherto popular, small groups were now set under the vitrine canopies, and subjects heretofore unknown in western iconography appeared, such as the Transfiguration, the Woman of Samaria, the Marriage at Cana. They were pictured just as the mystery plays of the day presented them on the stage. In the Tree of Jesse, at the end of the chapel, the new process of abrasion was employed, by which the color of flashed glass was ground away in places, and on the white surfaces thus exposed were enameled new colors, so that one piece of glass could exhibit a variety of hues. These windows of Évreux' Lady chapel belong to the transition hour between the earlier tradition that treated a window as an adjunct of the architecture, and the later tradition that composed a window as an independent painted picture.[362]

When, in 1441, Évreux opened its gates joyously to the national troops, new works were begun in the cathedral. The actual Flamboyant transept was substituted for a decrepit Romanesque structure, whose ground plan it followed, hence it is too narrow for its height; seen from the interior of the church, the octagonal lantern appears cramped. The lacework stone spire of the crossing was one of the first in the region. For sixty years during the XVI century two prelates of the prominent Tillières family held the see; to Ambrose le Veneur is due the superlatively ornate Flamboyant north front of the transept, an unanswerable proof that if Gothic art was soon to end it was not of inanition it expired. To put the northern flank of his church in accord with the façade's festival of lace stone he re-dressed the chapels along nave and choir. His nephew, Bishop Gabriel le Veneur, undertook to remake the west frontispiece in a style so neo-classic that M. Léon Palustre, the historian of the Renaissance, exclaimed, "_Pour cette fois le moyen âge est bien fini!_" And yet only thirty years separated the façades of uncle and nephew. The southwest tower has been left uncrowned; that to the northwest is an imposing heavy mass in which is the sonorous bell of Évreux, called Gros-Pierre.

THE CATHEDRAL OF SÉEZ[363]

Il y a plus d'une sorte de chevalerie, et les grands coups de lance ne sont pas de rigueur. À défaut d'épée, nous avons la plume; à défaut de plume, la parole; à défaut de parole, l'honneur de notre vie.--LÉON GAUTIER, _La Chevalerie_.

"Prudent, modest, and gracious," reads the epitaph of Bishop Jean de Bernières, who, having in large part built the choir of Séez Cathedral, impressing on it his personal qualities, departed this life on Holy Thursday of 1292. Séez has been called a little sister of Chartres. It is well set, but of unpretentious dimensions. Its twin spire-crowned western towers will be improved when the masses of masonry now propping them are removed. The interior is white and clean, almost to prudery, which may be due to the renewal of choir and transept in modern times.

Never from its inception have restorations ceased in this church. Not that Séez overstepped the possibilities of Gothic equilibrium, but it made incautious use of the calcined foundations of the Romanesque cathedral to which it succeeded. That earlier church had been erected by Bishop Yves de Bellême after two cathedrals had been wiped out by the Norse invasions. Brigands had nested beside his church, and in seeking to dislodge them he had set fire to his own sanctuary, for which act he was rebuked by Leo IX at the Council of Rheims in 1049. He took as his penance the replacing of the cathedral at his own expense, and since he was connected with the rich Norman princes of Italy funds soon poured in. The edifice he erected was destroyed in the unceasing petty wars waged against each other by the husbands of Aliéner of Aquitaine.

The nave of the actual cathedral, the part first undertaken, rose from 1220 to 1240 under Bishop Gervais, a member of the Order of Prémontré. After the pause of a generation, its upper vaulting was constructed. All the traits loved by the Norman are here; friezes below triforium and clearstory, balustrades, sharp twin lancets under equilateral arches, multiple ridges and multiple supports, circular capitals and bases, interior passageways contrived skillfully. Subdivision and multiplication of parts reign supreme; merely for the pleasure it gave his eye the Norman increased the molds of his archivolts. There are diagonals here of so generous a profile that little vault-web shows. The Norman was partial to shadow decoration. He covered his walls with holes cut into foiled shapes which lent themselves to ever-changing contrasts of light and shade. In each spandrel of the main arcade is cut an elaborate rosette before which stands the shaft that mounts to the vault-springing. No Ile-de-France architect had thus obstructed his pierced ornament.

The choir of Séez was begun soon after the nave, but about 1270 was entirely reconstructed as a Rayonnant vessel, designed audaciously to weigh as little as possible on defective foundations. The sanctuary was raised above the ambulatory, with no screen between. The capitals were slight. Here again appeared a trait of Norman redundancy--rain-guards or weather-drips over the main arches and the wall arcading; an Ile-de-France master had relegated such crocketed gables where they belong--to the exterior walls of a church.

Like Évreux, Séez Cathedral possesses a uniform array of XIV-century glass. Above and below the canopied figures in the clearstory lights are panels of grisaille. The triforium was among the first to become one composition with the upper windows, by means of stone mullions; its quarry designs are bordered with strips of colored glass. The transept, built from 1290 to 1330, has in its side walls excellent images of the prophets. Its roses are linked by mullions with the row of windows below; the north rose traces a star with rays. In 1373 a fire damaged the edifice, and its reconstruction continued through the foreign wars. The Bishop of Séez, Robert de Rouvre, proved loyal to the national cause and quitted his city for the wandering court of Charles VII, rather than take oath to Henry V. This patriotic Norman prelate knew Jeanne d'Arc, not at her trial at Rouen, but in her triumphal hour of the coronation at Rheims.

The cathedral of Séez was twice pillaged during the religious wars. The Huguenots tore the lead from the roofs, and piled the art treasures in the aisles for bonfires. One doubly regrets the loss of the nave's windows which would have completed the coherent scheme of color decoration that distinguishes the church. Séez was neglected for centuries, its decrepitude becoming such that the priests at its altars were inconvenienced by wind and rain, and not so inconsequent, after all, then seemed the interior weather-guards. The much criticized restoration of M. Ruprich-Robert was a necessity, even though it may have been too radical.

Of the six Norman cathedrals, that of Séez is the least known, yet it lies but a few miles beyond Falaise, visited by most travelers in Normandy. In the streets of the Conqueror's birthplace they still sing, "_Vive le fils d'Ariette, Normans, vive le fils d'Arlette!_" A statue of William faces the Trinité in which parish he was baptized (1027). The XIII century built the Trinité's transept, the XVI century its choir (beneath which passes a street), and the Renaissance appears in a porch of faultless taste.[364] The donjon of the castle belongs to the XII century, though the guides will point out a window whence Duke Robert the Magnificent first beheld the maid Arlette.

THE CATHEDRAL OF BAYEUX[365]

Mais c'est toujours la France, ou petite ou plus grande Le pays des beaux blés et des encadrements, Le pays de la grappe et des ruisslements, Le pays de genêts, de bruyère, de lande. --CHARLES PÉGUY.

In the cathedrals of Rouen, Lisieux, and Évreux, the Norman traits are subordinate to those of the Ile-de-France; at Séez all is Norman, and altogether Norman, too, are Bayeux and Coutances, the gems of the duchy's Gothic school. The cathedral of Bayeux stands on the site of one burned in 1046. After that fire Bishop Hugues began a Romanesque cathedral which was continued by his successor, Odo de Conteville, a half brother of the Conqueror. The fair Arlette, the tanner's daughter of Falaise, after the death of Duke Robert the Magnificent, was joined in lawful wedlock with a Norman baron. Her son, Odo, without the slightest vocation, was made a bishop at seventeen--precisely the feudal debasing of the priesthood which Gregory VII was combating. At the battle of Hastings, when he had blessed the troops, he sprang to his charger and led the cavalry. A XII-century canon of Bayeux, Robert Wace, in his rimed history of the Norman dukes, the _Roman de Rou_, tells how, at Hastings, the Norman minstrel, Taillefer, "famed for song, mounted on a charger strong, rode on before, awhile he sang of Roland and of Charlemagne, Oliver and the vassals all, who fell in fight at Roncevals."

As governor of Kent, Bishop Odo deepened, by his injustices, the hate of the dispossessed Anglo-Saxons for their new masters. On an excursion against Durham he so harried the countryside that it lay waste for a hundred years. When to his misgovernment was added the folly of grandeur--for this unbalanced feudal bully intrigued to wear the papal tiara, to succeed to the great-hearted champion against iniquity, Gregory VII--his brother, William, thought it best to shut him up. From 1047 to 1096 Odo held the see of Bayeux. The Romanesque cathedral which he completed was blessed in the presence of William the Conqueror and Matilda, in 1077, on which occasion the bishop presented to his church a candelabrum such as can be seen at Hildersheim. Bayeux' crown of light hung from the high vaults until wrecked by the Calvinists in 1562.

Of the cathedral built by this anomalous prelate very little remains. The crypt is of his time, parts of the outer walls, and the body of the west towers in their lower halls; their upper stories were re-dressed later. The crypt was forgotten till 1412, when, in digging for a certain bishop's tomb they unearthed it. Odo's cathedral was in part destroyed in 1106 when Bayeux was besieged and burned by Henry I of England. Another fire in 1160 made rebuilding imperative, and even before the latter disaster Bishop Philippe d'Harcourt (1142-62) had begun a new Romanesque church. To it belonged the core of the actual transept-crossing's piers and the lower part of the nave, which is considered the richest Romanesque[366] work extant. The flat wall above the pier arcade is covered with geometric designs, interlacings, and chevrons. The curious carved disks, in the spandrels of the arches, represent Oriental animals and the grotesques that are to be found in Celtic illuminations. Some have thought that the exotic sculptures of Bayeux derived directly from an ivory coffer, of the IV-century Hegira, brought home by crusaders for the treasury of their cathedral. Oriental Byzantium was their common origin.

[Illustration: _The Choir of Bayeaux Cathedral (1210-1260). Typical of Normandy's Elaborate Gothic_.]

The choir of Bayeux is a masterpiece of Norman Gothic erected by Robert des Ablêges (1206-31), who died a crusader, and by the two successive bishops. In the nave those prelates surmounted the Romanesque lower walls with Gothic windows and vaulting; a balustrade marks the division between the dissimilar parts. They reinforced the façade towers, and made five western doorways--although the church behind possessed only three aisles.

The student who would comprehend at a glance the difference between the æsthetic equipoise of the Ile-de-France and the sumptuous Gothic of Normandy can do nothing better than to place side by side the pictures of Bayeux' choir and the curving transept end of Soissons. Those whose taste has been formed by English minsters may prefer Bayeux, those whose loiterings have made them familiar with the cradle-land of the national art of France will find their ideal in the classic restraint of Soissons. Scarcely a square foot of Bayeux' choir is unadorned. Each spandrel is pierced by trefoils and quatrefoils, and at the apse the triforium spandrels are entirely covered with foliage. There are acutely pointed arches, and arches under arches. Mold has been added to mold, and each roll molding has its own colonnette. There are carved friezes at different levels, and the horizontal line is still further accentuated by balustrades. At the sanctuary curve double pillars stand one behind the other. Even the vault web is decorated with the portraits of bishops. As the choir surmounts Odo de Conteville's crypt it is raised above the procession path. Some of its side chapels open, one on the other, above a dividing wall, as in the Gothic choir of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen, an arrangement repeated with beautiful effect at Coutances. At the birth of the apse are turrets; there are corner towerettes with staircases on each of the western belfries.

The Norman façade, as a rule, is very plain, lacking rose window and galleries, and with undeveloped portals. Two marked stories usually divide it--that of the entranceway and the big window story over it. Often the towers are disengaged awkwardly from the massive, nor is the transition from shaft to pyramid accomplished with subtlety. Yet the Norman church has great compensations to offer. Few edifices in the classic region of the Oise, Seine, and Marne present a more complete exterior than this chief church of Bayeux that stands so proudly over the flat little city, unencumbered by houses, raised on a dignified platform where the ground slopes to the east.

The cathedral's transept is Rayonnant Gothic of the XIV century, in which day were added the various side chapels whose tracery is geometric. When Jeanne d'Arc had given France a new soul, Bayeux raised its lordly central tower "to praise God in the sky." It was undertaken by a wealthy prelate, Louis d'Harcourt (d. 1479), of the same family as the bishop who had built the Romanesque wall of the nave. He planted his Flamboyant octagon on the square XIII-century lantern, but the actual top story of the transept-crossing tower is modern. Bayeux almost lost her notable beacon in the XIX century, when fissures appeared, and a zealous restorer thought to demolish it whereas all that was needed was consolidation. The ancient Romanesque piers at the four corners of the _croisée_ were found incased in XIII-century masonry.

Opposite the cathedral in the town library is an invaluable historical document, the Bayeux Tapestry,[367] the oldest extant large amount of the art of design in the mediæval centuries. Many a vicissitude it has had: lost from view till Montfaucon, the learned Benedictine of St. Maur's reform, unearthed it in 1720, and again, during the Revolution's disorders, used as covering for ammunition carts till an enlightened citizen redeemed it. Originally it comprised one seamless piece, just sufficient to encircle the nave of Bayeux Cathedral, for which, indubitably, it was made. Every summer solstice, on the dedication day of Odo's church, it adorned the cathedral, "the toilet of St. John," it was named, a very simple toilet, for, though called a tapestry, it is really a drab linen band twenty inches wide, two hundred and thirty feet long, with the design alone worked in worsted of eight colors.

The scheme is the perjury of Harold and its punishment, hence its suitableness as an embroidery for a church. It begins with Harold and ends with his death at Hastings. His oath of allegiance to William, given at Bayeux, is pictured. Odo is shown saving the Normans from retreat at the battle of Hastings. Some have thought he would not have dared to glorify himself till after the death of his brother, William. The tapestry was made, probably, from 1067 to 1077, immediately following the successful conquest of England, and is a contemporary, therefore, of the _Chanson de Roland_, composed by a Norman anterior to the First Crusade. The embroidery was done before 1085, since the Conqueror's seals of that date show armor similar to that pictured in the canvas; the sequence of the scenes indicates they are subsequent to Wace's poem (c. 1160).

Critics have thought, from the inscriptions, that Anglo-Saxons made the tapestry. It is known that the textile art flourished in Kent, the province ruled by Odo; in Normandy, too, the industry was popular. M. Levé, in the most recent monograph of this precious legacy from the past, contends that a Norman who was favorable to William the Conqueror made it, and that the popular attribution to Queen Matilda is not unlikely. She may have had the work done as a gift for Bayeux Cathedral while Odo was still in royal favor. The war-like bishop died as a crusader journeying East, and lies buried in Palermo Cathedral. The people despised Odo, and would openly mock as he passed, "Fie on the bishop who married adulterous King Philip to adulterous Bertrada de Montfort."

A century after Harold's oath to Duke William, in Bayeux, and in the same hunting-seat, at Bures, near the city, occurred a scene of passion whose consequences were momentous. Bishop Henri de Beaumont was at work on the cathedral's transept and upper nave when Henry II came to Bayeux to spend the Christmas season of 1170. For seven years western Christendom had watched his feud with the exiled primate of Canterbury. The lesser people of France and England considered that the prelate defended their liberties by his defense of church liberty. For how, they asked, can a churchman rebuke lay injustices if he owes his position to the very culprits he should censure?

A pretense of reconciliation between Henry and his whilom intimate had recently been brought about. Becket felt its hollowness, since none knew better than he that the Angevin monarch's besetting sin was duplicity and a merciless vindictiveness when his will was successfully crossed. As he parted with the king he had looked steadily at him, saying, with meaning: "I think I shall never see you again," and Henry Plantagenet had cried, vehemently, "Do you take me for a traitor?" Soon after word was brought to the king that Becket, newly arrived in England, was again stirring up difficulties. Henry flew into one of his madman passions hereditary in his blood from Fulk Nerra, from the Conqueror, too; frenzied words broke from him, their purport being the upbraiding of his followers that he lacked a friend to rid him of this upstart priest. Immediately four of his courtiers started for England, and as December of 1170 closed, Canterbury Cathedral was the scene of a bloody assassination.

Becket dead was more formidable than Becket alive. Frightened by the indignation roused by the murder, Henry conceded what the primate had contended for. The Canterbury martyr became a frequent theme with the mediæval artist. At Coutances, Chartres, Angers, and Sens are medallion windows that relate his story. Twice he is honored in Bayeux Cathedral, in the sculpture of the southern portal and in a window of the transept. The popular voice of Europe canonized St. Thomas, and his grave at Canterbury became the loadstone of an international pilgrimage. The XIV-century poet has related how Merrie England rode down to Kent in the first spring days, when that Aprille with his shoures sweet hath pierced to the root the drought of Marche, and with the new-liveried year the _wanderlust_ awakes:

Then longen folk to goon on pilgrimages ... And specially, from every shires ende Of Englelond, to Caunterbury they wende, The holy blisful martir for to seke That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seke.[368]

THE CATHEDRAL OF COUTANCES[369]

Art is the stammering of man driven from his terrestrial Paradise but not yet arrived at the heavenly Paradise. Ever has he recalled, ever will he recall, the lost beauty. He is fallen: beauty's sanctuary is shut to him, but the exile traces a sketch of his original home in the strange land where he finds himself. Does not art fill in the intellectual life the same place that hope does in the moral? Art is man's trial to embody his ideals, it is a presentiment and a souvenir.--ERNEST HELLO, _Philosophie et Athéisme_.

If the exterior aspect of Bayeux is admirable, that of Coutances Cathedral is superb. The high hill of the town is its pedestal. Few architectural views in France are finer than the silhouette of Coutances against the sky. And when its crowning cathedral is seen rising from a mist, it appears to ride the clouds like a mighty ship--a vision of Norman energy as memorable as the Mount of the Archangel off this very coast, in the bay of St. Michael.

As the archives of Coutances Cathedral were destroyed by the Huguenots, documentary proof of its date is lacking. Midway in the XIX century even serious students contended that this Apogee Gothic edifice was the church dedicated in 1056 by a hero of Hastings' battle, Bishop Geoffrey de Mowbray. Like Odo of Bayeux, the sword, not the crozier, should have been his emblem. He was the holder of two hundred lordships. He it was who, in Westminster Abbey, in 1066, mounting a tribune, asked the cowed Anglo-Saxons if they would consent that Duke William of Normandy assume the title, king of England, and the next day an enormous tax was imposed on the conquered race as "joyous tribute" to their new rulers. Geoffrey gave up residence in his Norman see to be castillan of Bristol, but, taking part in Odo's intrigues, he was driven from the country with the cry, "Gallows for the bishop!"

This ambitious baron-prelate obtained donations for his Romanesque cathedral when he journeyed in southern Italy and the East, where ruled his Norman kinsmen. When the archæologists Bouet, A. de Dion, and Abbé Pigéon found parts of Geoffrey's church englobed in the present nave and façade of Coutances, the heated controversy over the date of the cathedral ceased. The core of each façade tower is Bishop Geoffrey's, as are some of the piers in transept and nave, and the nave's upper wall (re-dressed as Gothic about 1230). The tribune of the fighting bishop lies unused behind the present triforium, whose wall arcades plainly show a succession of transformations.

The Romanesque cathedral was injured by fire in 1218. Bishop Bivien de Champagne planned a new church which his successor, Hugues de Morville (1208-38), started. That prelate, and his two successors, built the choir with its double aisles of different height, and the central tower carried on triumphal piers of multiple molds. "What inspired idiot dared fling those stones toward the sky!" exclaimed the great engineer, Vauban, before the lantern of Coutances. The transfused gentle light that falls from its windows tranquilizes the entire church. Even the laie-haunted Viollet-le-Duc likened it to St. Christopher bearing the Christ Child before an image of the Virgin, in her honor. Joinville would have called it prayer in action.

The _Deus absconditus_ impression conveyed by the mystical choir of Coutances is another of its ravishing qualities. As at Bourges and Le Mans, the inner aisle is so high that it possesses its own triforium and clearstory; however, it avoided the stunted aspect of Bourges' main clearstory by omitting the triforium altogether in the central vessel. The choir of Coutances has retained more of the warmth of atmosphere that induces piety of soul than any other Norman cathedral, save that of Rouen. Not mere brilliant talent, but genius and faith, built it. It is almost triple-aisled, inasmuch as columns were planted in the outer aisle slightly before the walls that divide the radiating chapels. Throughout the church are these lesser arrangements that charm--such, the opening of the nave's chapels, one on the other above the dividing walls. The ends of the transept have tribunes like many Romanesque churches of the duchy. There are the usual Norman characteristics of a double-walled clearstory with different tracery in each wall, friezes of sculptured foliage, balustrades, acutely pointed arches, pierced ornament, and a generous multiplication of molds, each with its own support.

Two architects designed the church; one made the nave and the other--thought by M. Lefèvre-Pontalis to be the same Thomas Toustain who planned the apse of Le Mans Cathedral--constructed the choir, lantern, transept, and perhaps the spires of the western towers. Under Bishop Jean d'Essay (1251-74) the cathedral was finished. Louis IX was the guest of that prelate when he came to render thanks at the national shrine of St. Michael for his safe return from Palestine.

The west façade of Coutances is very Norman: plain portals, no rose window, and a staircase on a corner of each belfry. The lines of the towers rise uncrossed by horizontal bar from ground to tapering point. "Ponder them well," old Villard de Honnecourt would have said before the faithful sentinel towers of Coutances, that seem planted "like the spear of a man-at-arms." This severe church front was not meant for romance like the façade of foreign-trading Rouen, or for royal pageants like that of wine-growing Rheims. The basic forces that lead to architectural character were different here. Northern men in an outpost of France facing the dangers of the sea, built the façade of Coutances, men who had won this province by the sword, who with the sword were seekers for new conquests to the north, to the south. Taken with the central tower, the belfries of Coutances compose an unequaled group. The apse exterior is equally admirable; the flying buttresses, as at Notre Dame, at Paris, clear both aisles of the choir by a single hardy leap.

The adventurers of Normandy who made the brilliant, if ephemeral, kingdoms of Apulia, Sicily, and Antioch, were the sons and grandsons of a Norman knight called Tancred de Hauteville,[370] whose manor lay not far from Coutances. The people have chosen to call certain statues on their cathedral's northern outer wall by the names of Roger and Robert de Hauteville, and their descendants of the next generation--Bohemund, who used the Holy Wars to push his own fortunes, and his cousin, Tancred, the idealist of the First Crusade. Probably the "Tancred" statues--which now are restorations--were intended by the XIII-century sculptors for Hebrew kings. In the southern kingdoms founded by the stalwart offshoots of a simple knight of Normandy, the local architectural traits predominated, but such Norman influences appear as the central lantern and intercrossing arches (at Monreale), acutely pointed arches, and lobed rosettes cut in the spandrels (in the hospital at Palermo), west towers with corner staircases in turrets, an aisle preceding the chapels that open on the east wall of the transept (the cathedral of Cefalu, c. 1145). There are Norman traits in the cathedrals of Bari and Barletta, the latter having false tribunes like those of Eu and Rouen.[371]

At Coutances the XIV century added side chapels to the cathedral. During a siege in 1356, English stone bullets damaged the church; Charles V had it restored and fortified. Bishop Silvester de Cervelle (1371-86) built the Lady chapel, some lateral chapels, and added to the façade its only ornamentation--the colonnade connecting the towers. When Jeanne d'Arc's good name was to be vindicated, a bishop of Coutances was named by Rome as one of the three judges in the process of rehabilitation. "Would to God," exclaimed the pope, "that I had bishops of Coutances. The Church would be well governed." Olivier de Longueil, _vir gravis_, _vir bonus_, _vir mutis_ (like his own cathedral), was endowed with the ideal qualities for a judge--independence and firmness. His boyhood friends were the Estouteville brothers, one the defender of the Mount, and the other the most active agent in the clearing of the Maid's name.

The cathedral of Coutances suffered much in the religious wars. So devastated was it in 1562, when from end to end of Normandy, as at a given signal, priests were slaughtered at the altar, tombs violated, church windows broken, and images shattered, that it lay long unused. The collapse of some vault sections made a thorough restoration necessary.

To the south of Coutances, at Avranches,[372] once stood another cathedral of Normandy, begun in 1109, dedicated in 1120, and later changed to Gothic. It was exceptional in having no transept. An inscription in the street marks the spot where, before its northern portal, Henry II of England did public penance in 1172, and received absolution from the papal legate for his guilt in the murder of St. Thomas Becket. Alas! like the cathedrals of Cambrai and Arras, the Revolution brought about the ruin of Avranches. "_L'égalité s'était faite dans les ruines_," says one of its biographers. After the sacking of 1794 the historic church collapsed. Ruskin has nobly lamented its loss: "Did the cathedral of Avranches belong to the mob who destroyed it any more than it did to us who walk in sorrow to and fro over its foundations?"

THE GOTHIC ART OF BRITTANY[373]

Chez les Bretons un double courant: l'esprit de liberté, l'esprit de tradition; et pour les concilier, les pousser tous deux vers un même but et vers un but supérieur, la flamme, la passion de l'idéal, si ardente chez nos bardes et nos saints, si vivante, si puissante toujours dans l'âme bretonne, et qui l'a jetée tout entière dans la religion de l'idéal par excellence: la foi du Christ. Liberté, tradition, idéal: voilà le triple facteur de la vie intime et de la vie publique, de la vie nationale des Bretons.--LÉON SÉCHÉ.

Brittany was a late comer in the national art and much is it to be regretted, for had her building energies been aroused during the Romanesque epoch, her storm-worn granite rock would have then best expressed her regional character. Among the few Romanesque works of Brittany are the crypt of Nantes Cathedral; the nave of St. Aubin's church within the corselet of stone at Guérande; a stalwart central tower over monastic Redon--cradle of Breton history-making, St. Gildas de Rhuys, which M. Lefèvre-Pontalis places in the first quarter of the XI century; the church of the Holy Cross, at Quimperlé, radically remade after the fall of its tower in 1862 (the Gothic-rib masonry roof beneath that tower dating before 1150); a Templar's church at Loctudy; the Bréléverez church beside Lannion. Equally rare are Brittany's Gothic monuments of the first part of the XIII century, Dol Cathedral being one of the few. As the era of Apogee Gothic drew to a close the cathedrals at Quimper, St. Pol-de-Léon, and Tréguier were rising. So was that rude mass of granite, the cathedral at St. Brieuc, and the churches of Rosporden and Guingamp.

In the XIV century was built the Kreisker tower, parent of a generous progeny. Sea-going people are lovers of high towers, and Brittany is dotted with them. Over the flat, bleak land of Léon the _clochers à jour_ are a glory. With passion the Breton admired his landmarks. As he sailed home from long months in the northern fisheries, they were the first signals of welcome. To express his affection, he sometimes inscribed the Canticle of Canticles on his tower: "Who is this that cometh up from the desert flowing with delights?" No village felt itself too humble to attempt an imitation of the Kreisker at St. Pol-de-Léon.

By far the greater number of Breton churches belong to the Flamboyant Gothic day, and at that time the most energetic builder was Finistère, the far-western stronghold called Armorica before the Celts from Britain fled in the V and VI centuries from invading Saxons to the inviolate refuge of these other dwellers by the sea. St. Jean-du-Doigt was built from 1440 to 1513, and when almost completed, Anne, duchess of Brittany and twice queen of France, visited it to pray for a cure. Her daughter, Claude, also queen of France, was equally generous to the shrine. St. Jean's Pardon of the Fire, in the latter days of June, is one of the five big Pardons of Brittany.

Anne of Brittany's device, the ermine, is carved on many a façade of France. Both her husbands were notable art patrons. For her Charles VIII rebuilt the château at Amboise, and for her Louis XII began the château at Blois, and at Loches made an oratory that bears her name. The _Book of Hours_ of Anne of Brittany has never been surpassed. It was for her a liberal education to live in contact with her second husband's minister of state, Cardinal Georges I d'Amboise, who is said to have employed practically every Flamboyant and Renaissance architect and sculptor of the time on his château at Gaillon, and whose tomb in Rouen Cathedral retains much of the truly French spirit of Michel Colombe's school. Brittany benefited artistically by the royal marriages of her last duchess: Anne gave the Breton Colombe the opportunity to make his _chef-d'oeuvre_--the splendid ducal tomb in Nantes Cathedral.

The ermine of Anne of Brittany adorns the lintel of Folgoët, to which she added a tower, after her visit in 1505. That stately late-Gothic collegiate church, standing in a little Breton village above Landerneau, possesses an apostle porch--a feature popular in Brittany--a richly sculptured _jubé_ of three arcades, and altars of green Kersanton granite. On one of its altars the corporation of masons carved compass, rule, and hammer. And in like manner, as emblems of patriotic service, might be inscribed the names of the twelve villagers who, at personal sacrifice, when their church was to be demolished in 1808, bought it as a gift for their commune. On many a shrine can modern Finistère inscribe the names of those of her sons who fought for their country in the World War. Just as it was given Breton sailors of the XV century to raise the siege of Mont-Saint-Michel, so at Dixmude, in the autumn of 1914, they checked the drive toward Calais of other invaders of French soil. Brittany, with her profound cult of the dead, will consecrate one of her noblest Calvaries to the memory of Dixmude's heroes:

Que ces noms soient sur l'église! Qu'on les lise Sur le granit des piliers ... Que, sur la roche sévère D'un Calvaire, Solitairement inscrit, A travers la pastorale Vespérale Le nom du mort pousse un cri![374]

Other Flamboyant Gothic monuments of the ancient duchy are the choir of the cathedral of St. Pol-de-Léon; the cloister, porch, and central tower of Tréguier Cathedral; the chapel of Notre Dame-des-Portes at Châteauneuf-du-Faou; Notre Dame in the little city of Vitré, that claims to be, with Avignon, the most entirely mediæval walled town in France; St. Jean and Notre Dame at Lamballe, which latter XIII-century church, with foundations hewn out of the solid rock, was rebuilt and fitted with XVI-century windows; St. Mélaine, at Morlaix, rebuilt, 1482, and possessing a towering baptismal font of carved wood; and Notre Dame at Kernascleden, between Le Faouët and Guéméné, the work of two brothers named Bail.

The making of stained glass flourished in the later Middle Ages at Quimper, Tréguier, and Vannes. Good windows are to be found at Dol, Quimper, Guérande, Ploërmel (where the church has a rich Flamboyant façade pignon), at Kergoat, Moncontour, Les Iff (where the donors were the Laval-Montmorency family), at Plélan, Plogonnec, and at Penmarc'h, whose Pardon of the Rosary occurs on the first Sunday of October. Because the popular gatherings called pardons are among the basic forces that have helped to mold the architecture of the ancient duchy, they are important for the student of the builder's art.

The late-Gothic churches that cover Brittany are rich in ecclesiastical furniture, carved baptismal temples, and panels sculptured with the quaint usages of burial and marriage, or with agricultural scenes, such as those at St. Goueznon (1615), at Bannalec (1605), at La Roche-Maurice near Brest, and at Notre Dame-la-Grâce, near Guingamp, the latter two churches possessing some "storied windows richly dight." At Kerdévot is a wooden reredos, at Roscoff a very beautiful alabaster one of the XV century; at Lambadec a _jubé_ dated 1480; at St. Fiacre-du-Faouët (whose pardon comes on the first Sunday of July) a rood-loft of richly carved wood, unfortunately painted in crude colors; at Quimperlé, in the church of Ste. Croix, that is fashioned in memory of the sepulcher shrine at Jerusalem, is a _jubé_ almost wholly of the Renaissance.

Because of her pardons, Brittany's religious ceremonies took place largely in the open air, even as each of her tribes, each _plou_, in prehistoric times had gathered around her solemn menhirs and dolmens. Hence the Breton made much of churchyards, placing in them his Calvaries, profound expressions of a people's emotions carved primitively in the regional coarse granite. The Lord's Passion had vivified the Celtic soul ever since Christianity took possession of it. As granite is unyielding to sculpture, many a Breton turned to wood to express his verve, carving his church beams like the prow ends of ships.

Morlaix[375] is a good center from which to visit many of the notable revered places. Close by, in the village of Plougonven, is the oldest Calvary extant (1554). A few miles away is that of St. Thégonnec (1610), a shrine invoked for the cure of beasts, where beneath a statue of Our Lady is inscribed: "We beg you, _Madame Vièrge_, to accept our first bull." Near the church is one of the isolated chapels called ossuaries in which were gathered the bones of the past generations when they had had their turn in the churchyard's consecrated ground. The chapel bears an inscription from Maccabees: "It is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from their sins." Bedrock in the Breton is his instinct to join his progenitors and his descendants in a permanence of spiritual emotion.[376] No other people of the earth risk life more freely than these frequenters of the deep-sea fisheries; nowhere is the cult of the dead more tenacious, because it is considered that they who have fallen asleep with Godliness have great grace laid up for them.

Near St. Thégonnec, at Guimiliau, is another Calvary (1581), and another ossuary and triumphal arch. The capacious church porch is lined with statues of the apostles. At Carhaix, Pleyben (1650), Cronan, and Penmarc'h, are Calvaries, and that at Lampaul is united in the same composition with the graveyard's triumphal arch. Brittany's most imposing _Calvaire_, and the most wonderful wayside shrine ever made, comprising over two hundred images in all, is at Plougastel-Daoulas, a memorial of the epidemic of 1598. The greenish Kersanton granite of which it is made is quarried close by in the harbor of Brest, and acquires with time the endurance and appearance of bronze. Breton peasants are represented playing on Breton pipes in the Entry-into-Jerusalem scene. Late comers these rough-hewn sculptures may be in the national art, but in so far as character goes they might easily belong to the XII or XIII century.

The theorist may say that the racial exclusiveness of Brittany is one of the reasons why it has not excelled in architecture and the kindred arts. That may be so. The chief concern of the Celt has ever been to save his soul. The architectural purist is prone to carp at Breton Gothic, and some even dare say that the Kreisker itself errs, in that its shaft is not sufficiently welded with its spire. Without a doubt the absence of symmetry in many churches of the ancient province is at first disturbing, but soon one comprehends that one travels in Brittany not for its architecture, but for the unconquerable soul of a people who, while devoted to tradition, have ever stood up uncowed, unswerving in their antagonism to despotism. The sensitive traveler--that is, the man with kindly, plain loyalties--will let himself grow attached to the mediocre, irregular churches of this individual land.

Some of those irregularities are startling enough. The pilgrimage church of Guingamp has a curious two-storied triforium, and flying buttresses inside the choir over the aisles. Its nave is an amalgam, one wall Gothic and its vis-à-vis a fluted-pilastered Renaissance affair. The sculptor gave his initiative full scope in the apostle's porch--a revered spot on the days of Guingamp's famous pardon, that precedes the first Sunday of July. At Dinan, in the church of St. Sauveur--in whose transept is treasured the heart of Duguesclin, born not far away--a Romanesque wall faces a Flamboyant Gothic one. In the corsair stronghold of St. Malo,[377] breeder of strong men, the cathedral's walls make no pretense to be parallel.

The Breton has been too engrossed in keeping warm in his churches the spirit of devotion to bother about such details as symmetry. Eagerly he added chapel to chapel, aisle to aisle, regardless how difficult it might be for a stranger to orient himself on entering. The wise traveler will accept Brittany as she is, for if he does not, Brittany, like Spain, will exasperate him by her tranquil indifference to his criticisms. On a mediæval tower of the castle at St. Malo was inscribed:

Grumble who will. So shall it be As pleases me.[378]

THE CATHEDRAL AT DOL-EN-BRETAGNE[379]

Bretagne, ô mon pays, garde ta foi naïve, Car Dieu se plaît surtout dans la simplicité; C'est comme le miroir d'une source d'eau vive, Où vient se réfléchir, l'astre de vérité. --JOSEPH ROUSSE, _Poésies bretonnes_.

Brittany may be a land of shrines more than of churches; nevertheless, some five of its former nine bishoprics are of interest in the Gothic story--Dol, Nantes, Quimper, St. Pol-de-Léon, and Tréguier.

The hardy outpost of Dol, in the north, has stood many a siege, fought many a battle, and its church walls are crenelated where they face the city ramparts. The tutelary of the _ci-devant_ cathedral is St. Samson, whose name keeps alive the memory of the arrival of the harassed Celts of Britain who poured "like a torrent" into Armorica during the dark centuries of the Middle Ages when the migrations of the Barbarians had wiped out Rome's civilization in England. In Dol's great eastern window, St. Samson and some monk companions are shown crossing the Channel.

The cathedral of Dol--which Stendhal admired beyond others in France--is a melancholy severe granite edifice, though probably the best Gothic of the province. Characteristics both of Normandy and the Ile-de-France appear in it. Two of the wholly detached colonnettes of each pier are now clamped with metal bands, and the wide arches of the triforium would be better suited to open on a gallery than as they are at present--set close to a blank wall; a few doors in the wall give on the lean-to roof over the aisles. The structure of the church demonstrates that, as the works rose, extra supports were added for stability.

The cathedral was begun by its nave soon after a conflagration of the town, in 1203, caused by the troops of John Lackland. Vestiges only of the wrecked church were retained. The façade's southern tower is late work, despite its Romanesque character, and its fellow belfry to the north is in larger part of the XVI century. Out of the nave's southern flank opens a graceful XIII-century porch. The choir, which ends in a flat eastern wall, was finished by 1265, when was installed its splendid big window of eight medallion panels that set forth the Last Judgment. In the XIV century was opened the arch leading to the Lady chapel of that same date, wherein were used various supplementary ribs, around windows and in corners, to obviate the difficulty of vaulting a square-ended edifice. To the XIV century, too, belong the side chapels of the choir, and the big porch of St. Magloire before the transept's southern door.

Against the blank wall that closes the north arm of the transept stands the much-discussed Renaissance tomb of Bishop Thomas James. It is an initial work of the Juste brothers of Tours, the ablest among the Italians who brought the new art standards across the Alps. The bishop's recumbent image has disappeared. From 1482 to 1504 he held the see of Dol, though only in residence after 1486, as he lived in Rome, the papal guardian of the castle of St. Angelo. In his testament he requested a simple burial, but his nephews--whose profiles adorn the tomb--chose to erect this elaborate monument, whose cream-colored fine-grained stone, delicately arabesqued, contrasts happily with the dark granite walls. One of the nephews had known the Juste, or Betti brothers, in Florence, and through him those artists came to France. In his prime Jean Juste made the tomb of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany for the Royal Abbey at St. Denis.

THE CATHEDRAL AT NANTES[380]

Très crestien, franc royaume de France, Dieu a les braz ouvers pour t'acoler, Prest d'oublier ta vie pécheresse: Requier pardon, bien te vendra aidier Nostre Dame, la très puissante princesse, Qui est ton cry et que tiens pour maistresse. Les saints aussy te viendront secourir, Desquelz les corps font en toy demourance. Ne vueilles plus en ton péchié dormir Très crestien, franc royaume de France! --CHARLES D'ORLÉANS (1391-1465).

The cathedral of St. Peter, at Nantes, the third on the site, is a late-Gothic structure, not overvirile, somewhat artificial, but ingenious and elegant, even as is the contemporary verse of Charles d'Orléans, who was taken prisoner at Agincourt and passed half a lifetime in exile. M. Gaston Paris has drawn attention to the similarity between XV-century architecture and XV-century poetry. Is not that bijou of artistry, the chapel of St. Hubert, which Anne of Brittany's first husband set on the cliff edge at Amboise, of the same quality as a rondel of the poet-duke's? Is not Villon's ironic, tragically-true note reflected in the Dance of Death painted on church walls during those years of pest and internecine strife? Brittany has retained one of the only two surviving _danses macabres_, in the hamlet of Kermaria,[381] the house of Mary, that lies between the villages of Plehedel and Plouha. In Auvergne, at La Chaise Dieu, is the other.

In 1431 Jean V, of the third ducal line of Brittany, the de Montforts, decided to remake the cathedral of the outpost city wherein stood his castle. Nantes never was _Bretagne bretonnante_, being differentiated from Finistère amid its rocky seacoast, by its position on the Loire of commerce and art. That wonderful river, in an eight-hundred-mile course from Languedoc to Brittany, passes some of the fairest monuments of France: Le Puy, Nevers, La Charité, St. Satur, St. Benoît, Orléans, Blois, Chaumont, Amboise, Tours, Langeais--where Anne of Brittany wedded Charles VIII--Saumur, St. Florent, Gennes, Cunault, and the castle and cathedral of Nantes.

Under ducal patronage the nave of Nantes Cathedral rose apace; the capitals of its north side have deeply undercut curly-tipped foliage, but on the nave's south side the piers lack capitals altogether. The interior of the church is of glacial aspect; light floods it pitilessly. Its eastern end is modern. In 1886 was unearthed a Romanesque crypt which Abélard must have known, for he was born in a manor close by Nantes, and returned to live here in 1136.

Guillaume Dammartin, of the notable family of Flamboyant Gothic architects, is mentioned as working on Nantes Cathedral, and M. Arthur de la Borderic, Brittany's historian, has discovered that an artist of Tours, Mathelin Rodier, was master-of-works when the western portals were sculptured (1470-80), and while the stately inner-court façade of the duke's château was rising. In that castle Anne of Brittany was born in 1477, became a reigning duchess at twelve years of age, and in its chapel was married, in 1499, to Louis XII. On her deathbed she willed her heart to her native city. She completed the castle of Nantes by what is called the Horseshoe Tower overlooking the river.

Anne must have known the master, Mathelin Rodier, who made the portals of the cathedral, decorating them with the same undercut leaf foliation, the same lavish splayed ornaments as adorn the contemporary western doors of Tours Cathedral, a hundred and thirty miles to the east. The larger statues at Nantes' entrances have been destroyed, but in the voussures are many small groups, sometimes with four or five personages in a scene, chiseled with natural attitudes and expressive faces. One of the portals commemorates St. Peter (observe the _Quo Vadis_ episode), another, St. Paul, while the place of honor is given to the Saviour. Within the church, under the organ, are XV-century statues, one of which represents the duke patron who began the cathedral, the grandfather of Anne of Brittany.

Through the filial piety of Anne, her birthplace possesses the _canto cygni_ of Gothic sculpture, "the most unscathed monument of the Middle Ages," intact because it was taken apart and buried during the Revolution. The tomb of Anne's parents, Francis II, the last duke of Brittany, and his duchess, is the work of a Breton, for an authentic manuscript has proved that Michel Colombe was born in Finistère, within sight of the Kreisker. His genius was fortified by long years passed in the art atmosphere of Tours, and strengthened, too, by the Flemish realism which had come into France by way of the Dijon school that led the first half of the XV century, even as the school of Tours, whose chief master was Colombe, led its latter half. Nor did this Breton, fecundated by Touraine and sturdy Burgundy, ignore the incoming Italian culture, as is shown by his preference for ideal beauty over absolute realism: Celt, Teuton, and Latin--all were needed for the making of the last of the great Gothic masters, one who held loyally to the spiritual essence of the Middle Ages in a day when Renaissance pomp was fast rising to supremacy.

Michel Colombe was seventy years of age when Anne of Brittany, on a visit to Tours shortly after her second marriage, commissioned him to make a mausoleum for her parents, for which she had imported white marble from Genoa, and black from Liège. From 1502 to 1507 Colombe worked on the larger images, in his studio at Tours. His are the recumbent figures of the duke and duchess, and the entrancing little angels who support their headcushion, ministering with the same loving willingness as the XII-century angels of Senlis' lintel. From Colombe's master hand are the four allegorical figures at the corners of the tomb, robust and graceful women, of the local type to be seen in central France to-day. They typify qualities of the defunct, Fortitude, Temperance, Prudence, and Justice--this last image said to be a study from Duchess Anne herself.

Centuries later a similar arrangement of symbolic figures was used by Paul Dubois for his noble tomb of General de Lamoricière (a son of Nantes), which balances, in the north arm of the transept, the ducal tomb to the south. Valor, Faith, Charity, and History, are the four corner statues that commemorate the pioneer of civilization in French Africa, who was so loved by the natives that he went freely among them unarmed, a modern hero who proved himself a true Breton by assuming the leadership of a lost cause.

Lesser masters of the school of Tours worked on the noted ducal tomb of Nantes; Guillaume Regnault made the small images and Jerome of Fiesole the arabesques, the same two masters who composed the tomb of the children of Anne of Brittany and Charles VIII, now in the cathedral at Tours. And when Michel Colombe had finished his statues, Anne had the Lyons master, Jean Perréal, one of the most active agents in popularizing in France the new art standards of Italy, visit Nantes to supervise the erection of the mausoleum whose ordinance he had designed.

THE CATHEDRAL OF QUIMPER[382]

Ce qui me charme en toi, Quimper de Cornouailles, C'est ton coeur paysan sous tes airs de cité. --ANATOLE LE BRAZ.

Like the chief church at St. Pol-de-Léon, and that of Tréguier, St. Corentin at Quimper is "widowed of its bishop." Admirably situated, it stands with all the dignity of a cathedral above the pleasant little "river city of gables and fables," which etches itself on the memory. It is a well-cared-for shrine, full of warm Breton piety, seen at its richest during the pardon gatherings of August 15th.

Bishop Rainaud laid the first stone of Quimper Cathedral in 1239. Its ambulatory copied a disposition first used in Soissons Cathedral, but repeated only here and at Bayonne, though across the Rhine it became popular. The vault ribs of each chapel meet in the same keystone as the ribs of that section of the procession path on which the chapel opens. About 1280 a little shrine, which had stood in the rear of the cathedral, separated from it by a lane, was joined to the ambulatory of the new Gothic choir by means of a canted bay. This improvised Lady chapel increased the irregular alignment of the church. The deviation of Quimper's axis is extraordinary. Standing in its central aisle, at the rear of the nave, you cannot see the first of the three bays that usually are apparent at the apse curve, and such is the bend of the choir that its southern aisle possesses one more bay than does the aisle to the north. When the time came to replace the Romanesque nave by the actual one, that new Gothic edifice might have straightened somewhat the axial line by following the false orientation of the choir. But apparently the proximity of the episcopal quarters prevented this being done.

The choir of St. Corentin retains the canopy-image windows of Jamin Sohier (1417), and the nave, those of the Jamin Sohier of a second generation; a western window is dated 1496. The shield and helmet of one of Brittany's dukes of the Montfort line, Anne's immediate forebear, adorn the gable of the main façade. The cathedral works ceased during the first part of the Hundred Years' War; the choir was not roofed in stone till the first quarter of the XV century. In 1424 the nave was begun and the foundations of the west towers laid. Quimper's towers derive directly from the famous one of St. Pierre at Caen. There are the same deep, elongated twin-window recesses serving as buttresses. After another period of inactivity, the cathedral's nave was vaulted. In the latter part of the XIX century the west towers received their crowning of crocketed spires, paid for by a popular collection called "the penny of St. Corentin."

How these dwellers by the sea love their obsolete local saints! How certain they are that to forget them is to lose infinitely precious links with the past. The solidarity of ancestors with descendants is no dead letter in Finistère, that lives not by bread alone. One knows that the white-coiffed women of Quimper--and their daily gathering in their mediæval church makes a brave showing--would not love this shrine of St. Corentin so well had it a name common to western Christendom. But St. Corentin, St. Tugdual, St. Huec, St. Iltud, St. Budoc, St. Jacut, St. Jubel, St. Gulstan, St. Comery--ah, those are the potent ones before the heavenly throne when a true Breton needs assistance!

THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. POL-DE-LÉON[383]

O Dieu qui nous créas ou guerriers ou poètes, Sur la côte marins, et pâtres dans les champs, Sous les vils intérêts ne courbe pas nos têtes; Ne fais pas des Bretons un peuple de marchands. J'ai vu, par l'avarice ennuyés et vieillis, Des barbares sans foi, sans coeur, sans espérance, Et, l'amour m'inspirait, j'ai chanté mon pays. --A. BRIZEUX, _L'élégie de la Bretagne_.

The most complete Gothic monument of Brittany is the whilom cathedral of St. Pol-de-Léon, one of the few important churches of the Middle Ages to be entirely carried out, with spired towers, and porches for the different needs of soul and body, one for catechumens, another for lepers. Its choir and nave differ strikingly in color and quality of stone. The nave of yellow sandstone was built first, and is decidedly the most artistic portion of the edifice. The florid Gothic choir is of gray granite.

As the XIII century closed the nave was begun, continuing building up to the dire times of the Hundred Years' War. It has the Norman traits of sculptured bands of academic design below triforium and clearstory, trefoils cut in the spandrels of arches, multiple arch molds, each with its own support, and a circulation passage beneath the upper windows. The triforium was begun elaborately, with much foliate decoration, but economy soon forced the architect to adopt a simpler plan. The nave's south aisle is double beyond the fourth bay where a porch opens, and the stones show that the outer aisle was originally a separate chamber, converted during the XV century into a passageway.

The Flamboyant Gothic choir, that lacks the harmony and elegance of the nave, was built from 1439 to 1472. Chapel has been added to chapel, aisle to aisle, with the profusion loved by the Breton, who would press into God's service every foot of free land around his presbytery. The transept of the XII and XIII centuries was radically reconstructed during the late-Gothic day, retaining vestiges only of its Romanesque and early-Gothic work. It is doubtless to such repeated modelings that some of the buttresses fail to correspond to columns and vault shafts.

During a siege of St. Pol-de-Léon by the English, the church called the Kreisker, "center of the city," was injured. When rebuilt, from 1345 to 1399, there was erected, between its nave and choir, carried merely on open arches, a grandiose tower modeled on Caen's belfry of St. Pierre, as had been the twin towers of St. Pol's cathedral, lesser in height than "the Kreisker." The deeply recessed lancet openings in each face of the giant beacon serve the practical purpose of buttresses. Few cities can show three such brave towers as this little Breton town. "The Kreisker," mantled in golden lichen, is the pride of every Breton. So sure is its poise, so supple and strong, that for centuries all the wild storms of the ocean have swept unheeded through its open stonework spire. The popular songs love to extol it:

Je suis natif du Finistère, A Saint-Pol j'ai reçu le jour, Mon clocher est l'plus beau d'la terre, Mon pays l'plus beau d'alentour; Rendez-moi ma bruyère et mon clocher à jour!

St. Pol received its name from another exile of Britain, and the good man's little bell is rung on the days of Pardon, over the heads of the people, who believe it can cure maladies of the mind. The Revolution tried to change the town's name to Port Pol, but the traditionalists and the independents that are the Bretons soon reverted to their St. Pol-de-Léon.

THE CATHEDRAL OF TRÉGUIER[384]

Une, deux génerations peuvent oublier la Loi, se rendre coupable de tous les abandons, de toutes les ingratitudes. Mais il faut bien, à l'heure marquée que la chaine soit reprise et que la petite lampe vacillante brille de nouveau dans la maison.

--ERNEST PSICHARI (1883-1914).

The cathedral of St. Tugdual obtained its name from the founder of a local monastery, a nephew of St. Brieux, who had crossed from Britain with the returning missionary, St. Germain of Auxerre, and in Armorica had established a religious house which eventually gave its name to a Breton city. No church of the region demonstrates more clearly how difficult it is to obtain full Gothic effect with granite. Lacking sculpture, the art is necessarily abortive.

The interior of Tréguier is dark and forbidding. The capitals of the graceless octagonal piers are merely uncut bands. There are Norman balustrades and a Norman interior passage below the clearstory lights. The name of the architect, Goneder, was recently unearthed by M. de la Borderie. From the previous Romanesque cathedral was retained the Tour Hastings which now terminates the northern arm of the transept. Toward the western end of the church the molds of the archivolts die off in the piers.

The nave rose from 1296 to 1333; then came the pause of the Hundred Years' War. Building was resumed--always on the original Rayonnant lines--by Bishop Jean de Coëtquis (1450-61), whose relative, of the same name, was finishing the nave of Tours Cathedral. The charming Flamboyant cloisters of Tréguier were made from 1461 to 1468, and with the Tour Hastings they compose one of the oft-sketched architectural groups of the country. St. Tugdual has suffered by wars and revolutions, being damaged by the English in 1347, by the Spaniards in 1592, the Liguers in 1594, and the Revolution's cyclone passing here as elsewhere.

In the nave of Tréguier Cathedral stands a sumptuous Gothic monument to honor Brittany's patron saint, Yves de Helori, born in 1253, a mile from the town in the manor of Kernartin--modern Minihy. On the nineteenth of every May Tréguier marches in procession to Minihy to commemorate the good man who cleared the region of evil-doers, built a hospital beside his home that he might himself wait on the stricken, rose at midnight to chant matins, preached sometimes five sermons a day, and was the poor man's lawyer, so a popular hymn relates: "An advocate and not a thief, a thing almost beyond belief." The pardon of St. Yves, the Pardon of the Poor, is one of the five chief ones of Brittany. For centuries those who had pending law cases repaired to his primitive tomb. Thus Henry VII, Tudor, crossed from England the year before he won his kingship, to petition the favor of the Breton saint who had supported only just causes in law. Universities selected him as their patron.

St. Yves was the son of a knight who went crusading with St. Louis. When sent, at fourteen, to Paris University, he sat with other young scholars on the rush-strewn floors to listen to the scholastics; even in his student days he visited the sick poor in the hospitals. Before thirty he entered the episcopal magistry, and henceforth his abilities were devoted to the relief of orphans and widows. This good man, after whom myriads of the sons of Brittany have been named, worked assiduously, it is said, to collect funds for the building of the Gothic cathedral of Tréguier.

In a street near the cloisters of St. Tugdual, Ernest Renan was born in 1828, his name deriving from an Irish anchorite of VI-century Armorica. From his Breton father he derived his gravity, respect, faith, and imagination; from his mother's Gascon stock his irony, gayety, and serenity in skepticism, the result being, as he himself said, a tissue of contradictions. Brittany took his _Vie de Jésus_ as a personal affront. That a son of hers, once destined for the priesthood, should call her dear Christ of Calvary a "sorcerer," a "demi-impostor," a "_géant sombre_," "_un fin et joyeux moralist_," pierced her to the soul. When, beside the cathedral of Tréguier, partisan politics raised a Renan statue (singularly inartistic), whose inscription was taken as an affront by every believing Christian, two million Bretons donated toward the erection of a monumental protest. The Calvary of Reparation stands at the entrance to Tréguier, voicing the cry attributed to the dying Julian the Apostate, "Thou hast conquered, Galilæan!"

The son of Renan's daughter was that chosen soul, Ernest Psichari, who fell defending Belgium in August, 1914, a death considered by mystic Brittany to be an atonement. He has told of his spiritual anguish, "without defense against evil, without protection against sophistry, wandering without conviction in the poisoned gardens of vice, sick to the soul and ever pursued by obscure remorse, weighed down by the bitter derision of a life ruled by disordered sentiments and thoughts." In his _Appel des Armes_ and his _Voyage du Centurion_ he has traced his pilgrimage from materialism to Christian belief, taking "_contre son père le parti de ses pères_." His grandfather, of Tréguier, in Armorica, had written many years earlier: "The characteristic trait of the Breton race is idealism--the disinterested pursuit of a moral or intellectual aim. The Celt craves the Infinite. He thirsts for it, seeking it beyond all the prizes of the world."

A SUMMING UP

All our France is in our cathedrals.... Initiation into the beauty of Gothic is initiation into the truth of our race, of our sky, of our landscape.... Gothic art is the sensible, tangible soul of France; it is the religion of the French atmosphere. We are not incredulous; we are merely unfaithful. We have lost at the same time the sense of our race and of our religion. To regain force we must live again in the past, revert to first principles. Taste reigned of yore in our country: we must become French again.

--RODIN, _Les cathédrales de France_.

With many a gap, with many a lapse, we have followed the earlier stages of Gothic art in the land where it was born. We have seen how, from the efforts of the monks to cover their Romanesque naves with a permanent stone roof, was evolved the intersecting rib vault which was the basis of Gothic architecture, how for a short time churches used the Romanesque and Gothic systems simultaneously as in Morienval and Poissy, and for another short period the churches were Gothic in essentials while retaining a few traits of the earlier phase. By many the imperishable hour that produced Soissons' transept, the choir of St. Remi, Notre Dame at Laon, and Notre Dame at Paris, is beyond all others. When the national art expanded into its full flowering in the XIII century--an era as great in men and the making of history as in art--Gothic science, though ever seeking, ever reaching out, remained disciplined, even as the scholastic builders themselves were disciplined.

While eighty cathedrals in France were rising, and in the same hour some hundreds of lesser churches, the rulers of the nation were capable warriors, compilers of laws, and administrators, the builders were monarchs, crusading bishops, troubadour counts, cloistral ascetics, and arduous sinners. Serf, artisan, burgher, baron, and king built the cathedrals; field laborer, minstrel, maiden, and chatelaine were harnessed to the same cart to drag in the great stones. Little children cleared the church pavement of sand and cement in preparation for the "Day of Benediction" for their city, as the solemn blessing of their church was held to be by those God-fearing generations.

The new school of mediæval archæology, that during three generations has been interpreting the Gothic churches of France, is teaching us to read the stones with sympathy. "Symbol of Faith, the cathedral was also a symbol of Love," says M. Émile Mâle. "All men labored there. The peasants offered their all, the work of their strong arms. They pulled carts and carried stones on their shoulders with the brave good will of the giant-saint, Christopher. The burgess gave his money, the baron his land, the artist his genius. During more than two centuries every vital force in France collaborated on the cathedrals. From that comes the puissant life emanating from these eternal monuments. The dead, too, were associated with the living, for the cathedral was paved with tombstones, and the earlier generations, with hands joined in prayer, continued to worship in their ancient church. Past and present were united in the same feeling of love. The cathedral was the very conscience, the very soul of the city."[385]

After five generations had reared so many and such magnificent churches, their energy, because it was human, passed from plenitude into decline. The death of St. Louis, in 1270, may be taken as the beginning of the change, though even before had been used various cut-and-dried Rayonnant features. Genius flagged when structural perfection was achieved. The divinely restless reaching out of art was stultified by geometric rule. Graceful and stately as is many a XIV-century church, never in them do we find the unexpected entrancing touches of Apogee Gothic. Gothic was fast becoming an art made tongue-tied by authority.

As time went on profiles deteriorated, sharp prismatic molds succeeding to the virile torus, or molds fluid and vague. By the XV century capitals were omitted altogether. The sane marking of the horizontal line had become an offense to the eye. Without capitals the molds died away weakly in the piers. Flamboyant Gothic architecture exhibited all these traits, and, moreover, gave capricious rein to many a redundant detail, yet it was none the less a phase of art far more vigorous and satisfactory than the Rayonnant geometric period, its predecessor. The verve and abundance of Flamboyant Gothic was a rebirth. The inspiration of St. Jeanne d'Arc, the restored political unity, the increase of trade, the love of pageantry, all aided the art renaissance which was in progress before the advent of Italian ideas. No one can say that Gothic architecture ended in decrepitude who knows such masterpieces as the façades of Rouen and Beauvais, the towers at Bordeaux, Rodez, and Chartres, the baldaquin and choir screen of Albi, or statuary as ample in its simplicity as Riom's Virgin of the Bird and "the Saints" at Solesmes. And from end to end of France, as the XVI century opened, such work was in progress.

What, then, killed Gothic art? For it was slain with all this warm blood in its veins. Some say the return to pagan ideals dealt the death blow, the deserting of the celestial man-humble ideal for the terrestrial self-intoxicated pride of the Italian Renaissance: "The Renaissance is man seeking knowledge, happiness, and love, outside of Christianity." A Christian had knelt in prayer on a Gothic tomb, or reposed with serene confidence, awaiting the trumpet call of the archangel, a Book of Hours in his hand. On a Renaissance tomb the deceased reclined like a pagan at a feast. The Italian wars diverted from its natural channels the genius of the northern Latins (who were so strongly Celt and Frank), and in many cases the imported neo-classicism was not that of Italy's supreme masters, but of the lesser artists, their successors.

Others have contended that the printing press and the Protestant Reformation--with its spirit of hostile criticism--proved fatal to the national art, since the very life of Gothic was legend, poetry, and dreams, and symbolism its inspiration. Doubt quickly drained the sources of life. "Its charm had been to retain the candor of childhood, the limpid book of young saints. It was an art whose faith discussed not--it sang."[386] It was an art happy and bold and free of restraint, save the restraint which its own right instinct for discipline imposed--co-ordinating the multitudinous into a symmetrical unity--an art unfettered in its truth telling, daring to sculpture king or bishop marching to Hell, yet giving no offense to authority by so doing.

Alas, one must acknowledge that the Church, so long the guardian of Gothic art, dealt a deadly blow at the sweet naïve gayety of the Middle Ages. To reform Catholic Christendom there gathered at Trent a much-needed Council, impregnated with the critical spirit which Luther had unloosed. Pious churchmen had come to look askance on legends. They were ashamed of the simplicities which the XIII-century man was so certain pleased Our Lady, who accepted them with a friendly smile of comprehension of her fellow creatures. The good fathers at Trent regarded prudishly the spiritual passion of the Canticle of Canticles flaming in cathedral windows; they thought it forwardness to carve mechanics' tools on altar stones. Such manifestations were excessive. What would our critics of Wittemberg and Geneva say? The mystery plays, source of inspiration for the late-Gothic sculptors, now became suspect. Deprived of popular life, the religious themes grew cold. When censured, the creative instinct withered. In 1563 (a year after the iconoclastic outrages in France) the Council of Trent, at its last session, complained that Gothic artists scandalized the faithful by their childish superstitions. The Middle Ages were ended.

Cathedrals are not raised by critics or doubters. When France built her great churches, her faith was humble, her love a mounting flame. Her cathedrals were symbols of the Kingdom of God in her midst, the _pons sæculorum_ whereby man passed beyond the bourne of his narrow life. They were solaces in his hours of misery, in his delinquencies; they stood for justice alike to serf and baron; they were the Sermon on the Mount made visible, the _Biblia pauperum_ wherein lettered and unlettered read the same lessons; they were the _Credo_ chanted by men who believed in Christ, Son of the Living God and Son of the Immaculate Virgin.

Nor should it be forgotten that the generations who raised the great cathedrals believed profoundly in themselves as God's specially loved instruments, his own selected knights-errant. "We are a race that exists to advance in the world the affairs of God," said the old Gallic patrician to Clovis the Frank, and soon a Frankish parchment ran, "_Vivat Christus qui diligit Francos_." When men feel like that they are compelled to express it grandly. When as pagans they feel it, the expression is a cataclysmic war of conquest. When they feel it as Christians, they build cathedrals. The generations whom St. Bernard purified, whom Suger trained, whom St. Louis inspired, founded their church on a firm rock, a living rock, lighted it unto a precious stone, prepared it as a bride adorned for her husband, and ever since sanctity has abided therein; kings have brought hither their honors and glory, and the glory and honor of the people have adorned the walls.

FRANCE

Because for once the sword broke in her hand, The words she spoke seemed perished for a space; All wrong was brazen, and in every land The tyrants walked abroad with naked face.

The waters turned to blood, as rose the Star Of evil fate, denying all release. The rulers smote the feeble, crying, "War!" The usurers robbed the naked, crying, "Peace!" And her own feet were caught in nets of gold, And her own soul profaned by sects that squirm, And little men climbed her high seats and sold Her honor to the vulture and the worm.

And she seemed broken and they thought her dead, The Over-Man, so brave against the weak. Has your last word of sophistry been said, O cult of slaves? Then it is hers to speak.

Clear the slow mists from her half-darkened eyes, As slow mists parted over Valmy fell, And once again her hands in high surprise Take hold upon the battlements of Hell. --CECIL CHESTERTON (who died a soldier of the World War).

Regretfully one turns to other interests after spending years in trying to draw closer to the spirit of the Middle Ages--years that have coincided with the apocalyptic struggle that has desolated the classic region of the national art, laying low, one after another, the churches of the first fugitive hour. And watching the giant battle, it has grown clearer how indissoluble is the solidarity of modern Frenchmen with their achieving grandfathers. A nation's bulwark is the unbroken solidarity of Past with Present. And only when _la race lumineuse_, compounded of Celt, Gaul, Latin, and Frank, denies that solidarity will it be conquered.

The peasant-soldier of 1914, starting for the front, who replied with grave dignity to his well-wisher, "Whichever way it turns, I am ready,"[387] would have met death like a paladin at Roncevaux, in 778, holding up his gauntlet to God, his suzerain, certain of the justice of Him who from the grave raised Blessed Lazarus, and Daniel saved from lions.

The young tradesman of 1915 who wrote from the trenches to one who loved him: "I look on this struggle less as a war against an enemy than as a crusade to reinstate God in his place in France," was true to his _race apostolique_ that sets the church bells ringing. At Clermont, in 1095, he pressed forward with the cry: "The cross! The cross! God wills it!" The priest-soldier offering sacrifice at an improvised altar within hearing of the guns, his spurs fretting his sacerdotal gown, is Turpin, guarding well the Cross and France.

The stricken lad, flung back, diseased from the prisons beyond the Rhine, weak, broken, in tatters, who cried with vibrant voice, as he and his comrades crossed the Swiss frontier, and friendly strangers gathered round: "_La tête haute! C'est nous la France!_" conquered Jerusalem with Godfrey de Bouillon in the olden days, and related his prowess in a legend-medallion window at Chartres.

Above all, lives the soul of the Past in the generalissimo to whom a righteous destiny granted the freeing of his land from invaders. In churches shattered by shell fire he knelt daily--the weightiest fruit bending lowest--and he begged that the children of Christendom lift up their little white hands to heaven to petition for his endurance. In 1249, with flashing sword and the cry, "_Montjoie-St.-Denis_," he sprang into the surf beside his saint-king, following the oriflamme as it touched African soil. We have seen them alive again, the cathedral builders, the commune winners, the crusaders, dying with the farewell sigh, "_Ha! doulce France!_"

And thank God the flame is unquenchable, thank God that in the French race is the underlying sentiment for the Infinite, that peasant, artisan, student, priest, and chief feel the same humility and the same proper pride as those who built Soissons, the lovely stricken virgin; and Laon the intrepid, braving the hammer of Odin and Thor; Amiens the perfect, menaced and shaken but spared to us; and tragic, immortal Rheims, symbol of a people's resurrection. To herald the dawn is the mission of France, to look on her deeds as _Gesta Dei per Francos_. "Hers is the hand that scatters the seed."

Index

NOTE.--The heavy figures appearing here and there in the index indicate the pages in which a complete description of the subject is given. The other figures indicate additional references to the subject.

A

Abadie, Paul, 151, 290, 292, 354, 355.

Abbeville (Somme), 210, 226.

Abélard, Pierre, 41, 91, 104, 130, 133, 138, 174, 175, 414, 419, 467, 566.

Abraham, 182, 218, 219.

Achery, Dom Luc d', 149.

Acy-en-Multien (Oise), 45, 48.

Adams, Henry, 165, 170, 231, 299, 477, 499.

Adrian IV (Nicolas Breakspear), Pope, 134.

Agincourt, =1415= (Pas-de-Calais), battle of, 71, 483, 490, 565.

Agnes of Meran, 54, 95, 280.

Aicard, Jean, 378, 384.

Aigueperse (Puy-de-Dôme), 341.

Aigues-Mortes (Bouches-du-Rhône), 11, 66, 157, 377, =389=, =390=, 400.

Airaines (Somme), 45.

Airvault (Deux-Sèvres), 321.

Aix-en-Provence, 40, 330, 401, =403=, =404=.

Albi (Tarn), Cathedral of, 11, 13, 14, 279, 329, 330, =370-375=, 466; choir screen, 373, 577; vault frescoes, 374, 519.

Albigensian Crusade, 11, 189, 330, 353, 357, 358, 362, 363, 364, 365-370, 371, 376, 383, 385, 386, 392, 394, 405.

Alcobaça, Cistercian abbatial of, 465.

Alcuin, 4, 10, 149, 249.

Aldégrevier (vitrine artist), 541.

Alençon (Orne), 542.

Alençon, the Duke d', 315, 515, 527.

Aleth, Blessed, 458, 463.

Alexander II, Pope, 487.

Alexander III, Pope, 91, 136, 149, 250, 388, 433.

Aliénor of Aquitaine, 10, 60, 137, 138, 153, 174, 254, 274, 293, 296, 297, 298, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 326, 351, 353, 439, 440, 465, 502, 531, 543.

Alternate system, the, 80, 81, 93, 100, 127, 164, 478, 481, 482, 486.

Amboise (Indre-et-Loire), 254, 304, 558, 565.

Amboise, Cardinal Georges d' (of Rouen), 373, 492, 513, 519, 558.

Amboise, Bishop Jacques d' (of Clermont), 97, 335, 373, 421.

Amboise, Bishop Louis d' (of Albi), 373, 374.

Ambulatory, 19, 24, 45, 48, 51, 54, 58, 64, 65, 92, 109, 124, 129, 150, 216, 278, 292, 307, 337, 353, 398, 432, 569.

America, United States of, 57, 367, 394, 429.

Amiens (Somme), Cathedral of, 12, 31, 34, 39, 46, 55, 181, 197, 201, =202-210=, 214, 224, 225, 329, 331, 333, 351, 380, 425, 475, 539, 581.

Amyot, Bishop Jacques, 451.

Angers (Maine-et-Loire), 10, 13, 39, 255, 286, 303, 309, 310; Cathedral of, 59, 113, 146, 273, =302-309=, 351, 550; Fortress of, 309, 310; St. Jean's Hospital, 310, 311; St. Martin, 295, 305; St. Nicolas-du-Ronceray, 294, 295, 305; St. Serge, 302, 311, 312; Toussaint, 310, 321; Trinité, 300, 305.

Angoulême (Charente), Cathedral of, 287, =290-293=, 295, 352.

Anjou, counts and dukes of, 173, 220, 269, 271, 273, 274, 280, 408.

Anjou, Charles I d', 154, 156, 280, 295, 299, 307, 309, 427, 465; Charles II d', 280, 309, 401, 402; St. Louis d', 402; Louis II d', 280, 308, 309, 396.

Anjou, King René. _See_ René.

Anne, St., 138, 181.

Anne of Brittany, 67, 89, 256, 344, 373, 557, 558, 565, =566=, =567=, 569.

Annunzio, Gabriele, d', 107, 121.

Anselm, St., 4, 34, 133, 173, 250, 260, 271, 417, 473, =474=, =475=, 485.

Anselm de Laon. _See_ Laon.

Anthony of Padua, St., 5, 350, 359.

Antioch, 157, 208, 323, 345, 390, 554.

Apocalypse, the, 20, 98, 99, 144, 204, 217, 219, 239, 309, 320, 347.

Apostles in art, the, 146, 182, 207, 208, 262, 278, 321, 349, 352, 377, 389, 438, 561.

Apses, notable, 65, 80, 93, 105, 115, 116, 122, 129, 216, 232, 251, 275, 276, 421, 486, 489, 536, 547, 554.

Aquinas, St. Thomas, 2, 4, 41, 126, 130, =131=, =132=, 133, 134, 175, 238, 267, 334, 359, 465, 475.

Aquitaine, dukes of, 10, 298, 318, 327, 347, 351, 384.

Arbrissel, Robert d' (founder of Fontevrault), =294=, 323.

Archæology of the Middle Ages, 2, 13, 40, 92, 552.

Archæology, modern French school of, 32, =37-48=, 415, 428, 576.

Architects, mediæval, 5, 34, 35, 39, 57, 66, 82, 93, 94, 96, 141, 146, 150, 152, 163, 167, 177, 179, 190, 191, 204, 237, 276, 284, 251, 264, 271, 284, 299, 303, 334, 360, 380, 390, 406, 411, 457, 513, 517, 518, 553, 559, 564.

Architecture, 1, 4, 5, 7, 12, 15, 27, 56; X century, 20, 21, 148, 411; XI century, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 34, 48, 117, 254, 270, 305, 314, 343, 349, 384, 397, 481, 546, 554; XII century, 12, 22, 31, 34, 41, 57, 58, 92, 104, 105, 108, 109, 115, 116, 119, 120, 124, 136, 137, 147, 253, 270, 275, 287, 289, 291, 295, 300, 303, 313, 314, 320, 344, 381, 392, 403, 406, 423, 428, 435, 446, 532, 537, 546, 552, 554; XIII century, 12, 41, 65, 66, 105, 110, 111, 139, 141, 146, 166, 177, 190, 204, 237, 330, 436, 446, 489, 503, 504, 538, 575, 576; XIV century, 12, 13, 65, 105, 130, 164, 187, 207, 232, 265, 330, 346, 377, 378, 381, 382, 386, 407, 408, 447, 449, =489=, =490=, 509, 513, 514, 515, 538, 555, 564, 576; for the XV and XVI centuries _see_ Flamboyant Gothic; XVII century, 243, 561.

Arcis-sur-Aube, 239.

Arezzo (Tuscany), 171, 374.

Aristotle, =344=, =434=.

Argentan (Orne), 542.

Arles (Bouches-du-Rhône), 11, 24, 397, 399; St. Trophime, 330, 336, =398=, =399=, 400.

Arnold, Matthew, 264, 265.

Arnoul, Bishop (of Lisieux), 250, 531, 532, 534.

Arras (Pas-de-Calais), 2, 556.

Arthur of Brittany, 297, 308, 511.

Artois, Robert d', 96, 156.

Asnières (Maine-et-Loire), 314.

Attila the Hun, 201, 231, 243.

_Aucassin et Nicolette_, 396.

Auch (Gers), Cathedral of, 358, 374.

Augustine, St., 132, 158, 364, 449, 508.

Augustus, 239-243, 257, 259, 424.

Aulnay (Charente-Inférieure), 291.

Autun (Saône-et-Loire), Cathedral of, 24, 181, 416, 419, =423-426=, 429.

Autun, Honoré d', 262, 424.

Auvergne, 11, 38, 39, 249, 330, 331, 336, 337, 381; Romanesque school of, 11, 24, 38, 151, 254, 329, 331, 333, 337, 339, 340, 343, 344, 360, 449.

Auvergne, Guillaume d' (Bishop of Paris), 133, 139, 140, 141, 469.

Auxerre (Yonne), 224, 428, 445; Cathedral of, 7, 33, 115, 226, 242, 316, 429, =446-451=, 460; glass of, 449, 450, 451; sculpture of, 447; St. Germain, 410, 445, 446, 572; St. Eusèbe, 448.

Avallon (Yonne), 24, =428=, 435, 441.

Avignon (Vaucluse), 209, 381, 388, =405-409=; the Avignon popes, 330, 335, 347, 353, 359, 368, 381, 386, 387, 388, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409.

Avila, 242, 264, 340, 465.

Avranches (Manche), Cathedral of, 2, 474, 556.

B

Bacon, Francis, 276.

Bacon, Roger, 134.

Balmes, J. C., 41.

Balzac, Honoré de, 119, 247, 249, 312.

Bamburg, Cathedral of, 2, 77, 193.

Bannalec (Finistère), 560.

Barbarian invasions in France, 4, 18, 20, 28, 29, 36, 78, 107, 142, 172, 261, 325, 336, 337, 361, 411, 414, 472, 479, 483, 495, 510, 563.

Bari, Cathedral of, 555.

Barre, Chevalier de la, 151.

Barrès, Maurice, 389, 398, 435.

Bar-sur-Aube, 239.

Bar-sur-Seine, 239.

_Barzas-Breiz_, 400, 556.

Basly (Calvados), 491.

Bassac (Charente), 291.

Bayard, Chevalier, 342.

Bayeux (Calvados), Cathedral of, 488, 508, =545-551=.

Bayonne (Basses-Pyrénées), Cathedral of, 354, 569.

Bazin, René, 259, 302, 415, 410, 580.

Beaucaire (Gard), 396.

Beauce, Jehan Texier, called de, 179, 180.

Beaulieu (Corrèze), 24, 288.

Beaumont, Raoul de, 306, 308; family of, 308, 550.

Beaumont-le-Roger (Eure), 536, 541.

Beaune (Côte-d'Or), hospital and collegiate of, 419, =426=, =427=.

Beauneveu, André (sculptor), 67, 299, 327.

Beauvais (Oise), 3, 96, 100, 125, 127, 379, 380, 425, 533, 534, 539; Cathedral of, =224-230=, 404, 577; St. Étienne, 45, 46, =50-53=, 224, 228.

Beauvais, Vincent de, 9, 133, 134.

Bec (Eure), Abbey of, 125, 173, =473-476=, 485, 487, 496, 502, 512.

Becket, St. Thomas, 11, 41, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97, 134, 136, 176, 184, 250, 261, 311, 340, 432, 433, 446, 518, 527, 531, 532, 550, 556; windows of, 97, 184, 518, 550.

Bedford, John Plantagenet, Duke of, 87, 143, 489, 490, 523, 525, 527, 530, 535.

Bellefontaine (Oise), 45.

Belloc, Hilaire, 375, 548.

Benedict, St., 4, 23, 411, 483.

Benedict XII, Pope (Avignon), 407.

Benedictines, 7, 34, 54, 114, 117, 123, 124, 133, 148-151, 190, 278, 411, 476, 501, 548, 554.

Berengaria of Navarre, 279, 296, 538.

Berengar of Tours, 250, 487.

Berland, Pierre (Archbishop of Bordeaux), 354, 355.

Bernard, St., 14, 34, 40, 63, 64, 91, 92, 93, 107, 133, 135, 152, 243, 246, 271, 273, 298, 319, 321, 361, 362, 364, 367, 371, 412, 414, 418, 423, 430, 431, 434, 439, 440, 441, 442, 453, =461-471=, 503, 541, 579.

Bernay (Eure), Abbatial of, 473, 481, =495=, 496, 541.

Bernières-sur-mer (Calvados), 491.

Berry, Jean, Duke de, 214, 220, 221, 222, 232, 309, 320, 327, 329, 341, 342, 349, 353, 539.

Berzy-le-Sec (Aisne), 45.

Béthisy-St. Pierre (Oise), 45.

Bèze, Théodore de, 218, 441.

Béziers (Hérault), Cathedral and sack of, 330, 367, 369, =383=, 405, 539.

Bible, in the Middle Ages, the, 9, 11, 58, 133, 142, 145, 208, 217, 233, 253, 273, 327, 358, 395, 418, 432, 434, 437, 470, 557.

_Biblia pauperum_ windows and sculpture, 97, 184, 219, 233, 418, 437, 451, 462, 520, 579.

Bilson, John, archæologist. _See_ Bibliography.

Bishop-builders of French cathedrals, 5, 32, 79, 80, 86, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 105, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 150, 172, 173, 174, 189, 202, 215, 229, 231, 243, 250, 251, 261, 263, 267, 270, 272, 275, 291, 299, 306, 334, 335, 344, 353, 354, 371, 373, 377, 381, 447, 513, 538, 542, 546, 592.

Black Prince, the, 347, 355, 368, 378.

Blanche of Castile, 54, 86, 106, 107, 153, 154, 185, 225, 232, 234, 253, 299, 313, 362, 398, 435, 508, 538.

Blois (Loir-et-Cher), 121, 254, 558.

Bobbio (Province of Pavia), monastery of, 411, 483.

Bohemund of Taranto, 323, 337, 555.

Bologna, 134, 327, 364, 374, 446.

Bonaventure, St., 5, 41, 133, 134, 267, 268.

Boniface VIII, Pope, 385.

Bonneuil-en-Valois, 45, 49.

Bordeaux (Gironde), 350-356; Cathedral of, 13, 31, 226, 298, 318, 330, =350-356=, 577; Ste. Croix, 318, 351, 355; St. Michel, 320; St. Seurin, 318, 351, 352, 355, 356.

Born, Bertran de, 345, 348, 349.

Boscherville. _See_ St. Georges de.

Bosham, Herbert of, 93.

Bossuet, 121, 163, 167, 247, 252, 253.

Boston, U. S. A., 353, 394.

Botrel, Théodor, 201.

Bouilhet, Louis, 78.

Bourbon art patrons, 185, 253, 259, 264, 265, 266, 295, 341, 357, 364, 406, 421, 456, 513, 539.

Bourdaloue, 212.

Bourges (Cher), Cathedral of, 8, 11, 14, 211, =212-224=, 226, 255, 275, 276, 320, 322, 328, 454.

Bourget, Paul, 339, 531.

Bourgonnière chapel in Bouzilly (Maine-et-Loire), 322.

Bouvines, =1214= (Nord), battle of, 12, 32, 70, 86, 122, 195, 453.

Boyle (Co. Roscommon), Abbey of, 464.

Braine (Aisne), St. Yved at, 99, 113, 116, =121-125=, 185, 284.

Brest (Finistère), 560, 561.

Bridges, mediæval, 267, 289, 350, 371, 405, 407.

Brienne (Aube), 239.

Brienne, Jean de, 4, 70, 189.

Brioude (Haute-Loire), 340.

Brittany, 11, 400, =556-575=; Calvaries of, 400, 559, 560, =561=, 574; cult of the dead in, 559, 561; dukes of, 297, 308, 566, 567, 569; glass of, 559, 560, 563, 569; Gothic of, 12, 557, 558, 559, 562, 563, 570, 571; Romanesque of, 557, 562; the Renaissance in, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 568. _See_ Anne of Brittany.

Brizeux, A., 570.

Brou (in Bourg-en-Bresse), the church of, 264, 265.

Brunetière, F., 148.

Bruno, St., 4, 117, 118, 194.

Bruyère (Aisne), 45.

Burgos, Cistercian abbatial of Las Huelgas, 2, 264, 399, 465, 502.

Burgundy, 21, 23, 39, 229, =410-470=; dukes of, 143, 154, 226, 261, 410, 425, 452, 453, 454; Franco-Flamand school of sculpture, 240, 255, 256, 281, 452, 455, 456, 567; Gothic of, 242, 410, 412, 413, 415, 427, 436, 440, 443, 446, 447, 448, 464, 465; Apogee Gothic, sculpture of, 410-413, 444, 447, 449; Romanesque school of, 23, 254, 340, 344, 360, 394, 422, 423, 428, 437, 438, 439; Romanesque, sculpture of, 418, 422, 423, 424, 437, 457.

Bury (Oise), 44, 45, 150.

Buttresses, 25, 26, 27, 229, 352, 378, 412, 413, 451, 481, 504; flying buttresses, 26, 27, 46, 52, 117, 124, 129, 163, 179, 181, 187, 196, 225, 237, 260, 276, 292, 360, 413, 437, 443, 486, 554.

Byzantine influences in French art, 17, 18, 43, 59, 101, 120, 123, 137, 138, 180, 181, 196, 234, 248, 249, 262, 287, 291, 292, 306, 322, 349, 398, 438, 486, 547.

C

Caen (Calvados), 10, 13, 30, 163, 478, =484-491=, 519, 520; Abbaye-aux-Dames (Ste. Trinité), 164, 482, =484=, 485; Abbaye-aux-Hommes (St. Étienne), 415, 482, =484=, =486=, =487=, 488, 512, 532, 547, 554; St. Nicholas, =484=, 493; St. Pierre, 488, 489, 490, 523, 570, 571; Vaucelle's tower, 491.

Cahors (Lot), Cathedral of, 24, =288=, =289=, 292, 407.

Calixtus II, Pope, 151, 200, 250, 261, 288, 291, 295, 360, 393, 417, 423, 453.

Calixtus III, Pope, 529.

Calvaries. _See_ Brittany.

Cambrai (Nord), 2, 81, 264, 556.

Cambrai, Jean de (sculptor), 221, 266.

Cambridge, England, 407, 457.

Cambronne (Oise), 44, 45.

Candes (Maine-et-Loire), =314=, =316=, 319.

Canterbury, archbishops of, 173, 260, 410, 432, 433, 434, 474, 475, 550; Cathedral of, 3, 30, 93, 94, 173, 474, 475, 487, 532; pilgrims, 94, 551.

Captives, redeeming of Christian, 6, 38, 42, 139, 369, 386, 404, 405.

Carcassonne (Aude), 11, 330, 339, =375-378=; Cathedral of St. Nazaire, 349, 376, 377, 539.

Carentan (Manche), 539, 541, 554.

Carhaix (Finistère), 561.

Carnac (Morbihan), 400.

Carolingian vestiges and times, 20, 56, 57, 77, 78, 84, 149, 171, 173, 224, 225, 249, 250, 278, 283, 284, 305, 311, 324, 333, 337, 411, 470, 471, 478, 480, 482.

Cartharist heresy, 174, 362, 365, 366, 466.

Carthusian Order, 4, 117, 118, 194, 408; the Grande-Chartreuse, 118, 408.

Carville (Seine-Inférieure), 492, 494.

Casamari (Province of Rome), Cistercian abbatial of, 465.

Castanets, Bernard de (Bishop of Albi), 371, 372.

Catalonia, 357, 380. _See_ Gerona, Poblet, Tarragona.

Cathedrals of France, 9, 42, 74, 193, 202, 268, 575, 576, 578, 579; Religious fervor of the builders, 5, 8, 9, 23, 32, 33, 35, 36, 42, 57, 115, 174, 175, 275, 338, 350, 472, 491, 512, 553, 578, 579, 580, 581.

Catherine of Siena, St., 307, 388.

Cauchon, Bishop Pierre, 225, 328, 523, 524, 525, 529, 530, 531, 533, 534, 535, 536.

Caudebec-en-Caud (Seine-Inférieure), 474, 494, =518=, 541.

Cécile, Abbess (Trinité, Caen), 485, 486.

Cecilia, St., 14, 370-375, 485, 486.

Cefalu (Palermo province), Cathedral of, 555.

Ceffonds (Aube), 239.

Celle, Pierre de (Bishop of Chartres), 114, 116, 170, 176, 190, 469.

Celtic element in France, 4, 11, 12, 21, 91, 135, 174, 177, 245, 336, 378, 384, 388, 411, 483, 556, 558, 562, 563, 567, 572, 574, 575, 577, 580.

Cerisy-la-Forêt (Manche), 473, 554, 573.

Cervantes, 405.

Chaalis (Oise), ruins of abbatial, 87, 215.

Chaise Dieu (Haute-Loire), abbatial of La, 330, 332, =335=, 408, 566.

Châlons-sur-Marne, 424; Cathedral of, 7, =241-244=; Notre Dame, 33, 74, 90, =114-116=, 415; St. Alpin, 243.

Chambiges, Martin (architect), 97, 152, 226, 235; Pierre (architect), 89, 235.

Champagne, 6, 7, 39, 66, 121, 162; counts of, 94, 119, 120, 137, 157, 231, 232, 234, 236, 244, 245, 246, 432, 464, 538; fairs of, 6, 235, 244, 245; glass of, 98, 118, 150, 219, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243; Gothic art of, =114-120=, =188-197=, 211, 213, =230-247=; Gothic influence of, 109, 115, 116, 190, 191, 193, 202, =242=, 244, 245, 246, 247, 448; literature of, 119, 245, 246; sculpture of, 113, 116, 117, 194, 195, 196.

Champeaux, Guillaume de (Bishop of Châlons), 41, 86, 104, 133, 176, 194, 243, 466, 469, 474.

Champigny-sur-Veude (Indre-et-Loire), 254, 266.

_Chansons de geste_, 42, 106, 135, 239, 245, 246, 299, 343, 376, 384, 436, 500, 501, 549, 580, 581.

Chantilly (Oise), 144, 328.

Charité-sur-Loire, abbatial of, 254, 566.

Charlemagne, 9, 10, 20, 22, 57, 78, 86, 105, 153, 184, 249, 344, 355, 356, 379, 501, 545.

Charles V, Emperor, 144, 264.

Charles V of France, 67, 144, 164, 209, 309, 353, 454, 520, 534, 539.

Charles VI, 221, 327.

Charles VII, 118, 223, 233, 247, 255, 278, 299, 483, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 540.

Charles VIII, 247, 256, 264, 558, 566.

Charles le Téméraire, Duke of Burgundy, 226, 264, 266, 452.

Charles Martel, 317, 388, 389, 436.

Charles the Bad, Count of Évreux, 164, 538, 539.

Chartier, Alain, 143, 546.

Chartres, Cathedral of, 8, 14, 22, 33, 36, 39, 111, 113, 115, 122, 139, =170-187=, 197, 204, 207, 211, 212, 219, 220, 224, 226, 234, 272, 279, 306, 318, 413, 475, 490, 511, 512, 519, 541, 550, 581; school of glass, 59, 101, 183, 184, 262, 519; sculpture of, 175, 180, 181, 182, 288, 394; St. Pierre, 172, 349, 539.

Chartres, St. Ives of, 337.

Chastellux, Jean de, 429.

Chateaubriand, 70, 118, 410, 443, 562.

Châteauneuf-du-Faou (Finistère), 559.

Chaucer, 372, 551.

Chaumes, Nicolas de (architect), 96, 167.

Chaumont-sur-Loire, 373, 566.

Chauvanges (Aube), 239.

Chauvigny (Vienne), 320, 321.

Chelles (Oise), 45.

Chelles, Jean and Pierre de (architects), 141, 146.

Cherbourg (Manche), 554.

Chérisy, Nivelon de (Bishop of Soissons), 6, 41, 86, 108, 109, 110.

Chesterton, Cecil, 579, 580.

Chevalier, Étienne, 241, 342.

Cheverus, Cardinal de, 352.

Chiaravalle (Milan province), 464, 465.

Chichester, St. Richard of, 434, 435.

Chinon (Indre-et-Loire), 254, 296, 315, 526.

Christian persecutions, the, 9, 56, 215, 248, 252, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 436, 439.

Christopher, St., 553, 576.

Cicero, 344, 411.

Cistercian Order and architecture, 4, 7, 34, 93, 104, 105, 106, 107, 215, 278, 361, 412, 417, 430, 431, =461-465=, 554; influence of Cistercian Gothic, 461, 464, 465, 470, 471.

Cîteaux (Côte-d'Or), 34, 410, 412, 418, 425, 431, 444, 462, 469.

Civray (Vienne), 291.

Clairvaux (Yonne), 245, 430, 464, 467.

Claudianus Mamertus (Bishop of Vienne), 261.

Clearstory, 24, 92, 111, 115, 116, 124, 128, 141, 183, 185, 205, 214, 242, 251, 276, 353, 412, 413, 430, 478, 486, 500, 553.

Clement IV, Pope (Guy Fulcodi), 236, 381, 392, 393.

Clement V, Pope (Bertrand de Got), 261, 264, 320, 326, 327, 353, 354, 406, 515.

Clement VI, Pope, 335, 407, 408, 409, 497.

Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme), 334, 336, 373; Cathedral of, 10, 146, 203, 205, 213, 330, =331-339=, 346, 380, 381, 519; Council of, 173, =337=, =338=, 344, 581; Notre Dame-du-Port, 330, 339, 340.

Cloisters, sculptured, 82, 149, 254, 354, 360, 361, 383, 398, 399, 503, 504, 573.

Clouet, Jean and François, 256.

Clovis and Clotilda, 107, 118, 194, 317, 411, 446, 508.

Cluny (Saône-et-Loire), 2, 14, =22=, 23, 24, 34, 104, 149, 150, 163, 259, 266, 270, 318, 335, 360, 361, 373, 393, 410, 411, 412, 413, =414-421=, 425, 438, 444, 457, 465, 471, 473, 477, 512, 519.

Coeur, Jacques, 11, =222=, 223, 528, 529, 541.

Cognac (Charente), 291.

Coliseum, 377.

Cologne, Cathedral of, 132, 203, 225, 333; St. Gereon, 112, 122.

Colombe, Michel (sculptor), 67, 254, 255, 256, 264, 279, 280, 281, 342, 513, 519, 558, 563, =567-568=.

Columbanus, St., 4, 122, 410, =411=, =412=, 457, 464, 483, 509.

Commendatory abbots, 420, 483, 507.

Communes, mediæval, 7, 8, 12, 32, 74, 62, 79, 102, 103, 262, 416, 435, 437, 439.

Como, Church of S. Abondio, 29, 338.

Compiègne (Oise), 47, 77, 143, 226, 534.

Comtat-Venaissin, the, 405, 408, 409.

Conches (Eure), Church of Ste. Foi, 536, 541.

_Congrès Archéologique de France_, 38, 50, 78, 84, 92, etc.

Conques (Aveyron), Abbatial of Ste. Foi, 250, 360, 415.

Constantine, Emperor, 215, 398, 507.

Constantinople, 6, 41, 204, 234, 261, 268, 270, 289, 298, 317, 345, 420, 427, 436.

Corbeil, Pierre de (Archbishop of Sens), 95, 234.

Cordova, 379.

_Corpus Christi_ feast, 238, 243, 427.

Cosmati, the (artists), 29, 387.

Coucy-le-Château (Aisne), =102=, 313.

Coulanges, Fustel de, 42.

Councils of the Church, 91, 117, 189, 206, 246, 250, 261, 263, 267, 268, 323, 337, 338, 344, 370, 534, 540.

Cousin, Jean (vitrine artist), 94, 98, 144.

Cousin, Victor, 133, 211.

Coutances (Manche), Cathedral of, 10, 276, 488, 538, 539, 547, 550, =551-556=.

Coysevox (sculptor), 259.

Cram, Ralph Adams, 91.

Crawford, F. Marion, 439.

Crécy, =1346=, battle of, 327, 487, 491.

Crestien de Troyes (trouvère), 245.

Creuil (Oise), 45, 46.

Crouy-sur-Ourcq (Seine-et-Marne), 45, 48, 405.

Crown of Thorns, the, 145, 159, 345.

Crucifixion windows. _See_ Glass.

Crusades, 11, 31, 32, 299, 338, 365, 366, 440, 581; First Crusade, 22, 118, 173, 194, 246, 250, 270, 294, 305, 323, =337-339=, 344, 345, 360, 449; Second Crusade, 62, 70, 79, 274, 298, 339, 429, 439, 466, 531; Third Crusade, 70, 94, 136, 143, 367, 440, 514, 538; Fourth Crusade, 41, 110, 161, 231, 233, 246, 369; Fifth Crusade, 70, 159; Sixth Crusade, 154, 155, 159, 390, 400, 553, 581; Seventh Crusade, 120, 157, 158, 162, 262, 390, 391, 514.

Crusading-bishops, 6, 41, 79, 81, 82, 86, 97, 110, 111, 139, 189, 190, 206, 231, 233, 248, 334, 344, 345, 514, 531, 538, 547, 549.

Crypts of France, noted, 19, 22, 65, 168, 172, 215, 224, 225, 259, 283, 287, 339, 399, 401, 429, 446, 457, 486, 547, 566.

Cunault (Maine-et-Loire), 314.

Cupola churches, 18, 24, 151, 227, 285, 286, =287-295=, 300, 303, 324, 344, 403.

Cyprus, 38, 154, 237, 381, 436, 538.

D

Dagobert, 51, 57, 67, 80.

Dammartin, Guy de, 221, 277, 327, 341, 387, 454; André de, 221, 232, 277, 341, 454; Jean de, 221, 255, 277; Guillaume de, 566.

Dance of Death frescoes, 335, 565, 566.

Daniel, 233, 580.

Dante, 9, 133, 137, 141, 147, 148, 150, 153, 156, 245, 253, 349, 357, 363, 441, 462, 465, 474.

Daudet, Alphonse, 259, 396.

David, 9, 437, 447.

Da Vinci, Leonardo, 193.

Delorme, Philibert, 259.

Deschamps, Jean and Pierre (architects), 334, 346.

Deviation of axis, 68, 69, 136, 320, 569.

Dieppe (Seine-Inférieure), 494, 518.

_Dies iræ_, 128, 217, 317.

Dijon (Côte-d'Or), 11, 13, 40, 255, 314, =452-461=; Cathedral of St. Bénigne, 22, 410, 415, 452, 453, =456-459=; Franco-Flemish school of sculpture, 255, 256, 281, 327, 373, =454=, =455=, =456=, 567; Notre Dame, 413, 443, 452, 453, =459-461=; Fontaine-lès-Dijon, 463.

Dinan (Côtes-du-Nord), 541, 562.

Dol (Ille-et-Vilaine), 539, 557, 559, =563=, =564=.

Domenico Florentino (sculptor), 67, 240, 241.

Dominic, St., 5, 41, 128, 363, 364, 376.

Dominican Order, 134, 327, 330, 358, 364, 369, 373, 402, 420, 524, 528.

Doué, Normand de (Bishop of Le Mans), 306, 308.

Drayton, Michael, 490.

Dreux, family of, 122, 185, 190.

Dubois, Paul, 201, 568.

Dugueselin, Bertrand de, 67, 266, 327, 342, 557, 562.

Dunois, bâtard d'Orléans, 77, 355, 527, 529, 534.

Durandus, Guillaume (author of _Rationale_), 19, 69, 214, 267, 359, 387, 400, 401.

Dürer, Albert, 144, 347, 541.

Durham, Cathedral of, 30, 31, 492, 493, 532, 545.

E

École des Chartes, 25, 37, 38, 50, 545.

Écouen (Seine-et-Oise), 144.

Edmund Rich, St. (Archbishop of Canterbury), 4, 41, 434, 435.

Edward I of England, 390, 485.

Elbeuf (Seine-Inférieure), 518.

Elizabeth of Hungary, St., 53, 54, 112, 122, 280, 313.

Elne (Pyrénées-Orientales), 382, 383.

Eloi, St. (Bishop of Noyon), 80, 83, 240, 249, 349.

Ely, Cathedral of, 3, 482, 487, 516.

Enamel, Limoges, 172, 273, 314, 341, 349.

England, 11, 105, 351, 416, 426, 430, 478, 482, 487, 502, 516, 517, 518, 520, 549, 550, 552, 563. _See_ Henry I, Henry II, Henry III, the Black Prince, St. Thomas Becket, St. Stephen Harding, John of Salisbury, etc.

English architecture, 30, 93, 94, 99, 227, 296, 299, 301, 354, 407, 412, 432, 487, 495, 497, 516, 520, 523, 524, 533, 547. _See_ Canterbury, Durham, Ely, etc.

Enlart, Camille, archæologist. _See_ Bibliography.

Entombments (Holy Sepulcher groups), 225, 239, 280, 281, 282, 497.

Ervy (Yonne), 239, 322.

Escorial, the, 283.

Espine, Jean de l' (architect), 308, 311.

Estonteville family, the d', 497, 518, 555; Cardinal Guillaume d', 506, 513, 517, 529; Louis d', 505, 529.

Étampes (Seine-et-Oise), 112, 511.

Eu (Seine-Inférieure), Abbatial of St. Laurent, 473, =498=, =499=, 513, 532, 555.

Eu, Geoffrey d' (Bishop of Amiens), 206, 499.

Eugene III, Pope, 152, 243, 430, 458, 464, 466.

Eustace, St., 91, 152.

Évreux (Eure), Cathedral of, 518, 529, =536-541=; XIV-century glass of, 539, 540.

Exeter, Cathedral of, 407.

Eymoutiers (Haute-Vienne), 350, 541.

F

Fabian, Pope, 330, 399.

Façades, noted church, 51, 89, 97, 105, 129, 191, 192, 207, 217, 226, 235, 254, 271, 291, 292, 307, 323, 343, 347, 353, 406, 460, 514, 518, 548, 553.

Falaise (Calvados), 489, =544=.

Fécamp (Seine-Inférieure), Abbatial of, 478, 482, =494-498=, 502, 532, 554.

Fénelon, 36, 288.

Fenestration, development of Gothic, 25, 26, 51, 55, 111, 128, 146, 164, 183, 205, 213, 214, 227, 228, 234, 235, 237, 251, 262, 276, 292, 322, 333, 340, 377, 380, 406, 413, 431, 441, 450, 459, 478, 486, 488, 506, 519, 539, 548, 553, 554.

Ferdinand of Spain, St., 299.

Ferrero, Guglielmo, 329.

Feudal system, the, 11, 31, 61, 63, 92, 102, 104, 105, 151, 156, 160, 195, 225, 262, 271, 296, 299, 304, 305, 310, 313, 337, 349, 351, 362, 369, 370, 376, 383, 390, 394, 439, 455, 487, 531, 545, 550, 555.

Fiesole, Jerome of, 256, 568; Mino da, 497.

Flamboyant Gothic, 13, 89, 118, 146, 152, 167, 207, 217, 222, =226=, =227=, 228, 232, 233, 237, 239, 244, 252, 254, 265, 271, 277, 301, 309, 314, 327, 335, 347, 354, 372, 380, 387, 403, 415, 425, 447, 473, 506, 513, 516, 517, 518, 521, 529, 530, 539, 541, 542, 558, 559, 565, 569, 571, 573.

Flandrin, H., 259.

Flaubert, Gustave, 519.

Flavigny (Côte-d'Or), 224, 410, 428, =429=.

Fléac (Charente), 291.

Flemish influences in French art, 6, 44, 67, 209, 240, 263, 264, 309, 373, =404=, 426, 427, 454, 455, 456, 567.

Flodoard (chronicler), 20.

Florence, Cathedral of, 3, 30, =406=.

Foch, General, 106, 375, =581=.

Folgoët (Finistère), Collegiate at, 558, 559.

Fontenay (Yonne), 7, 410, 428, =430=, 431.

Fontevrault (Maine-et-Loire), Abbatial of, 10, 274, 286, 291, 294, 313, 315, 318, 328. _See_ Plantagenet tombs.

Fontfroide (Aude), Cistercian abbatial of, =380=, =381=, 407.

Fortified churches in the Midi, 332, 359, 368, 382, 383.

Fortunatus Venantius (Bishop of Poitiers); 10, 316, 317, 318, 322, 324.

Fossanuova (province of Rome), Cistercian Burgundian church, 132, 465.

Fouilloy, Evrard de (Bishop of Amiens): 206.

Fountains Abbey (Yorkshire), 3, =464=.

Fouquet, Jean, 254, 256, 342.

Francis of Assisi, St., 4, 101, 131, 465.

Francis I, 67, 89, 172, 344, 518, 534.

Francis II, Duke of Brittany, tomb of 558, 567, 568.

Franciscan Order, 218, 268, 317, 330, 359, 364, 420.

Frederick II, Emperor, 132, 267.

Freeman, E. H., 412, 490.

Frescoes in French churches, 288, 314, 320, 321, 335, 344, 349, 374, 375, 405, 407, =408=, =409=, 511.

Froissart, 210, 327, 347, 349, 368, 408, 455.

Fulbert, of Chartres, Bishop, 22, 41, =170=, =171=, =172=, 173, 174, 176, 194.

Fulk III, Nerra, Count of Anjou, 254, 274, 296, 302, 304, 305, 310, 314, 315, 550.

Fulk IV, Count of Anjou, 295, 304.

Fulk V, Count of Anjou, 173, 272, 295, 304.

Furness Abbey (Lancashire), 464.

G

Gaillon (Eure), Château of, 373, 513, 558.

Gallo-Roman bishops and times, 21, 86, 117, 118, 148, 164, 193, 194, 208, 231, 243, 248, 325, 331, 336, 337, 340, 349, 394, 396, 398, 399, 429, 433, 515, 579.

Gargoyles, 8, 139, 142, 239, 358, 372, 461.

Gassicourt (Seine-et-Oise), 163.

Gautier, Léon, 133, 135, 162, 245, 356, 500, =501=, 520, 542.

Gelasius II, Pope, 388, 417.

_Genesis_, 145, 253.

Geneviève, St., 71, 72, 73, 98, 133, =445=.

Gennes (Marne-et-Loire), 314.

Genoa, 466, 497, 511.

Gensac (Charente), 291.

Gentil, François (sculptor), 241.

Geoffrey the Handsome, Count of Anjou, 271, 272, 273, 274, 295, 304.

Geoffrey, Abbot (of Vendôme), 271, 272, 337, =436=.

Gerard, Bishop (of Angoulême), 291 292.

Gerbert (Sylvester II), 171, 194.

Germanic influences on French architecture, 21, 48, 81, 84, 109, 124, 142, 164, 243, 336, 347, 449, 567, 580, 588.

Germany, architecture in, 27, 77, 81, 99, 223, 288, 307, 464, 569. _See_ Rhenish school.

Gerona (Catalonia), 380, 386.

Gerson, Chancellor Jean, =143=, 242, 247, 264, 534.

Giotto, 29, 267, 402.

Glaber, Raoul (chronicler), 22, 414, 458.

Glass, stained: XII-century, 10, 55, =58-60=, 97, 98, 118, 144, 183, 184, 219, 244, 272, 279, 307, 308, 321; XIII-century, =10=, 59, 97, 98, 101, 118, 143, 145, 146, 172, 180, 184, 185, 186, 219, 234, 252, 262, 278, 321, 449, 450, 511, 519, 539; XIV-century, =98=, 172, 220, 234, 237, 244, 252, 325, 341, 377, 382, 444, =539=, 543; XV-century, 118, 185, 222, 223, 240, 244, 253, 265, 277, 350, 520, 540, 541, 569; XVI-century, 51, 98, 144, 220, 223, 228, 233, 234, 235, 238, 239, 240, 244, 254, 264, 307, 374, 451, 513, 535, 539, 541; XVII-century, 224, 234, 240; grisaille glass, 172, 237, 431, 450, 540, 543; _camaïeu_ glass, 144, 239, 243; abrasion, 540; quarries, 540; Creation windows, 239, 240, 451; Crucifixion windows, 10, 32, 243, 39, 237, 322, 520; New Alliance windows, 97, 185, 219, 220, 253, 260, 262, 424; Jesse Tree windows, 59, 183, 228, 234, 238, 240, 253, 278, 517, 541; _Pressoir_ windows, 238, 240, 541; Renaissance glass, 98, 115, 144, 223, 224, 233, 234, 240, 241, 243, 449, 451, 513, 539, 541.

Glennes (Aisne), 45.

Gloucester, Cathedral of, 482, 487, 519.

_Golden Legend (Legenda Aurea)_, 9, 85, 97, 220, 400.

Gontier, Linard (vitrine artist), 234, 238, 240, 241.

Gothic architecture, 3, 17, 25, 26, 27, 29, 36, 113, 123, 202, 246, 426, 459, 575, 576, 578; birth of, 42-52, 55, 123; definition of, 16, 17, 22, 26, 31, 36; first Gothic vaults, 27, 31, 39, 44, 45, 46, 287, 478, 479, 481; sporadic examples of early Gothic vaults, 31, 48, 351, 355, 361, 384, 387, 389, 437; Gothic schools in France, 211; structural development of Gothic, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 55, 56, 81, 82, 100, 110, 115, 116, 124, 127, 131, 138, 150, 229, 237, 377, 479, 514; ending of Gothic art, 576, 577, 578; neo-classic contempt for Gothic, 36, 114, 130, 187, 308, 424, 450.

Goujon, Jean (sculptor), 515, 517.

Grandlieu (Loire-Inférieure), 224.

Gregory the Great, Pope, 181, 426.

Gregory VII, Pope, 22, 34, 250, 364, 412, 415, 416, 422, 508, 545, 546.

Gregory X, Pope, 267, 268.

Gregory XI, Pope, 335, 387, 388.

Gregory of Tours, Bishop, 248, 249, 304, 331, 332, 336, 399.

Grenoble (Izère), Church of St. Laurent, 225, 343.

Grosseteste, Robert (Bishop of Lincoln), 134, 263.

Guéranger, Dom Prosper, 280, 281, 321.

Guérin, Bishop (of Senlis), 86, 87.

Guildsmen donors and artisan artists, mediæval, 6, 7, 8, 25, 34, 55, 57, 58, 62, 79, 98, 102, 103, 141, 143, 184, 186, 210, 219, 220, 222, 228, 233, 234, 235, 239, 240, 241, 244, 253, 275, 278, 284, 415, 422, 430, 435, 439, 464, 478, 503, 514, 540, 550, 558, 578, 580, 581.

Guillaume of the White Hands, Archbishop (of Rheims), 94, 118, 176, 194.

Guillaume VIII, Duke of Aquitaine, 318, 351; Guillaume IX, 291, 298, 318, 323, 351; Guillaume X, 292, 298, 319, 321, 354.

Guimiliau (Finistère), 561.

Guingamp (Côtes-du-Nord), 557, 559, 560, 562.

Guizot, 36, 103, 296, 297, 536.

H

Haimon, Abbot, 174, 491, 492.

Halberstadt, Cathedral of, 3, 77.

Hambye Abbey (Manche), ruins of, 473, 554.

Hanoteau, Gabriel, 400, 503, 521.

Harcourt family, 529, 540, 546, 548.

Harding, Abbot Stephen (of Cîteaux), 4, 41, 431, 462, =463=, 464.

Harfleur (Seine-Inférieure), 492, 494, 529.

Harold II, king of England, 549, 550.

Haslin, Nicolas (sculptor), 240.

Hastings, =1066=, battle of, 545, 549, 552.

Héloïse, 133, 419.

Henry I, of England, 234, 295, 304, 485, 492, 494, 537, 546.

Henry II, Plantagenet, 5, 10, 67, 68, 91, 93, 94, 153, 250, 269, 271, 273, 274, 275, 290, 293, 295, 296, 298, 304, 312, 317, 319, 320, 321, 326, 348, 351, 433, 434, 495, 498, 502, 511, 531, 532, 550, 556.

Henry III of England, 154, 293, 352, 434, 485.

Henry V of England, 476, 483, 490, 505, 529, 534.

Henry VI of England, 143, 265, 266.

Henry VII, Tudor, 573.

Henry VIII, 416, 435, 518.

Henry II of France, 67, 144, 172.

Henry IV of France, 69, 147, 185, 219, 241, 255, 265, 266, 425.

Herlouin, Abbot (of Bec), 373.

Hilary, St. (Bishop of Portiers), 10, 317, 318, 321, 323, 324, 344, 364.

_Histoire Littéraire de la France_, 41, 55, 150, etc. _See_ Bibliography.

Hoël, Bishop (of Le Mans), 269, 270, 278, 280, 337.

Holbein, 221.

Holycross Abbey (Co. Tipperary), 3.

Honnecourt, Villard de, 34, 38, 101, 102, 122, 190, 280, =282=, =284=, 553.

Hospitals, mediæval, 80, 86, 96, 298, 310, 311, 323, 426, 427.

Hugh, St. (Bishop of Lincoln), 194, 263.

Huguenots. _See_ Sixteenth-century religious wars.

Hugues, St. (Abbot of Cluny), 22, 34, 270, 337, 414, 416, 417, 421, 440.

Hugues de St. Victor. _See_ Paris, Abbey of St. Victor.

Humbert, Albéric de, 6, 41, 139, =189=, 370, 371.

Hundred Years' War, 52, 69, 71, 72, 73, 97, 108, 165, 221, 225, 227, 228, 252, 327, 347, 368, 371, 378, 447, 455, =489=, =490=, 499, 503, 505, 506, 507, 509, 538, 570, 571, 573.

Hungary, 280, 284.

Huysmans, J. K., 100, 128, 144, 170, 280, 284, 321, 415, 460.

Hymns, mediæval, 128, 130, 135, 238, 261, 317, 345, 468.

I

Ile-de-France, 12, 24, 30, 31, 44, 45, 46, 49, 78, 113, 114, 141, 211, 225, 242, 269, 275, 276, 285, 337, 478, 479, 482, 494, 495, 514, 543, 547, 564.

_Imitation of Christ_, 143, 263, 470, 503, 535.

Ingeborg of Denmark, 80, 94.

Innocent II, Pope, 79, 291, 417, 423, 437.

Innocent III, Pope, 41, 95, 110, 134, 135, 138, 139, 206, 234, 299, 364, 369, 370, 385, 392, 394, 404, 465.

Innocent IV, Pope, 264, 278, 327, 419.

Innocent VI, Pope (Avignon), 267, 278, 335, 374, 408.

Innsbruck, tomb of Maximilian I in, 264.

Inquisition, the, 364, 368, 371.

Ipres, 2, 110, 193, 242.

Ireland, 5, 153, 155, 404, 411, 463, 464, 498.

Irenæus, St. (Bishop of Lyons), 5, 257, 258.

Irish missionaries, 4, 22, 410, 411, 449, 463, 480, 498, 560, 574.

Isabeau of Bavaria, 233, 327.

Isabelle of Angoulême, 193, 293, 297, 313, 326.

_Isaias_, 9, 234.

Issoire (Puy-de-Dôme), 340.

Italian influences in France, 67, 144, 239, 240, 241, 243, 255, 279, 324, 361, 373, 374, 375, 384, 456, 466, 474, 478, 479, 493, 497, 555, 564.

Italy, Gothic in, 10, 23, 28, 29, 38, 61, 185, 261, 345, 381, 411, 431, 464, =465=, 479, 554, 555.

J

Jacquemart-André, Mme., 89.

Jaime el Conquistador, 267, 280, 334, 385, 386.

James, St., 185, 222, 250, 451.

James, Henry, 218.

Jarenton, Abbot (of St. Bénigne, Dijon), 337, 414, 458.

Jean le Bon, king of France, 308, 309, 327, 454.

Jean sans Peur, Duke of Burgundy, 143, 264, 265, 452, 523, 534.

Jeanne d'Arc, St., 13, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 87, 143, 152, 162, 166, 167, 168, 191, 192, 197, 201, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 233, 247, 254, 255, 296, 298, 315, 328, 338, 355, 356, 447, 448, 455, 476, 483, 497, 504, 505, 506, 508, 509, 520, =521-531=, 533, 534, 535, 536, 544, 548, 555, 577.

Jeanne of Navarre and Champagne, 119, 120, 162, 166, 167, 232, 246, 247, 538.

Jeannin, Président, 423, 425.

Jerome, St., 9, 182, 444.

Jerusalem, 119, 142, 145, 154, 157, 274, 304, 311, 410, 485, 500, 508, 560, 561, 581.

Jesse Tree windows. _See_ Glass, stained.

Jesus Christ, iconography of, 98, 120, 137, 142, 180, 183, 195, 199, 207, 208, 239, 240, 241, 288, 292, 317, 321, 322, 361, 373, 423, 438, 450, 520, 540, 560, 561, 574.

Jews in the Middle Ages, 12, 247, 336, 379, 408, 463, 468, 490.

_Job, Book of_, 217, 233.

Joffre, General, 198, 375.

John the Baptist, St., 146, 182, 210, 259, 347, 366, 408, 438, 441.

John the Evangelist, St., 9, 68, 204, 217, 219, 257, 259, 262, 281, 294, 310, 361, 396, 438, 441.

John Lackland, king of England, 275, 293, 297, 298, 299, 308, 313, 487, 503, 511, 537, 564.

John XXII, Pope, 264, 288, 289, 387, 407.

Johnson, Lionel, 165.

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 294, 431.

Joinville, Jean, Sire de, 41, 70, 111, 119, 120, 138, 140, =152-162=, 166, 190, 206, 219, 244, 245, 246, 247, 306, 312, 313, 326, 342, 399, 553.

Jouarre (Seine-et-Marne), crypt of, 168, 225, 411.

Joubert, J., 290.

_Jubé_, or rood screen, 239, 244, 247, 347, 373, 558, 560.

Judith of Brittany, Duchess of Normandy, 501.

Juliot, the (sculptors of Troyes), 235, 240, 241.

Jumièges (Seine-Inférieure), ruins of, 23, 116, 224, 411, 415, =480-483=, 496, 509.

Juste, the (sculptors), 67, 564, 565.

K

Kensington Museum, 353.

Kernascleden (Morbihan), 559.

Keystones of Gothic vaults, 37, 48, 104, 150, 166, 301, 314, 444, 513.

Koran, the, 419.

Kreisker Tower, the. _See_ St. Pol-de-Léon.

L

Lacordaire, J. B. H. D., 128, 430, 453, 462.

Lady chapel, 52, 203, 498, 515, 533, 540, 555, 569.

Lafayette family, burial place of, 335.

Lafenestre, George, 484.

La Ferté-Milon (Seine-et-Marne), 534.

Laffaux (Aisne), 45.

La Fontaine, 242.

Laic theory, the, 32, 100.

Lamartine, Alphonse de, 445.

Lamballe (Côtes-du-Nord), 559.

Lambin, Émile. _See_ Bibliography.

Lamoricière, General de, 568.

Lampaul (Finistère).

Landrieux, Monseigneur, 188, 199.

Langeais (Indre-et-Loire), 566.

Langlois, Jean (architect), 237.

Langres (Haute-Marne), 424, 526.

Langrune (Calvados), 526.

Langton, Archbishop Stephen, 11, 41, 134, 432.

Languedoc, 11, 23, 24, 42, 356, 357, 361, 362, 365, 368, 370, 380, 384, 387; Romanesque school of, 24, 28, 360, 361; Romanesque sculpture of, 360, 361.

Lannion (Côtes-du-Nord), 557.

Laon (Aisne), 102, 103, 104, 106, 531; Cathedral of, 7, 12, 32, 40, 74, 75, 76, 77, =99-106=, 575, 581; its glass and sculpture, 101; its façade, 105; St. Martin, 105, 106; Templar's church, 99, 106.

Laon, Anselm de, 104, 474, 512.

La Roche-Maurice (Finistère), 560.

Lasteyrie, Comte Robert de. _See_ Bibliography.

Last Judgment, representation of, 147, 181, 195, 199, 217, 218, 375, 423, 426, 564.

Lateran, Church of the, 387; 4th Council of, 189, 206, 370.

Latin influences and vestiges in French art, 4, 9, 11, 18, 19, 21, 28, 30, 61, 193, 249, 257, 263, 270, 318, 336, 353, 384, 388, 389, 394, 398, 399, 400, 401, 403, 416, 418, 422, 424, 479, 507, 577, 579, 580.

La Trappe (Orne), Souligny, 418, 542.

Laurana, Francisco (sculptor), 279, 406.

Laurence, St., 224, 283.

Lavardin, Hildebert de, 41, 250, 269, 270, 271, 272, 275, 279.

Lavisse, Ernest, 76.

Lay-Ecclesiastic Controversy, the, 91, 94, 154, 173, 260, 267, 271, 282, 340, 432, 433, 434, 441, 475, 532, 556.

Lazarus, 395, 396, 424, 428, 436, 501, 580.

Le Braz, Anatole, 556, 568.

Lecuyer, Jean (vitrine artist), 223, 224.

Lefèvre-Pontalis, Eugène. _See_ Bibliography.

Le Mans (Sarthe), 10, 274, 279, 349, 406, 454, 541; Cathedral of, 13, 59, 125, 211, 212, 255, =268-279=, 304, 315, 321, 351, 553; glass of, 59, 220, 276, 277, 278; St. Julien du Pré and the Couture church, 278, 280; Henry II of England in Le Mans, 274.

Lenoncourt, Robert de (Archbishop of Rheims), 118, 198, 255.

Leo IX, Pope, 117, 542.

Leo XIII, Pope, 130, 385, 422, 521.

Leon, Cathedral of, 3, 242.

Le Pot, Nicolas, 51, 228.

Le Prince, Engrand (and sons, vitrine artists), 51, 144, 228, 517.

Le Puy (Haute-Loire), 342, 371, 566; Cathedral of, =343=, =344=, 345; St. Michel d'Aiguille, 343.

Lerens, Island of, 411.

Le Roux, Rouland (architect), 307, 498, 518, 519.

Les Andelys (Seine-Inférieure), 512, =513=, 520.

Les Iff (Ille-et-Vilaine), 541, 559.

Les Noès (Aube), 238.

Les Saintes-Mariés (Bouches-du-Rhône), 239, =395=, 396, 397.

Lessay (Manche), 473, 493, 512, 554.

Lèves, Geoffrey de (Bishop of Chartres), 60, =170=, =173=, =174=, 181, 319, 361, 362, 469.

Liebnitz, 414.

Ligugé (Vienne), 321.

Lille (Nord), 226.

Limoges (Haute-Vienne), Cathedral of, 203, 334, =345-348=, 380, 407, 408, 539; St. Martial, 336, 345, 346, 348; enamels of, 172, 341, 345, 349.

Lincoln, Cathedral of, 31, 134, 194, 298, 449, 516, 532.

Lincoln, St. Hugh of, 194, 263, 296.

Lisieux (Calvados), Cathedrals of, 113, 531-536; St. Jacques, 518, 535.

Litchfield, Cathedral of, 516.

Literature in the Middle Ages, 4, 7, 9, 18, 31, 135, 150, 400; XI-century, 106, 133, 171, 173, 195, 304, 318, 415, 417, 422, 424, 430, 432, =450=, =461=, 466, 474, 475, 478, 500, 501, 545, 549; XII-century, 57, 116, 131, 133, 135, 174, 175, 176, 250, 270, 272, 273, 318, 345, 348, 398, 418, 419, 502, 537, 545; XIII-century, 9, 119, 130, 131, 132, 135, 140, 158, 161, 166, 231, 232, 236, 238, 245, 246, 267, 334, 396; XIV-century, 210, 287, 407, 551; XV-century, 516, 517, 529, 565.

Loches (Indre-et-Loire), 44, 254; Beaulieu-lès-Loches, 254.

Loctudy (Finistère), 557.

Loire, the, 10, 247, 254, 255, 304, 449, 565, 566.

Lombard architecture, 17, 24, 28, 29, 32, 44, 478, 479, 481, 493; influences of, 28, 247, 360, 384, 395, 478, 481, 486, 493, 495.

Lombard, Pierre, 133, 134.

London, 486, 491, 517.

Longpont (Aisne), Abbey of, 107, 147, 431.

Longueil, Olivier de (Bishop of Coutances), 555.

Loti, Pierre, 199, 200, 561.

Lotte, Joseph, 499, 536.

Louis VI, 61, 122, 151.

Louis VII, 57, 60, 62, 70, 79, 84, 137, 138, 174, 245, 248, 250, 298, 299, 317, 351, 439.

Louis VIII, 69, 86, 96, 262.

Louis IX, St. Louis, 5, 9, 12, 14, 41, 52, 53, 54, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 86, 96, 106, 107, 118, 132, 135, 140, 143, 145, =152-162=, 177, 184, 185, 193, 206, 218, 232, 248, 283, 299, 309, 310, 313, 314, 327, 334, 336, 375, 378, 390, 410, 435, 441, 489, 514, 538, 553, 579, 593.

Louis XI, 247, 255, 265, 309, 314, 452, 504, 540.

Louis XII, 67, 89, 96, 97, 373, 497, 534, 558, 565, 566.

Louis XIV, 70, 384, 405.

Louis XV and Louis XVI, 70.

Louis-Philippe, 66, 157.

Loup, St. (Bishop of Troyes), 231.

Loutil, Abbé (Pierre l'Hermite), 129.

Louviers (Eure), 518, 536.

Lowell, James Russell, 100, 170.

Loyola, St. Ignatius, 151.

Lozinga, Herbert (Bishop of Norwich), 494, 496.

Luce, Siméon, 490, 499, 520, 526, 557.

Lugo, Cathedral of, 465.

Lusarches, Robert de (sculptor), 204, 205, 248.

Luxeuil (Haute-Saône), monastery of, 122, 410, =411=, 483.

Lyénin, family of (vitrine artists), 233, 234, 241.

Lyons, 13, 39, 336, 400; Cathedral of, =211=, 212, 220, 248, =256-268=; Councils of, 263, 267, 268, 456; glass and sculpture of, 262, 263, 264, 265; St. Martin d'Ainay, 225, 259, 260.

M

Mabillon, Dom, 149, 418, 461.

Macadré family, the (sculptors), 233, 234, 240.

Mâcon, Hugues de (Bishop of Auxerre), 431, 447.

Magdeburg, Cathedral of, 2, 3, 77.

_Magna Charta_, 1215, 11, 12, 15, 432.

Maguelonne (Hérault), 11, 28, 330, =384=, 388, 389.

Maine, Province of, 269, 271, 274, 302.

Maine de Biran, 579.

Maistre, Joseph de, 222, 411.

Malachy, O'Morgair, St., 4, 41, 463, 498.

Mâle, Émile. _See_ Bibliography.

Manchon, secretary of Jeanne d'Arc's trial, 523, 524, 525, 526.

Mansurah, =1250=, battle of, 8, 111, 155, 156, 159, 453.

Mantegna, 341.

Mantes (Seine-et-Oise), Collegiate of Notre Dame at, 113, =162-165=, 488; its Chapel of Navarre, 164, 538, 539.

Marbeau, Monseigneur (Bishop of Meaux), 168.

Marburg, Church of St. Elizabeth at, 112, 122, 280, 313.

Marcherez, Madame Jeanne, 112.

Marguerite of Austria, 264.

Marguerite of Burgundy, 295, 427.

Marguerite of Flanders, 454, 455.

Marguerite of Provence, 96, 153, 154, 390.

Marie Antoinette, 70.

Marie of Champagne, Countess, 245, 299.

Maritain, Jacques, 224.

Marle, Thomas de, 102, 103.

Marmoutier (Indre-et-Loire), 251, 387, 400, 402.

Marolles (Oise), 45.

Marseilles, 28, 400, 401; St. Victor's abbatial, 387.

Martha, St., 239, 240, 247, 281, 395, 396, 403, 424.

Martin, St., 5, 9, 148, 185, 248, 249, 250, 253, 304, 315, 316, 321, 324, 446.

Martin, Thérèse, the "Little Flower," 535, 536.

Marville, Jean de, 456, 520.

Mary of Burgundy, 264.

Mary Magdalene, 239, 240, 247, 254, 281, 353, 395, 396, 401, 402, 424, 436, 441, 442.

Matha, St. Jean de, 139, 404, 405.

Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, 216, 295, 482, 484, 485, 486, 546, 549.

Massillon, Bishop, 335, 365.

Maulbronn, Cistercian church of, 464.

Maurice and the Theban Legion, St., 5, 248, 303, 304.

Maurille, Archbishop (of Rouen), 482, 485, 510, 511.

Meaux (Seine-et-Marne), Cathedral of, 96, 152, =165-168=, 247, 538.

Mellifont Abbey (Co. Louth), 3, 464.

Melrose Abbey (Roxburghshire), 3, 464.

Mende (Cantal), Cathedral of, 330, =387=.

Merimée, Prosper, 38, 285, 312, 321, 331, 341, 343, 370, 373, 383, 395.

Merovingian vestiges and times, 20, 56, 57, 77, 78, 84, 171, 224, 225, 249, 305, 324, 325, 470, 471, 480.

Metz (Lorraine), 226, 242.

Mézerai, François Eudes de, 298, 519, 520.

Mézières (Ardennes), 226.

Michael, St., 330, 343, 372, 499, 500, 504, 505, 520, 522, 553.

Michael Angelo, 183, 374.

Midi, Gothic in the, 329, 330, 346, 354, 377, 380, 386, 398, 402, 407, 408; Romanesque in the, 25, 329, 330, 337, 339, 340, 342, 355, 359, 360, 371, 376, 381, 398, 403, 406.

Milan, 3, 28, 29, 338, 384, 464, 465, 466.

Military orders, 86, 106, 189, 246, 311, 326, 466, 504.

Missions in the Middle Ages, foreign, 327, 369, 386, 404, 405, 415, 419.

Mistral, Frédéric, 356, 357, 384, 397, 400, 466, 504, 581.

Modena, Cathedral of, 273, 361, 374, 395.

Moissac (Tarn-et-Garonne), 24, 28, 31, 288, 330, 360, 361, 415.

Moles, Arnaud de, 358, 374.

Molière, 36, 370.

Moncontour (Ille-et-Vilaine), 559.

Monk-builders, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25, 33, 34, 280, 295, 360, 361, 365, 371, 392, 410, 411, 412, 413, 415, 416, 417, 422, 437, 440, 473, 475, 481, 493, 494, 496, 498, 502, 554.

Montaigne, 350, 451.

Montaigu, Gilles Aycelin de, 381, 515.

Montalembert, Charles de, 237, 256, 280, 411, 414, 476.

Montbard (Côte-d'Or), 430, 453.

Montboissier, Pons de (Abbot of Vézelay), 338, 341, 418, 438, 439; Peter de. _See_ Peter the Venerable.

Montecorvino, John of, 326, 327.

Monteil, Adhémar de (Bishop of Le Puy), 344, 345.

Montereau, Pierre de (architect), 35, 53, 66, 70, 141, 146, 149, 150, 280, 299.

Montfort, Bertrada de, 173, 295, 323, 549.

Montfort, Simon de, 14, 353, 357, 362, 369, 370, 376, 383, 386.

Montfort-l'Amaury (Seine-et-Oise), 144.

Montier-en-Der (Haute-Marne), 239.

Montmajour-lès-Arles, 398, 399, 400.

Montmorency (Seine-et-Oise), 144; art patrons, 144, 254, 347, 390, 408, 559.

Montpellier (Hérault), 369, =385-387=; Cathedral of, 384, 385, 386; le Perou, 385, 400, 407.

Montréal (Yonne), 121, 428, 429.

Mont-Saint-Michel, 22, 34, 226, 322, 371, 435, 473, 482, 483, 487, 495, =499-507=, 527, 529, 551, 554, 559; the Merveille, 503.

Mont-Sainte-Odile (Alsace), 485.

Montvilliers (Seine-Inférieure), 491, 555.

Morel, Jacques (sculptor), 254, 265, 266, 308, 456.

Morlaix (Finistère), 559, 560.

Mortagne, Gautier de (Bishop of Laon), 105.

Mortain (Manche), Abbey of La Blanche, 473, 554.

Moses, 182, 438, 455.

Mouliherne (Seine-et-Loire), 315.

Moulins (Allier), 226, =265=, =266=, 322, 541.

Mowbray, Geoffrey de (Bishop of Coutances), 552.

Mozac (Puy-de-Dôme), 340, =341=, 349.

Musset, Alfred de, 16.

Mussy-sur-Seine (Aube), 239.

Mystery plays, influence on sculpture of, 180, 223, 281, 455, 540, 578.

N

Nantes (Loire-Inférieure), Cathedral of, 255, 256, 557, 558, 563, =565-568=.

Naples, Gothic in, 465.

Napoleon, 70, 259, 420, 446.

Narbonne (Aude), 368, 378, 408; Cathedral of, 11, 203, 330, 336, 357, 364, =378-382=, 390, 515, 539.

Narthex, or forechurch, 18, 57, 419, 424, 427, 436, 437, 457, 460, 532.

Navarre, 167, 232, 237.

Navas de Toloso, Las, 115, 153, 385, 538.

Neale, Rev. John Mason, 19, 214, 414, 421, 451.

Nemours, Pierre de (Bishop of Noyon), 80, 139, 243.

Nevers (Nièvre), Cathedral of, 413, =449=, 566; St. Étienne, 215, 254, 340, 495.

New Alliance windows. _See_ Glass, stained.

Newman, Cardinal, 123.

Niçaise, St., 193, 194, 202.

Nicolas of Bari, St., 185, 239, 451.

Nîmes (Gard), 397, 400.

Nolasco, St. Peter, 369, 386.

Nonancourt (Eure), 536.

Norbert, St., 2, 4, 104, 467.

Normandy, 40, 223, 226, 242, 274, =472-556=; Gothic of, 494, 499, 504, 505, 508, 518, 533, 543, 547, 553, 554; first Gothic vaults of, 30, 46, 478, 479, 493, 554; sexpartite vaults of, 481, 482; Romanesque school of, 17, 23, 30, =476-480=, 481, 485, 486, 493, 502, 546, 554; architectural influences of, 11, 46, 48, 163, 165, 276, 479, 555; monasteries of, 372, 373, 374, 480, 484, 492, 494, 498, 499, 554; Normans in Sicily, 132, 542, 552, =554=, 555; Norse invasions, 20, 21, 171, 324, 336, 477, 483, 495, 501, 510.

Norrey (Calvados), 491.

Norwich, Cathedral of, 430, 487, 496.

Notre Dame, the term, 565; devotion to, 5, 126, 137, 138, 169, 170, 193, 343, 344, 404, 465, 511, 564, 571, 572; iconography of, 85, 101, 123, 137, 138, 180, 182, 193, 208, 209, 240, 242, 244, 278, 280, 282, 342, 361, 362, 373, 541.

Notre-Dame-de-l'Épine (Marne), 242, 244.

Noyes, Alfred., 282.

Noyon (Oise), Cathedral of, 12, 33, 74, 75, 76, 78-84, 99, 112; commune of, 12, 79; World War havoc in, 2, 76, 82, 83.

O

Odilo. St. (Abbot of Cluny), 266, 414, =422=.

Odo de Conteville (Bishop of Bayeux), 337, 545, 546, 547, 549, 552.

Orbais (Marne).

Orbais, Jean d' (architect), 34, 190, 191, 192.

Orcival (Puy-de-Dôme), 340.

Ordericus Vitalis, 272, 492, 537.

Orders, mediæval religious, 414, 420; Trinitarians, or Mathurins, 401, 405; Order of Mercy, 369, 386. _See_ Carthusians, Cistercians, Cluny, Dominicans, Franciscans, Fontevrault, Prémontré.

Orgeval (Seine-et-Oise), 45.

Oriflamme of St. Denis, the, 61, 70, 71.

Orléans (Loiret), 2, 328, 504, 521, 526, 527, 529, 533; Cathedral of, 2, 7, 218, 224, 254; family of, 499.

Orléans, Charles d', 67, 315, 497, 516, 517, 529, 534, 565.

Orléans, Louis, Duke d', 67, 143, 497, =534=.

O'Toole, St. Laurence, 498, 499.

Ourscamp (Oise), hospital and abbey of, =80=, 96, 150, 431.

Oxford, 327, 407, 434, 516, 519.

Ozanam, Frédéric, 135, 259, 268, 508.

P

Palermo, 549, 555.

Papacy in the Middle Ages, the, 22, 23, 79, 91, 95, 135, 154, 171, 177, 194, 206, 239, 240, 243, 266, 267, 268, 291, 337, 388, 364, 367, 369, 370, 385, 386, 387, 388, 392, 393, 407, 408, 409, 411, 412, 416, 419, 466, 468, 489, 501, 578.

Paray-le-Monial (Allier), 410, =421=, =422=.

Paris, 7, 82, 126, 133, 317, 419, 445, 513, 527, 530; Cathedral of Notre Dame, 3, 6, 7, 13, 33, 41, 59, 74, 85, 99, 100, 112, =126-146=, 163, 167, 181, 182, 204, 213, 215, 228, 229, 290, 413, 416, 434, 489, 554, 575; Flamboyant Gothic churches in, 144; glass, school of, 59, 143, 145, 146, 252, 334; Hôtel Cluny, 53, 97, 222, 335, 373, 421; Hôtel Sens, 97; Louvre, the, 425, 426; Montmartre, church of St. Pierre de, 56, =148=, =151=, and Sacré-Coeur basilica of, 151, 292; Sainte-Chapelle, the, 132, 145, 146, 203, 205, 229, 252, 334, 538; St. Germain-des-Prés, 33, 34, 148, 149, 415; St. Germain l'Auxerrois, 152, 446; St. Julien-le-Pauvre, 147, 431; St. Martin-des-Champs, 33, 45, =148=, 150; St. Séverin, 152, 541; St. Victor, Abbey of, 133, 134, 135, 468; sculpture of, 131, 132, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 146, 147, 149; Trocadéro Museum, 38, 244, 340, 353; University of, 7, 41, 104, 133, 134, 147, 294, 327, 404, 408, 428, 434, 463, 469, 474, 476, 521, 524, 530, 534, 573.

Paris, Gaston, 135, 152, 242, 245, 565.

Parthenay (Deux-Sèvres), 321, 340.

Pascal, 331, 332.

Paschal II, Pope, 173, 250, 259, 261, 266, 291, 295, 415, 417, 428, 458.

Pasquier, Étienne, 521.

Passavent, Guillaume de (Bishop of Le Mans), 269, 272, 273, 274, 275.

Pasteur, Louis, 428.

Pater, Walter, 170, 432, 578.

Patrick, St., 446, 536, 537.

Paul, St., 9, 95, 208, 217, 273, 387, 389, 399, 442, 466, 567.

Paul, St. Vincent de, 151, 259, 402, 508.

Pavia (Lombardy), 437.

Péguy, Charles, 72, 73, 168, 179, 197, 536, 545.

Peking, 327.

Penafort, St. Raymond of, 369.

Penmarc'h (Finistère), 560, 561.

Pépin, 57.

Périgieux (Dordogne), Cathedral of St. Front, 47, =288-290=., 291, 465.

Péronne (Somme), 82, 124, 226, 411.

Perpignan (Pyrénées Orientales), 382.

Perréal, Jean, 264, 568.

Peter, St., 9, 103, 148, 182, 186, 208, 218, 273, 317, 387, 388, 389, 399, 416, 438, 482, 565, 567.

Peter of Aragon, 385.

Peter the Venerable, 41, 60, 152, 174, 243, 341, 393, =414=, 417, =418=, =419=, 435, 438, 463, 467.

Peterborough, Cathedral of, 482, 487, 562.

Petrarch, 239, 386, 406, 408.

Philibert, St., 413, 483.

Philippe I, king of France, 51, 173, 295, 323, 549.

Philippe-Auguste, 12, 14, 53, 54, 60, 62, 69, 70, 80, 94, 96, 108, 135, 136, 162, 163, 177, 194, 195, 234, 251, 267, 274, 275, 280, 309, 310, 340, 432, 440, 489, 503, 511, 513, 525, 537, 538.

Philippe III, the Bold, 67, 71, 247, 338, 375, 390, 408.

Philippe IV, le Bel, 13, 326, 489, 538.

Philippe le Hardi, Duke of Burgundy, 220, 232, 264, 353, 443, 452, 454; tomb of, 455.

Philippe le Bon, Duke of Burgundy, 426, 427, 452, 527.

Picardy, 202, 203, 210, 503.

Pierrefonds (Oise), 534.

Piers, development of, 23, 24, 25, 26, 49, 55, 93, 100, 111, 122, 127, 166, 213, 214, 320, 333, 346, 358, 377, 380, 402, 514, 532.

Pilasters, channeled, 416, 422, 424.

Pilgrim shrines, mediæval, 6, 94, 157, 179, 185, 249, 250, 289, 324, 325, 343, 395, 436, 437, 498, 500, 551.

Pilon, Germain (sculptor), 68, 278.

Pinaigrier (vitrine artist), 149, 254.

Pisa, 417, 460.

Pisano, Niccola, 29.

Pius IX, Pope, 377.

Pius X, Pope, 188.

Plantagenet Gothic, 10, 39, 113, 250, 273, 275, 278, =291-301=, 307, 311, 312, 314, 315, 317, 351.

Plantagenet tombs, the, 293, 296, 297.

Plato, 132, 169, 475.

Plélan (Ille-et-Vilaine), 541.

Pleyben (Finistère), 561.

Ploërmel (Morbihan), 559.

Plougastel-Daoulas (Finistère), 561.

Plougonven (Finistère), 561.

Poblet (Catalonia), Monastery of, 380, 381, 464.

Poissy (Seine-et-Oise), 45, =53=, =54=, 574.

Poitiers, 40, 221, 255, 286, 318, 324, 325, 327, 328, 454; Cathedral of, 10, 57, 279, 312, =316-322=; Baptistry of St. Jean, 225; Counts of, 298, 318: _see_ Guillaume VIII, IX, and X; glass of, 10, 59, 317, 321, 322; Minerva statue, 325; Montierneuf, 318; Notre Dame-la-Grande, 24, 318, 323; Palais de Justice (Counts' palace), 326, 327, 328; St. Hilaire, 172, 319, 323, 324, 344; Ste. Radégonde, 325, 326, 327, 539; University of, 325.

Poitiers, Alphonse de, 156, 313, 320, 362, 370, 408.

Poitiers, Diane de, 144, 172, 515.

Poitou, 5, 10, 39; Romanesque school of, 24, 38, 291, 311, 316, 319, 320, 321, 323, 355.

Polo, Marco, 299, 327.

Polychrome decoration, 339, =340=, 343.

Pont-Audemer (Eure), 541.

Pont-de-l'Arche (Eure), 536, 539.

Pontigny (Yonne), Cistercian abbatial of, 11, 33, 93, 215, 239, 261, =430-435=, 447.

Pontoise (Seine-et-Oise), 45, =53=, =54=, 57, 65.

Portals, sculptured, 4, 95, 180, 181, 182, 239, 252, 253, 261, 273, 289, 394, 398, 418, 428, 438, 514, 515, 517, 518, 550, 561.

Porter, Arthur Kingsley. _See_ Bibliography.

Portugal, 38, 454.

Pot, Philippe (Seneschal of Burgundy), 144, 425.

Pothimus, St. (Bishop of Lyons), 257, 258, 259.

Prague, 3, 203, 387.

Prémontré, Order of, 34, 104, 122, 468, 543.

Primary Gothic, 68, =74-125=, 75, 76, 77, 108, 109, 110, 113, 114, 125, 303, 306, 440, 494, 508, 511, 580.

_Primitifs_, French, 265, 404.

Prophets and patriarchs, in art, 182, 262, 373, 404, 455.

Provence, 112, 113, 114, 153, 309, 361, 390, 397, 400, 402, 441, 465; Romanesque school of, 23, 24, 398, 403, 405, 406; sculpture of, 361, 392, 394, 395, 398; tradition of the Saintes Maries in, 436, 441.

Provins (Seine-et-Marne), 7, =119-121=, 538; St. Quiriace, 123.

Psichari, Ernest, 168, 572, 574.

Puvis de Chavannes, 216, 259.

Puy-Notre-Dame (Maine-et-Loire), 314, 319.

Q

Quimper (Finistère), Cathedral of, 541, 557, 559, 563, =568-571=.

Quimperlé (Finistère), 31, 557, 560.

R

Races in France, amalgamation of, 4, 5, 21, 135, 248, 378, 388. _See_ Barbarian invasions, Celtic element, Gallo-Romans, and Latin influences.

Racine, 36, 242.

Radegund, Queen, 4, 10, 78, 84, 324, 325, 327.

_Rationale_, or the symbolism of churches, 19, 69, 214, 267, 359, 377, 387, 400, 401.

Raymond IV, of Toulouse, 391.

Raymond VI, of Toulouse, 297, 357, 369, 376, 392, 394.

Raymond VII, 297, 370.

Rayonnant Gothic, 12, 13, 105, 116, 130, 141, 232, 236, 237, 277, 346, 352, 353, 354, 380, 497, 508, 509, 514, 515, 516, 538, 543, 548, 573, 577.

Rebirth of architecture after the year 1000, 20, 22, 422, 458, 575.

Reclus, O., 498.

Redon (Ille-et-Vilaine), 256, 268.

Regnault, Guillaume (sculptor), 67, 256, 568.

Remigius, St., 118, 191, 194. _See_ Rheims, Church of St. Remi.

Renaissance, the classic, 10, 152, 179, 180, 228, 239, 240, 243, 246, 279, 281, 282, 295, 306, 374, 375, 406, 483, 489, 497, 513, 515, 541, 560, 564, 566, 567, 568, 577.

Renan, Ernest, 27, 258, 462, 572, 574.

René, King, of Anjou, 221, 222, 277, 279, 305, 308, 309, 314, 402, 404, 540.

Revolution, devastation by the French, 2, 34, 69, 81, 122, 139, 144, 149, 153, 155, 209, 221, 239, 240, 241, 243, 249, 265, 266, 279, 308, 336, 347, 348, 358, 363, 374, 393, 420, 421, 423, 455, 457, 461, 497, 515, 519, 548, 554, 556, 573, 577.

Rheims (Marne), 2, 6, 10, 32, 40, 61, 77, 153, 197-201, 425, 527, 538; Cathedral of, 34, 122, =188-201=, 209, 211, 242, 244, 284, 475, 581; its sculpture, 6, 192, 193, 195, 196, 204, 208; St. Remi, 7, 33, 74, 76, 77, 105, 109, =116-119=, 121, 196, 242, 322, 415, 575; World War devastation by, 2, 76, 196, =197-202=, 581.

Rhenish school, the, 24, 27, 28, 164, 177, 449.

Rhuis (Oise), 45.

Richard I, the Fearless, Duke of Normandy, 495, 501.

Richard II, the Good, Duke of Normandy, 485, 492, 495, 501, 502, 510.

Richard Coeur-de-Lion, 10, 14, 177, 245, 251, 267, 269, 274, 279, 293, 296, 297, 298, 299, 304, 319, 340, 348, 351, 440, 491, 511, 513, 514, 537, 538.

Richelieu, 282, 289.

Riom (Puy-de-Dôme), 340, =341=, 342, 387, 541; Virgin of the Bird, the, 342, 490, 577.

Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, 544, 545, 554.

Roc-amadour (Lot), 289.

Rochester, Cathedral of, 482, 485.

Rodez (Aveyron), Cathedral of, 203, 226, 330, 370, 374, 577.

Rodin, Auguste, 114, 172, 189, 196, 215, 250, 272, 278, 390, 472, 575.

_Roland, Chanson de_, 106, 184, 194, 246, 355, 356, 500, 501, 545, 549, 580.

Rolin, Nicolas, 425, =426=, =427=.

Rollo, Duke of Normandy, 477, 482, 503, 510.

Roman centers in Gaul, 9, 91, 379, 398, 424.

Romanesque architecture, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 43, 44, 48, 49, 187, 225, 287, 291, 320, 321, 323, 329, 340, 344, 359, 361, 362, 378, 403, 406, 422, 427, 433, =476-486=, 493, 546, 557, 575; Romanesque sculpture, 51, 288, 291, 292, 361, 480, 546, 547; Romanesque traits in Gothic art, 55, 75, 80, 81, 82, 92, 95, 99, 100, 116, 117, 120, 127, 149, 150, 180, 181, 223, 242, 261, 378, 394, 419, 429, 434, 437, 488, 513, 532, 547, 553, 575.

Rome, 11, 18, 19, 81, 119, 204, 230, 250, 257, 320, 327, 329, 343, 372, 375, 385, 387, 388, 397, 398, 405, 406, 407, 409, 416, 424, 434, 464, 472, 479, 564.

Roncevaux, =778=; battle of, 8, 194, 355, 500, 545, 580.

Roquefort, Pierre de (Bishop of Carcassonne), 377.

Ros, Guillaume de (Abbot of Fécamp), 496, 497.

Roscoff (Finistère), 560.

Rosnay (Aube), 239.

Rostand, Edmond, 391, 559.

Rouen, 10, 13, 33, =507-530=, 535, 538, 554, 558; Cathedral of, 104, 113, 129, 322, 373, 475, 494, 499, =507-520=, 523, 524, 531, 541, 555, 577; Abbatial of St. Ouen, 415, 472, 475, 487, 491, 507, =509=, =516=, 520, 522, 524, 530, 534, 541; Flamboyant towers, 509, 517, 518; Hôtel du Bourgtherould, 519; Palais de Justice, 222, 518; St. Gervais, 510; St. Julien, Petit-Quevilly, 511, 512; St. Maclou, 404, 492, 515, =517=, 541; St. Vincent, 517; sons of, 519; trial of Jeanne d'Arc in, =521-530=.

Rouilly (Aube), 239.

Roullet (Charente), 291.

Rousse, Joseph, 563.

Royal (Puy-de-Dôme), 332.

Rubruquis, William of, 327.

Rue (Somme), 222.

Ruffec (Charente), 291.

Ruskin, John, 1, 3, 15, 208, 209, 556.

S

Sablé (Sarthe), 280, 282.

St. Albans (Hertfordshire), Abbey of, 487.

St. Andre-lès-Troyes (Aube), 238.

St. Astier (Dordogne), 288, 289.

St. Bartholomew Massacre, 1572, the, 425, 566.

St. Benoît-sur-Loire (Loiret), 254, 566.

St. Bertrand-de-Comminges (Haute-Garonne), 354, 406.

St. Brieuc (Côtes-du-Nord), 557, 572.

St. Catherine de Fierbois (Indre-et-Loire), 254.

St. Cher, Cardinal Hugues de, 134.

St. Denis-en-France, Abbey of, 21, 31, 33, 44, 45, 51, 52, =54-72=, 125, 132, 146, 147, 175, 336, 339, 415, 482, 486, 565, 581; built by Abbot Suger, 56, 57, 58, 59, 64; rebuilt by St. Louis, 65, 66; dedicated, 60, 319; its deviated axis, 68; glass of, 55, 58, 59, 60, 64, 66, 183, 184, 279; influence of, 65, 66, 74, 173, 175, 307, 321; tombs of, 66, 67, 68, 153; notable gatherings in, 56, 57, 60, 70.

Ste. Baume (Var), 396.

Sainte-Beuve, Ch. A., 158, 451, 453.

Saintes (Charente-Inférieure), 226, 287, 340.

Saintes-Chapelles, various, 52, 66, 145, 146, 153, 205, 206, 221, 341.

St. Évroult (Orne), 473, 537, 542.

St. Fiacre-du-Faouët (Morbihan), 560.

St. Florent-lès-Saumur (Maine-et-Loire), 314, 315, 566.

St. Florentin (Yonne), 239.

St. Flour (Cantal), 408, 487.

St. Gall, Switzerland, Abbey of, 411.

St. Georges de Boscherville (Seine-Inférieure), 473, =492-494=, 532.

St. Germain-en-Laye (Seine-et-Oise), 53, 66, 235.

St. Germain-sur-Vienne, 314.

St. Germer-en-Flay (Oise), 45, 51, 52, 53, 66.

St. Gildas-de-Rhuis (Morbihan), 557.

St. Gilles (Gard), 11, 24, 31, 323, 330, 388, 390, =391-396=.

St. Guilhem-le-Désert (Hérault), 318, 384.

St. Jean-du-Doigt (Finistère), 558.

St. Jouin-de-Marne (Deux-Sèvres), 224, 321.

St. Julien-du-Sault (Yonne), 98.

St. Léger-lès-Troyes (Aube), 239.

St. Leu d'Esserent (Oise), 45, 46, 74, 76, 113, 121, =123-125=.

St. Lô (Manche), 518, 541, 554.

St. Loup (Aube), 239.

St. Loup-de-Naud (Seine-et-Marne), 120.

St. Maixent (Deux-Sèvres), 225, 321, 415.

St. Malo (Ille-et-Vilaine), 4, 562, 563.

St. Maur, Congregation of, 37, 41, 418, 483, 507, 548.

St. Maximin (Var), 280, 309, 330, =400=, =402=.

St. Mihiel (Meuse), 281.

St. Nectaire (Puy-de-Dôme), 340.

St. Nicolas-du-Port (Meurthe-et-Moselle), 226, 358.

St. Parre-lès-Tertres (Aube), 238.

St. Père-sous-Vézelay (Yonne), 436.

St. Pierre-sur-Dives (Calvados), 33, 473, 491.

St. Pol-de-Léon (Finistère), Cathedral of, 557, 563, 568, =570-572=; the Kreisker Tower, 12, 557, 562.

St. Ponanges (Aube), 239.

St. Quentin (Aisne), 2, 115, 224, 226, 242, =282-284=.

St. Riquier (Somme), 226, 411.

St. Satur (Cher), 254, 566.

St. Saturnin (Puy-de-Dôme), 340.

St. Savin-sur-Gartemps, 320, 321, 415.

St. Thégonnec (Finistère), 561.

St. Vaast-lès-Mello (Oise), 45.

St. Victor's Abbey, Paris, 133, 135; Adam de St. Victor, 133, 134, 468; Hugues de St. Victor, 133, 468; Richard de St. Victor, 133, 135, 468; St. Victor's Abbey at Marseilles, 387, 468.

St. Wandrille (Seine-Inférieure), Abbatial ruins of, 373, 411, 415, 472, 473, 483.

Salamanca, 327, 465.

Salazar, Tristan de (Archbishop of Sens), 97.

Sales, St. François de, 151, 259, 508.

Salisbury, Cathedral of, 434, 516, 532.

Salisbury, John of (Bishop of Chartres), 4, 41, 94, 116, 120, 134, 136, 170, =175=, =176=, 183, 433, 532.

San Galgano (province of Siena), 465.

Sanglier, Henri le, (Archbishop of Sens), 92, 132, 467.

Santa-Creus (Catalonia), 464, 465.

Santayana, George, 169, 170.

Santiago Compostela, 185, 222, 250, 319, 340, 360, 361, 371.

Saracens, 6, 124, 158, 159, 160, 184, 323, 326, 336, 338, 355, 388, 389, 390, 395, 402, 404, 405.

Sarcey, Madame Yvonne, 102.

Saulieu (Côte-d'Or), 410, 423, 429.

Saumur (Marne-et-Loire), 286, 295, =312-316=.

Scandinavia, Gothic in, 324, 412, 464, 465, 477, 479, 480.

Schism of the West, Great, 222, 409, 455, 540; the Greek Schism, 14, 268, 456.

Scholastics, mediæval, 8, 39, 95, 96, 104, 130, 132, 133, 136, 138, 139, 175, 209, 224, 299, 334, 446, 473, 474, 475, 476, 575.

Schools, mediæval, 7, 61, 104, 133, 134, 170, 171, 172, 299, 415, 446, 474, 487, 496.

Sculpture, 6, 8, 11, 35, 37, 39, 126, 167, 454, 560; XI-century, 361, 418, 423, 437, 438; XII-century, 65, 85, 120, 134, 138, 180, 181, 273, 306, 330, 339, 340, 394, 422; XIII-century, 66, 69, 101, 122, 137, 141, 142, 167, 192, 195, 196, 205, 208, 209, 217, 239, 252, 273, 278, 444; XIV-century, 166, 167, 252, 253, 59, 263, 373, 377, 387, 436, 447, 514; XV-century, 67, 167, 181, 209, 247, 263, 281, 282, 327, 406, 429, 454, 566; XVI-century, 10, 67, 180, 210, 218, 233, 255, 256, 265, 278, 280, 281, 322, 327, 342, 373, 404, 490, 515, 577; XVII-century, 210, 518, 560, 561, 567, 568.

Séché, Léon, 556.

Secqueville (Calvados), 491.

Séez (Orne), Cathedral of, 166, 539, =542-544=.

Seignelay, Guillaume de (Bishop of Paris), 32, 139, 446, 447.

Semur-en-Auxois (Côte-d'Or), 413, =443=, =444=.

Senlis (Oise), 14, 33, 40, 74, 77, =84-90=, 99, 425; Cathedral of, 74, 75, 76, 78, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 99, 112, 124, 490, 508; its tower, 76; St. Frambourg, 88; Abbaye de la Victoire; World War devastations, 89, 90.

Sens (Yonne), 91, 99, 433, 532; Cathedral of, 74, 75, 91, 92, 93, 94, 112, 153; glass of, 97, 98, 100; noted archbishops of, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96; St. Louis in, 96; St. Thomas Becket in, 91, 93, 95.

Sens, Guillaume de (architect), 30, 93, 94, 532.

Sévigné, Madame de, 398, 453.

Seville, 185, 299.

Shakespeare, 4, 5, 159, 162.

Sibyls in French art, the, 98, 224, 228, 238, 239, 243, 258, 404, 448, 449.

Sicily, 309, 464, 465, 479, 554, 555; Sicilian Vespers, =1280=, the, 156, 299, 427.

Sidonius Apollinaris, 261, 331, 379.

Siena, Cathedral of, 29, 406, 465.

Sigüenza, Cathedral of, 465.

Sixteenth-century religious wars, destruction by, 2, 34, 69, 107, 108, 167, 218, 249, 254, 266, 279, 290, 292, 308, 314, 319, 324, 393, 406, 408, 420, 425, 437, 446, 451, 488, 509, 520, 546, 552, 554, 556, 577.

Smith, Marion Couthouy, 506.

Soissons (Aisne), 77, 103, 107, 108, 112, 424; Cathedral of, 6, 12, 33, 74, 75, 77, 78, =106-114=, 122, 185, 215, 302, 547, 569, 581; St. Jean-des-Vignes, 106, 108; St. Léger, 106, 122; World War, destruction by, 107, 108, 112.

Solesmes (Sarthe), 255, =278-282=, 308, 490, 494, 577; Saints of, 255, 280, 281, 282.

Solignac (Haute Vienne), 291.

Solomon's Judgment, 447, 515.

Sorbon, Robert de, 8, 133, 134.

Sorel, Agnes, 254, 255, 483.

Soufflot (architect), 423, 460.

Souillac (Lot), 291.

Souvestre, Émile, 560.

Souvigny (Allier), Abbatial and tombs of, 265, 266, 456.

Spain, 3, 416, 420, 465, 563; French architectural influences in, 23, 38, 115, 185, 337, 361, 380, 385, 416, 419, 465.

Spandrels, ensculptured, 444, 448, 449, 547, 555.

Stephen, St., 95, 96, 141, 167, 224, 346, 347, 357, 396, 445, 449.

Suger, Abbot, 5, 6, 14, 31, 34, 40, 43, 44, 45, 52, =55-65=, 66, 68, 69, 79, 84, 103, 143, 144, 175, 181, 189, 295, 298, 306, 319, 321, 339, 371, 417, 418, 467, 579.

Sully, Eudes de (Bishop of Paris), 137, 138, 139, 215, 232, 299; Henri de, 139, 215, 299.

Sully, Maurice de (Bishop of Paris), 33, 41, 94, 133, 136, 138, 181, 229, 405.

_Summa_, the, 130, 131, 132, 334.

Symbolism in mediæval art, 9, 12, 19, 36, 56, 64, 68, 69, 105, 136, 139, 195, 207, 214, 219, 253, 262, 289, 324, 371, 396, 400, 401, 404, 424, 438, 450, 514, 578, 579.

T

Taine, H., 53, 108, 420.

Taj, the (Agra), 442.

Tancreds, the, 10, 106, 323, =554=, =555=.

Tapestry, mediæval, 118, 196, 309, 313, 314, 335, 427, 519, 548, 549.

Taragona (Catalonia), 381.

Tarentaise, Pierre de (Innocent IV), 268.

Tarascon (Bouches-du-Rhône), 239, =396=.

Templars, Order of, 12, 62, 99, 106, 246, 261, 326, 379, 466, 557.

Temple, Raymond du (architect), 164, 232.

Tennyson, Alfred, 433.

Tenth century, horrors of the, 20, 21, 411.

Thibaut IV, _le chansonnier_, 119, 157, 231, 236, =246=, 247, 299, 313, 432, 538.

Thibaut V, Count of Champagne, 119, 120, 159.

Thierry, A., 23, 435, 472, 480.

Thomas, St., 8, 9, 220, 441.

Thompson, Francis, 197.

Tillières (Eure), 536, 541.

Tintern Abbey (Monmouthshire), 3, 464.

Toledo, 3, 264, 337.

Tombs, mediæval, 11, 66, 67, 69, 244, 254, 256, 266, 308, 405, 406, 407, 408, 425, 455, 456, 504, 515, 519, 564, 567, 568.

Tonnerre (Yonne), Hospital of, 295, 427, 429.

Torigny, Robert de (Abbot of Mont-Saint-Michel), 499, 502, 532.

Toucy, Hugues de (Archbishop of Sens), 92, 93, 94, 96.

Toul (Meurthe-et-Moselle), 226, 242.

Toulouse (Haute-Garonne), 330, 356, 357, 359, 368, 387, 391, 407, 466, 539; Cathedral of, 330, 356, =357=, =358=; Jacobins Church, =11=, 358, 359, 372; museum of, 256, 259, 360; St. Sernin, 24, 250, 330, 336, 338, 340, 356, =359=, =360=, 361, 415.

Tour, Guy de la, 267, 333, 334, 336.

Touraine, 40, 212, 248, 250, 254, 256, 274, 567.

Tournai (Belgium), 81, 89, 242, 305.

Tournus (Saône-et-Loire), 24, 164, 287, 410, 414, 415, =457=, 458, 483.

Tours (Indre-et-Loire), 173, 347, 454, 566, 568; Cathedral of, 8, 9, 125, 203, 205, 211, 212, 220, 226, 270, 315, 316, 322, 324; St. Julien, 250; St. Martin, 10, 248, 249, 250, 304; St. Symphorien, 250; sculptor, Region-of-the-Loire school, 254, 278, 281, 361, 564, 567, 568.

Tours, Gregory of, 249, 250, 331, 336.

Toustain, Thomas (architect), 276, 553.

Towers of France, noted, 11, 78, 87, 89, 101, 140, 141, 174, 177, 179, 187, 188, 271, 276, 354, 436, 481, 484, 488, 489, 511, 517, 533, 553, 557, 572; Flamboyant towers, 217, 230, 287, 374, 492, 509, 517, 518; Romanesque towers, 49, 113, 446, 491, 557.

Transept, 19, 54, 69, 108, 129, 136, 213, 215, 226, 283, 360, 532, 541, 556.

Transition from Romanesque to Gothic, 16, 26, 33, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 57, 58, 75, 99, 120, 124, 262, 412, 413, 419, 432, 437, 554, 575.

Tréguier (Côtes-du-Nord), Cathedral of, 557, 559, 563, =572-575=.

Trent, Council of, 130, 466, 578.

_Trève-de-Dieu_, 21, 411, 422.

Tribune galleries, 18, 52, 82, 92, 99, 116, 125, 128, 163, 164, 166, 482, 486, 493, 532, 552, 564.

Triforium, =65=, =66=, 82, 99, 116, 125, 234, 251, 276, 353, 380, 430, 431, 437, 444, 486, 547, 552, 553.

Troubadours and trouvères, 245, 298, 345, 348, 357, 545.

Troyes (Aube), 419, 424, 519, 538; Cathedral of, 98, 125, 203, 211, 213, 226, =230-235=, 281; glass of, 98, 115; Treaty of, 233; St. Jean, 240; St. Madeleine, =239=, 240, 244, 247; St. Martin-ès-Vignes, 241; St. Nicolas, 241; St. Nizier, 235; St. Urbain, =236-238=; churches in the environs, 238, 239, 539.

Troyes, Crestien de, 245.

Tunis, 71, 157, 162.

Turpin, Archbishop (of Rheims), 194, 355.

Tympanums, 85, 137, 141, 288, 345, 361, 423, 438, 444.

U

Urbain II, Pope, 22, 29, 118, 194, 266, 270, 294, 305, 337, 338, 344, 348, 352, 360, 375, 376, 388, 393, 415, 416, 417.

Urbain IV, Pope, 232, 236, 238.

Urbain V, Pope, 259, 384, 386, 387, 408, 409, 415, 446.

V

Vallery-Radot, Robert, 428.

Valmont (Seine-Inférieure), ruins of, 518.

Valois princes, 309, 353, 452, 453, 454. _See_ Charles V, Jean de Berry, Louis d'Anjou, Philippe-le-Hardi of Burgundy.

Van Eyck, 222, 404, 426.

Vauban (engineer), 423, 460, 552.

Vaughan, Cardinal, 426.

Vault, masonry, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 38, 43, 44, 48, 55, 58, 95, 100, 372, 413, 424, 440, 457, 575; _bombé_ vaults, 84, 95, 124, 269, 285, 286, 300, 301, 303, 309, 310, 311, 314, 316, 320, 351, 357, 381, 432; broken-rib vault, 58, 92; octopartite vault, 120; sexpartite vault, 81, 100, 127, 398, 481, 482, 486.

Vauvenargues, 403.

Vendôme (Loir-et-Cher), church of the Trinité, 59, 112, 113, 271, 272, 304, 305, 315, 511.

Vendôme, Geoffrey of (Abbot of the Trinité), 271, 272, 337, 415.

Venice, 96, 289.

Verdun (Meuse), 129, 281, 526.

Verlaine, Paul, 74.

Verneuil (Eure), 536.

Verona, 246, 338, 361, 437.

Verrières (Aube), 239.

Vézelay (Yonne), Abbey of the Madeleine, 10, 24, 31, 33, 121, 180, 288, 298, 319, 323, 371, 395, 401, 410, 415, 418, 419, 424, 429, =435-442=, 450; its portico, 428, 439; meeting place of crusades, 439, 440.

Vienne (Isère), Cathedral of, 256, 258, 261, 417.

Viffort (Aisne), 45.

Vignory (Haute-Marne), 241.

Villehardouin, 161, 231, 246.

Villeneuve l'Archevêque (Yonne), 239.

Villeneuve-lès-Avignon (Gard), 405, 408.

Villetertre (Oise), 45.

Villon, François, 222, 565.

Vincennes (Seine), 144.

Viollet-le-Duc, E. _See_ Bibliography.

Viterbo, 110, 465.

Vitry (Ille-et-Vilaine), 559.

Volpiano, William of, 4, 34, 266, 414, 422, 452, 457, 458, 473, 478, 482, 495, 502, 554.

Voltaire, 36, 150, 338, 453, 530, 536.

Voragine, Jacobus de, 9, 85, 97, 220, 400.

W

Wace, Robert, 545, 549.

Wells, Cathedral of, 516.

Westminster Abbey, 3, 154, 232, 293, 297, 299, 552.

Weyden, Roger van der, 426, 427.

William the Conqueror, 5, 10, 22, 51, 53, 101, 137, 164, 165, 274, 304, 482, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 494, 496, 502, 510, 511, 544, 545, 546, 549, 550, 552, 554, 580, 581.

William Longsword, Duke of Normandy, 482, 495, 510.

William Rufus, 271, 475.

Winchester, Cathedral of, 481, 482, 487.

Women in the Middle Ages, 13, 54, 72, 86, 96, 121, 122, 135, 138, 153, 154, 159, 166, 173, 174, 193, 209, 226, 232, 234, 238, 245, 253, 264, 279, 281, 293, 294, 295, 297, 298, 299, 309, 315, 319, 324, 341, 344, 353, 385, 395, 396, 419, 427, 434, 440, 458, 463, 483, 484, 485, 490, 501, 508, 527-531, 536, 544, 549, 558, 567.

Worcester, Cathedral of, 487.

Wordsworth, 54, 65.

World War, devastation by the, 76, 77, 82, 123, 144, 145, 168, 196, =197-201=, 283, 329, 375, 384, 391, 405, 520, 526, 535, 559, 580, 581.

Y

Yolande of Aragon, Countess d'Anjou, 191, 221, 277, 280, 309, 328.

York, Cathedral of, 59, 242.

Ypres, 2, 110, 202.

Yves of Brittany, St., 386, 572, =573=, 574.

Z

Zamora, Cathedral of, 465.

Zola, Émile, 249, 362.

Zozimus, Pope, 399.

Bibliography

A

Abadie, Paul, 151, 290, 292, 355.

Abgrall, Abbé, 40, 556, 565, 568, 570.

Adams, Henry, 165, 170, 231, 299, 477, 499.

Agnel, Abbé A. d', 387.

Agos, D', 354.

Aigon, Abbé H., 389.

Albanès, Abbé, 400, 402.

Allard, Paul, 258, 331, 520.

Alline et Loisel, 504.

Annunzio, Gabriele d', 107, 121.

Antony, C. M., 364.

Arbellot, Abbé, 345.

Arnaud, F., 230.

Arnold, Matthew, 264, 265.

Assier, A., 234.

Auber, Abbé, 40, 316.

Aubert, Marcel, 39, 78, 84, 126, 461.

Aucouturièr, H., 266.

Aufauvre, Amédée, 231.

Auger, 148.

Avril, Adolph d', 194.

Ayroles, R. P., 521.

Ayzac, Félicie d', 55.

B

Balzac, Honoré de, 119, 247, 249, 312.

Barbat, L., 114.

Barbeau, Albert, 236.

Barraud, P. C., 50, 224.

Barrès, Maurice, 50, 389, 398, 435.

Barres, Chaillon des, 430.

Barron, L., 126, 247, 256, 350.

Barsaux, Chanoine, 224.

Barthélemy, E. M. de, 114, 241.

Bavard, Abbé, 426.

Bayet, Jean, 126.

Bayle, G., 406.

Bazin, H., 126, 188.

Bazin, J., 410.

Bazin, René, 259, 302, 415, 419, 580.

Beaurepaire, Ch. de, 38, 472, 484, 499, 507.

Bédier, Joseph, 135, 245, 344, 435, 501.

Bégule, Lucien, 39, 256, 261, 428, 461, 565.

Beissier, F., 397.

Belloc, Hilaire, 375, 548.

Benard, Pierre, 282.

Bérard, E., 90.

Berger, E., 133, 154.

Bernard, Abbé, 397.

Berret, P., 261.

Bertaud, Émile, 479, 555.

Berthelé, J., 39, 404.

Besnard, A., 50, 492.

Besnard, Ch. H., 288, 303, 499.

Beugnot, A., 152.

Biais, 290.

Bilson, John, 16, 30, 46, 47, 68, 276, 302, 303, 461, 476, 479, 480, 481, 484, 493, 494, 495, 496, 512, 554.

Biran, Maine de, 285.

Blanqueron, Edmond, 241.

Boinet, Amédée, 39, 126, 281, 282.

Boissonnot, Chanoine, 247.

Bondot, L., 428.

Bonnard, 133.

Bonnet, Émile, 39, 384.

Bontier, 231.

Borderie, A. de la, 557, 566, 573.

Born, Bertran de, 345, 348, 349.

Bosseboeuf, Abbé, 40, 249, 254, 280, 285, 293.

Bossuet, 121, 163, 167, 247, 452, 453.

Botrel, Théodor, 201.

Bouet, G., 39, 106, 484, 491, 551, 552.

Bouilhet, Louis, 78.

Bouillart, Jacques, 148.

Bouillet, Abbé A., 145, 541.

Bourassé, Abbé J. J., 39, 247, 315.

Bourdaloue, 212.

Bourget, Paul, 339, 531.

Bourillon, F. W., 396.

Bournon, F., 254.

Bourrienne, V., 545.

Boutarie, E., 154.

Bouvier, Abbé, 39, 40, 90.

Bouxin, Abbé, 40, 99.

Bouzerand, 443.

Branche, D., 331.

Bréhier, Louis, 188, 331.

Brière, Gaston, 39, 54, 188.

Brin, 499.

Brizeux, A., 570.

Broche, Lucien, 39, 99.

Broglie, Em. de, 148.

Brown, Prof. Baldwin, 481.

Bruel, F. L., 114.

Brun, Armand de, 147.

Brunetière, F., 148.

Brutails, J. A., 39, 47, 288, 291, 350, 351, 355.

Bulteau, Abbé, 40, 170.

Bunodière, H. de la, 509.

Bushnell, A. J. de H., 55, 90, 170, 234, 242, 247, 266, 302, 316, 536.

C

Cagnat, R., 157.

Cagni et Mocquereau, 280.

Cahier et Martin, P. P., 213, 219, 262.

Calmette, A., 382, 410.

Canéto, Abbé, 384.

Calvert, 381.

Caumont, Arcisse de, 38, 226, 293, 410, 472, 484, 491, 520, 531, 545, 546, 554.

Cerf, Abbé, 40, 188.

Chabeuf, H., 426, 452.

Chaillan, Abbé, 384.

Chaillot, A., 406.

Chalandon, F., 479, 555.

Champeaux et Gauchery, 213, 341.

Chantelon, Dom, 399.

Charmasse, A. de, 423.

Chartraire, E., 90.

Chassepied, Ch., 570.

Chateaubriand, 70, 118, 410, 443, 562.

Chaucer, 372, 551.

Chaumont, Chanoine L., 414.

Chérest, A., 435, 445.

Cherge, De, 316.

Cherval, 170.

Chesterton, Cecil, 579, 580.

Chevalier, Ed., 250.

Chevalier, U., 152, 452, 521.

Chigougesnel, 545.

Chomton, Abbé, 40, 452.

Choyer, 285.

Clémat, Chanoine Joseph, 266.

Clément, Pierre, 222.

Cleuziou, H. de, 556.

Cloquet (A.) et Cassier (J.), 254.

Clouard, E., 341.

Coffinet, J. B., 230.

Cogny, G. de, 374.

Colonne, A. de, 202.

Congny, Gaston, 213, 449.

Cook, 507.

Cook, Sir Theodore Andreas, 213, 254, 499, 519, 534.

Corberon, 448.

Corbolin, 428.

Cordier, Léon le, 472.

Corroyer, Ed., 288, 294, 298, 359, 499.

Coulanges, Fustel de, 42.

Courajod, Louis, 38, 145, 247, 266, 452.

Courcel, V. C. de, 230.

Courteault, P., 350.

Courtépée, Claude, 410, 423, 428.

Cousin, Victor, 133, 211.

Coutan, Dr., 38, 494, 498, 512.

Cram, Ralph Adams, 91.

Crawford, F. Marion, 439.

Crégut, Abbé R., 341.

Cros-Meyreveille, 375.

Crosnier, Abbé, 39, 55, 90, 170, 435, 449.

Crozes, H., 390.

Cruppi, 151.

Cucherat, Abbé, 421.

Cunisset-Carnot, 452.

D

Dangibeaud, Ch., 287.

Dante, 9, 133, 137, 141, 147, 148, 150, 153, 156, 245, 253, 349, 357, 363, 441, 462, 465, 474.

Darcel, Alfred, 480.

Daudet, Alphonse, 259, 396.

Déchelette, Joseph, 423.

Dehaines, Mgr., 99, 226.

Delaborde, H. F., 245.

Deliguières, 210.

Delisle, Léopold, 378, 499, 520.

Demaison, Louis, 39, 114, 188, 199, 241.

Demimuid, 114.

Demogeon, 202.

Denais, J., 302, 311.

Dénifle, H., 490, 521.

Denis, Abbé, 492.

Depeyre, G., 266.

Desdevises du Dézert, 331, 381.

Desgardin, Gustave, 224.

Deshair, Léon, 453.

Deshoulières, F., 266, 313.

Deville, A., 507.

Deville, J. A., 492.

Devoncoux, Abbé, 423.

Didot, A. F., 90.

Didron, E. A., 39, 265, 513.

Diehl, Ch., 479, 555.

Dieudonné, A., 269.

Digonnet, Félix, 405.

Dion, A. de, 38, 114, 269, 461, 545, 551, 552.

Douais, Mgr. C., 364, 365, 375.

Dreux-Durandier, 316.

Drouet (H.) et Calmette (A.), 410.

Dubois, P., 224.

Dubouchet, 499.

Duchaisne, Mgr., 39, 395, 400, 401, 402, 424, 436.

Duchemin, 512.

Dufay, C. J., 265.

Duhamel, L., 405.

Dumaine, Abbé L. V., 542.

Durand, E., 335.

Durand, Georges, 39, 202, 203, 210.

Durandus, Guillaume, 19, 69, 214, 267, 359, 387, 400, 401.

E

Echivard, A., 268.

Édeline, Abbé, 491.

Ehrle, R. P., 405.

Engelhard, Ch., 531.

Engerand, Louis, 476, 545.

Enlart, Camille, 16, 18, 29, 30, 31, 38, 47, 49, 78, 81, 126, 201, 227, 228, 282, 287, 341, 342, 354, 435, 445, 447, 456, 461, 464, 465, 476, 479, 484, 507, 509, 514, 516, 555.

Escoffier, H., 152.

Esnault, G., 269.

Espinay, D', 306, 312.

F

Fabrège, A., 384.

Fage, René, 39, 345.

Faillon, 396.

Fallue, A., 507.

Fançon, Maurice, 335.

Farcy, Louis de, 39, 302, 303, 310.

Farcy, Paul de, 545.

Faure, H., 266.

Fédié, L., 375.

Fénelon, 36, 288.

Fichot, Ch., 230.

Fillon, Benj., 280, 316, 565.

Flandin, V., 435.

Fleury, Gabriel, 39, 84, 99, 119, 170, 268, 428, 551.

Florival (de) et Midoux, 99.

Focillon, Henri, 257.

Fonteray, H. de, 423.

Forel, Alexis, 288, 289, 316, 331, 343, 356, 391.

Formeville, H. de, 531.

Formigé, J., 165, 408.

Forts, Paul des, 50.

Fossa, F. de, 144.

Fossey, Abbé Jules, 40, 536.

Foucaud, L. de, 350, 509.

Fournier, Paul, 369.

Fowke, J. R., 548.

Fraipont, G., 331.

France, Anatole, 521.

François, S., 126.

Freeman, E. H., 412, 490.

Froissart, 210, 327, 347, 349, 368, 408, 455.

Fyot, Eugène, 452.

G

Galimard, J., 428.

Gally, 435.

Gandillon, A., 213.

Gard, R. Martin du, 480.

Gareau, 293.

Garry, Eugène, 219.

Gauchery, P., 213, 341.

Gautier, Léon, 133, 135, 162, 245, 356, 500, 501, 520, 542.

George, J., 291.

Germain, Alphonse, 384, 426, 452.

Germain, A., 384.

Gerville, C. de, 546, 551.

Gillet, H. L., 356.

Girard, Ch., 343.

Girardot, A. T., 213, 280.

Glanville, L. de, 492.

Gobillot, Abbé Ph., 331.

Godart-Faultrier, 302, 312.

Gomart, Ch., 282.

Gonse, Louis, 16, 39, 67, 247, 282, 332, 342, 345, 435, 452, 498, 515, 537.

Goodyear, Prof. W. H., 68, 276.

Gosset, Alphonse, 114, 188.

Gourmont, Remy de, 135.

Gout, Paul, 499, 502.

Graillot, H., 356, 375.

Grandmaison, Ch. de, 38, 247, 280.

Gratry, P., 79.

Graves, 224.

Green, Mrs. J. R., 269, 472.

Grignon, Louis, 114.

Guépin, Dom, 279.

Guéranger, Dom Prosper, 280, 281, 321.

Guérard, R. Louis, 405.

Guerlin, H., 242, 249.

Guigue, C., 256, 266.

Guilhermy, F. de, 126, 565.

Guirard, Jean, 364, 365, 384, 405.

Guizot, 36, 103, 296, 297, 536.

H

Hallays, André, 84, 405.

Halphen, L., 302.

Hanoteau, Gabriel, 400, 503, 521.

Hardy (G.) et Gandillon (A.), 213.

Hardy, Abbé V., 535.

Haskins, Ch. H., 477.

Hauréau, B., 133.

Havard, H., 39, 99, 144, 148, 149, 219, 250, 256, 310, 389, 423, 435, 452, 507, 509.

Healy, 411.

Heaton, Clement, 458.

Hefele, 257.

Hello, Ernest, 551.

Hennezel, H. d', 256.

Henry, Abbé V. B., 430.

_Histoire Littéraire de la France_, 41, 55, 84, 90, 99, 133, 150, 170, 258, 269, 293, 304, 343, 378, 391, 414, 430, 473, 494, 499, 531, 545.

Hubidos, H., 391.

Hucher, E., 268, 269.

Huillier, L., 433.

Humbert, A., 452.

Hurault, E., 242.

Hutton, W. H., 162.

Huysmans, J. K., 100, 128, 144, 170, 280, 284, 321, 415, 460.

Hymans, H., 203, 242.

J

Jeannin, Président, 423, 425.

Joanne, 39.

Johnson, Lionel, 165.

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 294, 431.

Join-Lambert, O., 165.

Joinville, Jean de, 41, 70, 111, 119, 120, 138, 140, 152-162, 190, 206, 219, 244, 245, 246, 312, 342, 399, 553.

Jossier, Abbé, 236, 237.

Joubert, J., 290.

Jouin, H., 302, 310.

Jourdain et Duval, 202.

Jourdanne, Gaston, 375.

Jubainville, d'Arbois de, 231, 461.

Juiffrey, Jules, 312, 426.

Julleville, Petit de, 135, 245, 521.

Jullian, C., 350.

K

Kersers, A. Buhot de, 38, 213.

Kleinclausz, A., 410, 426, 452.

Koechlin, Raymond, 39, 231, 361, 452.

L

Labande, L. H., 39, 391, 392, 397, 403, 405.

Lacordaire, J. B. H. D., 128, 450, 462.

La Croix, P. de, 40, 325.

Lafenestre, George, 484.

Laferrière (J.) et Musset (G.), 287.

Lafond, Jean, 507.

Lahondès, Jules de, 39, 356, 360, 375, 381.

Lahore, Abbé, 236.

La Martillière, 272.

Lamartine, Alphonse de, 445.

Lambin, Émile, 39, 84, 99, 106, 123, 126, 165, 188, 202, 445, 507, 517, 531.

Landrieux, Mgr., 188, 199.

Laran, Jean, 370.

Largent, R. P., 316.

Lassus, J. B. A., 126, 266, 282, 460.

Lasteyrie, Charles de, 345.

Lasteyrie, Comte Robert de, 16, 17, 30, 38, 39, 49, 68, 114, 170, 228, 229, 250, 287, 331, 356, 359, 391, 394, 476, 484.

Lasteyrie, Ferdinand de, 55.

Latouche, Robert, 269.

Lauer, Philippe, 153.

Laurière, J. de, 354.

La Tremblay, Dom Coutil de la, 279, 281.

Lavalley, G., 491.

Lavedan, P., 172, 345.

La Villemarqué, Hersant de, 557.

Lavisse, Ernest, 76.

Lebeuf, Abbé, 445.

Le Beuf, D., 498.

Leblant, E., 397.

Le Braz, Anatole, 556, 568

Lecestre, 414.

Lecocq, 282.

Le Conte, R., 554.

Lecureur, L. Th., 570.

Ledeuil, 443.

Ledru, Abbé A., 40, 268.

Lefèvre, L. E., 435.

Lefèvre-Pontalis, Eugène, 16, 30, 31, 37, 38, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 78, 84, 99, 102, 106, 112, 121, 123, 126, 163, 170, 211, 237, 241, 268, 285, 291, 305, 323, 325, 340, 379, 421, 423, 443, 452, 479, 480, 482, 490, 491, 551, 553, 554, 557.

Leger, L., 203.

Legris, Abbé A., 498.

Leliène, Abbé, 545.

Lelong, E., 302.

Lemire, Ch., 521.

Lenoir, A., 148.

Lentheric, Ch., 378, 389.

Leo XIII, 130, 385, 422, 521.

Leport, A., 494.

Leroux, A., 345.

Leseur, F., 315.

Lestrade, Abbé, 356.

Levé, A., 548, 549.

Levillain, L., 55.

Lhuillier, Victor, 50.

Liard, L., 133.

Lignum, Lambin de, 279, 565.

Lincy, Le Roux de, 419, 494, 557.

Locquin, J., 266, 449.

Loisel, Abbé, 40, 504.

Lorière, Éd. de, 314.

Loriquet, Ch., 188.

Lorme, A. de, 556.

Lot, F., 480.

Loth, Abbé Julien, 480, 507.

Loti, Pierre, 199, 200, 561.

Lotte, Joseph, 499, 536.

Loutil, Abbé, 129.

Louvière, J. de, 397.

Lowell, James Russell, 100, 170.

Luce, Siméon, 490, 499, 521, 526, 557.

Luchaire, A., 162, 365.

Luzel, F. M., 557.

Luzuy, Abbé, 341.

M

Mabillon, Dom, 149, 418, 461.

Mâcon, E., 144.

Magne, Lucien, 293, 326.

Maistre, Joseph de, 222, 411.

Maître, Léon, 55, 257.

Mâle, Émile, 35, 39, 55, 85, 126, 144, 180, 182, 183, 207, 256, 262, 335, 341, 342, 343, 345, 347, 361, 424, 507, 541, 565, 570, 578.

Maleissye, C. de, 521.

Malifaud, G., 293.

Mallay, 343.

Mandet, 343.

Manteyer, Georges, 395, 397.

Mantz, Paul, 341, 343.

Marchand et Bourassé, 247.

Marche, Lecoy de la, 55, 133, 152, 302.

Marignan, A., 254, 356, 391.

Maritain, Jacques, 224.

Marlavagne, Bion de, 374.

Marsaux, Chanoine, 242.

Martin, Alexis, 126.

Martin, H., 250, 411, 490.

Martin, 39, 356, 397.

Maurin, Abbé E. F., 40, 403.

Mauvinière, H. de la, 290, 316.

Méloizes, Vicomte des, 213.

Mély, F. de, 145, 170.

Merimée, Prosper, 38, 285, 312, 321, 331, 341, 343, 370, 373, 383, 395.

Merlet, Lucien, 170.

Merlet, René, 39, 170, 171.

Meunier, Paul, 449.

Meyer, Alfred, 345.

Mézerai, 298, 519, 520.

Michel, André, 39, 228, 292, 345, 426, 431, 452, 507, 509, 516, 541.

Michel, Robert André, 405, 408.

Michel-Danzac, R., 288.

Migne, 414.

Mignon, A., 133.

Mistral, Frédéric, 356, 357, 384, 397, 400, 466, 504, 581.

Mocquereau, Dom, 280.

Molière, 36, 370.

Molinier, A., 152, 356, 362, 364.

Monod, Gabriel, 477, 520.

Monstrelet, 489.

Montaiglon, A. de, 67, 90, 563.

Montaigne, 350, 451.

Montalembert, Ch. de, 237, 256, 280, 411, 414, 476.

Montault, Mgr. Barbier de, 40, 224, 316.

Montegut, 423.

Montfort, J., 565.

Moore, Charles Herbert, 16, 22, 29.

Morand, 145.

Moreau-Nélaton, E., 106, 188.

Morel-Payen, 119, 230.

Mortet, Victor, 39, 126, 378.

Mortier, 364.

Mottay, Gautier du, 556.

Moulton, E., 445.

Müller, Abbé Eugène, 40, 84, 123.

Müntz, Eugène, 39, 312, 384, 387, 405.

Mure, De la, 343.

Musset, Alfred de, 16.

Musset (G.) et Laferrière (J.), 287.

Musset, Abbé E., 242.

Mylne, Rev. R. S., 545.

N

Narbonne, L., 317, 378.

Neale, Rev. John Mason, 19, 214, 317, 401, 414, 421, 451.

Newman, Cardinal, 123.

Nicolai, N. de, 421.

Nicquet, Honorat, 293.

Nodet, V., 265.

Norgate, Kate, 269, 302, 433, 472.

Normand, Ch., 149.

Noyes, Alfred, 282.

O

Oliphant, Mrs., 521.

Orderieus Vitalis, 472, 492, 537.

O'Reilly, E., 72, 194, 503, 506, 521, 523, 525, 527, 528.

O'Reilly, P. J., 350.

Orléans, Charles d', 67, 143, 315, 497, 516, 517, 527, 529, 534, 565.

Ouin-Lacroix, Abbé, 517.

Ozanam, Frédéric, 135, 259, 268, 508.

P

Pacary, P., 536.

Palustre, Bernard, 293, 452.

Palustre, Léon, 39, 67, 302, 342, 405, 515, 519, 541, 556, 563.

Paris, Gaston, 135, 152, 242, 245, 565.

Pascal, 331, 332.

Pasquier, Étienne, 521.

Pasteur, Louis, 428.

Paté, L., 423.

Pater, Walter, 170, 432, 578.

Pavie, Victor, 293.

Pécout, Abbé, 288.

Péguy, Ch., 72, 73, 168, 179, 197, 536, 545.

Peigné-Delacour, 80.

Pélissier, L. G., 400.

Penjon, A., 405, 414.

Pépin, J., 492.

Perier, Arsène, 426.

Perkins, Rev. T., 202, 507.

Perrault-Dabot, A., 410.

Petit, A., 345.

Petit, Ernest, 410, 428, 452.

Petit-Dutaillis, 247, 452.

Peyre, Roger, 361, 397.

Peyron, P., 569.

Philippe, André, 417, 445, 461.

Pigéon, Abbé E. A., 40, 551, 552.

Pignot, H., 114.

Pihan, Abbé L., 50, 224.

Pillion, Louise, 188, 224, 445, 507.

Pinier, Chanoine, 305.

Pissier, Abbé, 436.

Plancher, Dom, 410.

Plat, Abbé, 272.

Poli, Vicomte Oscar de, 499.

Pommeraye, Dom, 509.

Poquet, Abbé, 106, 107.

Porée, Chanoine, 40, 472, 473, 496, 513, 536.

Porée, Charles, 39, 90, 435, 445, 446, 452, 460.

Port, Célestin, 280, 285, 302, 312.

Porter, Arthur Kingsley, 16, 18, 28, 29, 44, 46, 69, 183, 225, 228, 254, 277, 361, 465, 476, 478, 479, 493, 517.

Pottier, Abbé, 361.

Poulaine, F., 521.

Poussin, Abbé, 114.

Pradel, F., 378.

Prentout, Henri, 267, 472, 477, 484, 545.

Prioux, S., 121.

Psiehari, Ernest, 168, 572, 574.

Purchon, W. S., 410.

Q

Quantin, Max, 443, 448.

Queyron, 126.

Quicherat, Jules, 38, 99, 148, 152, 282, 509, 521.

Quirielle, R. de, 266.

R

Racine, 36, 242.

Ramée, D., 78.

Ranquet, H. du, 39, 331, 340.

Rashdall, H., 133.

Raynouard, 316.

Reau, L., 203.

Rebatu, 397.

Reclus, O., 498.

Régnier, Louis, 16, 39, 47, 544.

Rémusat, Ch. de, 419, 473.

Renan, Ernest, 27, 258, 462, 572, 574.

Renaud, Edmond, 517.

Requin, Abbé, 266.

Revoil, 38, 356, 397.

Rey, E., 289.

Reymond, Marcel, 261, 343.

Rhein, André, 39, 291, 315, 316, 554, 563.

Riat, G., 126.

Richard, Alfred, 316.

Rigault, G., 219, 234.

Rivières, B. Ed., 370.

Rivoira, G. T., 28, 30, 414, 428, 452, 476, 496.

Robertson, J. C., 433.

Robida, A., 557.

Robuchon, J., 316.

Rochias, Abbé G., 340.

Rodière et Guyencourt, 202.

Rodin, Auguste, 114, 172, 189, 196, 215, 250, 272, 278, 390, 472, 575.

Roschach, 356.

Rossi, J. B. de, 397.

Rostan, L., 400.

Rostand, Edmond, 391, 559.

Rousse, Joseph, 563.

Roux, J. Ch., 261, 288, 389, 391, 397.

Royer, L., 399.

Rule, Martin, 373.

Rupin, Ernest, 39, 289, 345, 361.

Ruprich-Robert, V., 38, 472, 476, 484, 531, 542, 544.

Ruskin, John, 1, 3, 15, 208, 209, 556.

S

Sainsaulieu, Max, 188.

Sainte-Beuve, Ch. A., 158, 451, 453.

Saint-Germain, S. de, 50.

Saint-Paul, Anthyme, 16, 31, 32, 38, 39, 47, 49, 53, 54, 67, 68, 84, 126, 188, 227, 228, 276, 285, 288, 345, 354, 356, 481, 490, 516, 539.

Saladin, H., 157.

Salembier, 405.

Sanoner, G., 142, 435.

Santayana, George, 169, 170.

Sarcey, Mme. Yvonne, 102.

Sarrazin, A., 521, 531.

Saunier, Ch., 350.

Sauvage, Abbé, 480, 494.

Sauvageot, 213.

Saveron, 331.

Savory, Isabelle, 382.

Schmidt, Ch. E., 379.

Séché, Léon, 556.

Segange, L. du Broc du, 266.

Sepet, Marius, 61, 447, 521.

Serbat, Louis, 39, 254, 291, 345, 378, 417, 449, 531.

Sertillanges, R. P., 152.

Sery, Abbé, 449.

Shakespeare, 54, 159, 162.

Sharp, 291.

Sicotière, De la, 542.

Simpson, F. M., 16, 517.

Smith, Marion Couthouy, 506.

Soleil, Félix, 565.

Sommerard, E. du, 149.

Sorel, Albert, 472.

Souvestre, Émile, 560.

Spiers, R. Phené, 288, 291.

Stein, Henri, 39, 66, 126, 145, 165, 331.

Steyert, André, 256.

Suppligeon, 315.

T

Taine, Henri, 53, 108, 420.

Tarbé, P., 245.

Tardieu, Ambrose, 331.

Taylor, I., 165.

Taylor et Nodier, 202, 331, 370, 410, 443, 472, 556.

Tennyson, Alfred, 433.

Thierry, A., 23, 435, 472, 480.

Thiollier, Noël et Félix, 39, 342, 344.

Thomas, Chanoine, 452.

Thompson, Francis, 197.

Tillemont, Le Nain de, 152.

Tillet, Jules, 445, 446.

Topin, Marius, 389.

Tougard, Abbé A., 492.

Tournouër, H., 542.

Tranchant, Ch., 321.

Trichaud, J. M., 399.

Triger, Robert, 39, 268.

Troche, 145.

Truchis, Vicomte Pierre de, 423, 428.

U

Urseau, Chanoine, 293, 302.

V

Vacandard, E., 364, 419, 461.

Vachon, Marius, 90.

Vallery-Radot, Jean, 428, 545.

Vallery-Radot, Robert, 426, 428.

Valois, Noël, 133.

Vasselot, J. M. de, 39, 231, 361.

Vasseur, Ch., 531.

Vaudin-Bataille, E., 90.

Verlaine, Paul, 74.

Verlaque, 405.

Verneilh, Félix de, 38, 43, 55, 288.

Viatte, J., 147.

Vic et Vaissette, 356, 389.

Vidal, Pierre, 382.

Villat, Louis, 343.

Ville, Cirot de la, 350.

Villefosse, Héron de, 190.

Villehardouin, 161, 231, 246.

Villetard, Abbé, 428.

Villon, François, 222, 565.

Vimont, E., 331.

Viollet-le-Duc, E., 32, 35, 38, 50, 90, 100, 123, 126, 128, 139, 162, 236, 291, 333, 346, 352, 363, 378, 389, 440, 441, 445, 446, 450, 460, 498, 534, 552.

Virey, Jean, 39, 414.

Viriville, Vallet de, 222, 521.

Vitet, Victor, 78.

Vitry, Paul, 39, 54, 188, 231, 255, 265, 279, 280, 342, 361, 423, 452, 507, 515, 563, 565.

Vöge, Wilhelm, 394.

Vögué, Melchior de, 37.

Voltaire, 36, 150, 338, 453, 530, 536.

Voragine, Jacques de, 9, 85, 97, 220, 400.

W

Waern, C., 555.

Wailly, Natalis de, 152, 245.

Wallon, H., 152, 521.

Westlake, M. H. J., 536.

Wismes, De, 269, 302.

Woillez, Eugène, 31, 38, 50, 224.

Wordsworth, 54, 65.

THE END

* * * * *

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Ruskin, _The Seven Lamps of Architecture_.

[2] Ruskin, _Sesame and Lilies_.

[3] Louis Gonse, _L'art gothique_ (Paris, Quantin, 1891); Camille Enlart, _Manuel d'archéologie française_ (Paris, A. Picard et Fils, 1902), 2 vols., 8vo; _ibid._, _Monuments religieux de l'architecture romane et de la transition dans la région picarde_ (Paris, A. Picard et Fils, 1895), folio; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _L'architecture religieuse dans l'ancien diocèse de Soissons au XIe et au XIIe siècle_ (Paris, Plon, 1894-97), 2 vols., folio; Arthur Kingsley Porter, _Medieval Architecture, Its Origins and Development_ (New York and London, 1909), 2 vols.; C. H. Moore, _Development and Character of Gothic Architecture_ (New York, Macmillan, 1904); Anthyme Saint-Paul, "La transition," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1895-96, vols. 44, 45, and 1912-13, pp. 206, 263; R. de Lasteyrie, _L'architecture religieux en France à l'époque romane_ (Paris, 1912), chap. x; _ibid._, in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1902, vol. 45, p. 213, his answer to Mr. Bilson, and Mr. Bilson's reply; Louis Régnier, "Les origines de l'architecture gothique," in _Mém. de la Soc. hist. et archéol. de Pontoise_, vol. 16; John Bilson, "The Beginnings of Gothic Architecture," in _Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects_, 3d series, 1898-99, vol. 6, pp. 289, 322, 345; p. 259 (answer to M. de Lasteyrie); vol. 9, p. 350; Mr. Bilson's papers were given in part in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1901, vol. 44, pp. 369, 462; F. M. Simpson, _A History of Architectural Development_ (London, 1909).

[4] "Gothic architecture did not arise from a reaction against the principles of Romanesque: on the contrary, it is the natural development of those principles, the logical consequence of the germ idea of the Romanesque builders, which was to protect the naves of their churches by vaults of stone."--R. DE LASTEYRIE.

[5] Any raised balcony, or gallery, in a church is called a tribune. The term will be used here mainly for the deep gallery over side aisles. The making of tribunes was brought about by the custom, in early Christendom, of separating the ages and sexes; in primitive days the kiss of peace used to be given among the congregation.

[6] Transept, or across inclosure, from _trans_, across, and _sepire_, to inclose.

[7] Guillaume Durandus, _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_, translated as _The Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments_ by Neale and Webb of the Camden Society (Leeds, T. W. Green, 1843).

[8] The barrel vault (a half cylinder) was known to the Egyptians and Assyrians. Rome used it extensively, also the groin vault (made of two intersecting half cylinders).

[9] "There are few things more interesting, more instructive, or more beautiful in human history than the spectacle of those early cowled builders struggling against all difficulties and disadvantages, and laying the foundations of a new art which was, in the stronger hands of their lay successors, to culminate in the marvels of Chartres and Amiens."--CHARLES HERBERT MOORE, _Development and Character of Gothic Architecture_ (New York, Macmillan, 1904).

[10] Let us run briefly over the French Romanesque schools to gain an idea of the monk builder's activities.

_Normandy_ displayed a powerful regional genius, and carried through her Romanesque churches with native thoroughness. Her school was formulated early. By 1040 Jumièges abbey church was begun, and within thirty years the two abbeys of Caen were building. Norman Romanesque used the alternate system of piers, a central lantern tower, cubic capitals, and a geometric sculpture. Their architects were inclined to be overcautious; up to the advent of Gothic they often covered the middle nave with a timber roof, though they vaulted the side aisles with stone.

_Burgundy's_ Romanesque school was bolder. Groin and barrel vaultings covered side aisles and central vessel; and the transverse arches which braced the vaulting were often pointed, since it was found that such an arch exerted less side thrust. Some of Burgundy's monastic churches were as lofty and spacious as the coming Gothic cathedrals. However, to obtain proper lighting by clearstory windows she sacrificed stability, and years later the Gothic builders had to add flying buttresses to prevent the collapse of the Romanesque churches. In this region where Gallo-Roman art had flourished, channeled pilasters were used. As was to be expected of the province where Cluny's arts and crafts were centered, Burgundy was a leader in monumental sculpture, and such portals as Avallon, Autun, and Vézelay attest her skill.

_Auvergne_ produced a distinctive Romanesque school. Her art sprang direct from the ancient Roman traditions in the province. More cautious than her neighbor Burgundy, she soon gave up trying to light her upper nave by clearstory windows, but obtained light indirectly from side aisles and from a central tower. A precocious use of the ambulatory and of apse chapels appeared in the region. The two most striking features of her churches were the octagonal central tower set on a barlong base, and the apse whose exterior walls were decorated by the volcanic polychrome stones of the district.

_Poitou's_ Romanesque school also developed early, and it, too, sacrificed spaciousness to solidity. The side aisles were made of almost equal height as the central vessel, and one roof covered all. The church interiors were often somber and cramped. The apse exterior was ornamented, and the boast of the region is its richly sculptured façades of which that of Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers is one of the best examples.

_Languedoc_ built Romanesque churches of the first rank, such as St. Sernin at Toulouse, but the school had no definite uniformity. Sometimes it combined with the Romanesque of Poitou, sometimes with that of Auvergne, or of Burgundy. Because of Cluny affiliations, the Midi school was strong in sculpture--witness Beaulieu, Cahors, Moissac, and Toulouse.

_Provence_ Romanesque covered a more limited area. Usually the churches were aisleless, with a simple apse. A flat stone roof was laid directly on the barrel vaulting, which had pointed transverse ribs like those of Burgundy. Provence also used the fluted pilasters of antiquity. The many remains of Gallo-Roman sculpture in the region served as models for the notable imaged portals at St. Gilles and Arles.

_The Franco-Picard_ school had scarcely developed when it was supplanted by the nascent Gothic art. Besides these regional schools, two unique experiments in vaulting were essayed, though neither spread far afield. At Tournus, in the abbey church of St. Philibert was built a series of barrel vaults (carried on lintels) placed side by side transversely over the central vessel. And in Aquitaine, in the region of Périgueux and Angoulême, spreading in a line, north and south, arose a number of churches, each bay of which was covered by a cupola. Both these experiments were but partial solutions. While mediæval archæology was obscure, the pointed arch was looked on as the _sine qua non_ of Gothic, and it was puzzling to find it in certain Romanesque churches, like those in Burgundy and Provence. The pointed arch was in use in Persia, in the VI century, and the Arabs early brought the form to Egypt, Sicily, and Spain. From the XI century it had appeared sporadically in Christian Europe. Such arches were not the first step in a new architecture, but were used either as a decorative feature or as an expedient to lessen the side thrust of a vault. From outside of France two schools of Romanesque art, the Lombard and the Rhenish, exerted considerable influences on their neighbor, but the forces paramount in each of the local French schools were the pre-Lombardic pre-Rhenish inheritances from Rome, blended with indigenous traditions.

[11] Rome had used some brick lines under the surface of certain of her groin vaults. They performed no separate function, but were embedded in the vaults' concrete. The true Gothic vault has the ribs independent of the infilling. In their elasticity is their strength.

[12] G. T. Rivoira, _Lombardic Architecture_ (London, Heinemann, 1910). Translated from _Le origini dell' architettura lombarda_ (Milano, 1908); Arthur Kingsley Porter, _Lombard Architecture_ (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1917), 3 vols. and Atlas; _ibid._, _The Construction of Lombard and Gothic Vaults_ (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1911).

[13] E. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle_ (Paris, 1875), 11 vols.; Anthyme Saint-Paul, _Viollet-le-Duc et son système archéologique_ (Tours, 1881). The masterly technical knowledge of M. Viollet-le-Duc did much to remove the stigma of caprice and extravagance which the neo-classic age had fixed on Gothic art. It is a pity that the pioneer who struck good blows for the rehabilitation of Gothic should have jeopardized the permanence of his work by giving free rein to his personal prejudices.

[14] E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "Le plan d'une monographie _d'église et le vocabulaire archéologique_," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1910, p. 379. He has written on the same subject in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1906, vol. 70, p. 453, and 1907, vol. 71, pp. 136, 351, 535.

[15] Jules Quicherat, "La croisée d'ogives et son origine," in _Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire_ (1850), vol. 2, p. 497.

[16] Camille Enlart, _Origines françaises de l'architecture gothique en Italie_ (Paris, 1893); _ibid., Les origines de l'architecture gothique en Espagne et en Portugal_ (Paris, 1894); _ibid., Notes archéologiques sur les abbayes cisterciennes de Scandinavie_ (Paris, 1894); _ibid., Villard de Honnecourt et les Cisterciens_ (Paris, 1895); _ibid., L'art gothique et de la Renaissance en Chypre_ (Paris, Leroux, 1899), 2 vols.; Émile Bertaud, _L'art dans l'Italie méridionale_ (Paris, Fontemoing, 1904).

[17] Other publications of value to the student are the _Revue de l'art chrétien_, _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_, _Moyen-Âge_, _l'Archéologie_, _Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes_, _Revue archéologique_, and the Didron's _Annales archéologique_. There are H. Havard's _La France artistique et monumental_, Viollet-le-Duc's _Dictionnaire de l'architecture française_, Joanne's _Dictionnaire de la France_. The regional and local monographs will be given here with each school of Gothic and each cathedral as it is described.

[18] André Michel (Publiée sous la direction de), _Histoire de l'art depuis les premiers temps chrétiens_ (Paris, A. Colin, 1906), 10 vols.

[19] Émile Mâle, _L'art religieux du XIIIe siècle en France_ (Paris, Colin, 1908), 4to; _ibid., L'art religieux de la fin du moyen âge en France_ (Paris, Colin, 1910), 4to.

[20] "Il en est parmi nous qui préfèrent la victoire de leur parti à la victoire de la patrie. Écrire l'histoire de France était une façon de travailler pour un parti et de combattre un adversaire. Pour beaucoup de Français être patriote, c'est être ennemi de l'ancienne France. Cette sorte de patriotisme au lieu de nous unier contre l'étranger nous pousse tout droit à la guerre civile."--FUSTEL DE COULANGES.

[21] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, p. 39, on Bury (Oise), and p. 43, on Cambronne (Oise).

[22] Arthur Kingsley Porter, _The Construction of Lombard and Gothic Vaults_ (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1911).

[23] In each vault section of the ambulatory of St. Maclou, Pontoise, was inserted a fifth rib, which sprang from the keystone to the middle of each apse chapel's rear wall, and which consolidated both chapel and procession path. The diagonals do not curve, as do those of Morienval. St. Maclou was entirely finished in the XII century, but it was reconstructed radically in the XV century: the present façade is 1450-70. Again in the XVI century the church was partly rebuilt, so that the double-aisled nave of to-day appears a beautiful example of Renaissance art. It was at Pontoise that St. Louis, in 1244, took the vow to go crusading. (See, Lefèvre-Pontalis, _Monographie de l'église St. Maclou de Pontoise_.)

[24] Arthur Kingsley Porter, _Medieval Architecture_ (New York and London, 1909). In vol. 2, pp. 193-251, is a full list of monuments of the transition.

[25] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, p. 154, on Morienval; _ibid._, 1908, vol. 2, pp. 128, 476, on Morienval, E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, Brutails, and John Bilson; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _L'architecture religieuse dans l'ancien diocèse de Soissons au XIe et au XIIe siècle_ (Paris, Plon, 1894-97), 2 vols., folio. Also, his discussion on the vaults of Morienval in _Bulletin Monumental_, vol. 71, pp. 160, 335; 1908, vol. 72, p. 477; and in _Correspondance historique et archéologique_, 1897, pp. 193, 197; Anthyme Saint-Paul, "La transition," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1895, p. 13. Also, his studies of Morienval in _Mémoires de la Soc. archéol. de Pontoise_ ..., 1894, vol. 16; _Mémoires du Comité archéol. de Senlis_, 1892, vol. 7; _Correspondance historique et archéologique_, 1897, pp. 129, 161; John Bilson, on Morienval, in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1908, vol. 72, p. 498; and _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905; L. Régnier, in _Mémoires de la Soc. archéol. de Pontoise_ ..., 1895, p. 124.

[26] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, "St. Étienne, at Beauvais," pp. 15, 530; Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire_, vol. 3, pp. 254, 263; vol. 4, p. 289; vol. 7, p. 133; Stanislas de Saint-Germain, _Notice historique et descriptive de l'église St. Étienne de Beauvais_; Victor Lhuillier, _St. Étienne de Beauvais_; P. C. Barraud, "Les vitraux de St. Étienne de Beauvais," in _Soc. Académique d'archéologie, department de l'Oise_, vol. 2, p. 507; _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, p. 81, "St. Germer," L. Régnier; and p. 406, "St. Germer," A. Besnard; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "L'église de St. Germer," in _l'Annuaire Normand_, 1903, p. 134; and _Bibliothèque de l'École des chartes_, 1885 and 1889; also _Bulletin Monumental_, 1886; A. Besnard, _L'église de St. Germer de Fly_ (Oise), (Paris, E. Lechavalier, 1913); Paul des Forts, "Une excursion en Beauvaisis," in _Bulletin de la Société d'émulation d'Abbeville_, 1903; Eugène Woillez, _Archéologie des monuments religieux de l'ancien Beauvoisis_.

[27] Maurice Barrès, _La grande pitié des églises de France_ (Paris, Émile-Paul, frères, 1914).

[28] Anthyme Saint-Paul, "Poissy et Morienval," in _Mémoires de la Société archéol. de Pontoise et du Vexin_, 1894, vol. 16; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _L'Architecture religieuse dans l'ancien diocèse de Soissons au XIe et au XIIe siècle_ (Paris, Plon, 1894), 2 vols., folio; F. de Verneilh, _Le premier des monuments gothic_ (Paris, 1864).

[29] Some naïve XVI-century lines are under the window of St. Louis' chapel:

"Saint Louis fut un enfant de Poissy, Et baptisé en la présente église; Les fonts en sont gardés encore ici, Et honorés comme rélique exquise."

[30] "King John," Act II.

[31] Vitry et Brière, _L'église abbatiale de St. Denis et ses tombeaux_ (Paris, Longuet, 1908); _ibid., Documents de sculpture française_ (Paris, 1913); Anthyme Saint-Paul. "Suger. L'église de St. Denis, et St. Bernard," _Mémoire lu à la_ Sorbonne, inséré au _Bulletin archéologique_, et tiré à part, 1890; F. de Verneilh, _Le premier des monuments gothiques_ (Paris, 1864); Abbé Crosnier, "Vitrail de l'abbaye de St. Denis expliqué," in _Revue archéologique_, 1847, vol. 7, p. 377; Félicie d'Ayzac, _Histoire de l'abbaye de Saint Denis-en-France_ (Paris, 1861), 2 vols.; Ferdinand de Lasteyrie, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre_ (Paris, Didot, 1852), 2 vols.; Bushnell, _Storied Windows_ (New York, Macmillan, 1914); Émile Mâle, _L'art religieux de la fin du moyen âge en France_ (Paris, A. Colin, 1910); _ibid._, "La part de Suger dans la création de l'iconographie," in _Revue de l'art ancien et moderne_, 1914; L. Levillain, "L'église carolingienne de St. Denis," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1907, vol. 71, p. 211; L. Levillain et L. Maitre, "Crypt de St. Denis," in _Congrès Archéologique_, 1903, p. 136; Suger, _OEuvres complètes_, éd. Lecoy de la Marche (Paris, Renouard, 1867); _Histoire littéraire de la France_. (Begun by the XVII-century Benedictines and continued by the Institute of France.) Vol. 12, p. 361, on Suger, published in 1764.

[32] Marius Sepet, _Le Drapeau de la France_.

[33] Henri Stein, _Les architectes des cathédrales gothiques_ (Paris, H. Laurens, 1908); ibid., "Pierre de Montereau," in _Mémoires de la Société des antiquaires de France_, 1900, vol. 61.

[34] A. de Montaiglon, "La famille des Juste en France," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1876, vol. 42, pp. 76, 768. Details of the tombs of St. Denis are to be found in Palustre, _La Renaissance en France_ (1888); Gonse, _La Sculpture française depuis le XIVe siècle_ (1895); Vitry, _Michel Colombe et la sculpture française_ (1901); and in writings by A. Saint-Paul and Louis Courajod.

[35] R. de Lasteyrie, "La déviation de l'axe des églises est-elle symbolique?" in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1905, vol. 69, p. 422, also published separately; A. Saint-Paul, "Les irrégularités de plan des églises," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1906, vol. 70, p. 129; John Bilson, "Deviation of Axis in Medieval Churches," in _Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects_, December 25, 1905; W. H. Goodyear, "Architectural Refinements in French Cathedrals," in _Architectural Record_, vols. 16, 17, 1904-05, and _Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects_, 3d series, 1907, vol. 15, p. 17.

[36] During three days in August, 1793, and again in October of the same year, the tombs at St. Denis were violated. Robespierre stood long studying the chivalrous head of Henry IV, then plucked some hairs from the king's white beard and put them in his portfolio; Henry IV had abjured Calvinism in this very church of St. Denis in 1593. The corpse of Louis XIV presented an air of serene majesty. When the coffin of Louis XV was opened the air was infected insupportably. On that same day in October, 1793, Marie Antoinette mounted the scaffold. Her remains and those of Louis XVI are to-day laid in the inner core of St. Denis' crypt.

[37] E. O'Reilly, _Les deux procès de condamnation_ ... _de Jeanne d'Arc_, vol. 2, p. 134, the eighth interrogation, March 17, 1431 (Paris, Plon, 1868), 2 vols.

[38] Charles Péguy, _OEuvres de_, "La tapisserie de Sainte-Geneviève et de Jeanne d'Arc," vol. 6 (Paris, édition de la Nouvelle Revue française, 1916-18).

[39] The following is a free rendering of Péguy's verses:

Since God but acts for pity of us here, So Geneviève must see her France in shreds, And Paris, her own godchild, swept by flames, And ravaged by the most sinister hordes.

And hearts devoured by blackest base discords, And even in their graves the dead pursued, On gibbets many an innocent hung high With tongue protruding, pecked by raven birds.

France all despair. Then saw she come the Sign, A greater marvel never God had willed In His Serenity and Grace and Force, After nine hundred-twenty vigil years Geneviève saw approach her ancient city Her of Lorraine, emblem of God's pure pity-- Jeanne the Maid!--

Guarding her heart intact in dire adversity, Masking beneath her visor her efficacity, Living in deep mystery with sweet sagacity, Dying in drear martyrdom with brave vivacity Sweeping all an army to the feet of Prayer.

[40] Paul Verlaine, _Choix de Poésies_ (Paris, Charpentier, 1912).

[41] "The privileged land where the Seine, the Oise, and the Marne approach their waters gave France its laws and political unity, its literary language with its incomparable clarity, and its Gothic art."--ERNEST LAVISSE, _Histoire de France_.

[42] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, p. 131, "Compiègne."

[43] The people of the Valois country cried "Noël!" as Jeanne passed. And as she rode between the great Dunois and the archbishop of Rheims she exclaimed, with emotion: "Here is a good people! Happy would I be, when I come to die, to be laid here to rest." "Know you when you will die, Jeanne?" said the archbishop. "I know not. I am in the hands of God," she made answer. "I would it pleased God, my creator, that I could go back now to serve under my father and my mother, and to keep their sheep with my brothers, who would be right glad to see me home."--From the testimony of the Comte de Dunois, in 1455, Jeanne's companion-in-arms in 1429.

[44] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, p. 170; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _Histoire de la cathédrale de Noyon_, (1901); Vitet et Ramée, _Monographie de l'église Notre Dame de Noyon_ (Paris, 1845), 2 vols., 4to and folio; _Brière, Précis descriptive et historique de la cathédrale de Noyon_ (1899); Camille Enlart, _Hôtels de Villes et beffrois du nord de la France_ (Paris, H. Laurens, 1919); Marcel Aubert, _Noyon et ses environs_ (Paris, Longuet, 1919).

[45] Noyon was made a bishopric in the VI century, when St. Médard translated the see from St. Quentin, before the advance of the Huns and the Vandals. St. Médard gave the veil to Queen Radegund in the Merovingian cathedral of Noyon. Two Carolingian cathedrals stood in succession on the site: in the first, Charlemagne was consecrated king, 768, Noyon being his residence before Aix-la-Chapelle; in the second church, which rose after a Norman sacking, Hugues Capet was elected king shortly before 1000--the first monarch of the House of Capet, which was to rule over France during seven hundred years. Since the Revolution the sees of Noyon, Senlis, and Laon have been suppressed.

[46] The abbey church of Ourscamp is a ruin, but with the choir and ambulatory of the end of the XIII century partly standing. Where once were the piers of the nave have been planted two rows of poplars. Like Longpont and Royaumont, it was a Cistercian church that paid no heed to St. Bernard's strictures on lavish architecture. The former infirmary of the monastery, now used as a factory, is one of the most graceful civic halls of the age (c. 1240); Peigné-Delacour, _Histoire de l'abbaye de Notre Dame d'Ourscamp_ (1876), in 4to; _Congrés Archéologique_, 1905, p. 165, on Ourscamp.

[47] Camille Enlart, _De l'influence germanique dans les premiers monuments gothiques de la France_, 1902.

[48] Marcel Aubert, _Monographie de la cathédrale de Senlis_ (1907). He has also described Senlis in the collection, _Petites monographies_ (1910); _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, p. 89, E. Lefèvre-Pontalis; _passim_, 1877, vol. 44, "L'architecture dans le Valois," Anthyme Saint-Paul; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _À travers le Beauvaisis et le Valois_ (1907); Émile Lambin, "La Cathédrale de Senlis," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1898, vol. 47; Abbé Eugène Müller, _Senlis et ses environs_ (1897); André Hallays, _En flanant à travers la France_. _Autour de Paris_ (Paris, 1910); G. Fleury, _Études sur les portails imagés du XII siècle_ (Mamers, Fleury et Dangin, 1904); _Histoire littéraire de la France_ (Paris, 1835), vol. 18, p. 33, "Guérin, évêque de Senlis."

[49] Emile Lambin, _La Flore des grandes cathédrales_ (Paris, 1897).

[50] Émile Mâle, _L'art religieux en France au XIIIe siècle_ (Paris, A. Colin, 1908).

[51] Jacobus de Voragine, _The Golden Legend_. Translated into English by Caxton and reprinted by William Morris, Kelmscott Press, 1872, 3 vols. Translated also in Temple Classics. One of the best recent French editions is that of Théodor de Wyzewa (Paris, Perrie et Cie, 1909).

[52] The Church of the Victory, consecrated by the warrior-bishop in 1225, was ruined during the Hundred Years' War by the Duke of Bedford's troops, who day after day were pricked on by Jeanne d'Arc's army to a battle. In Flamboyant Gothic times the abbatial was rebuilt, but again it was wrecked in the XVIII century. Only a few late-Gothic bays now stand on the lawn before the country house of the Comte Boula de Coulomier. Bishop Guérin also consecrated the church of Chaalis abbey, where he was buried in 1228. Chaalis is now a picturesque ruin.

[53] E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "Les clochers du XIIIe et du XVIe siècle dans le Beauvaisis et la Valois," in _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, p. 592.

[54] The corner stone of St. Frambourg was laid in 1177 by Louis VII. It is a sort of forerunner of the Sainte-Chapelle type of edifice, without aisles or transept. Its sober, pure lines show faultless constructive skill, and a grievous pity is its present abandonment. Behind the cathedral is the church of St. Pierre, built in six different epochs: the lower stories of the tower, XI century; the choir and transept, 1260; the piers of the nave and the north tower's top story, XV century; the rich façade, XVI century, a work of Pierre Chambiges; and the heavy, cold south tower, of the XVII century. In Senlis are St. Vincent's church with a choir built after 1136, a XII-century tower, contemporary of the cathedral, and a groin roof of the XVIII century. St. Aignan's belfry is of the end of the XI century, and served as model for the towers of St. Vincent and St. Pierre, just as all three of them contributed toward the inspiration of that sovereign thing of Senlis, the cathedral tower.

[55] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1907, p. 205, Charles Porée; E. Chartraire, _La cathédrale de Sens_ (Petites Monographies), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1920); E. Bérard, "La cathédrale de Sens," in _L'Architecture_, 1902; E. Vaudin-Bataille, _La cathédrale de Sens_ (Paris, 1899); Bouvier, _Histoire de l'église de l'ancien archdiocèse de Sens_ (Paris, 1906); A. de Montaiglon, _Antiquités de Sens_ (Paris, 1881); A. J. de H. Bushnell, _Storied Windows_ (New York, Macmillan, 1914); A. F. Didot, "Jean Cousin, peintre verrier," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1873, vol. 39, p. 75; Marius Vachon, _Une famille parisienne d'architectes maistre-maçons: les Chambiges_; Crosnier, in _Congrès Archéologique_, 1847, "Iconographie des portails de Sens"; Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire_, vol. 9, pp. 222, 506; vol. 8, p. 74 (on the synodal hall); _Histoire littéraire de la France_, vol. 15, p. 324, "Michel de Corbeil, archévêque de Sens"; p. 524, "Guillaume de Champagne, cardinal, archevêque de Rheims" (Paris, 1820); vol. 17, p. 223, "Pierre de Corbeil" (Paris, 1832); vol. 18, p. 270, "Gautier de Cornut, archévêque de Sens" (Paris, 1835).

[56] Ralph Adams Cram, _Gold, Frankincense, and Myrrh_ (Boston, Marshall Jones Company, 1919).

[57] At St.-Julien-du-Sault, fourteen miles from Sens, are over a dozen good XIII-century windows, and some four of the XVI century. St. Louis was a donor. In the window devoted to Ste. Geneviève are interesting XVI-century costumes.

[58] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1911, Lucien Broche, p. 158, the cathedral; p. 225, St. Martin's church; p. 239, the Templar's church; Chanoine A. Bouxin, _La cathédrale Notre Dame de Laon. Histoire et description_ (Laon, 1902); Jules Quicherat, "L'âge de la cathédrale de Laon" in _Bibliothèque de l'École des chartes_, 1874, vol. 35, p. 249; Lucien Broche, _Laon et ses environs_ (Caen, 1913); _ibid._, "L'évêche de Laon," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1902, vol. 66; De Florival et Midoux, _Les vitraux de la cathédrale de Laon_ (Paris, Didron, 1882), folio; E. Fleury, _Antiquités et monuments du département de l'Aisne_, (1879), vol. 3, p. 153; Émile Lambin, _Les églises de l'Ile-de-France_ (Paris, 1906). His description of Laon is also in the _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1901-02, vols. 14, 15; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "Les influences normandes au XIe et au XIIe siècle dans le nord de la France," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1906, vol. 70; _Histoire littéraire de la France_, vol. 10, p. 171, "Anselm de Laon" (Paris, 1756); vol. 11, p. 243, "St. Norbert" (Paris, 1759); vol. 13, p. 511, "Gautier de Mortagne, évêque de Laon" (Paris 1814); H. Havard, éd _La France artistique et monumentale_, vol. 4, p. 81, Mgr. Dehaisnes, on Laon.

[59] For Coucy-le-Château (between Soissons and Laon) see M. Lefèvre-Pontalis' study (1909) in the _Petites Monographies_ series; or the _Congrès Archéologique_, 1911, p. 239. The XIII-century donjon was the most massive conception of the Middle Ages. Coucy's lord ruled a hundred towns and was one of the big figures in feudal France. His proud device read: "_Roi ne suis, ne prince, ne duc, ne comte aussi--Je suis le sire de Coucy_." The superb pile has been demolished in the World War. Madame Yvonne Sarcey visited Coucy in April, 1917. Of the imposing mediæval castle, hanging like a bourg to the flank of the hill, there remain two gaping porticos. "_C'est tout!... C'est tout!_" she lamented. "_Ce paysage adorable de l'Ile-de-France portera sa croix._" The Germans blew up the castle before their strategic retirement, in 1917.

[60] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1911, E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, p. 315, the cathedral; p. 337, St. Médard; p. 343, St. Léger; p. 348, St. Jean-des-Vignes; Étienne Moreau-Nélaton, "Soissons avant la guerre," in _Les cités ravagées_ (Collection, Images historiques), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1919); _ibid., Les églises de chez nous: Soissons_ (Paris, H. Laurens); Abbé Poquet, _Notice historique et archéologique de la cathédrale de Soissons_ (Soissons, 1848); Émile Lambin, "La cathédrale de Soissons" in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1898, vol. 47; Émile Mâle, _L'art allemand et l'art français du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1917); Bouet, "Excursion à Noyon, à Laon et à Soissons," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1868, vol. 34, p. 430; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _L'architecture religieuse dans l'ancien diocèse de Soissons au XIe et au XIIe, siècle_ (Paris, Plon, 1894-98), 2 vols., folio.

[61] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1911, p. 410, Longpont abbatial; Abbé Poquet, _Monographie de l'abbaye de Longpont_ (1869). Longpont, where the bishops of Soissons were buried, was founded by Gerard de Chérisy, who had married Lady Agnes of Longpont. St. Bernard sent twelve Cistercian monks to start the new house in 1131. The splendid Gothic church, which departed from Cîteaux's rule of church simplicity, was consecrated in 1227 before the queen regent and Louis IX, by the bishop of Soissons, Jacques de Bazoches, who had just anointed Louis as king, at Rheims. Longpont was sacked by the Huguenots in 1567, and wrecked by the Revolution. The picturesque ruins were acquired by the de Montesquieu family in 1850.

[62] The monastery church of St. Jean-des-Vignes was in size a cathedral, and the maker of the great façade at Rheims, Bernard de Soissons, is said to have designed it. The cloisters, once the most sumptuous in the kingdom, were begun by an abbot who died in 1224, after he had built an aqueduct for the city which still is in use. St. Jean's big west rose had been, since 1870, an empty circle. Little more than its façade and western towers stood before 1914. Sacked by the Revolution, its real demolition was under the Empire, when to repair the cathedral the deserted monastery was sold for a paltry sum, and stone by stone removed. The congregation of good men in this abbey did parish work for many centuries. In such good repute with the citizens were they that, when the Revolution suppressed the house, Soissons' municipality protested, saying that the abbey had "always claimed with zeal its share of public duties." Taine in his _L'Ancien Régime_ quotes the protest: "In calamities this abbey opens its doors to the destitute citizens and feeds them. It alone has borne the expense of the citizens' meetings, preparatory to the election of deputies for the National Assembly. It now is lodging a company of soldiers. Always when there are sacrifices to be made it is on hand." However, the revolutionary authorities paid no heed to the citizens' desire to retain their historic house.

[63] For the churches of Notre Dame and St. Martins, at Étampes, see _Bulletin Monumental_, 1905, vol. 69, and _Annales de la Société hist. et archéol. du gatinais_, 1907, Lefèvre-Pontalis; also the _Congrès Archéologique_, 1901, p. 71. Notre Dame was begun about 1160. Its strongly Romanesque south portal is of the same type as Chartres' western doors. The crypt and piers of the nave are XI century, and the transept and choir were rebuilt about 1170 as early Gothic. The Romanesque tower is one of the best of its epoch; its base is approximately 1050; the next two stories about 1075; the fourth story, 1125; and the spire, 1130. The church is full of irregularities from rebuildings. St. Martin's church is XII and XIII century; its much discussed ambulatory of the Champagne type is about 1165. The number of supports for the vault was doubled in the outer wall, thus making the space to be covered a series of square compartments alternating with triangles.

[64] Auguste Rodin, _Les cathédrales de France_ (Paris, A. Colin, 1914), 4to.

[65] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1911, St. Remi (Rheims), p. 57, and Notre Dame (Châlons), p. 473, Louis Demaison; Louis Demaison, _Les églises de Châlons-sur-Marne_ (Caen, 1913); E. M. de Barthélemy, "Notre Dame-en-Vaux à Châlons-sur-Marne," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, vol. 15, p. 97; A. de Dion, "Notre Dame-en-Vaux à Châlons-sur-Marne," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1886, vol. 52, p. 547, and 1887, vol. 53, p. 439, Louis Grignon; L. Grignon, _Description et l'histoire de Notre Dame de Châlons-sur-Marne_ (Châlons-sur-Marne, 1884), 2 vols.; Abbé Poussin, _Monographie de l'abbaye et de l'église de St. Remi de Rheims_ (Rheims, 1857); Alfonse Gosset, _La basilique de St. Remi à Rheims_ (Paris, 1900); L. Barbat, _Histoire de la ville de Châlons-sur-Marne_; R. de Lasteyrie, _L'architecture religieuse en France à l'époque romane_ (Paris, 1912), p. 158, St. Remi.

[66] "Il est digne de remarque, que de toutes ces règles monastiques les plus rigides ont été les mieux observées: les Chartreux ont donné au monde l'unique exemple d'une congrégation qui a existé sept cents ans sans avoir besoin de réforme."--CHATEAUBRIAND, _Génie du Christianisme_.

In April, 1903, two squadrons of dragoons expelled the last monks from La Grande Chartreuse. An economic loss for the entire region has resulted.

[67] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1902; Morel-Payen, _Troyes et Provins_ (Collection, Villes d'art célèbres), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1910); Félix Bourquelot, _Histoire de Provins_ (Paris, Techener, 1840), 2 vols.; Gabriel Fleury, "Le portail de St. Ayoul de Provins," in _Congrès Archéologique_, 1902, p. 458, or in _Études sur les portails imagés du XIIe siècle_ (Mamers, Fleury et Dangin, 1904).

[68] The transept of St. Ayoul is good Romanesque. After a fire in 1160 the nave was rebuilt as XIII-century Gothic; the choir is XVI century. At St. Loup-de-Naud there is a central lantern on squinches (XII century).

[69] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1911, p. 428, E. Lefèvre-Pontalis; S. Prioux, _Monographie de l'ancienne abbaye royale St. Yved de Braine_ (1859), folio; _Bulletin Monumental_, 1908, vol. 72, p. 455, A. Boinet.

[70] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, p. 121, E. Lefèvre-Pontalis; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _À travers le Beauvaisis et le Valois_ (Paris, 1907); Émile Lambin, "L'eglise de St. Leu d'Esserent," in _Gazette des beaux-arts_, 1901, tome 25, p. 305; Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire_, vol. 2, p. 504; vol. 4, pp. 83, 230; vol. 7, p. 384; vol. 9, p. 280; Abbé Eugène Müller, _Senlis et ses environs_ (1897).

[71] Marcel Aubert, _La cathédrale de Notre Dame de Paris_ (Paris, Longuet, 1909); Lassus et Viollet-le-Duc, _Monographie de Notre Dame de Paris_ (Paris), folio; V. Mortet, _Étude historique et archéologique sur la cathédrale et le palais épiscopal de Paris_ (Paris, 1888); Queyron, _Histoire et description de l'église de Notre Dame_ (Paris, Plon, Nourret et Cie); De Guilhermy, _Description de Notre Dame de Paris_ (1856); _ibid., Itinéraire archéologique de Paris_ (1855); S. François, _La façade de Notre Dame de Paris_ (Brussels, Imprimerie Goosens, 1907), 4to; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "Les origines des gables," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1907, vol. 71, p. 92; Camille Enlart, _Le musée de sculpture comparée du Trocadéro_ (Collection, Les grandes institutions de France), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1911); H. Bazin, _Les monuments de Paris_ (Paris, 1904); G. Riat, _Paris_ (Collection, Villes d'art célèbres), (Paris, H. Laurens); Amédée Boinet and Jean Bayet, _Les édifices religieux de Paris_ (Collection, Les richesses d'art de la ville de Paris), (Paris, H. Laurens), 3 vols.; L. Barron, _La Seine_ (Collection, Fleuves de France), (Paris, H. Laurens); Émile Lambin, _La flore des grandes cathédrales de France_, (Paris, 1897); _ibid., Les églises des environs de Paris étudiées au point de vue de la flore ornamentale_ (Paris, 1896), folio; _ibid., Les églises de l'Ile-de-France_ (Paris, 1906); Anthyme Saint-Paul, "Notices sur les églises des environs de Paris," in _Bulletin Monumental_, vol. 34, p. 861, and vol. 35, p. 709; Alexis Martin, _Excursions dans les environs de Paris_ (Paris, 1900); Henri Stein, _Les architectes des cathédrales gothiques_ (Paris, 1908); Émile Mâle, _L'art religieux du XIIIe siècle en France_ (Paris, Colin, 1908), 4to.

[72] "Les ardentes prières, les sanglots désespérés du moyen âge avaient à jamais imprégné ces piliers et tanné ces murs."--J. K. HUYSMANS.

[73] "Il me sembla que tout le passé de mon pays se dressait devant moi. Tout ce qu'elles ont vu, ces pierres!... Tout ce qu'elles ont entendu, ces voûtes!"

--PIERRE L'ERMITE (Abbé Loutil)

[74] "The first of the great Gothic façades in point of dignity is undoubtedly that of Paris, a design of which no words can express the exalted beauty. Grandeur of composition, nobility of silhouette, perfection of proportion, wealth of detail, infinitely varied play of light and shade combine to raise this composition, so majestic, so serene, to the place it has ever occupied in the heart of everyone endowed with the slightest feeling for the beautiful."--ARTHUR KINGSLEY PORTER.

[75] The problem of Universals remains still a real one for the thinker--how our intellectual concepts correspond to things existing outside our intellect.

[76] In his _Summa totius theologiæ_ St. Thomas held that the existence of God was to be known by reason. He took his stand on a palpable fact--the existence of creatures. He began with the fecund idea of motion, the stars in their orbits, man engendering man. If there is movement there must be a First Motor. If there ever had been an instant when nothing was, nothing ever would have been. Effects must have a cause. Either nothing is, which is an absurdity, or there must be One Being eternally immutable.

That the movement is ordered, such as night and day, season following season, shows a supreme power directing. That creatures are more or less perfect supposes a perfect being. One by one Aquinas laid his foundation stones till a solid lower wall was built, on which he reared his majestic structure. In the Roman Breviary, he is thus recorded: "Thou hast written well of me, Thomas, what recompense do you ask of me?" "None but yourself, Lord!" ("_Non aliam, Domine, nisi te ipsum!_").

[77] The father of St. Thomas was the Count of Aquin, nephew of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. His mother came of the line of the Norman rulers in Sicily; the same stocks produced that undisciplined, undecipherable genius of the XIII century, Frederick II.

[78] L. Liard, _L'Université de Paris_ (Collection, Les grandes institutions de France), (Paris, H. Laurens); L. Maître, _Les écoles épiscopales et monastiques de l'occident depuis Charlemagne jusqu'à Philippe-Auguste_ (Paris, 1866); Tarsot, _Les écoles et les écoliers à travers les âges_ (Paris, H. Laurens); H. Rashdall, _The Universities of the Middle Ages_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1895), 2 vols.; Bonnard, _Histoire de l'abbaye royale de St. Victor de Paris_ (1907); V. Cousin, éd., _OEuvres de Pierre Abélard_ (Paris, 1849-59), 2 vols.; B. Hauréau, éd., _Les oeuvres de Hugues de St. Victor_ (Paris, 1887); B. Hauréau, _Histoire de la philosophie scholastique_ (Paris, 1872), 3 vols.; A. Mignon, _Hugues de St. Victor_ (Paris, 1895); Léon Gautier, éd., _OEuvres poétiques d'Adam de St. Victor_ (Paris, 1858), 2 vols.; Léon Gautier, _Histoire de la poésie religieuse dans les cloîtres des Xe et XIe siècle_ (Paris, 1887); Noël Valois, _Guillaume d'Auvergne_ (Paris, 1880); E. Berger, _La Bible française au moyen âge_ (Paris, 1884); Lecoy de la Marche, _La chaire française au moyen âge_ (Paris, 1886); _Histoire littéraire de la France_. (Begun by the XVII-century Benedictines, continued by the Institute of France.) Vol. 9, p. 1, "L'État des lettres en France, XIIe siècle" (Paris, 1750); vol. 10, p. 309, "Guillaume de Champeaux" (Paris, 1759); vol. 12, p. 1, "Hugues de St. Victor"; p. 86, "Abélard"; p. 585, "Pierre Lombard"; p. 629, "Héloïse" (Paris, 1764); vol. 13, p. 472, "Richard de St. Victor" (Paris, 1814); vol. 15, p. 40, "Adam de St. Victor"; p. 149. "Maurice de Sully" (Paris, 1820); vol. 16, p. 1, "L'état des lettres en France au XIIIe siècle" p. 574, "Eudes de Sully" (Paris, 1824); vol. 18, p. 357, "Guillaume d'Auvergne" p. 449, "Vincent de Beauvais" (Paris, 1835); vol. 19, p. 38, "Hugues de Saint-Cher"; p. 143, "St. Louis"; p. 238, "St. Thomas d'Aquin"; p. 266, "St. Bonaventure"; p. 291, "Robert de Sorbon"; p. 621, "Les trouvères," (Paris, 1838).

[79] The last vestige of St. Victor's monastery, foyer of sanctity for the XII century, was wiped out by order of a stupid municipality of Paris, in 1842.

[80] Petit de Julleville, éd., _Histoire de la langue et de la littérature française_ (Paris, Colin, 1900), 8 vols. In vols. 1 and 2 the Middle Ages are treated by Gaston Paris, Léon Gautier, and Joseph Bédier; Gaston Paris, _La littérature du XIIe siècle_ (Paris, Hachette, 1895). He places the classic epoch of the literature of the Middle Ages between 1108 (opening of Louis VI's reign) and 1223 (end of Philippe-Auguste's rule); Joseph Bédier, _Les légendes épiques_ (Paris, H. Champion, 1908-13), 4 vols.; Remy de Gourmont, _Le Latin mystique_.

[81] _Paradiso_, xxxiii: 4-6.

[82] Some of the modern archbishops of Paris have added to the prestige of their see. Monseigneur Affre was shot on the barricades, in 1848, when he went forth bearing a message of peace. Monseigneur Darboy was shot in prison by the Commune of 1871. Both are commemorated in side chapels of the cathedral's choir.

[83] G. Sanoner, "La Bible racontée par les artistes du moyen âge," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1907-13; _ibid._, "La vie de Jésus-Christ racontée par les imagiers du moyen âge sur les portes d'églises," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1905-08.

[84] Once the Paris churches were filled with late-Gothic windows, though the troubled history of the city has left but few. Some XVI-century glass is still to be found in St. Merri and St. Germain-l'Auxerrois, for which churches see Huysman's _Trois églises et trois primitifs_ (1908). St Étienne-du-Mont has in a chapel an Engrand Le Prince window, a symbolic wine press with portraits of Pope Paul II, Charles V, Francis I, and Henry VIII; and reset in the passage leading to the catechism chapel is the masterpiece of Pinaigrier, twelve panels that are veritable enameling on glass. In St. Gervais, where on Good Friday, 1918, a projectile from the long-distance German gun crashed through the masonry roof, killing many, are two windows, Solomon's judgment (1531), and St. Laurence (1551), said to be by Jean Cousin, also some Pinaigrier glass. To Jean Cousin are attributed the five splendid windows of the Apocalypse in the chapel at Vincennes, whose design derives from Dürer's woodcuts, published in 1498. They have deep shadows and are strong in color and plan. M. Mâle says that Dürer's German has here been translated into graceful Renaissance Italian. Vincennes' chapel had been begun by Charles V in 1378. Then came the pause of a century, and the works were finished by Henry II, still on the Gothic plan, however. Henry donated the windows and he had Diana of Poitiers pictured among the righteous souls in the fifth seal of the Apocalypse. Francis I is represented at the base of the second window. Excursions can be made from Paris to places within easy distance that posses Gothic-Renaissance glass. At Écouen, nine miles from Paris, in the church of St. Acceul, are sixteen windows due to De Montmorency patronage. Originally in Écouen's guard hall were the forty-four panels (made for the constable, Anne de Montmorency) now in the long gallery of Chantilly, the château bequeathed to the Institute of France in 1897 by the Duc d'Aumale. The story of Cupid and Psyche is told in that camaïeu glass so suited for domestic decoration, a species of iron-red grisaille, whose only other hue is yellow stain. Chantilly's panels were painted in the Raphaelesque style by the Flemish master, Coexyen, trained in Van Orley's school. At Montmorency, ten miles from Paris, in St. Martin's church, the history of France seems written in the windows, with the portraits of Francis I, Henry II, Adrian VI, and members of the houses of Montmorency, Pot, and Coligny. Three of the lights are by Engrand Le Prince. More portrait work appears in the many windows at Montfort l'Amaury, twenty-nine miles from Paris (1544-78), work not equal to the earlier XVI-century glass.

H. Havard, éd., _La France artistique et monumentale_, vol. 4, Écouen; vol. 5, Chantilly, Vincennes, Pierrefonds; F. de Fossa, _Le château de Vincennes_ (Collection, Petites Monographies), (Paris, H. Laurens); E. Macon, _Chantilly et le musée Condé_ (Paris, H. Laurens).

[85] Henri Stein, _La Sainte-Chapelle de Paris_ (Paris, 1912); F. de Guilhermy, _Description de la Sainte-Chapelle_ (Paris, 1899), 12me; Troche, _Notice historique et descriptive sur la Sainte-Chapelle_; Morand, _Histoire de la Sainte-Chapelle_ (Paris, 1790); Louis Courajod, _La polychromie dans le statuaire du moyen âge et de la Renaissance_ (Paris, 1888); Abbé A. Bouillet, _Les églises paroissiales de Paris_, vol. 5, _La Sainte-Chapelle_ (Paris, 1900); F. de Mély, "La sainte couronne d'épines," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1899, vol. 42.

[86] Armand le Brun, _L'église St. Julien-le-Pauvre_ (Paris, 1889); J. Viatte, _L'église de St. Julien-le-Pauvre de Paris_ (Châteaudun, Prudhomme, 1899).

[87] Jules Quicherat, "St. Germain-des-Prés," in _Bibli. de l'École des chartes_, 1865, vol. I, p. 513; and _Mémoires de la Soc. des Antiquaires de France_, 1864, vol. 28, p. 156; Jacques Bouillart, _Histoire de l'abbaye royale de St. Germain-des-Prés_ (Paris, 1724); Auger, _Les dépendances de St. Germain-des-Prés_ (Paris, 1909), 3 vols.; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "Étude sur le choeur de l'église de St. Martin-des-Champs à Paris," in _Bibliothèque de l'École des chartes_, 1886, vol. 47; F. Deshoulières, _St. Pierre de Montmartre_ (Caen, H. Delesque, 1913); also in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1913, vol. 77, p. 4; H. Havard, éd., _La France artistique et monumentale_, vol. 6, p. 66, "Le conservatoire des arts et métiers" (St. Martin-des-Champs); A. Lenoir, _Statistique monumentale de la ville de Paris_ (Paris, Imprimerie Impériale, 1867), 3 vols., folio (valuable drawings of the Parisian abbeys); Em. de Broglie, _Mabillon et la société de l'abbaye de St. Germain-des-Prés_ (Paris, 1881).

[88] The Hôtel Cluny, which became a national museum in 1848, was built as the town house for the abbot of Burgundian Cluny, by those two art patrons, Jean de Bourbon (1456-81) and Jacques d'Amboise (1481-1514). It is one of the best works of Gothic civic architecture in France. It stands on the site of Roman baths, alleged to be those of Julian the Apostate, above which had later risen a residence of the Merovingian kings. In the time of the Carolings, Alcuin taught on this spot. The Palais des Termes was purchased for Cluny by Abbot Pierre de Chastellux (1322-43). H. Havard, éd., _La France artistique et monumentale_, vol. 1, p. 161, A. Darcel, on Musée Cluny; E. du Sommerard, _Le palais des thermes et l'Hôtel de Cluny_; Ch. Normand, _l'Hôtel de Cluny_ (Paris, 1888).

[89] Paul Abadie, who over-restored the cathedrals of Angoulême and Périgieux, won the competition for the national memorial basilica of the Sacré-Coeur, and began his strange Romano-Byzantine monument in 1873. He united Auvergne's Romanesque ambulatory with the cupola church of Aquitaine. There is not sufficient contrast between his elongated dome and the tower. Nevertheless, the immense pile of white stone standing over the capital presents exotic and superb effects in sun and mist, and no one can deny that a profound religious spirit breathes in this new shrine of France, as if the prayers and sufferings of generations had already hallowed its walls. Below the basilica stands a statue of the young Chevalier de la Barre, a victim of the personal intrigue of a corrupt magistrate of Abbeville and the lax law courts of Louis XV's time, not in any way the object of clerical hate, as the inscription on his statue would indicate. His abbess aunt was his warm defender, as was the bishop of Amiens, and on the day of his execution he received the sacraments piously. See Cruppi, _Révue des Deux Mondes_, March, 1895. As this mythical hero meets one in many a French city, it were well to know his real story.

[90] Some of the later manifestations of Gothic art in the capital are the porch and façade of St. Germain l'Auxerrois (1431-39), one of the first signs of renewed energy after Jeanne d'Arc's mission; the tower of St. Jacques (1508-22), attributed to the late-Gothic master, Martin Chambiges, and formerly part of a Flamboyant church destroyed by the Revolution; and the church of St. Merri (1520-1612), still Gothic in spirit. Th e Renaissance appears in St. Étienne-du-Mont (1517-63), whose interior is alluringly graceful, though it cannot boast of purity of style. St. Eustache (1532-1642), begun slightly after St. Merri, has a Gothic skeleton, "dressed in Renaissance robes sewed together like the pieces of a harlequin's garment, bizarre and contradictory, satisfactory to neither taste nor reason." The old church of St. Séverin used to be employed by M. Jules Quicherat as an object lesson for his pupils, since four different epochs are traceable in it; the three westernmost bays of the nave are early XIII century; and there is much Flamboyant Gothic with disappearing moldings. Abbé A. Bouillet, _Les églises paroissiales de Paris_ (1903); H. Escoffier, _Les dernières églises gothiques au diocèse de Paris_ (Thèse, École des chartes, 1900).

[91] Le Nain de Tillemont, _Vie de St. Louis_ (Paris, 1848-51 éd., Gauble), 6 vols.; Sertillanges, _St. Louis_ (Collection, L'art et les saints), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1918); H. Wallon, _St. Louis et son temps_ (Tours, 1865), 2 vols.; A. Beugnot, _Essai sur les institutions de St. Louis_ (Paris, 1821); Jean, sire de Joinville, texte original accompagné d'une traduction, Natalis de Wailly, éd., Paris, 1867. Translated into English, Bohn's Antiquarian Library, London; Gaston Paris, "Jean de Joinville," in _Hist. littéraire de la France_, 1848, vol. 32, p. 291; also Delaborde's biography; Lecoy de la Marche, _La France sous St. Louis et sous Philippe le Hardi_ (Paris, 1894); A. Molinier, _Les sources de l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1901-06); U. Chevalier, Répertoire _des sources hist. du moyen âge_ (Montbéliard, 1903).

[92] Philippe Lauer, "Royaumont," in _Congrès Archéologique_, 1908, vol. 2, p. 215.

[93] One sister of St. Louis' queen married Henry III of England, under whom was built Westminster Abbey (1217-54). The second was the wife of King Henry's brother, Richard of Cornwall, who was titular emperor of Germany. The youngest sister inherited Provence and wedded St. Louis' brother, Charles d'Anjou, king of the Two Sicilies. E. Boutarie, _Marguerite de Provence, femme de St. Louis_ (Paris, 1869); E. Berger, _Blanche de Castille_ (Paris, 1900).

[94] Joinville, in Syria, went to the Krak, the great Christian fortress beyond the Jordan, to obtain, as a relic for his church at Joinville, the shield of his crusading ancestor whom Richard Coeur-de-Lion had admired. His "_beau chastel_" on the Marne was wrecked by the Revolution. His line had ended in an heiress who married into the ruling house of Lorraine, so that the XVI-century Duke of Guise, whose personal charm made him the idol of the French people, was fifth, by female descent, from the irresistible seneschal. A brother of Joinville's, Geoffrey, married Mahaut de Lacy, heiress of Meath, and became Lord Chief Justice of Ireland in 1273. Under Henry III and Edward I he played a role, and went crusading in 1270. He left nine children. On his wife's death he entered the Dominican convent of Tuam, where he died in 1314.

[95] Often did Louis IX sigh over his youngest brother. "Charles d'Anjou! Charles d'Anjou!" he would say, sadly. As king of the Two Sicilies, Charles won the title of the Merciless, and his harshness was punished by the Sicilian Vespers, 1282. Dante abominated the house of Anjou in Italy. Of Charles he wrote in the _Paradiso_ (viii: 73-75), "His evil rule, which ever cuts into the heart of subject people, caused Palermo to shriek out: 'Die! Die!'" St. Louis loved especially his brother Robert d'Artois, whose overhardy courage caused the defeat of the crusaders at Mansourah. When word was brought to the king of his brother's death in that battle, tears warm and full fell from his eyes, though he said, "God must be thanked for all he sends." The other brother of Louis IX was Alphonse of Poitiers, who married the heiress of Toulouse and took guidance of the king in his administration of the Midi.

[96] In 1841 Louis-Philippe built a chapel on the site where St. Louis had died in Tunis, 1270. In the _Ville d'Art Célèbres_ series (H. Laurens, Paris), see H. Saladin, _Tunis et Kairouan_, and R. Cagnat, _Carthage, Tingad, Tébessa_.

[97] Shakespeare, "Richard II." iv: 1.

[98] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905; Léon Gautier, _La France sous Philippe-Auguste_ (Tours, Mâme et fils, 1869); A. Luchaire, _La société française au temps de Philippe-Auguste_ (Paris, Hachette, 1909); W. H. Hutton, _Philip-Augustus_ (London and New York, Macmillan Company, 1896); Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire de l'architecture_; see articles on cathedral, rose, triforium.

[99] Two miles from Mantes, across the river, is Gassicourt (Seine-et-Oise), once a Cluniac priory. Its earliest diagonals were built about 1125. The nave and tower are XII century; the choir and transept are Rayonnant Gothic. Some of the windows donated by Blanche of Castile remain. Bossuet long held the living of Gassicourt. See Lefèvre-Pontalis, "Monographie des églises Gassicourt, Meulan," etc., in _Bul. de la Commission des antiquités et des arts de Seine-et-Oise_, 1885-88, vols. 5 to 8.

[100] J. Formigé, _La cathédrale de Meaux_ (Pontoise, 1917); Amédée Boinet, "La cathédrale de Meaux," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1912; I. Taylor, _La cathédrale de Meaux_ (Paris, Didot, 1858), folio; Emile Lambin, "La cathédrale de Meaux," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1900; Henri Stein, _La cathédrale de Meaux et l'architecte Nicolas de Chaumes_ (Arcis-sur-Aube, 1890); Du Carro, _Histoire de Meaux et du pays meldois_ (Meaux, 1865); Monseigneur Allon, _Chronique des évêques de Meaux_; also his _Notice hist. et descript. de la cathédrale de Meaux_ (1871); O. Join-Lambert, _Le diocèse de Meaux_ (Thèse, École des chartes, 1894).

[101] Lionel Johnson, _Poetical Works_ (New York and London, Macmillan Company), p. 252.

[102] Péguy pierced to the very soul of the Maid in his _Mystère de la charité de Jeanne d'Arc_. Jeanne, in Domrémy, seeing the evil round her caused by war, says: "Je pourrais passer ma vie entière à la maudire, et les villes n'en seront pas moins efforcées, et les hommes d'armes n'en feront pas moins chevaucher leurs chevaux dans les blés vénérables ... blés sacrés, blés qui faites le pain ... sacrés blés qui devîntes le corps de Jésus-Christ."

[103] Another who fell in battle in that same summer of 1914, Ernest Psichari, divined this pregnant region: "Diocèse de Meaux, cryptes de Jouarre, cloches des petites communes ... l'harmonie délicate, la grâce parfaite, le bon goût de ces paysages modérés. Ici la race est d'accord avec le paysage, sérieuse comme lui, ardente sans frivolité, sans élégances inutiles. Certains soirs, on pense à Pascal, si français, quand il écrivait: 'Certitude.... Pleurs de joie.' "--_L'Appel des Armes_ (Paris, G. Oudin et Cie, 1913).

[104] _Paradiso_, xxxiii: 15-16.

[105] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1900; René Merlet, _La cathédrale de Chartres_ (Collection, Petites Monographies), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1909); _ibid._, "Les architectes de la cathédrale de Chartres et la construction de la chapelle Saint Piat au XIVe siècle," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1906, vol. 70, p. 218; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _Les architectes et la construction des cathédrales de Chartres_ (Paris, 1905); _ibid._, _Les façades successives de la cathédrale de Chartres au XIe et au XIIe siècle_ (Caen, 1902); Abbé Bulteau, _Monographie de la cathédrale de Chartres_ (1891), 3 vols.; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "Le portail sud de la cathédrale de Chartres," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1907, p. 100; F. de Mély, _Études iconographiques sur les vitraux du XIIIe siècle de la cathédrale de Chartres_ (Lille, 1888), 4to; J. K. Huysmans, _La Cathédrale_ (Paris, 1898; tr. London, Paul, Trench & Trübner); Henry Adams, _Mont Saint-Michel and Chartres_ (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913); De Lasteyrie, _Études sur la sculpture française au moyen âge_ (Paris, 1902); Cherval, _Chartres, sa cathédrale, ses monuments_ (Chartres, 1905); _ibid._, _Les écoles de Chartres au moyen âge_ (1895); Lucien Merlet, tr. _Lettres de St. Ives, évêque de Chartres_ (Chartres, Petrot-Garnier, 1885); A. J. de H. Bushnell, _Storied Windows_ (New York, Macmillan Company, 1914); Crosnier, _Iconographie chrétienne_ (Tours, Mâme, 1876); Gabriel Fleury, _Études sur les portails imagés du XIIe siècle_ (Mamers, Fleury et Dangin, 1904); _Histoire littéraire de la France_, vol. 7, p. 1, "État des lettres en France, XIe siècle"; p. 261, "St. Fulbert" (Paris, 1746); vol. 10, p. 102, "St. Ives" (Paris, 1756); vol. 13, p. 82, "Geofroi de Lèves" (Paris, 1814); vol. 14, p. 89, "Jean de Sarisbéry"; p. 236, "Pierre de Celle, évêque de Chartres" (Paris, 1817).

[106] George Santayana, _Interpretations of Poetry and Religion_ (New York, Scribner's, 1905).

[107] Bishop Fulbert was buried in 1029 in the church of St. Pierre-en-Vallée. St. Pierre's choir is Romanesque and early Gothic; its sanctuary is a gem of XIV-century Rayonnant; its nave is in larger part of the XIII century, but later than the cathedral of Chartres; its west tower is of the XI century. At present it possesses a treasure of enamel work, the plaques of the apostles, by Léonard Limosin, which Francis I had made in 1545, and which Henry II gave to Diana de Poitiers for the château of Anet. There is much grisaille glass in St. Pierre; each window of the nave is divided perpendicularly into three panels--a colored one in the center and grisailles on either side. In the choir is some XII-century glass; the brilliant apse windows are XIV century, as are a few in the nave. P. Lavedan, _Léonard Limosin el les émailleurs français_ (Collection, Les grands artistes), (Paris, H. Laurens); Alleaume et Duplessis, _Les douze apôtres; émaux de Léonard Limosin_ (Paris, 1865).

[108] "Chartres est sage avec une passion intense.... Palais de la paix et du silence!... C'est du paix héroique qu'il s'agit ici."--RODIN, _Les Cathédrales de France_ (Paris, Colin, 1914).

[109] "I am Beauceron, Chartres is my cathedral," said Charles Péguy, who walked in pilgrimage a hundred miles to pray in the cathedral when his little son lay dying with diphtheria. No one has celebrated it better than that XX-century maker of mystery plays, true artisan-artist of the _moyen âge_:

"Voici le lourd pilier et la montante voûte; Et l'oubli pour hier, et l'oubli pour demain; Et l'inutilité de tout calcul humain; Et plus que le péché, la sagesse en déroute.

"Voici le lieu du monde où tout devient facile, Le regret, le départ, même l'événement, Et l'adieu temporaire et le détournement, Le seul coin de la terre où tout devient docile....

"Voici le lieu du monde où tout rentre et se tait, Et le silence et l'ombre et la charnelle absence. Et le commencement d'éternelle présence, Le seul réduit où l'âme est tout ce qu'elle était."

--"Prières dans la cathédrale de Chartres," _OEuvres de Charles Péguy_, vol. 6, p. 383, éd., _Nouvelle Reçue française_, 1916-18.

[110] Émile Mâle, _L'art religieux du XIIIe siècle en France_ (Paris, A. Colin, 1908); _ibid._, _L'art religieux de la fin du moyen âge en France_ (Paris, A. Colin, 1910).

[111] Émile Mâle, _L'Art allemand et l'art français du moyen âge_ (Paris, A. Colin, 1917).

[112] "Lovelier color the hand of man has not produced. There are times when human art seems to be something more than mortal; when it rises to heights infinitely above the ordinary achievements of men. French glass of the XII century is such an art. It is impossible to stand in the presence of these translucent mosaics without experiencing a depth of æsthetic emotion that at once disarms the critical faculty. Such sensuous beauty of tone, such richness of color, has been equaled by no painter of the Renaissance, by no Byzantine worker in mosaics. Yet it is not only for their absolute beauty, but also for their perfectly architectural character that these windows claim unqualified admiration."--ARTHUR KINGSLEY PORTER, _Medieval Architecture_ (New York and London, 1907), vol. 2, p. 108.

[113] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1911, Rheims, p. 19, the cathedral; p. 57, St. Remi, L. Demaison; Louis Demaison, _Album de la cathédrale de Rheims_ (Paris, 1902), 2 vols., folio; _ibid._, _La cathédrale de Rheims_ (Collection, Petites Monographies), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1910); Abbé Cerf, _Histoire et description de Notre Dame de Rheims_ (Rheims, Dubois, 1861), 2 vols., 8vo; Alphonse Gosset, _La cathédrale de Rheims_ (Paris and Rheims, 1894), folio; _ibid._, _Rheims monumental_ (Rheims, 1880), 12mo; Anthyme Saint-Paul, "La cathédrale de Rheims, au XIIIe siècle," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1906, vol. 70, p. 288; E. Moreau-Nélaton, _La cathédrale de Rheims_ (Paris, 1915); Monseigneur Landrieux, _La cathédrale de Rheims_ (Paris, H. Laurens, 1917); Louis Bréhier, _La cathédrale de Rheims_ (Paris, H. Laurens, 1919); Max Sainsaulieu, _Rheims avant la guerre_ (Paris, H. Laurens); Vitry, _La cathédrale de Rheims, architecture et sculpture_ (Paris, Longuet, 1913); Ch. Loriquet, _Les tapisseries de Notre Dame de Rheims_; H. Bazin, _Une vieille cité de France, Rheims_; _monuments et histoire_ (Rheims, Michaud, 1900), 4to; Louise Pillion, _Les sculpteurs français du XIIIe siècle_ (Collection, Les maîtres de l'art), (Paris); Émile Lambin, _Flore des grandes cathédrales_ (Paris, 1897); Vitry et Brière, _Documents de sculpture française au moyen âge_ (Paris, Longuet, 1900).

[114] Auguste Rodin, _Les cathédrales de France_ (Paris, Colin, 1914).

[115] The Benedictines' church at Orbais (Marne), between Rheims and Châlons, contains some exceptionally good XII-century windows. Its nave has been destroyed, but the transept and the choir, with its radiating chapels (c. 1200), survive. The World War swept over Orbais, but the abbatial is unharmed. Héron de Villefosse, _Abbaye d'Orbais_ (Paris, 1892).

[116] It has been suggested that about 1260 a façade then rising was dismounted and moved forward, to allow for the insertion of several more bays in the nave, but the idea remains a hypothesis.

[117] E. O'Reilly, _Les deux procès de condamnation ... de Jeanne d'Arc_, eighth interrogation, March 17, 1431. "Il avait été à la peine, c'était bien raison qu'il fût à l'honneur." (Paris, Plon, 1868), 2 vols.

[118] During this summer of 1020 excavations made under Rheims Cathedral have brought to light vestiges of the cathedral of the Virgin, founded by St. Nicaise in 401. Three Roman arches in good condition support the venerable nave, in a corner of whose floor was found buried sacred images of ivory most beautifully carved. Evidently they had been hidden to save them from the invading Vandals.

[119]

"Et les Français disent: Quel grand courage! Avec Turpin la croix est bien gardée!"

Roland addressed the dead archbishop on the field of Roncevaux:

"Eh! Chevalier de bonne aire, homme noble, Nul ne sut mieux, depuis les saints apôtres La foi garder et convertir les hommes: Du paradis lui soit la porte ouverte!" --_La Chanson de Roland_ (Edition, A. d'Avril).

[120] Along the lower walls of the side aisles of Rheims hung splendid tapestries, "color of incense, silver-gray dashed with blue, with red." They related Our Lady's life and were given in 1530 by the saintly archbishop, Robert de Lenoncourt, the same who presented to St. Remi's monastery church other sumptuous embroideries, and who remade as Flamboyant Gothic St. Remi's south façade. The tapestries of Rheims were saved from the wrecked city and exhibited in Paris during the World War for the benefit of the refugees. It is said that a certain number of the stained-glass windows of the cathedral were dismounted in time to escape annihilation.

[121] Sung in the French trenches:

"... Attila II s'en veng et brûle Le baptistère de nos rois. Un siécle d'art à chaque bombe Se craquèle, s'effrite et tombe Avec un râle, et tout d'un coup! ... Mais dans la ville ruinée, Par l'incendie illuminée, _Jeanne d'Arc est encor debout!_" --(THÉODOR BOTREL, _Refrains de guerre_ (Paris, Payot, 1915)).

[122] Georges Durand, _Monographie de l'église Notre Dame, cathédrale d'Amiens_ (Paris, Picard et fils, 1903), 2 vols., folio; _ibid., Description abrégée de la cathédrale d'Amiens_ (Amiens, Yvert et Tellier, 1904); _ibid._, "La peinture sur verre au XIIIe siècle et les vitraux de la cathédrale d'Amiens," in _Mémoires de la Société des antiquaires de Picardie_ 1891, 4e série, tome I, p. 389; Jourdain et Duval, "Le grand portail de la cathédrale d'Amiens," in _Bulletin Monumental_, vols. 11, 12, _passim_; _ibid., Cathédrale d'Amiens, les stalles et clôtures du choeur_ (Amiens, 1867), 8vo; T. Perkins, _The Cathedral Church of Amiens_ (London, Bell, 1902); Rodière et Guyencourt, _La Picardie historique et monumentale_ (Paris, Picard, 1906), 4to; Camille Enlart, _Monuments religieux de l'architecture romane et de transition dans la région Picarde_ (Amiens, Yvert et Tellier, 1895); Taylor et Nodier, _Voyages pittoresques ... dans l'ancienne France. Picardie_, (Paris, Didron, 1835-45), 3 vols.; Émile Mâle, _L'art religieux de la fin du moyen âge en France_ (Paris, Colin, 1910); A. de Colonne, _Histoire de la ville d'Amiens_ (Paris, 1900); Demogeon, La Picardie (Collection, Les régions de la France), (Paris, L. Cerf).

[123] Emile Lambin, _La flore des grandes cathédrales_ (Paris, 1897).

[124] L. Reau, _Cologne_ (Collection, Villes d'art célèbres), (Paris, H. Laurens); L. Leger, _Prague_ (Collection, Villes d'art célèbres), (Paris, H. Laurens); Henry Hymans, _Bruges et Ipres_ (Paris, H. Laurens).

[125] Apocalypse xxi:17.

[126] Emile Mâle, _L'art religieux de XIIIe siècle en France_ (Paris, Colin, 1908).

[127] Psalm xc:13.

[128] Eph. ii:20-21.

[129] John Ruskin, _The Bible of Amiens_, vol. 33, Complete Works (London, Cook & Wedderburn, 1908). Illustrated; chap. iv, "Interpretations."

[130] Abbeville, close by, also had its Puy, in whose competitions figured Froissart, the historian, as laureate. The magnificent portal decorations (1548) of the Flamboyant Gothic collegiate church of St. Wulfran were contributed in this way.

Émile Deliguières, _L'église Saint-Vulfran à Abbeville_ (Abbeville, Paillart, 1898); _Congrès Archéologique_, 1893.

[131] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1849 and 1898; Amédée Boinet, _La cathédrale de Bourges_ (Collection, Petites Monographies), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1911); _ibid_., "Les sculpteurs de la cathédrale de Bourges," in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1912; also published by Champion (Paris, 1912); Gaston Congny, _Bourges et Nevers_; Buhot de Kersers, "Les chapelles absidioles de la cathédrale de Bourges," in _Bulletin Monumental_, vol. 40, p. 417; _ibid., Histoire et statistique monumentale du département du Cher_ (Bourges, 1875-98), 8 vols., 4to; Girardot et Durant, _La cathédrale de Bourges_ (Moulins, 1849); G. Hardy et A. Gandillon, _Bourges et les abbayes et châteaux de Berry_ (Collection, Villes d'art célèbres), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1912); Cahier et Martin (P. P.), _Monographie de la cathédrale de Bourges; vitraux du XIIIe siècle_; Des Méloizes, _Les vitraux de Bourges postérieurs au XIIIe siècle_ (Lille, 1897), folio; _ibid., Les vitraux de Bourges_, 1901; _ibid._, "Note sur un très ancien vitrail de la cathédrale de Bourges," in _Mémoires de la Soc. des Antiquaires du Centre_, 1873, vol. 4, p. 193; Champeaux et Gauchery, _Les travaux d'art exécutés pour Jean de France, duc de Berry_ (Paris, Champion, 1894), folio; Buhot de Kersers, "Caractères de l'architecture religieuse en Berry à l'époque romane," in _Bul. archéol. du Comité des Travaux hist. et scientifiques_, 1890, p. 25; F. Deshoulières, "Les églises romanes du Berry," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1909, p. 463; Raynal, _Histoire de Berry_; Vacher, _Le Berry_ (Collection, Les régions de la France), (Paris, L. Cerf); Sauvageot, _Palais, châteaux, hôtels et maisons de France_; Sir Theodore Andreas Cook, _Twenty-five Great Houses of France_ (London and New York, 1916).

[132] _Rationale Divinorum officiorum_, tr. by Neale and Webb of the Camden Society (Leeds, Green, 1843).

[133] Rodin should have placed his "Thinker" here: "Le Penseur aurait été au diapason dans cette crypt; cette ombre immense l'aurait fortifié!"

--RODIN, _Les cathédrales de France_.

[134] "There is a charming detail in this section. Beside the angel, on the left, where the wicked are the prey of demons, stands a little female figure, that of a child, who, with hands meekly folded and head gently raised, waits for the stern angel to decide upon her fate. In this fate, however, a dreadful big devil also takes a keen interest; he seems on the point of appropriating the tender creature; he has a face like a goat and an enormous hooked nose. But the angel gently lays a hand upon the shoulder of the little girl--the movement is full of dignity--as if to say, 'No; she belongs to the other side.' The frieze below represents the general Resurrection, with the good and the wicked emerging from their sepulchers. Nothing can be more quaint and charming than the difference shown in their way of responding to the final trump. The good get out of their tombs with a certain modest gayety, an alacrity tempered by respect; one of them kneels to pray as soon as he has disinterred himself. You may know the wicked, on the other hand, by their extreme shyness; they crawl out slowly and fearfully; they hang back."--HENRY JAMES, _A Little Tour in France_ (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1900), p. 105.

[135] The chief piers of Orléans Cathedral were mined by Théodore de Bèze and blown up on the night of March 23, 1567. The portal, part of the choir, and the apse chapel escaped. The XII-century nave had double aisles with tribunes; the frontispiece also was XII century. The choir, begun in 1287, was finished by 1297, and a new Gothic nave was in progress at the time of the civil wars of religion. Henry IV undertook to rebuild Orléans Cathedral, and with his bride, Marie de Medici, laid the first stone in 1601. But a bastard-Gothic edifice is not compensation for earlier work. H. Havard, éd., _La France artistique et monumentale_, vol. 6, p. 122, "Orléans," G. Lefenestre; _Congrès Archéologique_, 1854 and 1892; G. Rigault, _Orléans et le val de Loire_ (Collection, Villes d'art célèbres), (Paris, H. Laurens); E. Lèfevre-Pontalis et Eugène Garry, on Orléans Cathedral, in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1904, vol. 68, p. 309.

[136] _Nouvelle Alliance_ windows are to be found at Chartres (sixth window in the nave's north aisle), at Le Mans (the east window of the long Lady chapel), at Tours (in the axis chapel), in the transept of Sens Cathedral (in five lights below the north rose), and in the apse curve of Lyons Cathedral.

[137] The happy chance of travel led the writer, in May of 1914, to the ceremony of the unveiling of a statue of Jeanne d'Arc in the cathedral of this city, that has not known invasion--the military arsenal of France. As the preaching bishop exhorted modern France to remake her soul else she would perish, over that spellbound congregation seemed to pass a premonition of portentous events looming ahead. Within three months the World War opened, _forte et aspre guerre_, as they said in Jeanne's day, war the chastiser, war the purifier: "_Il y a des guerres qui avilissent les nations, et les avilissent pour des siècles; d'autres les exaltent, les perfectionnent de toutes manières_," wrote Joseph de Maistre.

[138] Carved on Jacques Coeur's house in Bourges are mottoes such as, "_A vaillans coeurs rien impossible_," or "_Dire, faire, taire, de ma joie_," or "_En bouche close, n'entre mousche_." Vallet de Viriville, _Jacques Coeur_; Pierre Clément, _Jacques Coeur et Charles VII_.

[139] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1905, "Beauvais," Chanoine Barsaux; P. Dubois, _La cathédrale de Beauvais_ (Collection, Petites Monographies), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1911); Abbé P. C. Barraud, "Beauvais et ses monuments," in _Bulletin Monumental_, vol. 27, _passim_. He gives studies on the Le Prince and other windows in the cathedral and St. Étienne, in _Mémoires de la Soc. Académique de l'Oise_, 1851-53, vol. 1, p. 225; vol. 2, p. 537; vol. 3, pp. 150, 277; Louise Pillion, on St. Étienne's glass, in _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1910, p. 367; Eug. J. Woillez, _Archéologie des monuments religieux de l'ancien Beauvoisis pendant la métamorphose romane_ (Paris, 1839-49), folio; Graves, _Notice archéologique sur le département de l'Oise_ (Beauvais, 1856); Gustave Desgardins, _Histoire de la cathédrale de Beauvais_ (1875); Abbé L. Pihan, _Beauvais, sa cathédrale, ses monuments_ (1905); _ibid., Esquisse descriptive des monuments historiques dans l'Oise_; see Gonse and Palustre on the portals of the cathedral; Monseigneur Barbier de Montault, "Iconographie des Sibylles," in _Rev. de l'art chrétiens_, 1874.

[140] Carolingian work aboveground is rare; besides this _Basse-OEuvre_ at Beauvais, there is St. Philibert de Grandlieu (Loire-Inférieure), part of the small church under the flank of Jumièges' ruined abbatial, portions of St. Jouin-de-Marnes (Deux-Sèvres), and vestiges in the walls of La Couture at Le Mans. There are Carolingian crypts at St. Quentin, Amiens, Chartres, Orléans, Auxerre, Flavigny. More exceptional still are Merovingian remains, such as the crypt of Jouarre, the small tri-lobed church of St. Laurent at Grenoble, the crypt of St. Léger at St. Maixent (Deux-Sèvres), a crypt at Lyons, in St. Martin d'Ainay, and apsidal chapels in St. Jean's baptistry at Poitiers. A list of the Romanesque monuments of the Ile-de-France and bordering districts is to be found in Arthur Kingsley Porter's _Medieval Architecture_, 1909, vol. 2, pp. 13-49.

[141] Among the Flamboyant monuments of France are St. Wulfran's frontispiece at Abbeville, begun in 1481, overcharged with ornament but with portals of great beauty; St. Riquier near by, also overcharged; the churches of Rue and Mézières; façades of cathedrals at Sens, Senlis, Auxerre, Troyes, Tours, and Limoges; Vendôme's frontispiece, and Albi's porch; towers at Bordeaux, Rodez, Saintes, Chartres, Auxerre, Bourges, Rouen, and many other cities in Normandy; the cathedrals of Toul and Metz; St. Maurice at Lille, a well-restrained Flamboyant monument; the magnificent church of St. Nicholas-du-Port near Nancy; the choir of Moulins; St. Antoine at Compiègne and a number of civic halls such as Compiègne's and St. Quentin's. The beautiful Flamboyant Gothic church at Péronne (1509-25) has been wiped out in the World War. Artois and Flanders were especially rich in late-Gothic edifices. Normandy was a Mecca of Flamboyant work--from Rouen, to that gem of the final phase, the choir of Mont Saint-Michel. Monseigneur Dehaisnes, _Histoire de l'art dans la Flandre, l'Artois et le Hainaut_ (Lille, 1886), 3 vols.

[142] André Michel, éd., _Histoire de l'Art_, vol. 3, 1^{ère} partie, "Le style flamboyant," Camille Enlart (Paris, A. Colin), 1914, 10 vols.; Camille Enlart, "Origine anglaise du style flamboyant," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1886, 1906, p. 38; A. Saint-Paul, "L'architecture religieuse en France pendant la Guerre de Cent Ans," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1908, p. 5; _ibid., Les origines du gothique flamboyant en France_ (Caen, 1907); Arthur Kingsley Porter, _Medieval Architecture_, vol. 2 (New York and London, 1907), 2 vols.

[143] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1902; V. C. de Courcel, _La cathédrale de Troyes_, (1910); L. Morel-Payen, _Troyes et Provins_ (Collection, Villes d'art célèbres), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1910); F. Arnaud, _Description historique de l'église cathédrale de Troyes_; J. B. Coffinet, "Les peintres-verriers de Troyes," in _Annales Archéologiques_, vol. 18, pp. 125, 212; A. J. de H. Bushnell, _Storied Windows_, chapters 32 and 33, on Troyes (New York, Macmillan Company, 1914); Ch. Fichot, _Statistique monumentale du département de l'Aube_, vol. 1, _Arrondissement de Troyes_ (Troyes, 1884), 4to; R. Koechlin and J.M. de Vasselot, _La sculpture à Troyes et dans la Champagne méridionale au XVIe siècle_ (Paris, A. Colin, 1900); Raymond Koechlin, "La sculpture du XIVe et du XVe siècle dans la région de Troyes," in _Congrès Archéologique_, 1908; Paul Vitry, _Michel Colombe et la sculpture française de son temps_ (Paris, 1901); Louis Gonse, _La sculpture française depuis le XIVe siècle_ (Paris, Quantin, 1895), folio; D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Histoire des ducs et des comtes de Champagne_, 1859, 7 vols.; Bontier, _Histoire de Troyes et de la Champagne méridionale_ (Troyes, 1880), 4 vols.; Amédée Aufauvre, _Troyes et ses environs_.

[144] Translation from XIII-century French by Henry Adams.

[145] Generation after generation, the Lyénin, Macadré, Verrat, and Gontier families produced noted artists. Assier, _Les arts dans l'ancienne capitale de la Champagne_.

[146] The same feat can be seen in St. Nizier at Troyes, rebuilt in 1528 and literally filled with XVI-century glass. Its best window is in the transept (1552), and shows the beasts of heresy trampled upon, for that day was nothing if not controversial. In a central window of the choir, the Descent of the Holy Ghost, the artist made the hands of a figure in one panel appear in the neighboring panel, regardless of the stone mullions. In 1901 an anarchist bomb exploded in St. Nizier, and in 1910 a terrible storm wrecked more of its windows. The church possesses a _Saint Sépulcre_ and a _Christ de Pité_ in which the Gothic spirit lingers. Its reredos, now in the Museum, was from the Juliot _atelier_. Her international fairs early accustomed Troyes to foreign influences. Flemish realism had fortified her sculptors and vitrine artists, and during the first third of the XVI century (when the trade of the city tripled itself) the new Italian ideas found favor. For a generation the just and loyal measure of Champagne's own Gothic tradition held the leadership, but finally the Italian Renaissance conquered. When abstract types were substituted for types precisely observed, imagery became cold, declamatory, and pretentious. In several of the churches of Troyes will be found the Education of the Virgin by her mother, St. Anne, a theme for which this city had a partiality.

[147] Abbé O. F. Jossier, _Monographie des vitraux de St. Urbain de Troyes_ (Troyes, 1912); E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "Jean Langlois, architecte de St. Urbain de Troyes," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1904, vol. 64, p. 93; Albert Barbeau, _St. Urbain de Troyes_ (Troyes, Dufour-Bonquot, 1891), 8vo; Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire de l'architecture_, vol. 4, pp. 182-192; Abbé Lahore, _L'église Saint-Urbain_ (1891).

[148] Within walking distance of Troyes are Ste. Maure, with a Jesse tree by Linard Gontier; Les Noès, with good sculpture and a Jesse-tree window of 1521; St. André-lès-Troyes, with a lovely St. Catherine statue; St. Parre-les-Tertres, with a Vision of Augustus in _camaïeu_ like a magnificent enamel on white glass, and another grisaille-like Vision of Augustus at St. Léger-lès-Troyes (1558); Chapelle St. Luc, with a triptych on wood, sculpture of the Three Maries, and good glass; Torvilliers, Pont-Ste.-Marie, and Montgueux, with other _objets d'art_. Eight miles away, at Verrières, is the best portal of the region and more late-Gothic glass. There are storied windows at St. Loup, St. Ponanges, Rosnay, Brienne, Rouilly (with a good Virgin image), Pouvres, Chavanges, Bar-sur-Seine, Bar-sur-Aube (with a statue of St. Barbara), Mussy-sur-Seine, Montier-en-Der, Arcis-sur-Aube, and Ceffonds, whose windows were the gift of Étienne Chévalier (1528). Some thirty miles away lies St. Florentin (six miles from Pontigny), where are twenty splendid Renaissance lights, among them a Creation window (1525), with God the Father wearing the tiara, one of 1528 telling St. Nicolas' life in quatrains describing each scene, and a 1529 window devoted to the Apocalypse. Between Troyes and St. Florentin lies Ervy, where is a Crucifixion window (1570), showing the Saviour nailed to a Tree of Knowledge Cross with apples and leaves on its top, and Adam and Eve standing below. There are also the noted windows of the Sibyls (1515), representing twelve instead of ten prophetesses, each accompanied by the event of the New Law which she is said to have foretold, and the window called the Triumph of Petrarch (1502).

[149] Of the same appealing type as St. Martha at Troyes are the Virgin and Madeleine of the Holy Sepulcher group at Villeneuve l'Archevêque (Yonne), where are also some beautiful portal images of the XIII century. M. Ch. Fichot has brought forward testimony that would indicate the image called St. Martha in the church of the Madeleine is really one of St. Mary Magdelene herself. However, the majority of those who have written on the sculpture of Champagne continue to call it a St. Martha.

[150] _Congrès Archéologique_, 1855, 1875, and 1911, p. 447, the cathedral of Châlons; p. 473, Notre-Dame-en-Vaux; p. 496, St. Alpin; p. 512, Notre-Dame-de-l'Épine; E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, "L'architecture dans la Champagne méridionale au XIIIe et au XVIe siècle," in _Congrès Archéologique_, 1902, p. 273; _ibid._, "Les caractères distinctifs des écoles gothiques de la Champagne et de la Bourgogne," in _Congrès Archéologique_, 1907, p. 546; Louis Demaison, _Les églises de Châlons-sur-Marne_ (Caen, 1913); E. de Barthélemy, _Diocèse ancien de Châlons-sur-Marne_. _Histoire et monuments_ (Paris, 1861), 2 vols.; E. Hurault, _La cathédrale de Châlons-sur-Marne et sa clergé au XIIIe siècle_; A. J. de H. Bushnell, _Storied Windows_,