Part 45

This famous work consists of five books. Its form is peculiar, and is an imitation of a similar work by Marcianus Capella, _De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii_. It is alternately in prose and verse. The verse shows great facility of metrical composition, but a considerable portion of it is transferred from the tragedies of Seneca. The first book opens with a few verses, in which Boetius describes how his sorrows had brought him to a premature old age. As he is thus lamenting, a woman appears to him of dignified mien, whom he recognizes as his guardian, Philosophy. She, resolving to apply the remedy for his grief, questions him for that purpose. She finds that he believes that God rules the world, but does not know what he himself is; and this absence of self-knowledge is the cause of his weakness. In the second book Philosophy presents to Boetius Fortune, who is made to state to him the blessings he has enjoyed, and after that proceeds to discuss with him the kind of blessings that fortune can bestow, which are shown to be unsatisfactory and uncertain. In the third book Philosophy promises to lead him to true happiness, which is to be found in God alone, for since God is the highest good, and the highest good is true happiness, God is true happiness. Nor can real evil exist, for since God is all-powerful, and since he does not wish evil, evil must be non-existent. In the fourth book Boetius raises the question, Why, if the governor of the universe is good, do evils exist, and why is virtue often punished and vice rewarded? Philosophy proceeds to show that in fact vice is never unpunished nor virtue unrewarded. From this Philosophy passes into a discussion in regard to the nature of providence and fate, and shows that every fortune is good. The fifth and last book takes up the question of man's free will and God's foreknowledge, and, by an exposition of the nature of God, attempts to show that these doctrines are not subversive of each other; and the conclusion is drawn that God remains a foreknowing spectator of all events, and the ever-present eternity of his vision agrees with the future quality of our actions, dispensing rewards to the good and punishments to the wicked.

Several theological works have been ascribed to Boetius, as has been already mentioned. The _Consolatio_ affords conclusive proof that the author was not a practical believer in Christianity. The book contains expressions such as _daemones_, _angelica virtus_, and _purgatoria dementia_, which have been thought to be derived from the Christian faith; but they are used in a heathen sense, and are explained sufficiently by the circumstance that Boetius was on intimate terms with Christians. The writer nowhere finds consolation in any Christian belief, and Christ is never named in the work. It is not impossible, however, that Boetius may have been brought up a Christian, and that in his early years he may have written some Christian books. Peiper thinks that the first three treatises are the productions of the early years of Boetius. The first, _De Sancta Trinitate_, is addressed to Symmachus (Domino Patri Symmacho), and the result of the short discussion, which is of an abstract nature, and deals partly with the ten categories, is that unity is predicated absolutely, or, in regard to the substance of the Deity, trinity is predicated relatively. The second treatise is addressed to John the deacon ("Ad Joannem Diaconum"), and its subject is "Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur." This treatise is shorter than the first, occupying only two or three pages, and the conclusion of the argument is the same. The third treatise bears the title, _Quomodo substantiae in eo quod sint bonae sint cum non sint substantialia bona_. It contains nothing distinctly Christian, and it contains nothing of great value; therefore its authorship is a matter of little consequence. Peiper thinks that, as the best MSS. uniformly assign these treatises to Boetius, they are to be regarded as his; that it is probable that Symmachus and John (who afterwards became Pope) were the men of highest distinction who took charge of him when he lost his father; and that these treatises are the first-fruits of his studies, which he dedicates to his guardians and benefactors. He thinks that the variations in the inscriptions of the fifth treatise which is not found in the best manuscript, are so great that the name of Boetius could not have originally been in the title. The fourth

## book is also not found in the best manuscript, and two manuscripts

have no inscription. He infers, from these facts, that there is no sure evidence for the authorship of the fourth and fifth treatises. The fifth treatise is _Contra Eutychen et Nestorium_. Both Eutyches and Nestorius are spoken of as living. A council is mentioned, in which a letter was read, expounding the opinion of the Eutychians for the first time. The novelty of the opinion is also alluded to. All these circumstances point to the council of Chalcedon (451). The treatise was therefore written before the birth of Boetius, if it be not a forgery; but there is no reason to suppose that the treatise was not a genuine production of the time to which it professes to belong. The fourth treatise, _De Fide Catholica_, does not contain any distinct chronological data; but the tone and opinions of the treatise produce the impression that it probably belonged to the same period as the treatise against Eutyches and Nestorius. Several inscriptions ascribe both these treatises to Boetius. It will be seen from this statement that Peiper bases his conclusions on grounds far too narrow; and on the whole it is perhaps more probable that Boetius wrote none of the four Christian treatises, particularly as they are not ascribed to him by any of his contemporaries. Three of them express in the strongest language the orthodox faith of the church in opposition to the Arian heresy, and these three put in unmistakable language the procession of the Holy Spirit from both Father and Son. The fourth argues for the orthodox belief of the two natures and one person of Christ. When the desire arose that it should be believed that Boetius perished from his opposition to the heresy of Theodoric, it was natural to ascribe to him works which were in harmony with this supposed fact. The works may really have been written by one Boetius, a bishop of Africa, as Jourdain supposes, or by some Saint Severinus, as Nitzsch conjectures, and the similarity of name may have aided the transference of them to the heathen or neutral Boetius.

Important and, if genuine, decisive evidence upon this point is afforded by a passage in the _Anecdoton Holderi_, a fragment contained in a 10th-century MS. (ed. H. Usener, Leipzig, 1877). The fragment gives an extract from a previously unknown letter of Cassiodorus, the important words being "Scripsit (i.e. Boetius) librum de sancta trinitate, et capita quaedam dogmatica, et librum contra Nestorium." Nitzsch, however, held that this was a copyist's gloss, harmonizing with the received Boetius legend, which had been transferred to the text, and did not consider that it outweighed the opposing internal evidence from _De Cons. Phil._

EDITIONS.--The first collected edition of the works of Boetius was published at Venice in 1492 (Basel, 1570); the last in J.P. Migne's _Patrologia_, lxiii., lxiv. (Paris, 1847). Of the numerous editions of the _De Consolatione_ the best are those of Theodorus Obbarius (Jena, 1843) and R. Peiper (Leipzig, 1871). The first contains prolegomena on the life and writings of Boetius, on his religion and philosophy, and on the manuscripts and editions, a critical apparatus, and notes. The text of the second was based on the fullest collation of MSS. up to that time, though a considerable number of MSS. still remained to be collated. In addition to an account of the MSS. used, it gives the Book of Lupus, "De Metris Boetii," the "Vita Boetii" contained in some MSS., "Elogia Boetii," and a short list of the commentators, translators and imitators of the _Consolatio_. It contains also an account of the metres used by Boetius in the _Consolatio_, and a list of the passages which he has borrowed from the tragedies of Seneca. The work also includes the five treatises, four of them Christian, of which mention has been made above. King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of the _De Consolatione_, with literal English translation, notes and glossary, was published by S. Fox (1835) and again by W.J. Sedgefield (1900); that of G. Colville (Colvile, Coldewel, 1556) was republished by E.B. Bax (1897); translation (mixed prose and verse) by H.R. James (1897). Queen Elizabeth's "Englishings" was reprinted in 1899; on the style, see A. Engelbrecht in _Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akad. der Wissenschaften_ (1902), pp. 15-36. The _De Institutione Arithmetica, De Institutione Musica_, and the doubtful _Geometria_ (for which see G. Ernst, _De Geometricis illis quae sub Boethii nomine nobis tradita sunt quaestiones_, 1903; A.P. McKinlay in _Harvard Classical Studies_, 1907; M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i., Leipzig, 1894; G. Friedlein, _Gerbert, die Geometric des Boethius, und die indischen Ziffern_, Erlangen, 1861, are edited by G. Friedlein (Leipzig, 1867); German translation of the _De Musica_, with explanatory notes, by O. Paul (Leipzig, 1872), and on the sources W. Miekley, _De Boethii libri de musica primi fontibus_ (Jena, 1899). Commentary on Aristotle's _De Interpretatione_ [Greek: peri hermaeneias]), ed. C. Meiser (Leipzig, 1877), and on Porphyry's _Isagoge_, ed. S. Brandt (Vienna, 1906).

AUTHORITIES.--On Boetius generally, see J.G. Sutterer, _Der letzte Romer_ (Eichstadt, 1852); H. Usener, _Anecdoton Holderi_ (Leipzig, 1877); H.F. Stewart, _Boethius: an Essay_ (Edinburgh, 1891); T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, iii. bk. iv. ch. xii. (1896); A. Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters_, i. (1889); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans., 1900), S478: on the date and order of his works, S. Brandt in _Philologus_, lxii. pp. 141-154, 234-279, and A.P. McKinlay, as above, with refs.: on his "Songs," H. Huttinger, _Studia in Boetii carmina collata_ (Regensburg, 1900): on his style, G. Bednarz, _De universo orationis colore Boethii_ (Breslau, 1883): on his theological attitude and works, F.A.B. Nitzsch, _Das System des Boethius und die ihm zugeschriebenen theologischen Schriften_ (Berlin, 1860), and art. in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897); C. Jourdain, _De l'Origine des traditions sur le christianisme de Boece_ (1861); Gaston Boissier, "Le Christianisme de Boece," in _Journal des Savants_ (1889), pp. 449-462; A. Hildebrand, _Boethius und seine Stellung zum Christentume_ (Regensburg, 1885); G. Schepps, "Zu Pseudo-Boethius de fide catholica," in _Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie_, xxxviii. (1895).

BOG (from Ir. and Gael, _bogach, bog_, soft), a tract of soft, spongy, water-logged ground, composed of vegetation, chiefly mosses, in various stages of decomposition. This vegetable matter when partially decomposed forms the substance known as "peat" (q.v.). When the accumulation of water is rapidly increased by excessive rainfall, there is a danger of a "bog-slide," or "bog-burst," which may obliterate the neighbouring cultivated land with a deposit of the contents of the bog. Destructive bog-slides have occurred in Ireland, such as that of the Knocknageeha Bog, Rathmore, Kerry, in 1896, at Castlerea, Roscommon, 1901, and at Kilmore, Galway, 1909.

There is a French game of cards called "bog," said to be of Italian origin, played with a piquet pack on a table with six divisions, one of which is known by the name of the game and forms the pool. It was fashionable during the Second Empire.

BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON (1690-1774), German hymn-writer, was born at Jankowe in Lower Silesia on the 7th of September 1690. At first a page at the ducal court of Saxe-Weissenfels, he next studied law and theology at Jena and Halle; but ill-health preventing his preferment he settled at Glancha in Silesia, where he founded an orphanage. After living for a time at Kostritz, and from 1740 to 1745 at the court of Christian Ernst, duke of Saxe-Coburg, at Saalfeld, he made his home at the Waisenhaus (orphanage) at Halle, where he engaged in spiritual work and in composing hymns and sacred songs, until his death on the 15th of June 1774. Bogatzky's chief works are _Guldenes Schatzkastlein der Kinder Gottes_ (1718), which has reached more than sixty editions; and _Ubung der Gottseligkeit in allerlei geistlichen Liedern_ (1750).

See Bogatzky's autobiography--_Lebenslauf von ihm selbst geschrieben_ (Halle, 1801; new ed., Berlin, 1872); and Ledderhose, _Das Leben Bogatzky's_ (Heidelberg, 1846); also Kelly, _C.H. von Bogatzky's Life and Work_ (London, 1889).

BOGHAZ KEUI, a small village in Asia Minor, north-west of Yuzgat in the Angora vilayet, remarkable for the ruins and rock-sculptures in its vicinity. The ruins are those of a ruling city of the oriental type which flourished in the pre-Greek period; and they are generally identified with Pteria (q.v.), a place taken by Croesus after he had crossed the Halys (Herodotus i. 76).

BOGIE, a northern English dialect word of unknown origin, applied to a kind of low truck or "trolly." In railway engineering it is applied to an under-truck, most frequently with four wheels, which is often provided at one end of a locomotive or both ends of a carriage. It is pivoted or swivelled on the main frames, so that it can turn relatively to the body of the vehicle or engine, and thus it enables the wheels readily to follow the curves of the line. It has no connexion with the series of words, such as "bogey" or "bogy," "bogle," "boggle," "bogart" (in Shakespeare "bug," "bugs and goblins"), which are probably connected with the Welsh _bwg_, a spectre; hence the verb to "boggle," properly applied to a horse which shies at supposed spectres, and so meaning to hesitate, bungle.

BOGNOR, a seaside resort in the Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 66 m. S.S.W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6180. Besides the parish church there is a Roman Catholic priory and church. The town possesses a pier and promenade, a theatre, assembly rooms, and numerous convalescent homes, including an establishment belonging to the Merchant Taylors' Company. The church of the mother parish of South Bersted is Norman and Early English, and retains a fresco of the 16th century.

BOGO, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on Bogo Bay at the mouth of the Bulac river, in the north-east part of the island. Pop. (1903) 14,915. The climate is hot but healthy. The surrounding country is fertile, producing sugar, Indian corn, and maguay in abundance; rice, cacao and fruits are also produced. Hats, baskets, cloths and rope are woven and are exported to a limited extent; small quantities of copra are also exported. The fisheries are of considerable local importance. The language is Cebu-Visayan.

BOGODUKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 45 m. by rail N.W. of the city of that name, in 49 deg. 58' N. lat. and 36 deg. 9' E. long., was formerly fortified. Pop. (1860) 10,522; (1897) 11,928. There seems to have been a settlement on this site as early as 1571. In 1709, at the time of the Russo-Swedish War, Bogodukhov was taken by Menshikov and the emperor Alexius. It contains a cathedral, built in 1793. Boots, caps and furred gowns are manufactured, and gardening and tanning are carried on. The trade is principally in grain, cattle and fish.

BOGOMILS, the name of an ancient religious community which had its origin in Bulgaria. It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that sect, a certain pope Bogumil or Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the whole sect. The word is a direct translation into Slavonic of _Massaliani_, the Syrian name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic documents of the 13th century. They are also known as _Pavlikeni_, i.e. Paulicians. It is a complicated task to determine the true character and the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that almost all the information that has reached us has come from the opponents. The heretical literature has to a great extent either perished or been completely changed; but much has also survived in a modified written form or through oral tradition. Concerning the Bogomils something can be gathered from the information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the 12th century, and from the polemic _Against the Heretics_ written in Slavonic by St Kozma during the 10th century. The old Slavonic lists of forbidden books of the 15th and 16th centuries also give us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils employed to carry on their propaganda. Much may also be learnt from the doctrines of the numerous heretical sects which arose in Russia after the 11th century.

The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between the so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West. They were, moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in Russia and among all the nations of Europe. They may have found in some places a soil already prepared by more ancient tenets which had been preserved in spite of the persecution of the official Church, and handed down from the period of primitive Christianity. In the 12th and 13th centuries the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Bulgari." In 1207 the _Bulgarornm heresis_ is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are declared to be the local _Bougres_, and at the same period mention is made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of Bulgaria." The Cathars and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists, and in Russia the Strigolniki, Molokani and Dukhobortsi, have all at different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely connected with them.

_Doctrine._--From the imperfect and conflicting data which are alone available one positive result can be gathered, viz. that the Bogomils were both Adoptionists and Manichaeans. They had accepted the teaching of Paul of Samosata, though at a later period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle; and they were not quite free from the Dualistic principle of the Gnostics, at a later period too much identified with the teaching of Mani. They rejected the pneumatic Christianity of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic teaching of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the teaching of the heretical sects in Russia, notably those of the 14th century, which are a direct continuation of the doctrines held by the Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth of Christ, the personal coexistence of the Son with the Father and Holy Ghost, and the validity of sacraments and ceremonies. The miracles performed by Jesus were interpreted in a spiritual sense, not as real material occurrences; the Church was the interior spiritual church in which all held equal share. Baptism was only to be practised on grown men and women. The Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the baptismal rite to be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by oil but by self-abnegation, prayers and chanting of hymns. Carp Strigolnik, who in the 14th century preached this doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St Paul had taught that simple-minded men should instruct one another; therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. Prayers were to be said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches. Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect," and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chlist." Marriage was not a sacrament. The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays. They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and wine of the eucharist were not transformed into flesh and blood; that the last judgment would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were idols and the worship of saints and relics idolatry.