Part 23

"Tradition," writes the Travancore Census Superintendent (1901), "traces the Samantas to the prudent Kshatriyas, who cast off the holy thread, to escape detection and slaughter by Parasu Rama. They are believed to have then fled to uninhabited forests till they forgot the Sandhyavandana prayers, and became in certain respects no better than Sudras. Thus they came, it is said, to be called Amantrakas, Samantrakas, Samantas, or having no mantra at all. Referring to this, Mr. Stuart says [140] 'Neither philology, nor anything else, supports this fable.' From the word Samantra, Samanta can, no doubt, be conveniently derived, but, if they could not repeat mantras, they should have been called Amantras and not Samantras. In the Kerala Mahatmya we read that the Perumals appointed Samantas to rule over portions of their kingdom. Taking the Sanskrit word Samanta, we may understand it to mean a petty chief or ruler. It is supposed that the Perumals who came to Malabar contracted matrimonial alliances with high class Nayar women, and that the issue of such unions were given chiefships over various extents of territories. Changes in their manners and customs were, it is said, made subsequently, by way of approximation to the Kshatriyas proper. Though the sacred thread, and the Gayatri hymn were never taken up, less vital changes, as, for instance, that of the wearing of the ornaments of the Kshatriya women, or of consorting only with Nambutiri husbands, were adopted. Those who lived in Ernat formed themselves by connections and alliances into one large caste, and called themselves Eratis. Those who lived in Valluvanat became Vallotis. The unification could not assume a more cosmopolitan character as the several families rose to importance at different times, and, in all probability, from different sections of the Nayars."

In the Travancore Census Report (1901) the chief divisions of the Samantas are said to be Atiyoti, Unyatiri, Pantala, Erati, Valloti, and Netungati. "The Unyatiris," the Travancore Census Superintendent writes further, "look upon themselves as a higher class than the rest of the Samantas, as they have an Aryapattar to tie the tali of their girls, the other five castes employing only Kshatriyas (Tirumulpats) for that duty. The word Atiyoti has sometimes been derived from Atiyan, a slave or vassal, the tradition being that the Kattanat Raja, having once been ousted from his kingdom by the Zamorin of Calicut, sought the assistance of the Raja of Chirakkal. The latter is believed to have made the Kattanat Raja his vassal as a condition for his territory being restored. The Unnittiris are not found in Travancore, their place being taken by the Unyatiris, who do not differ from them materially in any of their manners and customs. The word Unnittiri means the venerable boy, and is merely a title of dignity. The word Pantala comes from Bhandarattil, meaning 'in or belonging to the royal treasury'. They appear to have been once the ruling chiefs of small territories. Their women are known as Kovilammamar, i.e., the ladies of palaces or ranis. The Erati, the Valloti, and Netungati are British Malabar castes, and receive their names from the localities, to which they may have been indigenous--Ernat, Valluvanat, and Netunganat. The Zamorin of Calicut is an Erati by caste. [In 1792, the Joint Commissioners wrote that 'the Cartinaad and Samoory (the principal families in point of extent of dominion) are of the Samanth or Euree (cowherd) caste.'] [141] Some of these Eratis, such as the Raja of Nilambur, are called Tirumulpats. The only peculiarity with these Tirumulpats is that they may tie the tali of their women, and need not call other Tirumulpats for the purpose, as the rest of the Samantas have to do. A title that several Samantas often take is Kartavu (agent or doer), their females being called Koilpats, meaning literally those who live in palaces. The Samantas of Manchery and Amarampalam in Malabar are also called Tirumulpats. The Samantas of Chuntampattai and Cherupulasseri are called Kartavus. Both Kartas and Tirumulpats are called by the Sudra castes Tampuran or prince. The caste government of the Samantas rests with the Namputiri Vaidikas, and their priesthood is undertaken by the Namputiris. They follow the marumakkathayam law of inheritance (through the female line), and observe both the forms of marriage in vogue in the country, namely, tali-kettu and sambandham. Women wear the three special ornaments of the Kshatriyas, viz., the mittil or cherutali, entram, and kuzhal. The chief of these is the mittil, which is used as the wedding ornament. It has the appearance of Rama's parasu or battle-axe. The houses of those Samantas, who are or were till recently rulers of territories, are known as kottarams or palaces, while those of the commonalty are merely called mathams, a name given to the houses of Brahmans not indigenous to Malabar. The occupations, which the Samantas pursue, are chiefly personal attendance on the male and female members of Royal families. Others are landlords, and a few have taken to the learned professions." In the Cochin Census Report, 1901, it is stated that "Samantas and Ambalavasis do not interdine. At public feasts they sit together for meals. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Nampidis, and most of the Ambalavasi castes, do not take water from them. Birth and death pollution last for eleven days."

In the Madras Civil List of titles and title-holders, the Zamorin of Calicut, and the Valiya Rajas of Chirakkal, Kadattanad, Palghat, and Waluvanad, are returned as Samantas.

Samanthi (Chrysanthemum indicum).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba and Togata. The flowers of the chrysanthemum are largely used for garlands, etc., in temple worship.

Samantiya.--The Samantiyas are an Oriya caste of agricultural labourers and firewood sellers. It has been suggested that the caste name is derived from samantiba, which denotes sauntering to pick up scattered things. The Samantiyas are one of the castes, whose touch is supposed to convey pollution, and they consequently live apart in separate quarters.

All the Samantiyas are said to belong to the nagasa (cobra) gotra. The headman is called Behara, and he is assisted by an official called Poricha. There is also a caste servant entitled Dogara. The caste title is Podhano, which is also frequently given out as being the name of the caste.

Samantiya women will not eat food prepared by Brahmans or members of other castes, and they apparently object to cooking in open places when travelling, and leave this work for the men to perform. An Oriya Brahman purohit officiates at the marriage ceremonies, which, with slight variations, conform to the standard Oriya type. The marriage pandal (booth) is generally covered with cocoanut leaves and leafy twigs of Eugenia Jambolana and Zizyphus Jujuba. Four lights, and a vessel of water, are kept on the dais throughout the marriage ceremonies. The knot, with which the cloths of the bride and bridegroom are tied together, is untied on the evening of the bibha (wedding) day, instead of on the seventh day as among many other castes.

Samanto.--A title of Jatapus, and other Oriya castes.

Samaya.--In his 'Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola' in Mysore, Mr. Lewis Rice refers to the Samaya as "Dasaris or Vaishnava religious mendicants, invested with authority as censors of morals. No religious ceremony or marriage could be undertaken without gaining their consent by the payment of fees, etc. Under the former Rajas the office was farmed out in all the large towns, and credited in the public accounts as samayachara. An important part of the profits arose either from the sale of women accused of incontinency, or from fines imposed on them for the same reason. The unfortunate women were popularly known as Sarkar (Government) wives." "The rules of the system," Wilks writes, [142] "varied according to the caste of the accused. Among Brahmans and Komatis, females were not sold, but expelled from their caste, and branded on the arm as prostitutes. They then paid to the ijardar (or contractor) an annual sum as long as they lived, and, when they died, all their property became his. Females of other Hindu castes were sold without any compunction by the ijardar, unless some relative stepped forward to satisfy his demand. These sales were not, as might be supposed, conducted by stealth, nor confined to places remote from general observation; for, in the large town of Bangalore, under the very eyes of the European inhabitants, a large building was appropriated to the accommodation of these unfortunate women, and, so late as 1833, a distinct proclamation of the Commissioners was necessary to enforce the abolition of this detestable traffic."

Samayamuvaru.--An itinerant class of mendicants attached to the Sale caste. From a note by Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, I gather that they say that the name is an abbreviation of Ranasamayamuvaru, or men of the day of battle. According to a legend, when Bhavana Rishi, the patron saint of the caste, was challenged to battle by Kalavasina, a rakshasa, these people were created, and, with their assistance, the rakshasa was conquered. In recognition of their services, Bhavana Rishi made the Sales maintain them. They wander from place to place in single families, and, when they reach a halting-place, dress up, and visit the house of the Pedda Senapati (headman), who feeds them for the day, and gives a chit (note) showing the amount paid by him. At their visits to Sale houses, Bhavana Rishi is praised. They marry in the presence of, and with the aid of the Sales.

Samban.--Samban, meaning Samba or Siva, has been recorded as a sub-division of Idaiyan and Paraiyan. At times of census, Sambuni Kapu has been returned as the caste name by some Palle fishermen in Nellore.

Sambandham.--Sambandham, meaning literally connexion, is "the term used by the Nayars [and other castes] of South Malabar to denote that a man and woman are united by a quasi-matrimonial bond." [143] In Act IV of 1896, Madras, sambandham is defined as "an alliance between a man and a woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom of the community, to which they belong, or either of them belongs, cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife."

Same (millet: Panicum miliare).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Sami Puli (holy tiger).--An exogamous sept of Kallan.

Sammathi Makkal (hammer-men).--An exogamous section of Kallan.

Sammeraya.--A name for Telugu beggars employed as servants and messengers by the heads of Lingayat mutts (religious institutions). It is derived from samme, denoting confederacy or league, and denotes those who are bound to the rules laid down by Lingayats.

Samolo.--A title of Doluva.

Sampige.--Sampige and Sampangi (champac: Michelia Champaca) have been recorded as an exogamous sept of Kurni and Odde. Champac flowers are used in the manufacture of temple garlands.

Samudra.--Samudra, Samudram, or Samudrala, meaning the ocean, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Telugu Brahmans, Koravas, Kurubas, Balijas, and Malas. The equivalent Tamudri occurs as the title of the Zamorin, who is the sea-king or ruler of Calicut.

Sani.--The Sanivallu, who are a Telugu dancing-girl caste, are described, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as women who have not entered into matrimony, gain money by prostitution, and acting as dancers at feasts. Sani is also a title of the Oriya Doluvas in Ganjam, who are said to be descended from Puri Rajas by their concubines. The streets occupied by Sanis are, in Ganjam, known as Sani vidhi. I have heard of missionaries, who, in consequence of this name, insist on their wives being addressed as Ammagaru instead of by the customary name Dorasani.

In a note on the Sanis of the Godavari district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes as follows. "In this district, dancing-girls and prostitutes are made up of six perfectly distinct castes, which are in danger of being confused. These are the Sanis proper, Bogams, Dommara Sanis, Turaka Sanis, Mangala Bogams, and Madiga Bogams. Of these, the Bogams claim to be superior, and will not dance in the presence of, or after a performance by any of the others. The Sanis do not admit this claim, but they do not mind dancing after the Bogams, or in their presence. All the other classes are admittedly inferior to the Sanis and the Bogams. The Sanis would scorn to eat with any of the other dancing castes. The Sani women are not exclusively devoted to their traditional profession. Some of them marry male members of the caste, and live respectably with them. The men do not, as among the dancing castes of the south, assist in the dancing, or by playing the accompaniments or forming a chorus, but are cultivators and petty traders. Like the dancing-girls of the south, the Sanis keep up their numbers by the adoption of girls of other castes. They do service in the temples, but they are not required to be formally dedicated or married to the god, as in the Tamil country. Those of them who are to become prostitutes are usually married to a sword on attaining puberty."

Sani, meaning apparently cow-dung, occurs as a sub-division of the Tamil Agamudaiyans.

Sanjogi.--The Sanjogis are an Oriya class of religious mendicants, who wear the sacred thread, and act as priests for Panos and other lowly people. The name indicates connection, and that they are the connecting link between ordinary people and those who have given up earthly pleasures (Sanyasis). The Sanjogis follow the ordinary as well as the ascetic life. Mr. G. Ramamurti Pantulu informs me that they are believed to be the offspring of ascetics who have violated their vow of celibacy, and women with whom they have lived. They make and sell bead rosaries of the sacred tulsi or basil (Ocimum sanctum) which are worn by various Oriya castes. Some are cultivators, while others are beggars. A Sanjogi beggar goes about with a bell on the thigh, and a coloured pot on the left shoulder. A few are employed at Oriya maths (religious institutions), where it is their duty to invite Bairagis and ascetics to a dinner party, and afterwards to remove the leaf platters, and eat the food which is left.

Sankati (ragi or millet pudding).--An exogamous sept of Boya. Ragi is the staple dietary of many of the lower classes, who cannot afford rice.

Sanku.--Sanku, the conch or chank (Turbinella rapa) has been recorded as a sub-division of Dasaris, Koppala Velamas, and Paraiyans who act as conch-blowers at funerals, and as an exogamous sept of Kuruba. Sankukatti, or those who tie the chank, occurs as a sub-division of Idaiyan. The chank shell, which is regularly collected by divers off Tuticorin in the Tinnevelly district, is highly prized by Hindus, and used for offering libations, and as a musical instrument at temple services, marriages, and other ceremonials. Vaishnavites and Madhvas are branded with the emblems of the chank and chakram. The rare right-handed chank shell is specially valued, and purchased for large sums. A legend, recorded by Baldæus, runs to the effect that "Garroude (Garuda) flew in all haste to Brahma, and brought to Kistna the chianko or kinkhorn twisted to the right". Such a shell appears on the coat-of-arms of the Raja of Cochin and on the coins of Travancore.

Sanno (little).--A sub-division of Bottada, Omanaito, Pentiya, and Sondi.

Sanror.--A synonym of Shanans, who claim that Shanan is derived from Sanror, meaning the learned or noble.

Santarasi.--An exogamous sept of Dandasi. The members thereof may not use mats made of the sedge of this name.

Santha (a fair).--An exogamous sept of Devanga and Odde.

Santo.--A sub-division of Oriya Brahmans and Bhayipuos.

Sanyasi.--"A Sanyasi is literally a man who has forsaken all, and who has renounced the world and leads a life of celibacy, devoting himself to religious meditation and abstraction, and to the study of holy books. He is considered to have attained a state of exalted piety that places him above most of the restrictions of caste and ceremony. His is the fourth Asrama or final stage of life recommended for the three higher orders. ["Having performed religious acts in a forest during the third portion of his life, let him become a Sanyasi, for the fourth portion of it, abandoning all sensual affection." [144]] The number of Brahman Sanyasis is very small; they are chiefly the Gurus or High Priests of the different sects. These are, as a rule, men of learning, and heads of monasteries, where they have a number of disciples under instruction and training for religious discussion. They are supported entirely by endowments and the contributions of their disciples. They undertake periodical tours for the purpose of receiving the offerings of their followers. Since the Sanyasi is considered to be above all sin, and to have acquired sufficient merit for salvation, no sradha is performed by the children born to him before he became an anchorite. [The skull of a Sanyasi is broken after death, as a guarantee of his passage to eternal bliss. Cf. Gosayi.] The corpse of a Sanyasi is buried, and never burnt, or thrown into the river.

"The majority of the Sanyasis found, and generally known as such, are a class of Sudra devotees, who live by begging, and pretend to powers of divination. They wear garments coloured with red ochre, and allow the hair to grow unshorn. They often have settled abodes, but itinerate. Many are married, and their descendants keep up the sect, and follow the same calling." [145]

Sapiri.--A synonym of Relli.

Sappaliga.--It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "in some taluks of South Canara they are said to be identical with, or a sub-caste of Ganiga." The Ganigas are a Canarese caste, of which the traditional occupation is oil-pressing. In the Manual of the South Canara district, it is recorded that "Sappaligs appear to be identical with the Devadigas (temple musicians) in North Canara, though they are regarded as distinct castes in South Canara. The Sappaligs are, as the name sappal (noise) implies, a class of musicians in temples, but a number of them are cultivators." Sappaliga is an occupational term. The musicians among the Tulu Moger fishing caste are called Sappaligas, in the same way that those Mogers who are engaged as oil-pressers are called Ganigas, both being occupational names.

Sara (thread).--A gotra of Kurni.

Saragu (dried or withered leaves).--A sub-division of Valaiyan.

Sarangulu.--Recorded, in the Nellore district, as being sailors. The name is doubtless equivalent to Serang, which has been defined [146] as meaning "a native boatswain, or chief of a lascar crew; the skipper of a small native vessel."

Sarattu (sacred thread).--A sub-division of Kanakkan, members of which wear the sacred thread.

Sarayi (alcoholic liquor).--A sub-division of Balija.

Sarige (lace).--The name of a class of gold-lace makers in Mysore, and of an exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Sastri.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Sastri (one learned in the shastras) is described as "unrecognizable. The word is used as a title by Smarta Brahmans in the Madras Presidency, but the persons returning it came from Bombay, and were not Brahmans." Sastri is recorded in my notes as a title of Devangas.

Satani.--The Satanis are described in the Madras Census Report, 1891, as "a class of temple servants very much like the Malis of Bengal. The word Satani is a corrupt form of Sattadavan, which, literally means one who does not wear (the sacred thread and tuft of hair). For temple services Ramanuja classed Vaishnavites into Sattinavan and Sattadavan. The former are invariably Brahmans, and the latter Sudras. Hence Satani is the professional name given to a group of the Vaishnava creed. It is sometimes stated that the Satanis of the Madras Presidency are the disciples of the famous Bengali reformer Chaitanya (15th century), from whom, they say, the term Satani took its origin. But, so far as I can ascertain, this supposition rests on no better foundation than the similarity in sound of the two names, and it seems to me more than doubtful. There is no evidence of Chaitanya having ever preached in the Dravidian country, and the tenets of the Satanis of this Presidency differ widely from those of the followers of Chaitanya. The former worship only Krishna, while the latter venerate Vishnu in the form of Narayana also. The Satanis, too, have as much reverence for Ramanuja as the followers of Chaitanya have towards their guru, who is said to be an incarnation of Krishna. With regard to their religion, it will suffice to say that they are Tengalai Vaishnavites. They shave their heads completely, and tie their lower cloth like a Brahman bachelor. In their ceremonies they more or less follow the Brahmans, but the sacred thread is not worn by them. Though the consumption of alcoholic liquor and animal food is strictly prohibited, they practice both to a considerable extent on all festive occasions, and at sradhs. Drinking and other excesses are common. Some Satanis bury the dead, and others burn them. The principal occupations of Satanis are making garlands, carrying the torches during the god's procession, and sweeping the temple floor. They also make umbrellas, flower baskets and boxes of palmyra leaves, and prepare the sacred balls of white clay (for making the Vaishnavite sectarian mark), and saffron powder. Their usual agnomen is Aiya."

In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Satanis are summed up as being "a Telugu caste of temple servants supposed to have come into existence in the time of the great Vaishnavite reformer Sri Ramanujacharya (A.D. 1100). The principal endogamous sub-divisions of this caste are (1) Ekakshari, (2) Chaturakshari, (3) Ashtakshari, and (4) Kulasekhara. The Ekaksharis (eka, one, and akshara, syllable) hope to get salvation by reciting the one mystic syllable Om; the Chaturaksharis believe in the religious efficacy of the four syllables Ra-ma-nu-ja; the Ashtaksharis hold that the recitation of the eight syllables Om-na-mo-na-ra-ya-na-ya (Om! salutation to Narayana) will ensure them eternal bliss; and the Kulasekharas, who wear the sacred thread, claim to be the descendants of the Vaishnava saint Kulasekhara Alvar, formerly a king of the Kerala country. The first two sections make umbrellas, flower garlands, etc., and are also priests to Balijas and other Sudra castes of the Vaishnava sects, while the members of the other two have taken to temple service. In their social and religious customs, all the sub-divisions closely imitate the Tengalai Vaishnava Brahmans. The marriage of girls after puberty, and the remarriage of widows, are strictly prohibited. Most of them employ Brahman purohits, but latterly they have taken to getting priests from their own caste. They attach no importance to the Sanskrit Vedas, or to the ritual sanctioned therein, but revere the sacred hymns of the twelve Vaishnava saints or Alvars, called Nalayira Prabandham (book of the four thousand songs), which is in Tamil. From this their purohits recite verses during marriages and other ceremonies." At the census, 1901, Ramanuja was returned as a sub-caste of Satani. In the Manual of the North Arcot district, Mr. H. A. Stuart describes the Satanis as "a mixed religious sect, recruited from time to time from other castes, excepting Paraiyans, leather-workers, and Muhammadans. All the Satanis are Vaishnavites, but principally revere Bashyakar (another name for Ramanuja), whom they assert to have been an incarnation of Vishnu. The Satanis are almost entirely confined to the large towns. Their legitimate occupations are performing menial services in Vishnu temples, begging, tending flower gardens, selling flower garlands, making fans, grinding sandalwood into powder, and selling perfumes. They are the priests of some Sudra castes, and in this character correspond to the Saivite Pandarams."