PART 2

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PLATES

Page

ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles) 153

ARCHAEOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) 220

ARCHITECTURE 224

MAPS IN COLOUR

ASIA 274

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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

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The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne, G_oe_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger. M_ue_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

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AMIEL', Henri Frederic, French-Swiss philosophical writer and poet, born at Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he resided a considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much influenced by German thought and science. On his return he first held the chair of aesthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several volumes of poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his _Journal Intime_, published after his death, and translated into English (1885), with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows great critical and philosophical power, but is pessimistic.

AMIENS ([.a]-m[=e]-a[n.]), a town of France, capital of the department of Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a citadel, wide and regular streets, and several large open areas; a cathedral, one of the largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe, founded in 1220 by Bishop Evrard, after designs made by the architect Robert de Luzarches. Having water communication with the sea by the Somme, which is navigable for small vessels, it has a large trade and numerous important manufactures, especially cotton and woollen goods. It was taken by the Germans in 1870, and again in 1914, by General von Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.--The _Peace of Amiens_, concluded between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic, 27th March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which had lasted since 1793.

AMIR. See _Emir_.

AMIRANTE ISLANDS ([.a]-m[=e]-r[.a]n't[=a]), a group of eleven small islands in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and forming a dependency of Mauritius.

AMLWCH (am'loe_h_), a seaport in North Wales, Island of Anglesey. Pop. (1921), 2694 (urb. dist.).

AMMANA'TI, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511, died 1592; executed the _Leda_ at Florence, a gigantic _Neptune_ for St. Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal _Hercules_ at Padua, and after the inundation in 1557, which destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the celebrated Trinity Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator of Michael Angelo without his inspiration and genius.

AMMERGAU ([.a]m'er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria, having its centre in the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous on account of the Passion Play which is performed there, at intervals usually of ten years.

[Illustration: Ammeter.--Front removed to show details.

A. Large magnet. B. Soft-iron keeper magnetized by magnet and acting as resistance. D. Cylinder turning within B, and actuated by current entering at C1, and flowing through spiral wire (not shown) at base of D, and through coil on cylinder to terminal C2. E. Hair-spring regulating pointer. F. Pointer stops.]

AM'METER (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the measurement of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked so as to read amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual to have a scale with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the reading multiplied by a suitable constant gives the value of the current in amperes. By employing suitable shunts this admits of the one instrument being used for a number of ranges.

The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as follows: (_a_) _Soft-iron type_, the action of a magnetic field on a piece of soft iron; (_b_) _moving-coil type_ and _dynamometer type_, the action of a magnetic field on a current-carrying coil; (_c_) _hot-wire type_, the expansion of a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (_d_) _induction type_, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy currents produced in a metal disc.

The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial use.

For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of first importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used.

In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer type, which reads both direct and alternating currents.

In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important, e.g. in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits, the "hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy.

The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at the frequency for which it is calibrated.

Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through the instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is employed whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured passes through the instrument.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room_ (2 vols.); G. D. Aspinall Parr, _Electrical Measuring Instruments_.

AMMIA'NUS MARCELLI'NUS, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in Syria about 320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first 13 are lost) a history of the Caesars, from Nerva to Valens, which was highly thought of by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the first time at Rome in 1474.

[Illustration: Ammon.]

AM'MON (often called AMMON-RA, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an ancient Egyptian deity, one of the chief gods of the country, identified by the Greeks with their supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as the representative of Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being with a ram's head, ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the horns of a ram. There was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan desert.

AMMON, Oasis of. See _Siwah_.

AMMO'NIA, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other alkalies by being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the _volatile alkali_. It is a colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen; formula, NH_3. It was first prepared by Priestley, who termed it _alkaline air_. He obtained it from sal-ammoniac by the action of lime, by which method it is yet generally prepared. It is used for many purposes, both in medicine and scientific chemistry; not, however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in solution in water, under the names of _liquid ammonia_, _aqueous ammonia_, or _spirits of hartshorn_. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal liquor obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids, ammonia forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The well-known odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of ammonia during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as bones, clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &c., and certain vegetable matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride.

AMMONI'[)A]CUM, a gum-resinous exudation from an umbelliferous plant, the _Dor[=e]ma ammoni[)a]cum_. It has a fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in water and spirit of wine; used as an antispasmodic, stimulant, and expectorant in chronic catarrh, bronchitic affections, and asthma; also used for plasters.

AMMO'NIAPHONE, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube containing some substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, and a few flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe through, which is said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and ringing by the inhalation of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, and was suggested by the presence of ammonia in some quantity in the atmosphere of Italy--the country of fine singers.

[Illustration: Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites varians]

AM'MONITES, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a large number of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the uppermost cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in having the tube connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the coiled shell, while the calcareous neck where it passes through the partitions is directed forwards. The partitions are much folded, producing markings like the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner wall of the shell. The name arises from confusion with a coiled gastropod, which was held to resemble the horns of the Egyptian deity Jupiter Ammon.

AM'MONITES, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (_Gen._ xix, 38), often spoken of in conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race, they inhabited the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being Rabbath-Ammon (Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the Ammonites were frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David, Uzziah, Jotham, &c. They appear to have existed as a distinct people in the time of Justin Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the aggregate of nameless Arab tribes.

AMMO'NIUM, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula, NH_4) of ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not been isolated, but it is believed to exist in an amalgam with mercury.

AMMO'NIUS SAC'CAS, a Greek philosopher who lived about A.D. 175-240. Originally a porter in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the carrying of _sacks_ of corn. The son of Christian parents, he abandoned their faith for the polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a transition stage between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, &c. The books often attributed to him are by a Christian philosopher of the same name.

AMMUNI'TION, another form of the word munition, with a more restricted meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts for guns, howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both cartridges in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one compact article, and also other forms of projectiles of which the explosive agent forms one portion and the actual missile the other. Bombs, grenades, shells, powder, and bullets are all included in the generic term ammunition. As a qualifying word used adjectivally it is found in ammunition-wagon, ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules, ammunition-column, &c. In the British service the Royal Army Ordnance Corps is entrusted with the provision of supplies of ammunition generally, while the actual distribution in the field is the duty of the ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization.

AM'NESTY (Gr. _amnestia_, forgetfulness), the releasing of a number of persons who have been guilty of political offences from the consequence of these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history is that of Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in Britain was that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion.

AM'NION, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of mammals, birds, and reptiles.--In botany, a gelatinous fluid in which the embryo of a seed is suspended, and by which it is supposed to be nourished.

AMO'AFUL, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the Ashanti were defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan., 1874.

[Illustration: Amoeba proteus.]

AMOE'BA, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of which _A. diffl[)u]ens_, common in freshwater ponds and ditches, is the type. It exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out into finger-like processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves about or grasps

## particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food is engulfed within

any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction takes place by fission, or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from the parent body and developing into a separate amoeba.

AMOEBE'AN POETRY, poetry in which persons are represented as speaking alternately, as in some of Virgil's _Eclogues_.

AMOL', a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles N.E. of Teheran. Extensive ruins tell of former greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed Quam-u-deen, who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000.

AMO'MUM, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceae (ginger, &c.), natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the pungency and aromatic properties of their seeds. Some of the species yield Cardamoms, others Grains of Paradise.

AMONTILLA'DO, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour, highly esteemed.

AMOOR. See _Amur_.

A'MOR, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr. _Er[=o]s_.

AMOR'GO (ancient AMORGOS), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad; area, 106 sq. miles; it has a town of the same name, with a castle and a large harbour. Pop. 3561.

AM'ORITES, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the occupation of the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead and Bashan, and formed two powerful kingdoms--a northern, under Og, who is called King of Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of the Amorites; first attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently subdued, and made tributary or driven to mingle with the Philistines and other remnants of the Canaanitish nations.

AMORPHOUS ROCKS or MINERALS, those having no regular structure, or without crystallization, even in the minutest particles.

AMORPHOZO'A, a term applied to some of the lower groups of animals, as the sponges and their allies, which have no regular symmetrical structure.

AMORTIZA'TION, in law, the alienation of real property to corporations (that is, in _mortmain_), prohibited by several English statutes.

A'MOS, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings Uzziah of Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 B.C. by the common chronology). Though engaged in the occupations of a peasant he must have had a considerable amount of culture, and his book of prophecies has high literary merits. It contains denunciations of Israel and the surrounding nations, with promises of the Messiah.

AMOY', an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off the south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour, and its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in China; one of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of Nanking in 1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty of Tien-tsin in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop. 114,000.

AMPEL'IDAE. See _Chatterers_.

AMPERE ([.a][n.]-p[=a]r), Andre-Marie, a celebrated French mathematician and philosopher, founder of the science of electro-dynamics, born at Lyons in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836; professor of mathematical analysis at the Polytechnic School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France. What is known as _Ampere's Theory_ is that magnetism consists in the existence of electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic bodies, being in different directions round different particles when the bodies are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are magnetized.

AMPERE, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of French literature in the College of France; the only son of Andre-Marie Ampere; born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: _Histoire Litteraire de la France avant le 12^{_e_} siecle_ (1839); _Introduction a l'Histoire de la Litterature francaise au moyen age_ (1841); _Litterature, Voyages et Poesies_ (1833); _La Grece, Rome et Dante, Etudes Litteraires d'apres Nature; l'Histoire romaine a Rome_ (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); _Promenades en Amerique_ (1855); _Cesar, Scenes historiques_ (1859), full of hostile allusions to the French Empire.

AMPERE (am'p[=a]r), in electricity, the unit employed in measuring the strength or intensity of an electric current, being equivalent to the current produced by the electro-motive force of one volt in a wire having the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf. _Farad_, _Coulomb_, _Watt_, &c.) is derived from that of the well-known physicist, Ampere. An _ampere-meter_ or _ammeter_ is an instrument by which the strength of an electric current is given in amperes.

AMPHIB'IA, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early life breathe by gills or branchiae, and afterwards partly or entirely by lungs. The Frog, breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards throwing off these organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult state, is an example of the latter phase of amphibian existence. The Proteus of the underground caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in which the gills of early life are retained throughout life, and in which lungs are developed in addition to the gills. A second character of this group consists in the presence of two occipital 'condyles', or processes by means of which the skull articulates with the spine or vertebral column; Reptiles possessing one condyle only. The class is divided into four orders: the Ophiomorpha (or serpentiform), represented by the Blindworms, in which limbs are wanting and the body is snake-like; the Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians, including the Newts, Proteus, Siren, &c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia, represented by the Frogs and Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which includes the extinct forms known as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was originally employed by Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_, and adopted by Cuvier in his _Tableau Elementaire_. See _Batrachia_.

AMPHIBOL'OGY, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not from the double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a double construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'.

AMPHIC'TYONIC LEAGUE (or COUNCIL), in ancient Greece, a confederation of tribes for the protection of religious worship, but which also discussed questions of international law, and matters affecting their political union. The most important was that of the twelve northern tribes which met alternately at Delphi and Thermopylae. The tribes sent two deputies each, who assembled with great solemnity; composed the public dissensions, and the quarrels of individual cities, by force or persuasion; punished civil and criminal offences, and particularly transgressions of the law of nations, and violations of the temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars, 595-586, 448-447, 357-346 B.C.

AMPHI'ON, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Anti[)o]p[=e], and husband of Ni[)o]b[=e]. He had miraculous skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or, according to others, by Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed himself of his skill when building the walls of Thebes--the stones moving and arranging themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See _Zethus_.

AMPHIOXUS. See _Lancelet_.

[Illustration: Amphipoda

1. Shore-jumper (_Orchestia littoralis_), 2. Portion showing the respiratory organs _a a a_.]

AMPHIP'ODA, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans, with feet directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are found in springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and shore-jumper are examples.

AMPHIP'ROSTYLE, in architecture, said of a structure having the form of an ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a prostyle or portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on its sides or flanks.

AMPHISBAE'NA (Gr., from _amphis_, both ways, and _bainein_, to go), a genus of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian reptiles; body cylindrical, destitute of scales, and divided into numerous annular segments; the tail obtuse, and scarcely to be distinguished from the head, whence the belief that it moved equally well with either end foremost. There are several species, found in tropical America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and were formerly, but erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the amphisbaena was a serpent believed to possess two heads.

AMPHIS'CII (Gr. _amphi_, on both sides, and _skia_, shadow), a term sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical regions, whose shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the north and in the other to the south, according as the sun is in the southern or northern signs.

[Illustration: Amphitheatre at Pompeii]

AMPHITHE'ATRE, an ancient Roman building of an oval form without a roof, having a central area (the _arena_) encompassed with rows of seats, rising higher as they receded from the centre, on which people used to sit to view the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, and other sports. The first amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by C. Scribonius Curio, 59 B.C. The Colosseum at Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres, being capable of containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied numbered and reserved seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples remaining. Its dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The name means 'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming only a semicircular building.

AMPHITRI'T[=E], in Greek mythology, daughter of Oce[)a]nus and Tethys, or of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon (or Neptune), represented as drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons, with a trident in her hand. In the Homeric poems she is the personification of the Sea, and her marriage to Poseidon is alluded to in a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments. Such are a bas-relief in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the museum at Naples.

AMPHIT'RYON, in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcaeus, and husband of Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Moliere, have made an amour of Jupiter with Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies.

AMPHIU'MA, a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and stagnant waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which the gills of the tadpole projected.

[Illustration: Amphora From a Roman specimen in the British Museum]

AM'PH[)O]RA, a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for holding liquids; commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed end which fitted into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to stand upright; used also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid measure--Greek = 9 gallons; Roman = 6 gallons.

AMPLEX'ICAUL, in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and nearly surrounds the stem.

AM'PLITUDE, in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body (when referred by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or west points.

AMPTHILL, a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles south-west of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269.

AMPUL'LA, the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug, which contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at table. The ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such as holding the oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for anointing monarchs at their coronation. The ampulla of the English sovereigns now in use is an eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest chased gold, which passed through various hands to the Black Prince. The ampulla of the French kings, kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was destroyed in 1793.

AMPUTA'TION, in surgery, that operation by which a member is separated from the body.

AMRA'OTI, a town of British India in Berar; it is celebrated for its cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district has an area of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000.

AM'RITSIR, or AMRITSAR ('the pool of immortality'), a flourishing commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same name, in the Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the sixteenth century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; and receives its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the apostle of the Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse themselves that they may be purified from all sin. Pop. 152,756.--The district of Amritsir has an area of 1601 sq. miles. Pop. 900,000.

AM'RU, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous supporter of Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors. He brought Egypt under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till his death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian Library has been generally attributed to him, though only on the authority of a writer who lived six centuries later.

AM'STERDAM (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief commercial cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of the sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or Ij, an arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of the city the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by numerous canals into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300 bridges. Many of the streets have a canal in the middle with broad brick-paved quays on either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses are generally of brick, many of them six or seven stories high, with pointed gables turned to the streets. Among the public buildings are the old stadthouse, the work of Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and finished in 1655, which is now a royal palace, the interior being decorated by the Dutch painters and sculptors of the seventeenth century with their masterpieces; the justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek temple; the town hall (fourteenth century); the exchange, a handsome building, constructed in 1836 on the site of the old bourse built in 1608; the Palace of National Industry; the national museum; and the central railway station. The old church is a structure of the fourteenth century with stained-glass windows painted by Digman in the fifteenth century. The chief educational institutions of the kingdom are here, including the city university, a free university, gymnasiums and other secondary schools, the national picture gallery or museum, containing many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &c. Among its numerous industries may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and polishing of diamonds. It has also factories and workshops dealing with wool, cotton, silk, tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass, liqueurs, cocoa, &c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of the north side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins. The trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15 miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between two long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less importance, the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep), connects Amsterdam with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider Zee the Y is now crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit vessels and regulate the amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The oversea trade of Amsterdam has immensely increased since the opening of the great canal, and the foreign trade of the kingdom practically centres in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There is also a large trade with the interior by railway, river, and canal. In the beginning of the thirteenth century Amsterdam was but a fishing village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it had attained some importance, especially through the Baltic trade. The ruin of Antwerp through the troubles with Spain was greatly to its advantage, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Amsterdam was one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the world. Its forced alliance with France ruined its trade, but since 1813 its commerce has revived. Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of the painters van de Velde and van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120.

AMSTERDAM, a town of New York State, United States, on the Mohawk River and the Erie Canal, 33 miles N.W. of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop. (1920), 33,524.

AMSTERDAM, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of the River Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop. 8903.

AMSTERDAM ISLAND, a small and almost inaccessible island in the Indian Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good Hope and Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited only by sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893, along with the neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in 1633.

AMSTETTEN, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the railway from Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the French under Murat over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760.

AMUCK', or AMUK, to run, a phrase applied to natives of the Eastern Archipelago, who are occasionally seen to rush out in a frantic state of temporary mental derangement, making indiscriminate and murderous assaults on all that come in their way.

AMU-DARYA. See _Oxus_.

AMU-DARYA, district. See _Turkestan_.

AM'ULET, a piece of stone, metal, &c., marked with certain figures or characters, which people in some countries wear about them, superstitiously deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments, witchcraft, &c. According to Pliny the elder, the _bulla_, or amulet, was first hung by Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son. Articles that archaeologists have decided to be amulets have been found dating from prehistoric times, and they were commonly worn in ancient times by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, as they still are by Persians, Arabs, and many other peoples. See _Charms_.

AMUNDSEN, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at Borge, Norway, 16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the _Belgica_ during the Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then planned an expedition to the area of the north magnetic pole and a north-west passage by water. On 17th June, 1903, he embarked from Christiania on the small sailing vessel the _Gjoea_, with a company of six men, and reached King William Land, where the vessel remained for two years. Here he made his headquarters, and by numerous excursions was able to prove that the north magnetic pole has no stationary position, but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906, his vessel reached the Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the Pacific. After his return Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic expedition, and on 9th August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's ship, the _Fram_, and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He published an account of his North-West Passage expedition, entitled _Sydpolen. Den norske Sydpolsfaerd med_ Fram _1910-12_. An English translation was published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar Expedition in 1918.

AMUR', or AMOOR', one of the largest rivers of Eastern Asia, formed by the junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first in a south-eastern and then in a north-eastern direction till it falls into an arm of the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after a course of 1500 miles. It forms, for a large portion of its course, part of the boundary-line between the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and is navigable throughout for four months in the year.--_Amoor Territory._ In 1858 Russia acquired from China the territory on the left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with that on both banks of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory was organized as a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area, 154,795 sq. miles. Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the Maritime Province of Eastern Siberia.

AM'URATH, or MURAD, the name of several Ottoman sultans. See _Ottoman Empire_.

AMYCLAE (a-m[=i]'kl[=e]), a town of ancient Greece, the chief seat of the Achaeans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by which it was conquered about 800 B.C.

AMYG'DALOID (Gr. _amygdal[=e]_, an almond), meaning 'almond-shaped', a term used in anatomy and geology.

AMYG'DALUS, the genus to which the almond belongs.

AM'YL, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in many compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula C_5H_{11}.--_Amyl Nitrite_, or _Nitrite of Amyl_, an amber-coloured fluid, smelling and tasting like essence of pears, which has been employed as an anaesthetic and also in relieving cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris.

AM'YLENE (C_5H_{10}), an ethereal liquid with an aromatic odour, prepared from fusel-oil. It possesses anaesthetic properties, and has been tried as a substitute for chloroform, but is very dangerous.

AMYL'IC ALCOHOL, one of the products of the fermentation of grain, &c., commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.).

AMYOT (ae-mi-[=o]), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose translations from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in 1513, and died Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a professor of classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of Plutarch's _Lives_ and his _Morals_, the _Aethiopica_ of Heliodorus, and the _Daphnis and Chloe_ of Longus. Sir Thomas North's English translation of Plutarch (1575), of which Shakespeare made much use, was derived from that of Amyot.

AMYRIDA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees or shrubs, the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant resinous and balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of commerce are among their products. Among the chief genera of the order are _Amyris_, _Balsamodendron_, _Boswellia_, and _Canarium_.

A'NA, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in _-[=a]nus_, often forming an affix with the names of eminent men to denote a collection of their memorable sayings--thus _Scaligeriana_, _Johnsoniana_, the sayings of Scaliger, of Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy matter, as in _boxiana_. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording such sayings; the sayings themselves.

ANABAP'TISTS (from the Gr. _anabaptizein_, to rebaptize), a name given to a Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they objected to infant baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body. Their doctrine is based upon the words of Christ in _St. Mark_, xvi, 16. The founder of the sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a disciple of Luther's, who seems to have aimed also at the reorganization of society based on civil and political equality. Gathering round him a number of fiery spirits, among whom was Thomas Muenzer, he incited the peasantry of Suabia and Franconia to insurrection--the doctrine of a community of goods being now added to their creed. This insurrection was quelled in 1525, when Muenzer was put to the torture and beheaded. After the death of Muenzer the sectaries dispersed in all directions, spreading their doctrines wherever they went. In 1534 the town of Muenster in Westphalia became their centre of action. Under the leadership of Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased daily, and being joined by the restless spirits of the adjoining towns, they soon made themselves masters of the town and expelled their adversaries. Matthias became their prophet, but he fell in a sally against the Bishop of Muenster, Count Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city. Bockhold then became leader, assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of the New Jerusalem, and Muenster became a theatre of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The town was eventually taken (June, 1535), and Bockhold and a great many of his partisans suffered death. This was the last time that the movement assumed anything like political importance. In the meantime some of the apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend the limits of his kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that they rejected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, and intolerance towards those of different opinions which had prevailed in Muenster; but they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of the early Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of Christ, occasioned by the controversies of that day about the sacrament. The most celebrated of those Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann, the founder of the Hoffmannists or Millenarians; Galenus Abrahamssohn, from whom the sect of the Galenists were called; and Simon Menno, founder of various sects known as Mennonites. Menno's principles are contained in his _Principles of the True Christian Faith_ (1556), a work which is held as authoritative on points of doctrine and worship among the Baptist communities at the present day. The application of the term Anabaptist to the general body of Baptists throughout the world is unwarranted, because these sects have nothing in common with the bodies which sprung up in various countries of Europe during the Reformation, except the practice of adult baptism. The Baptists themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as they claim to baptize according to the original institution of the rite, and never repeat baptism in the case of those who in their opinion have been so baptized. It is under the designation of Mennonites that they exist to-day, principally in Holland, Germany, and the United States.

AN'ABAS. See _Climbing-perch_.

ANAB'ASIS (Gr. _anabasis_, a march up country), the title of Xenophon's celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given to Arrian's work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great.

AN'ABLEPS, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the rivers of Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a peculiar structure of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris and cornea, by transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the whole eye appear double. The young are brought forth alive.

ANABOLISM (Gr. _ana_, up, and _bole_, a throw), a biological term suggested by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886, and meaning the building-up of organic life, or the process by which a substance is transformed into another which is more complex. Anabolism is the constructive phase of metabolism (q.v.).

ANACANTHI'NI (Gr. neg. prefix _an_, and _akantha_, a spine), an order of osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &c., with spineless fins, cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either absent or below the pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder.

ANACARDIA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees and shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often used as a varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some of their products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia, sumach, mango, &c., are members of the order.

ANACH'ARIS, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceae, the species of which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or water-weed. It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. _A. Alsinastrum_ has been introduced from North America into European rivers, canals, and ponds, and by its rapid growth in dense tangled masses tends to choke them so as materially to impede navigation. The plants in our canals perfect no seed, their spread being due to vegetative vigour only.

ANACH'RONISM, an error of chronology by which things are represented as coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything foreign to or out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an anachronism when Shakespeare, in _Troilus and Cressida_, makes Hector quote Aristotle. There are anachronisms in the _Cid_ and the _Nibelungenlied_, and also in Dante's _Inferno_, when the poet introduces pagan mythology into the Christian hell.

ANACOLU'THON, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the structure of a sentence.

[Illustration: Anaconda (_Python tigris_)]

ANACON'DA, the popular name of two of the largest species of the serpent tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (_P. tigris_), said to have been met with 33 feet long; and _Eunectes mur[=i]nus_, a native of tropical America, allied to the boa-constrictor, and the largest of the serpent tribe, attaining the length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and rivers, are without poison fangs, and kill their victims by constriction.

ANACONDA, a town of the United States, Montana, with the largest copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668.

ANAC'REON, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century B.C., native of Teos, in Ionia. Only a few fragments of his works have come down to us; the collection of odes that usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly the production of a later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much less frivolous.

ANADYOM'[)E]N[=E] (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name given to Aphrodit[=e] (Venus) when she was represented as rising from the sea, as in the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple of Aesculapius at Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at Rome.

ANADYR ([.a]-nae'd[=e]r), the most easterly of the larger rivers of Siberia and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf of Anadyr; length, 600 miles.

ANAE'MIA (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an unhealthy condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the red corpuscles which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are paleness and general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation, want of appetite, fainting, palpitation, &c.

ANAESTHE'SIA, or ANAESTHE'SIS, a state of insensibility to pain, produced by inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other anaesthetic agents.

ANAESTHET'ICS are medical agents chiefly used in surgical operations for the abolition of pain. They are divided into (1) _general anaesthetics_, those in which complete unconsciousness is produced; (2) _local anaesthetics_, those which act upon the nerves of a limited area alone.

The earliest record of attempts to produce anaesthesia is to be found in the thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The first scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented with nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an American dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846 Morton, another American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was increasingly used in America. In the same year the first operation under ether was performed in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir James Simpson (Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it was soon largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to be the chief anaesthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century, when ether again became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always in the United States, ether is the most widely-used anaesthetic. Much controversy exists regarding the respective merits of ether and chloroform. The general opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but more liable, in the British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while there are various conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They are frequently combined in use. _Nitrous-oxide gas_ (laughing gas) is much used in dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with ether; while ether and oxygen together were much used with the British Expeditionary Force in France during the European War (1914-8). The administration of all anaesthetics is helped when the patient is given a hypodermic injection of morphia shortly before. _Twilight sleep_, increasingly used in childbirth, is the production of a partial anaesthesia by the administration of scopolamin morphine. _Local anaesthetics_ are much used in minor surgery, and with proper technique act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these, and is still widely used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are best known. Spinal anaesthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar substance into the spinal cord, producing anaesthesia of a large part of the body, varying according to the site of the injection.

ANAGAL'LIS, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceae, to which belongs the Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See _Pimpernel_.

ANAGNI ([.a]-naen'y[=e]), a town of Italy, province of Rome; the seat of a bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400.

AN'AGRAM, the transposition of the letters of a word or words so as to form a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being frequently preserved; thus, _evil_, _vile_; _Horatio Nelson_, _Honor est a Nilo_ (honour is from the Nile). The seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but it was employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks.

ANAHUAC ([.a]-n[.a]-w[.a]k'; Mex., 'near the water'), an old Mexican name applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes situated there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the sea.

AN'AKIM, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in sacred history for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their stronghold was Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by Caleb and the tribe of Judah.

ANAKOLU'THON. See _Anacoluthon_.

ANALEP'TIC, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.

AN'ALOGUE, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or group having the same function as an organ of different structure in another species or group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, both serving for flight. Organs in different animals having a similar anatomical structure, development, and relative position, independent of function or form, such as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are termed _homologues_.

ANAL'OGY is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to resemblance. When we find on attentive examination resemblances in objects apparently diverse, and in which at first no such resemblances were discovered, a presumption arises that other resemblances may be found by further examination in these or other objects likewise apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a unity in nature that all inferences from analogy rest. The general inference from analogy is always perfectly valid. Wherever there is resemblance, similarity or identity of cause somewhere may be justly inferred; but to infer the particular cause without particular proof is always to reason falsely. Analogy is of great use and constant application in science, in philosophy, and in the common business of life.

ANAL'YSIS, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses or the intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by Boyle in the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of resolving a compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is opposed to _synthesis_, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to represent their several divisions, classes, and relations.

Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of the ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns, which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into lower and higher, the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and curves, the higher comprising the differential and integral calculus, and the calculus of variations.

In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound substance with a view to determine either (_a_) what elements it contains (_qualitative analysis_), or (_b_) how much of each element is present (_quantitative analysis_). Thus by the first process we learn that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by the second that it consists of one part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts of oxygen. As a means of testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis has given important results; it has enabled Liebig to solve the problem of plant-nutrition.

ANAM. See _Annam_.

ANAMOR'PHOSIS, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a manner as to present a distorted image of the object represented, but which, when viewed from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror or through a polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.

AN'[)A]NAS. See _Pine-apple_.

ANAPA', a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black Sea, 50 miles south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and formerly fortified. Pop. about 7000.

AN'APAEST, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one long syllable, or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.

) ) ___ ) ) __ ) ) __ ) ) __ The As-syr-ian came down like the wolf on the fold. --(Byron's _The Destruction of Sennacherib_.)

AN'APLASTY, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, or make up for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy structure or tissue. Artificial noses, &c., are thus made.

ANARAJAPOO'RA, or ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city, the ancient capital of Ceylon, built about 540 B.C., and said to have covered an area of 300 sq. miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree in the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.

AN'ARCHISTS, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all government is injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every social form now existing must be the first step to the creation of a new social system. According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of _laisser faire_. Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of their pioneers, and quote his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni maitres. Je ne veux ni donner ni recevoir de lois." Historically, however, it is Proudhon who may be considered as the father of anarchism. The recognition of the anarchists as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872, since which they have maintained an active propaganda. Their principal journals have been _La Revolte_ (Paris), the _Freiheit_ (New York), _Liberty_ (Boston), and the _Anarchist_ (London). Among modern philosophers of anarchism are Elisee Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.

ANARTHROP'ODA, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda being the other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are no articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, tube-worms, &c.

A'NAS, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true ducks.

ANASARCA. See _Dropsy_.

ANASTA'SIUS I, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A.D. 491, at the age of sixty. He was a member of the imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married forty days after the death of her husband. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building the fortifications of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died A.D. 518.

ANASTAT'ICA, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose of Jericho (_A. hierochuntica_). See _Rose of Jericho_.

ANASTATIC PRINTING, a process by which the perfect facsimile of a page of type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed in the manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is laid face downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. The ink, while rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and deposits a thin film on the zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that those parts are left slightly raised in relief and greasy. The plate is then treated as in ordinary lithographic printing (q.v.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. H. Collins, _Authors' and Printers' Dictionary_; C. T. Jacobi, _Printing_; J. Southward, _Modern Printing_.

ANASTOMO'SIS, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when the vessel is tied.

ANATH'EMA, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., _anatith[=e]mi_, to lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually came to be used for _expulsion_, _curse_. The Roman Catholic Church pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of his body and soul is foretold.

ANAT'IDAE, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese, &c.

ANATO'LIA (from Gr. _anatol[=e]_, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name of Asia Minor (q.v.).

ANATOLIAN RAILWAY. See _Bagdad Railway, Turkey_.

ANATOMY

[Illustration]

ANAT'OMY, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. By means of the dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional operations are carried on. _Comparative anatomy_ is the science which compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (_developmental_ or _embryotical anatomy_); with reference to the general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (_general anatomy_, _histology_); with reference to the changes in structure of organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (_morbid_ or _pathological anatomy_); or with reference to the function, use, or purpose performed by the organs or parts (_teleological_ or _physiological anatomy_). According to the parts of the body described, the different divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, _osteology_, the description of the bones; _myology_, of the muscles; _arthrology_, of the ligaments and sinews; _splanchnology_, of the viscera or internal organs, in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. _Angiology_ describes the vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and carrying them back into the blood. _Neurology_ describes the system of the nerves and of the brain; _dermatology_ treats of the skin.--Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol, formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable.

Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53 B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed dissection, and published a _System of Anatomy_ which was a textbook in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel, Bichat, Rosenmueller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh. Mueller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley.

Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J. Cunningham, _Textbook of Anatomy_; J. Quain, _Elements of Anatomy_; A. M. Buchanan, _Manual of Anatomy_; A. Thomson, _Anatomy for Art Students_.

ANAXAG'ORAS, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at Clazomenae, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles, Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428. Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms, and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual, elementary being, _Nous_ (Intelligence), from which motion the world was produced. His conception of _Nous_ as the first cause of movement marks a great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials; the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun; the comets wandering stars.

ANAXIMAN'DER, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in 611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity. The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the invention of geographical maps and the first application of the _gnomon_ or style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.

ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im'e-n[=e]z) OF MILETUS, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things. Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He flourished about 550 B.C.

ANBURY (an'be-ri) (called also CLUB-ROOT and FINGERS AND TOES), a disease in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a bad habit of growth through some unknown influence.

ANCACHS ([.a]n-k[.a]ch'), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000.

ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen, ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of forms among various peoples.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_; D. G. Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_.

ANCHISES (an-k[=i]'s[=e]z), the father of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his _Aeneid_. He died at Drepanum, in Sicily.

[Illustration: Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent)]

AN'CHOR, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of iron, formed with a strong _shank_, at one extremity of which is the _crown_, from which branch out two _arms_, terminating in broad _palms_ or _flukes_, the sharp extremity of which is the _peak_ or _bill_; at the other end of the shank is the _stock_ (fixed at right angles to the plane of the arms), behind which is the _ring_, to which a cable can be attached. The principal use of the stock is to cause the arms to fall so as one of the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the _best_ and _small bowers_, the _sheet_, and the _spare_, to which are added the _stream_ and the _kedge_, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the _hollow-shanked anchor_ with the view of increasing the strength without adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention; and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30deg either way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the ground.

[Illustration: Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &c.]

AN'CHORITES, or AN'CHORETS (Gr. _anachor[=e]tai_, persons who have withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars, civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains, and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic system they completely disappeared. See _Asceticism_.

ANCHOVY (an-ch[=o]'vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the species, with exception of the common anchovy (_Engraulis encrasich[)o]lus_) and _E. meletta_ (both Mediterranean species), inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy, so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper, and straining the whole through a hair-sieve.

ANCHO'VY-PEAR (_Grias caulifl[=o]ra_), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceae, a native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg, which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in taste.

ANCHU'SA. See _Alkanet_.

ANCHYLO'SIS. See _Ankylosis_.

ANCIENT LIGHTS, in English law, windows or other openings which have been in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have enjoyed the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor.

ANCILLON ([.a][n.]-s[=e]-y[=o][n.]), Jean Pierre Frederic, an author and statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he was charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively occupied several important offices of state, being at last appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics, partly in French, partly in German.

ANCKARSTROEM. See _Ankarstroem_.

ANCO'NA, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on the Adriatic, 130 miles N.E. of Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan, who built the ancient mole or quay. A triumphal arch of white marble, erected in honour of Trajan, stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the Italian fleet, and the commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently built, but has some remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There is a colossal statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded about four centuries B.C., by Syracusan refugees. It fell into the hands of the Romans in the first half of the third century B.C., and became a Roman colony. Pop. 68,430. The province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop. 333,381.

ANCONA FOWL. See _Poultry_.

ANCRE (ae[n.]-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', was a native of Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' Medici to Henri IV, in 1600, came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more especially after the assassination of the king (1610). He became successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all, Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of the Louvre in 1617.

ANCRE, BATTLE OF. This battle was the final one in the British offensive in France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's preliminary bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River Ancre, from Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of extraordinary strength was the Y ravine which stretches from Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river. The assaults on both banks of the river were vigorous and determined. A fierce struggle was waged in the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately cleared with the bayonet. Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line was extended well beyond it. Further gains were made on the following day. The prisoners captured numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way for further successes in the spring.

AN'CUS MAR'CIUS, according to the traditionary history of Rome the fourth king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and died 614 B.C. He was the son of Numa's daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by reviving the neglected observances of religion. He is said to have built the wooden bridge across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the harbour of Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.

ANCY'RA. See _Angora_.

ANDALU'SIA (Sp. _Andalucia_), a large and fertile district in the south of Spain, bounded N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777 sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout its whole extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra Nevada, many summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen is 11,678 feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by English companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the Tharsis and Rio Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is the Guadalquivir. The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., grow abundantly in the valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, and many varieties of fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal form important articles of culture. The horses and mules are the best in the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep are reared in vast numbers. Agriculture is in a backward state, and the manufactures are by no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in part from the Moors, of whom they still preserve decided characteristics. Andalusia is still famous for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.

ANDALUSIAN FOWL. See _Poultry_.

AN'DAMANS, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little Andamans. Middle Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles broad; North and South Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The Andamanese, about 1315 in number (1911), are mostly in a state of nature, living almost naked in the rudest habitations. They are small (generally much less than 5 feet), well-formed, and active, skilful archers and canoeists, and excellent swimmers and divers. These islands have been used since 1858 as a penal settlement by the Indian Government, the settlement being at Port Blair, on South Andaman. Here rice, coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the jungle has been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the vicinity of the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The climate is humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.

ANDANTE ([.a]n-d[.a]n't[=a]; It., 'at a walking pace'), in music, denotes a movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and soothing. The word is also applied substantively to that part of a sonata or symphony having a movement of this character. In Handel's music one often meets the expression _andante allegro_, which is equivalent to _andante con moto_.

ANDELYS, LES (l[=a]z [:a][n.]d-l[=e]z), two towns in France called respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other, in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles S.E. of Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth century, its church, built in the thirteenth century, is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely owes its origin to Richard Coeur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the Chateau Gaillard, in its time one of the strongest fortresses in France, but now wholly a ruin. Pop. 5530.

ANDENNE', a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right bank of the Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, porcelain, tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803.

ANDERNACH ([.a]n'der-n[.a]_ch_), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles N.W. of Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls. Pop. 9800.

AN'DERSEN, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He learned to read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken when only nine years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order that his earnings might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he eagerly read national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies full of sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but failed in getting any of his plays accepted, and in securing an appointment at the theatre, having to content himself for some time with unsteady employment as a joiner. His abilities at last brought him under the notice of Councillor Collin, a man of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a Government school at Slagelse. From this school he was transferred to the university, and soon became favourably known by his poetic works. Through the influence of Oehlenschlaeger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of which he published in _The Improvvisatore_ (1835)--a work which rendered his fame European. The scene of his following novel, _O. T._, was laid in Denmark, and in _Only a Fiddler_ he described his own early struggles. In 1835 appeared the first volume of his _Fairy Tales_, of which successive volumes continued to be published year by year at Christmas, and which have been the most popular and widespread of his works. Among his other works are _Picture-books without Pictures_--conversations of the author with the moon, who came to visit the poet in his garret; _A Poet's Bazaar_--the result of a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he received an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and acquired such a command of the language that his next work, _The Two Baronesses_, was written in English. In 1855 he published an autobiography, under the title _My Life's Romance_, an English translation of which, published in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may mention, _To Be or Not To Be_ (1857); _Tales from Jutland_ (1859); _The Ice Maiden_ (1863). He died 4th Aug, 1875, having had the pleasure of seeing many of his works translated into most of the European languages.

ANDERSON, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west branch of White River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various manufacturing works. Pop. 23,856.

ANDERSON, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D., born in 1836, maiden name Garrett, married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the Orient Line of steamers. She studied medicine, but met with many obstacles, the study of medicine by women being then discouraged on all hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the Apothecaries' Society in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the University of Paris and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From 1866 to 1890 she was senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from 1876 to 1898 lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for Women. She did much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In 1908 she was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the position of mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter Louisa Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint Organiser of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary Unit.

ANDERSON, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural economy, born at Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the _Bee_, which ran to eighteen volumes, and contains many useful papers on agricultural, economical, and other topics. Some of his other publications, _Recreations in Agriculture_, _Natural History_, &c., contain anticipations of theories afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.

ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By his will he directed that the whole of his effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be denominated _Anderson's University_, for the use of the unacademical classes. According to the design of the founder, there were to be four colleges--for arts, medicine, law, and theology--besides an initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally inadequate to the plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually enlarged its sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the original design of its founder, the medical school in particular possessing a high reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to form the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining a distinct position.

ANDERSON, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a school teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was appointed keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His chief works embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in archaeology to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, _Scotland in Pagan Times_, and the _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_. He also edited _The Orkneyinga Saga_, _The Oliphants in Scotland_, and Drummond's _Ancient Scottish Weapons_. He died in 1916.

ANDERSON, Robert, M.D., Scottish biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830. He furnished biographical and critical notices for _A Complete Edition of the Poets of Great Britain_ (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the _Edinburgh Magazine_.

ANDERSSON, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in 1827, died in the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. He published _Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa_ (London, 2 vols., 1856), and _The Okavango River_ (London, 1861). The observations of his last voyage were published in 1875 in _Notes of Travel in South Africa_.

ANDES (an'd[=e]z), or, as they are called in Spanish South America, CORDILLERAS (ridges) DE LOS ANDES, or simply CORDILLERAS, a range of mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute length (4500 miles) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise higher above the sea-level; which peak is the highest of all is not yet settled. Several main sections of this huge chain are distinguishable. The Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits of Magellan, northward to about lat. 28deg S., and rising in Aconcagua to a height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain system is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are also several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama (21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha (15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 feet); Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest summit here appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana (19,260 feet) and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the Andes break into three distinct ranges, the east-most running north-eastward into Venezuela, the westmost running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 feet). The western slope of the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks. Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 20,000 feet, and fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. The loftiest of these burning mountains seems to be Gualateiri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally at a great height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. Railways have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation. The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper, platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also found. The llama and kindred species--the guanaco, vicuna, and alpaca--are characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation, latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. Except in the south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest water systems of the world--the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great; the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the world, the highest being the silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270 feet), the next being Potosi.

AN'DESIN, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and named from being first obtained in the Andes.

AN'DESITE, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group of rocks of very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with other ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also hypersthene and mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. Andesite is often porphyritic in character, with large crystals of felspar scattered through it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products of volcanoes of the tertiary or more recent periods, and the name was given by C. L. von Buch on account of their prevalence in the lavas of volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and other hills of middle Scotland largely consist of andesite.

ANDIJAN', a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the Syr-Darya, a terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of Khokand. Pop. 82,235.

ANDI'RA, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy plum-like fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of _A. inermis_, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic under the name of _worm-bark_ or _cabbage bark_. The powdered bark of _A. arar[=o]ba_ is used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes.

ANDIRON (and'[=i]-[.e]rn), a horizontal iron bar raised on short legs, with an upright standard at one end, used to support pieces of wood when burning in an open hearth, one andiron being placed on either side of the hearth.

ANDKHOO, or ANDKHOUI ([.a]nd-_h_[:o]', [.a]nd-_h_oe'i), a town of Afghanistan, about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to Herat. Pop. estimated at 15,000.

ANDOCIDES (an-dos'i-d[=e]z), an Athenian orator, born about 440 B.C., died about 393 B.C. He took an active part in public affairs, and was four times exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, one called _On the Mysteries_ being the best.

ANDOR'RA, or ANDORRE', a small nominally independent State in the Pyrenees, south of the French department of Ariege, with an area of about 191 sq. miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred years, is governed by its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own courts of justice, the laws being administered by two judges, one of whom is chosen by France, the other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The little State pays an annual due of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief industry is the rearing of sheep and cattle. The commerce is largely in importing contraband goods into Spain. The inhabitants, who speak the Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in their manners, their wealth consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The village of Old Andorra is the capital. Pop. 5231.

AN'DOVER, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west of Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. Interesting Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 8569.

AN'DOVER, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles N.N.W. of Boston, chiefly remarkable for its literary institutions--Phillip's Academy, founded in 1778; the Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy, a girls' school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.

ANDRASSY ([.a]n-drae'sh[=e]), Count Julius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823, died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of 1848, was condemned to death, but escaped and went into exile. He was appointed Premier when self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; became imperial Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from public life in 1879.

ANDRASSY, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He was born in 1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister of the Interior in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he represented Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.

ANDRE (an'dr[=a]), Major John, adjutant-general in the British army during the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate the defection of the American general Arnold, and the delivery of the works at West Point, he was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, within the American lines; declared a spy from the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were brought to England in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a monument has been erected to his memory.

ANDREA DEL SARTO. See _Sarto_.

ANDREAE ([.a]n'dre-[=a]), Johann Valentin, German author, born 1586, died 1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, several of them of an amusing and satirical character. He was long believed to be the founder of the celebrated Rosicrucian order, an opinion that received a certain support from some of his works, but in all probability the real intention of the writer was to ridicule the folly of contemporary alchemists.

AN'DREASBERG, ST., a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, 57 miles S.S.E. of Hanover. Pop. about 4000.

ANDREEV, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, died in 1919. He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, but finding his practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter for a daily paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, driven to it by his miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. His first story, _About a Poor Student_, based upon his own experiences, attracted but little attention, and his literary career really began when Gorky discovered his talent. He was one of the most prolific Russian writers, the short story being his speciality. He was a mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his compatriots. His works include: _The Red Laugh_ (1905); _The Seven who were Hanged_ (1909); _Judas Iscariot and the Others_ (1910); _A Dilemma_ (1910); _Silence and Other Stories_, &c. His works have been translated into many European languages.

ANDREW, ST., brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor, and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified by order of the Roman governor Aegeas at Patrae, now Patras, in Achaia, on a cross of the form X (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross. The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is 30th Nov. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great in 1698. For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see _Thistle_.

AN'DREWES, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the English Church, born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high in favour both with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop of Chichester; in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the king's privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He was one of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the Scriptures. He left sermons, lectures, and other writings.

AN'DREWS, ST., an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire, Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into a royal burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, became an archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, and took 157 years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and rebuilt in the fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In it James III was born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of it George Wishart was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. The trade and manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in favour as a watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. 7597.--The _University of St. Andrews_, the oldest of the Scottish universities, founded in 1411, consists of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the college of St. Mary, both at St. Andrews, and embraces also University College, Dundee. In 1579 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were restricted to the teaching of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to theology. In 1747 the two former colleges were united by Act of Parliament. University College, Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St. Salvator and St. Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the university) and twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a principal and four professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are conferred in arts, divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university also confers the diploma and title of L.L.A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The number of students is 420. In connection with the university is a library, founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed volumes and 150 MSS. The university unites with the other three Scottish universities in returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or Academy, founded by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of the place, provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.

AN'DREWS, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied chemistry at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; then medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. at the last place. After practising and teaching chemistry for ten years in Belfast, he became vice-president of the Northern College there, which in 1849 was converted into Queen's College, and Andrews now became professor of chemistry in the college, a post which he held till 1879. He died in 1885, having received various academic distinctions in the course of his life. His name is associated with valuable researches on the heat of chemical combustion, and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the discovery of the existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above which it cannot be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many scientific papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G. Tait and A. Crum Brown.

AN'DRIA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine cathedral, founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a beautiful Pointed Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and a good trade. Pop. 53,274.

ANDROCLUS, or ANDROCLES, a Roman slave who once pulled a thorn out of a lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards condemned to be thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and encountered the same lion that he had helped; the beast, instead of attacking him, fawned on him and caressed him. The story is told by Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, v, 14.

ANDROE'CIUM, in botany, the male system of a flower; the aggregate of the stamens.

ANDROMACHE (an-drom'a-k[=e]), in Greek legend, wife of Hector, and one of the most attractive women of Homer's _Iliad_. The passage describing her

## parting with Hector, when he was setting out to battle, is well known and

much admired (_Iliad_, vi, 369-502). Euripides and Racine have made her the chief character of tragedies.

ANDROM'[)E]DA, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her daughter surpassed the Nereids, if not H[=e]ra (Juno) herself, in beauty, the offended goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseid[=o]n (Neptune), to afflict the country with a horrid sea-monster, which threatened universal destruction. To appease the offended god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, but was rescued by Perseus; and after death was changed into a constellation. The legend forms the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid introduced it into his _Metamorphoses_.

ANDROM'EDA. See _Ericaceae_.

ANDRONI'CUS, the name of four emperors of Constantinople.--ANDRONICUS I, Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 1185.--ANDRONICUS II, Palaeologus, born 1258, died 1332. His reign is celebrated for the invasion of the Turks.--ANDRONICUS III, Palaeologus the Younger, born 1296, died 1341.--ANDRONICUS IV, Palaeologus, reigned in the absence of John IV. In 1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.

ANDRONI'CUS, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic poets; flourished about 240 B.C.; by origin a Greek, and long a slave. A few fragments of his works have come down to us.

ANDRONI'CUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at Rome in the time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the same form as they retain in present editions.

ANDRONI'CUS CYRRHESTES (sir-es't[=e]z), a Greek architect about 100 B.C., who constructed at Athens the Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building, still standing. On the top was a Triton, which indicated the direction of the wind. Each of the sides had a sort of dial, and the building formerly contained a clepsydra or water-clock.

ANDROPO'GON, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm countries. _A. Schoenanthus_ is the sweet-scented lemon-grass of conservatories. Others also are fragrant.

AN'DROS (now ANDRO), one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and 6 or 7 broad; area, 100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, wine, olives, figs, oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, has a good port. Pop. 18,809.

ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, lying south-west of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida. The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.

ANDRUSSOVO, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A treaty was signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).

ANDUJAR ([.a]n-_d_oe-_h_aer'), a town in Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles E.N.E. of Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine bridge; manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and jugs (_alcarazas_). Pop. 16,500.

AN'ECDOTE, originally some particular about a subject not noticed in previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached incident or fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private life.

ANEGA'DA, a British West Indian island, the most northern of the Virgin group, 10 miles long by 4-1/2 broad; contains numerous salt ponds, from which quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.

ANELECTRIC, a body not easily electrified.

ANELECTRODE, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.

[Illustration: Beckley's Improved Robinson Cup Anemometer]

ANEMOM'ETER (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind, _metron_, measure), an instrument for measuring the force and velocity of the wind. This force is usually measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square plate attached to one end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), which yields more or less according to the force of the wind, and transmits its motion to a pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by clockwork. Various instruments have been devised for this purpose, but the one most commonly adopted by meteorological stations is after the type invented by Dr. Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four hemispherical cups A attached to the ends of equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns freely about a vertical axis B. By means of an endless screw carried by the axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the indication is given by a hand which moves round a dial; or in some instruments by several hands moving round different dials like those of a gas-meter. It is found that the centre of each cup moves with a velocity which is almost exactly one-third of that of the wind. There are various other forms of the instrument, one of which is portable, and is especially intended for measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through mines, and the ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The direction of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be made to leave a continuous record by various contrivances; one of the most common being a pinion carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a rack which carries a pencil.

ANEM'[)O]N[=E] (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind), wind-flower, a genus of plants belonging to the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety species, found in temperate regions, three of them occurring in Britain: the white-flowered (_A. nemor[=o]sa_), the only one truly native; the blue-flowered (_A. apenn[=i]na_); and the yellow-flowered (_A. ranunculoides_), a common European species naturalized in some parts of Britain. Several species are cultivated as florists' flowers.

ANEMOPH'ILOUS, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind conveying the pollen.

ANEM'OSCOPE, any contrivance indicating the direction of the wind; generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending through the roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and index, the direction of the wind is shown.

ANEROID BAROMETER. See _Barometer_.

ANE'THUM, a genus of plants; dill.

ANEU'RIN, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who flourished in the seventh century, author of an epic poem, the _Gododin_, relating the defeat of the Britons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See _Celtic Literature_.

AN'EURISM, or ANEURYSM (Gr. _aneurysma_, a widening), the dilatation or expansion of some part of an artery. Aneurisms arise partly from the too violent motion of the blood, and partly from degenerative changes occurring in the coats of the artery, diminishing their elasticity. They are therefore more frequent in the great branches; in particular, in the vicinity of the heart, in the arch of the aorta, and in the extremities, where the arteries are exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may burst and cause death.

ANGARA', a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its N. extremity, and leaves it near the S.W. end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or Upper Tunguska.

ANGEL (Gr. _angelos_, a messenger), one of those spiritual intelligences who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the ministers or agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes given, to distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created to occupy the same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old Testament represents them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ spoke of them more than once (_St. Matt._ xviii, 10; _St. Luke_, xv, 10). Generally, however, Scripture speaks of angels with great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone being mentioned by name in the canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned in the Apocrypha. The angels are represented in Scripture as in the most elevated state of intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of God so perfectly that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim at being like them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power among them, and something like angelic orders--Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel, &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently taking part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and

## actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or delivering

them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every person has a good and a bad angel attendant on him was an early belief, and is held to some extent yet. Roman Catholics, since St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a certain veneration or worship to angels, and beg their prayers and their kind offices. The New Testament, however, formally forbidding such veneration (_Col._ ii, 18, &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.

[Illustration: Angel of Queen Elizabeth]

ANGEL, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV, and coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the representation of the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had different values in different reigns, varying from 6s. 8d. to 10s.

ANGEL-FISH, a fish, _Squat[=i]na ang[)e]lus_, nearly allied to the sharks, very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 feet long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, which are very large, extending horizontally like wings when spread. This fish connects the rays with the sharks, but it differs from both in having its mouth placed at the extremity of the head. It is common on the south coasts of Britain, and is also called _Monk-fish_ and _Fiddle-fish_.

ANGEL'ICA, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, _A. sylvestris_, a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged with pink, is common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed to possess _angelic_ properties as an antidote to poison, a specific against witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, the _Archangelica officin[=a]lis_, found on the banks of rivers and ditches in the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an esculent, and still valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large fleshy aromatic root, and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a man. It is cultivated for its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative properties. Its blanched stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable sweetmeat, possessing tonic and stomachic qualities.

ANGELICO ([.a]n-jel'i-k[=o]), FRA, the common appellation of _Fra Giovanni da Fiesole_, one of the most celebrated of the early Italian painters. Born 1387, he entered the Dominican order in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de' Medici in painting the monastery of St. Mark and the church of St. Annunziata with frescoes. These pictures gained him so much celebrity that Pope Nicholas V invited him to Rome to ornament his private chapel in the Vatican, and offered him the archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico declined. He died at, Rome 1455. He has been called the 'painter of seraphic dreams'. His works were considered unrivalled in finish and in sweetness and harmony of colour, and were made the models for religious painters of his own and succeeding generations.

ANGELN ([.a]ng'eln), a district in Schleswig of about 300 sq. miles, bounded N. by the Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by the Baltic, the only continental territory which has retained the name of the Angles.

ANGELO ([.a]n'je-l[=o]), Michael. See _Buonarotti_.

AN'GELUS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honour of the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses, the angelic salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so named from the word with which it commences, '_Angelus_ Domini' (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also, the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the evening to indicate the time when the angelus is to be recited. The prayer is attributed to St. Bonaventura, and in Germany and Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.

ANGERMANN (ong'er-m[.a]n), a Swedish river which falls into the Gulf of Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly 70 miles for vessels of 600 tons.

ANGERMUENDE ([.a]ng'er-muen-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake Muende, 42 miles north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.

ANGERS ([.a][n.]-zh[=a]), a town and river-port of France, capital of the department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the province of Anjou, on the banks of the Maine, 5-1/2 miles from the Loire, 150 miles south-west of Paris. It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, once a place of great strength, now used as a prison, barrack, and powder-magazine; a fine cathedral of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with very fine old painted windows; is the seat of a bishop, and has a school of arts and manufactures; a public library, an art-gallery, a large modern hospital, the remains of a hospital founded by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of law, theatre, &c. It manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and chemicals; foundries, &c. In the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries. Pop. 83,786.

ANGEVINS (an'je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the race of English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became connected with England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, with Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II.

ANGILBERT, ST., the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary and friend of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot. Died 814.

ANGINA PECTORIS (an'ji-na pek'to-ris), or HEART-SPASM, a disease characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally in the lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of the chest and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, faintness, and apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by any but those with organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs before middle age, and is more frequent in men than in women. Those liable to attack must lead a quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes which would unduly rouse their emotions. The first attack is occasionally fatal, but usually death occurs as the result of repeated seizures. The paroxysm may be relieved by opiates, or the inhalation, under due precaution, of anaesthetic vapours.

ANGIOSPERM (an'ji-o-sp[.e]rm), a term for any plant which has its seeds enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those whose seeds are enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced and ripened without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are _angiosperms_, and constitute the principal part of the species; the latter are _gymnosperms_, and chiefly consist of the Coniferae and Cycadaceae.

[Illustration]

ANGLE, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a point. A _plane rectilineal angle_ is formed by two straight lines which meet one another, but are not in the same straight line; it may be considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two straight lines which thus meet one another. A _right angle_ is an angle formed by a straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an angle which is measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as A B (fig. 1), standing on another straight line C D, makes the two angles A B C and A B D equal to one another, each of these angles is called a _right angle_. An _acute angle_ is that which is less than a right angle, as E B C. An _obtuse angle_ is that which is greater than a right angle, as E B D. Acute and obtuse angles are both called _oblique_, in opposition to right angles. _Exterior_ or _external angles_, the angles of any rectilineal figure without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides A B, B C, C A of the triangle A B C (fig. 2) be produced to the points F D E, the angles C B F, A C D, B A E are called _exterior_ or _external angles_. A _solid angle_ is that which is made by more than two plane angles meeting in one point and not lying in the same plane, as the angle of a cube. A _spherical angle_ is an angle on the surface of a sphere, contained between the arcs of two great circles which intersect each other.

ANGLER (_Lophius piscatorius_), also from its habits and appearance called FISHING-FROG and SEA-DEVIL, a remarkable fish often found on the British coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the head is very wide, depressed, with protuberances, and bearing long separate movable tendrils; the mouth is capacious, and armed with formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it is said to lie concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within its reach by gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.

ANGLES, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical period had their seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of Schleswig, and who in the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to Britain along with bands of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians also), and colonized a great part of what from them has received the name of England, as well as a portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles formed the largest body among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and founded the three kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.

ANGLESEY (ang'gl-s[=e]), or ANGLESEA ('the Angles' Island'), an island and county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The surface is comparatively flat, and the climate is milder than that of the adjoining coast. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley, wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised. Anglesey yields a little copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers and 100 feet above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular Railway Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, and Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921), 51,695.

ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and statesman, was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was born in 1768. He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member for the Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in 1794 he took part in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he was sent into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the retreat to Coruna commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he became, by his father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he was appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the battle of Waterloo, by the charge of the heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his services he was created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was recalled in consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General of the Ordnance. He died in 1854.

ANGLICANISM, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually employed as descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were binding upon laymen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mgr. Moyes, _Aspects of Anglicanism_; F. Y. Kinsman, _Principles of Anglicanism_.

ANGLING, the art of catching fish with a hook or _angle_ (A. Sax. _angel_) baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a tract, entitled _Piers Fulham_, supposed to have been written about the year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the _Treatyse of Fysshinge with an Angle_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that length, with a corresponding difference in strength--a rod for salmon being necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The _reel_, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is wound on the reel is called the _reel line_, and may vary from 20 to 100 yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c., are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow water and for lighter fish quill floats. _Baits_ may consist of a great variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or gentles (the larvae of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat), insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c. The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm than in Britain and the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Fishing_ (vol. i), _Salmon and Trout_ (vol. ii), _Pike and Coarse Fish_ (Badminton Library); H. G. Hutchinson, _Fishing_ (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey, _Fly Fishing_; Gathorne-Hardy, _The Salmon_; Marquess of Granby, _The Trout_; H. T. Sheringham, _Elements of Angling_; W. M. Gallichan, _The Complete Fisherman_.

ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the _Ritualistic_ section of the Church.

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See _Sudan_.

[Illustration: Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton]

ANGLO-SAXONS, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be called _Engla-land_, that is, the land of the Angles or English.

Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means _English-Saxon_, as distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.

The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of the _eorls_ and the _ceorls_, or the nobles and common freemen. The former were the men of property and position, the latter were the small landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their _hlaford_ or lord. Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (_theowas_), who might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates, and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his cattle.

The king (_cyning_, _cyng_) was at the head of the State; he was the highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented by the _witan_ (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office. He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the duty of calling together the _witan_, and of laying before them public measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the _witena-gemot_ or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in rank and dignity to the king were the _ealdormen_, who were the chief witan or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered, or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their officers the _scir-gerefan_ or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the _fyrd_ or armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands. The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical association, of which the ealdormen were the members, and the king little more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by a number of followers called _thegnas_ or thanes, who were bound by close ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of the king or with the administration of justice. The _scir-gerefa_ (shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines, collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month. The place of the modern Parliament was held by the _witena-gemot_. Its members, who were not elected, comprised the aethelings or princes of the blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the sheriffs, &c.

One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the _wergyld_, which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king to peasant was exempt.

[Illustration: Ploughing From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum.]

Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine, was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties. The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured. Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans, French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale, mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the Venerable Bede holds the first place.

_Anglo-Saxon Language._--The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it _Englisc_ (English). The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters either of which represented the sounds of _th_ in _thy_ and in _thing_. Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The infinitive of the verb is in _-an_, the participle in _-ende_, and there is a gerund somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four moods--indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.

The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period, one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of _Beowulf_, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain; parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany, though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes; ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles; psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c. The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Caedmon's (flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed to Cynewulf, the _Christ_, _Elene_, and _Juliana_, the subjects respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena, and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry, alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of harsh inversions and obscure metaphors.

[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Brooch

Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates of thin gold and wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.]

The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases, charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the _Gospel of St. John_ by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is believed to have been the work of Aelfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and lived about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty homilies from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c. King Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin works. We have under his name translations of Boethius' _De Consolatione Philosophiae_, the _Universal History_ of Orosius, Bede's _Ecclesiastical History_, the _Pastoral Care_ of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the _Saxon Chronicle_, as it is called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this _Chronicle_ there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed. For Anglo-Saxon history, see _England_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (History) H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet, _Anglo-Saxon Primer_ and _Reader_; (Literature) B. ten Brink, _Geschichte der Englischen Litteratur_; Stopford A. Brooke, _English Literature, from the beginning to the Norman Conquest_; Henry Morley, _English Writers_ (vols. i and ii).

ANGLO-SAXON LAW. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by Aethelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar, Aethelred, and Canute, in addition to a number of important by-laws and regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a considerable body of traditional law which was never committed to writing. What laws are extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a dependent class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave. The strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship between lord and man.

The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man. The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry, to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its servants.

The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity. The laws of Aethelberht are the earliest records in the English language, though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_ (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; H. M. Chadwick, _Studies in Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.

ANGO'LA, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo, extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6deg S. to lat. 17deg S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of varied features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very great. The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and salt; rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the largest river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are Benguella (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from these places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.

ANGOLA PEA (_Caj[=a]nus indicus_). See _Pigeon Pea_.

ANGO'NILAND, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the missionaries and others.

ANGO'RA (ancient, ANCY'RA), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see _Goat_), sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins, dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari. Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora, and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sevres. A treaty concluded with France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921.

ANGOSTU'RA, or CIUDAD BOLIVAR, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade, steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton, indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines, flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.

ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from _Galip[=e]a officin[=a]lis_, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceae. The bark is valuable as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the poisonous bark of _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_, its use as a medicine has been almost given up.

ANGOULEME ([.a][n.]-goe-l[=a]m), an ancient town of Western France, capital of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles N.N.E. of Bordeaux, on the summit of a rocky hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the twelfth century and restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built in 1858, a lyceum, public library, natural history museum, &c. There are manufactures of paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works, tanneries, &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.

ANGRA DO HEROISMO, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the Azores, with the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a cathedral, a military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence of the Governor-General of the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. Pop. 10,057.

ANGRA PEQUENA ([.a]n'gr[.a] pe-k[=a]'n[.a]; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on the coast of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm Luederitz in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading station. In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British, Germany took under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange River to 26deg S. lat., and soon after extended the protectorate to the Portuguese frontier, but not including the British settlement of Walvis Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans Luederitzbucht, was captured by the South African forces in Sept., 1915. See _South-West Africa_.

ANGRI ([.a]n'gr[=e]), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Salerno, in the centre of a region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in great quantities. In the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, was defeated by Narses. Pop. 11,574.

ANGUILLA (an-gwil'la). See _Eel_.

ANGUILLA (ang-gil'a), or SNAKE ISLAND, one of the British West India Islands, 60 miles N.E. of St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth varying from 3 to 1 1/4 miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton, tobacco, and maize is grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which yields salt. Pop. 4075, of whom 100 are white.

ANGUIS (ang'gwis). See _Blind-worm_.

ANGUS (ang'gus), a name of Forfarshire.

AN'HALT, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the plains of the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz, and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. miles. All sorts of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape, potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are bred. The inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though there are some iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, &c. The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to Bernard (1170-1212), son of Albert the Bear. In time the family split up into numerous branches, and the territory was afterwards held by three dukes (Anhalt-Koethen, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau became sole heir to the three duchies. The united principality, incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the Bundesrath and two in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the changes resulting from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the legislative in a Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 was Eduard, who succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the outbreak of the revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, but its status in the German Republic still remains to be determined. Pop. (1919), 331,258, almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Koethen, and Zerbst.

AN'HOLT, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, midway between Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4 1/2 broad, largely covered with drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. Pop. 300.

ANHY'DRIDE, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see _Chemistry_) and applied to those oxides which unite with water to form acids. They were formerly called _anhydrous acids_.

ANHY'DRITE, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting several varieties of structure and colour. The _vulpinite_ of Italy possesses a granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and is used in sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with blue.

ANI (ae'n[=e]), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the residence of the Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidae, having in the eleventh century a population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the thirteenth century it was taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319.

ANICHE ([.a]-n[=e]sh), a town or village in the French department Nord, arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, glass-works, chemical-works, &c. Pop. 6927.

ANIENE ([.a]-n[=e]-[=a]'n[=a]). See _Anio_.

AN'ILINE, C_6H_5NH_2, is an extremely important substance as it forms the starting-point in the preparation of a large number of substances. It was first prepared by Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline is present in small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from benzene by transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and reducing this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also be prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of peculiar odour, boiling at 182deg C., colourless when quite pure, but rapidly darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is usually dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts with acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure to air. Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group NH_2, the amino group, and substances containing this group react with nitrous acid at 0deg C., forming diazonium compounds; these combine readily with phenols, naphthols, and other amino compounds to form azo compounds, highly-coloured compounds many of which are dyes. Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g. rosaniline, magenta, methylene blue, aniline blue, &c., also some explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, which is a powerful explosive prepared by nitrating aniline and the substance tetranitromethylaniline, "tetryl", used in detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from aniline, for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.

AN'ILISM, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of symptoms which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, resulting from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute or chronic. In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and ears become of a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in severe cases there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is accompanied by derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous system, headaches, eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c.

ANIMAL, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the earlier periods of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to animals. With the progress of science, however, it was extended to plants. In the case of the higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assigning the individual to one of the two great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their lowest manifestations the vegetable and animal kingdoms are brought into such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them precise limits, and to say with certainty where the one begins and the other ends. From _form_ no absolute distinction can be fixed between animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so resemble plants in external appearance that they were, and even yet popularly are, looked upon as such. With regard to _internal structure_ no line of demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular, cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains _cellulose_, a substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst _chlorophyll_, the colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower animals. _Power of motion_, again, though broadly distinctive of animals, cannot be said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus many animals, as oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature condition are rooted or fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together with numerous fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by means of vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive points between animals and plants which are most to be relied on are those derived from the _nature and mode of assimilation of the food_. Plants feed on _inorganic matters_, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic acid, and mineral matters. They can only take in food which is presented to them in a _liquid_ or _gaseous_ state. The exceptions to these rules are found chiefly in the case of plants which live _parasitically_ on other plants or animals, in which cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters, represented by the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require _organized_ matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon other animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent upon plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey are in their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on _solid_ food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals (such as the Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are absorbed by their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive system. Animals require a due supply of _oxygen gas_ for their sustenance, this gas being used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, require _carbonic acid_. The animal exhales or gives out carbonic acid as the part result of its tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in this gas, is enabled to decompose it into its constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant retains the former for the uses of its economy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored to the atmosphere for the use of the animal. Animals receive their food into the interior of their bodies, and assimilation takes place in their internal surfaces. Plants, on the other hand, receive their food into their external surfaces, and assimilation is effected in the external parts, as is exemplified in the leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf. T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, _Text-Book of Zoology_; _Cambridge Natural History_.

ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See _Chemistry_.

ANIMALCULE (an-i-mal'k[=u]l), a general name given to many forms of animal life from their minute size. The larger examples are just visible to the naked eye, but most of them are strictly microscopic. Some are pigmented, but the majority are colourless. The term is not applicable to a particular zoological type, but it is customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa', 'Rotifera', or 'Wheel Animalcules'.

ANIMAL HEAT. All animals possess a certain amount of heat or temperature which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The only classes of animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is kept up are birds and mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from 39.4deg to 43.9deg C., and of the latter from 35.5deg to 40.5deg C. The mean or average heat of the human body is about 99deg F., and it never falls much below this in health. Below birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this term meaning in its strictly-physiological sense that their temperature is usually that of the medium in which they live, and that it varies with that of the surrounding medium. The temperature of 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably constant, although there are individual variations. In man this variation is slight, amounting only to fractions of a degree. The cause of the evolution of heat in the animal body is referred to the union (by a process resembling ordinary combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system with the oxygen taken in from the air in the process of respiration.

ANIMAL MAGNETISM. See _Hypnotism_, _Mesmer_.

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO, an offence against which societies have been formed and laws passed in England and other countries. According to English law, if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding L5 for every such offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like are also prohibited. Provision is also made for the punishment of persons unlawfully and maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, dogs, birds, beasts, and other animals.

ANIMAL WORSHIP, a practice found to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old and the New, but nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, notwithstanding its high civilization. Nearly all the more important animals found in the country were regarded as sacred in some part of Egypt, and the degree of reverence paid to them was such that throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was punished with death. The worship, however, was not, except in a few instances, paid to them as actual deities. The animals were merely regarded as sacred to the deities, and the worship paid to them was symbolical.

AN'IMA MUN'DI. See _Pantheism_.

ANIME (an'i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American tree (_Hymenaea Courbaril_). It is of a transparent amber colour, has a light, agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles copal, and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See _Copal_.

AN'IMISM, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based on the idea that the soul (_anima_) is the seat of life. In modern usage the term is applied to express the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings, and especially to the tendency, common among savage races, to attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to explain phenomena not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them to spiritual agency. Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human apparitional soul, bearing the form and appearance of the body, and living after death a sort of semi-human life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_; Andrew Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_.

ANIO (now ANI[=E]NE or TEVER[=O]NE), a river in Italy, a tributary of the Tiber, which it enters from the east a short distance above Rome, renowned for the natural beauties of the valley through which it flows, and for the remains of ancient buildings there situated, as the villas of Maecenas and the Emperor Hadrian.

ANISE (an'is; _Pimpinella An[=i]sum_), an annual plant of the nat. ord. Umbelliferae, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean coasts, and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, &c., whence the fruit, popularly called _aniseed_, is imported. This fruit is ovate, with ten narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. It has an aromatic smell, and is largely employed to flavour liqueurs (aniseed or anisette), sweetmeats, &c. _Star-anise_ is the fruit of an evergreen Asiatic tree (_Illicium anis[=a]tum_), nat. ord. Magnoliaceae, and is brought chiefly from China. Its flavour is similar to that of anise, and it is used for the same purposes. An essential oil is obtained from both kinds of anise, and is used for scenting soaps and in the preparation of cordials.

ANJOU ([.a][n.]-zhoe), an ancient province of France, now forming the department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060 the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John lost it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed this province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the French Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his son Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till 1480, when it fell to Louis XI.

ANKARSTROEM ([.a]n'k[.a]r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of Gustavus III of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in the Swedish Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a strenuous opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges of the nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to assassinate Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. Ankarstroem was tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of his deed.

ANKER, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, &c., containing 8-1/2 imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity was used in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

AN'KLAM, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles north-west of Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. Shipbuilding, woollen and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, &c., are carried on. Pop. 15,280.

ANKO'BAR, or ANKO'BER, a town in Abyssinia, former capital of Shoa, on a steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.

ANKYLO'SIS, or ANCHYLO'SIS, stiffness of the joints caused by a more or less complete coalescence of the bones through ossification, often the result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis is stiffness of a joint when the disease is not in the joint itself, but in the tendinous and muscular parts by which it is surrounded.

ANKYLOSTOMI'ASIS, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject in some localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms (_Ankylostoma_ or _Anchylostoma duodenale_) in the duodenum or upper portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from the system, these worms produce anaemia or bloodlessness (that is, deficiency of the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being pallid, feeble, short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any laborious work, and death may result if a cure is not effected. Fortunately the disease is not difficult to cure if the remedies are applied--remedies such as will expel the worms from the intestine. The disease is said to be common in tropical and sub-tropical countries all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps first observed in 1879 in the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St. Gothard tunnel. Since 1896 it has been well known in some of the German mines; and in 1903 it was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall. The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the faeces; under favourable circumstances they develop into larvae, which may gain entrance again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in drinking-water), to attain full development in the intestine. Careful sanitary arrangements are a preventive of the disease, which is also known as 'miner's worm', 'miner's anaemia', &c.

ANN, or ANNAT, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend of a living, after the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or next of kin. The right to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, but in his representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed of by him nor attached for his debts.

ANNA, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a rupee, and of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.

AN'NABERG, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. Mining (for silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are manufactures of lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025.

ANNA COMNE'NA, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. She was born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeavoured to secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of her father Alexius (_The Alexiad_, a work in fifteen books). She is a character in Sir Walter Scott's _Count Robert of Paris_.

ANNA IVANOV'NA, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter of Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and in 1730 ascended the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the senate, that she would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do nothing without the advice of the council composed of the leading members of the Russian aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne than she declared her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or Biron, who was soon all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great severity. Several of the leading nobles were executed, and many thousand men exiled to Siberia. In 1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose Biren as their duke, and nominated him at her death regent of the empire during the minority of Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See _Biren_.

AN'NALS, a history of events in chronological order, each event being recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the first annual records of the Romans, which were called _ann[=a]les pontificum_ or _ann[=a]les max[)i]mi_, drawn up by the _pontifex maximus_ (chief pontiff). The practice of keeping such annals was afterwards adopted also by various private individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso, and others. The name hence came to be applied in later times to historical works in which the matter was treated with special reference to chronological arrangement, as to the _Annals_ of Tacitus.

ANNAM', a country of Asia occupying the east side of the South-eastern or Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprises Tonquin in the north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and Cochin-China farther south; with the inland territory of the Laos tribes: together, area, 170,000 sq. miles; pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now denotes the country between Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the nominal rule of a native king (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to the throne in 1916). Annam has an area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919), 5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented, especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good crops of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of varnish trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which has numerous tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, both for irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron. Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, unproductive, but contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane, cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. Agriculture is the chief occupation, but many of the inhabitants are engaged in the spinning and weaving of cotton and silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of varnish, iron-smelting, and the construction of ships or junks. The inhabitants are said to be the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under the middle size and less robust than the surrounding peoples. Their language is monosyllabic, and is connected with the Chinese. The religion of the majority is Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the doctrines of Confucius. The principal towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Hue, the capital of the kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was conquered by the Chinese in 214 B.C., but in A.D. 1428 it completely won its independence. The French began to interfere actively in its affairs in 1847 on the plea of protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of 1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and most productive part of Cochin-China, subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they obtained large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam was declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities with China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, _Guide de l' Annam_.

ANNAMABOE (-b[=o]'), a seaport in Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, 10 miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in gold-dust, ivory, palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000.

AN'NAN, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a little above its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries district of burghs. Pop. 3928.--The River _Annan_ is a stream 40 miles long running through the central division of Dumfriesshire, to which it gives the name of _Annandale_.

ANNAP'OLIS, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the Severn, near its mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house, and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), 11,214.

ANNAP'OLIS, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy, with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one of the oldest European settlements in America, dating from 1604.

ANN ARBOR, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron River, about 40 miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. It has flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural implements. Pop. 19,516.

ANNATES (an'n[=a]ts), a year's income claimed for many centuries by the Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be paid by his successor. In England they were at first paid to the Archbishop of Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the Popes. In 1532 the Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen Anne restored them to the Church by applying them to the augmentation of poor livings. See _Queen Anne's Bounty_.

[Illustration: Annatto (_Bixa Orell[=a]na_)]

ANNAT'TO, or ANNATO, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of _Bixa Orell[=a]na_, a shrub native to tropical America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto approaches very nearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.

ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve.

ANNE (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in 1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement, and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.

ANNEALING (an-[=e]l'ing), a process to which many articles of metal and glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses, and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the articles in oil.

ANNECY ([.a]n-s[=e]), an ancient town in France, department of Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva; contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware. Pop. 15,622.--The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad.

[Illustration: Lobworm (one of the Annelida)]

ANNEL'IDA, or ANNULATA, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division. They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by external branchiae, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of motion consist of bristles or _setae_, which are usually attached to the lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot processes' or _parapodia_. The number of body segments varies. As many as 400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is developed, consisting of a mouth--armed with horny jaws and a protrusible proboscis--gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See _Earth-worm_, _Leech_, &c.

ANNEXATION, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not only to the extension of a State's sovereignty over adjoining territory, but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain.

ANNFIELD PLAIN, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England, Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524.

ANNOBON', or ANNOBOM, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop. 2000.

ANNONAY ([.a]n-o-n[=a]), a town in southern France, department of Ardeche, 37 miles S.S.W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most important town of Ardeche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.

AN'NUAL, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats.

AN'NUAL, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was the _Forget-me-not_, started in 1822, and followed next year by the _Friendship's Offering_. The _Literary Souvenir_ was commenced in 1824, and the _Keepsake_ in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington, Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about 1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 the _Keepsake_, the last of the series, ceased to exist.

ANNUAL REGISTER, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day. There was also an _Edinburgh Annual Register_, the historical part of which was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827.

ANNU'ITY, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity; or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser, to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he does not know how long he is to live, he agrees with the Government or an annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate annuity of L100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, L2279, 3s. 4d.; for females of same age, L2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, L2045, 8s. 4d., for females, L2258, _6s._ 8d.; for males of 40 years, L1789, 6s. 8d.; for females, L1990; for males of 60, L1148, 6s. 8d.; females, L1275, 8s. 4d.; and so on. _Deferred_ annuities, that is, such as have their first payments postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give the rates for an annuity of L100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, L848, 6s. 8d.; females, L1014, 13s. 4d.; males aged 35, L557, 1s. 8d.; females, L697, 1s. 8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the purchase-money is necessarily higher. See _Insurance_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Baily, _Life Annuities and Assurances_; J. Henry, _Government Life Annuity Commutation Tables_.

ANNULOI'DA, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms, &c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation.

ANNULO'SA, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.

ANNUNCIATION, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary informing her that she was to become the mother of our Lord.--_Annunciation_ or _Lady Day_ is a feast of the Church in honour of the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.--The Italian order of _Knights of the Annunciation_ was instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy, in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank, and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus. The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed on the roses, and standing for _Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit_ (its bravery held Rhodes).--There are two orders of _nuns of the Annunciation_, one originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian, founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.

ANNUNZIO ([.a]n-n[u:]nt'sy[=o]), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism. In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a schoolboy with a volume of verse called _Primo Vere_, to which others--naturally much more mature--were subsequently added. Several of his novels have been published in English, as: _The Child of Pleasure_, _The Victim_, _The Triumph of Death_, _The Virgin of the Rocks_, _The Fire of Life_. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later in life. Among them _Gioconda_, _The Dead City_, and _Francesca da Rimini_ may be read in English versions, and _Gioconda_ and _Francesca_ have been performed on the English stage. His more recent works include: _Le Martyr de Saint Sebastien_ (1911), _Le Chevrefeuille_ (1914), _La Beffa di Buccari_ (1918), _Notturno_ (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid and occupied the port of Fiume. See _European War_ and _Fiume_.

AN'OA, an animal (_Anoa depressicornis_) closely allied to the buffalo, about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead.

ANO'BIUM, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called _death-watch_ ticking. _A. stri[=a]tum_, a common species, when frightened, is much given to feigning death.

AN'ODE, (Gr. _ana_, up, _hodos_, way), the positive pole of the voltaic current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the electric current enters: opposed to _cathode_ (Gr. _kata_, down, _hodos_, way), the way by which it departs.

AN'ODON, or ANODON'TA, a genus of lamellibranchiate bivalves, including the fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. See _Mussel_.

AN'ODYNE, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain.

ANOINTING, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed. From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings were anointed when inducted into office, and were called the _anointed of the Lord_, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style him _Messias_, that is, the _Anointed_, which is also the meaning of his Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also frequently a part of the coronation of kings.

[Illustration: Anomalure (_Anomalurus Peli_)]

ANOM'ALURE (_Anomal[=u]rus_), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a telegraph pole to set the wires.

ANOM'ALY, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. The _anomalistic year_ is the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion, the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000 years.

ANOMU'RA, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and others.

[Illustration: Anona or Sour-sop (_An[=o]na muric[=a]ta_)]

ANO'NA, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceae. _A. squam[=o]sa_ (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. _A. muric[=a]ta_ (sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common custard-apple or bullock's heart, from _A. reticul[=a]ta_, and the cherimoyer of Peru, from _A. Cherimolia_.

ANONA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished from the Magnoliaceae, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally aromatic. See _Anona_.

ANOPLOTHE'RIUM, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds, forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in the jaw. _A. comm[=u]ne_, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.

ANOPLU'RA, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus Pedic[)u]lus or louse,

ANOPSHEHR. See _Anupshahr_.

ANOREXIA. See _Appetite_.

ANOS'MIA, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.

ANOURA. See _Anura_.

ANQUETIL-DUPERRON ([.a]nk-t[=e]l-d[.u]-p[=a]-ro[n.]), Abraham Hyacinthe, a French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published his _Zend-Avesta_, a translation of the _Vendidad_, and other sacred books, which aroused much interest. Among his other works are _L'Inde en rapport avec l'Europe_ (1790), and a selection from the _Vedas_. His knowledge of the Oriental languages was by no means exact.

ANSBACH. See _Anspach_.

AN'SELM, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on _Truth_ and _Free-will_, and the treatises _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_; and at the same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled _Cur Deus Homo_ (_Why God was made Man_). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled; but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the _Monologion_, the _Proslogion_, and the _Cur Deus Homo_. The first is an attempt to prove inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the deductive method; the _Cur Deus Homo_ is intended to prove the necessity of the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400 letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion, Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls Series'. See _Scholasticism_. Cf. Pere Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_; J. M. Rigg, _Anselm of Canterbury_.

ANS'GAR, or ANSHAR, called the _Apostle of the North_, born in 801 in Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.

AN'SON, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762. He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In 1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was now reduced to one ship, the _Centurion_, but with it he took the Spanish treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with treasure to the amount of L500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His adventures and discoveries are described in the well-known _Anson's Voyage_, compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquiere, near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to convey the queen of George III to England.

ANSO'NIA, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643.

ANSPACH ([.a]n'sp[.a]_h_), or ANSBACH, a town in Bavaria, at the junction of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nuernberg. Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares, &c. Pop. 19,995.

AN'STED, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years.

AN'STER, John, LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin, born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe's _Faust_, Part I , 1835;

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