part ii

.) of the U.S. Signal Office, published in 1889, number 306. Among more recent authors on the subject, besides those referred to in the text, may be mentioned:--Koppen, "Bodennebel," _Met. Zeit._ (1885); Trabert, _Met. Zeit._ (1901), p. 522; Elias in _Ergebnisse des aeronautischen Observatoriums bei Berlin_, ii. (Berlin, 1904); Scott, _Q.J.R. Met. Soc._ xix. p. 229; A.G. McAdie, "Fog Studies," _Amer. Inv._ ix. (Washington, D.C., 1902), p. 209; Buchan, "Fogs on the Coasts of Scotland," _Journ. Scot. Met. Soc._ xii. p. 3. (W. N. S.)

FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO (1842- ), Italian novelist and poet, was born at Vicenza in 1842. He was a pupil of the Abate Zanella, one of the best of the modern Italian poets, whose tender, thoughtful and deeply religious spirit continued to animate his literary productions. He began his literary career with _Miranda_, a poetical romance (1874), followed in 1876 by _Valsolda_, which, republished in 1886 with considerable additions, constitutes perhaps his principal claim as a poet, which is not inconsiderable. To the classic grandeur of Carducci and D'Annunzio's impetuous torrent of melody Fogazzaro opposes a Wordsworthian simplicity and pathos, contributing to modern Italian literature wholesome elements of which it would otherwise be nearly destitute. His novels, _Malombra_ (1882), _Daniele Cortis_ (1887), _Misterio del Poeta_ (1888), obtained considerable literary success upon their first publication, but did not gain universal popularity until they were discovered and taken up by French critics in 1896. The demand then became prodigious, and a new work, _Piccolo Mondo antico_ (1896), which critics far from friendly to Fogazzaro's religious and philosophical ideas pronounced the best Italian novel since _I Promessi Sposi_, went through numerous editions. Even greater sensation was caused by his novel _Il Santo_ (_The Saint_, 1906), on account of its being treated as unorthodox by the Vatican; and Fogazzaro's sympathy with the Liberal Catholic movement--his own Catholicism being well known--made this novel a centre of discussion in the Roman Catholic world.

See the biography by Molmenti (1900).

FOGELBERG, BENEDICT (or BENGT) ERLAND (1786-1854), Swedish sculptor, was born at Gothenburg on the 8th of August 1786. His father, a copper-founder, encouraging an early-exhibited taste for design, sent him in 1801 to Stockholm, where he studied at the school of art. There he came much under the influence of the sculptor Sergell, who communicated to him his own enthusiasm for antique art and natural grace. Fogelberg worked hard at Stockholm for many years, although his instinct for severe beauty rebelled against the somewhat rococo quality of the art then prevalent in the city. In 1818 the grant of a government pension enabled him to travel. He studied from one to two years in Paris, first under Pierre Guerin, and afterwards under the sculptor Bosio, for the technical practice of sculpture. In 1820 Fogelberg realized a dream of his life in visiting Rome, where the greater part of his remaining years were spent in the assiduous practice of his art, and the careful study and analysis of the works of the past. Visiting his native country by royal command in 1854, he was received with great enthusiasm, but nothing could compensate him for the absence of those remains of antiquity and surroundings of free natural beauty to which he had been so long accustomed. Returning to Italy, he died suddenly of apoplexy at Trieste on the 22nd of December 1854. The subjects of Fogelberg's earlier works are mostly taken from classic mythology. Of these, "Cupid and Psyche," "Venus entering the Bath," "A Bather" (1838), "Apollo Citharede," "Venus and Cupid" (1839) and "Psyche" (1854) may be mentioned. In his representations of Scandinavian mythology Fogelberg showed, perhaps for the first time, that he had powers above those of intelligent assimilation and imitation. His "Odin" (1831), "Thor" (1842), and "Balder" (1842), though influenced by Greek art, display considerable power of independent imagination. His portraits and historical figures, as those of Gustavus Adolphus (1849), of Charles XII. (1851), of Charles XIII. (1852), and of Birger Jarl, the founder of Stockholm (1853), are faithful and dignified works.

See Casimir Leconte, _L'Oeuvre de Fogelberg_ (Paris, 1856).

FOGGIA, a town and episcopal see (since 1855) of Apulia, Italy, the capital of the province of Foggia, situated 243 ft. above sea-level, in the centre of the great Apulian plain, 201 m. by rail S.E. of Ancona and 123 m. N.E. by E. of Naples. Pop. (1901) town, 49,031; commune, 53,134. The name is probably derived from the pits or cellars (_foveae_) in which the inhabitants store their grain. The town is the medieval successor of the ancient Arpi, 3 m. to the N.; the Normans, after conquering the district from the Eastern empire, gave it its first importance. The date of the erection of the cathedral is probably about 1179; it retains some traces of Norman architecture, and the facade has a fine figured cornice by Bartolommeo da Foggia; the crypt has capitals of the 11th (?) century. The whole church was, however, much altered after the earthquake of 1731. A gateway of the palace of the emperor Frederick II. (1223, by Bartolommeo da Foggia) is also preserved. Here died his third wife, Isabella, daughter of King John of England. Charles of Anjou died here in 1284. After his son's death, it was a prey to internal dissensions and finally came under Alphonso I. of Aragon, who converted the pastures of the Apulian plain into a royal domain in 1445, and made Foggia the place at which the tax on the sheep was to be paid and the wool to be sold. The other buildings of the town are modern. Foggia is a commercial centre of some importance for the produce of the surrounding country, and is also a considerable railway centre, being situated on the main line from Bologna to Brindisi, at the point where this is joined by the line from Benevento and Caserta. There are also branches to Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, Potenza, or Gioia del Colle), to Manfredonia, and to Lucera.

FOHN (Ger., probably derived through Romansch _favongn_, _favoign_, from Lat. _favonius_), a warm dry wind blowing down the valleys of the Alps from high central regions, most frequently in winter. The Fohn wind often blows with great violence. It is caused by the indraft of air from the elevated region to areas of low barometric pressure in the neighbourhood, and the warmth and dryness are due to dynamical compression of the air as it descends to lower levels. Similar local winds occur in many parts of the world, as Greenland, and on the slopes of the Rocky Mountains. In the southern Alpine valleys the Fohn wind is often called sirocco, but its nature and cause are different from the true sirocco. The belief that the warm dry wind comes from the Sahara dies hard; and still finds expression in some textbooks.

For a full account of these winds see Hann, _Lehrbuch der Meteorologie_, p. 594.

FOHR, a German island in the North Sea, belonging to the province of Schleswig-Holstein, and situated off its coast. Pop. 4500. It comprises an area of 32 sq. m., and is reached by a regular steamboat service from Husum and Dagebull on the mainland to Wyk, the principal bathing resort on the E. coast of the island. The chief attraction of Wyk is the Sandwall, a promenade which is shaded by trees and skirts the beach. Fohr, the most fertile of the North Frisian islands, is principally marshland, and comparatively well wooded. There are numerous pleasantly-situated villages and hamlets scattered over it, of which the most frequented are Boldixum, Nieblum and Alkersum. The inhabitants are mainly engaged in the fishing industry, and are known as excellent sailors.

FOIL. 1. (Through O. Fr. from Lat. _folium_, a leaf, modern Fr. _feuille_), a leaf, and so used in heraldry and in plant names, such as the "trefoil" clover; and hence applied to anything resembling a leaf. In architecture, the word appears for the small leaf-like spaces formed by the cusps of tracery in windows or panels, and known, according to the number of such spaces, as "quatrefoil," "cinquefoil," &c. The word is also found in "counterfoil," a leaf of a receipt or cheque book, containing memoranda or a duplicate of the receipt or draft, kept by the receiver or drawer as a "counter" or check. "Foil" is particularly used of thin plates of metal, resembling a leaf, not in shape as much as in thinness. In thickness foil comes between "leaf" and "sheet" metal. In jewelry, a foil of silvered sheet copper, sometimes known as Dutch foil, is used as a backing for paste gems, or stones of inferior lustre or colour. This is coated with a mixture of isinglass and translucent colour, varying with the stones to be backed, or, if only brilliancy is required, left uncoloured, but highly polished. From this use of "foil," the word comes to mean, in a figurative sense, something which by contrast, or by its own brightness, serves to heighten the attractive qualities of something else placed in juxtaposition. The commonest "foil" is that generally known as "tinfoil." The ordinary commercial "tinfoil" usually consists chiefly of lead, and is used for the wrapping of chocolate or other sweetmeats, tobacco or cigarettes. A Japanese variegated foil gives the effect of "damaskeening." A large number of thin plates of various metals, gold, silver, copper, together with alloys of different metals are soldered together in a particular order, a pattern is hammered into the soldered edges, and the whole is hammered or rolled into a single thin plate, the pattern then appearing in the order in which the various metals were placed.

2. (From an O. Fr. _fuler_ or _foler_, modern _fouler_, to tread or trample, to "full" cloth, Lat. _fullo_, a fuller), an old hunting term, used of the running back of an animal over its own tracks, to confuse the scent and baffle the hounds. It is also used in wrestling, of a "throw." Thus comes the common use of the word, in a figurative sense, with reference to both these meanings, of baffling or defeating an adversary, or of parrying an attack.

3. As the name of the weapon used in fencing (see FOIL-FENCING) the word is of doubtful origin. One suggestion, based on a supposed similar use of Fr. _fleuret_, literally a "little flower," for the weapon, is that foil means a leaf, and must be referred in origin to Lat. _folium_. A second suggestion is that it means "blunted," and is the same as (2). A third is that it is an adaptation of an expression "at foils," i.e. "parrying." Of these suggestions, according to the _New English Dictionary_, the first has nothing to support it, the second is not supported by any evidence that in sense (2) the word ever meant to blunt. The third has some support. Finally a suggestion is made that the word is an alteration of an old word "foin," meaning a thrust with a pointed weapon. The origin of this word is probably an O. Fr. _foisne_, from the Lat. _fuscina_, a three-pronged fork.

FOIL-FENCING, the art of attack and defence with the fencing-foil. The word is used in several spellings (foyle, file, &c.) by the English writers of the last half of the 16th century, but less in the sense of a weapon of defence than merely as an imitation of a real weapon. Blunt swords for practice in fencing have been used in all ages. For the most part these were of wood and flat in general form, but when, towards the close of the 17th century, all cutting action with the small-sword was discarded (see FENCING), foil-blades were usually made of steel, and either round, three-cornered or four-cornered in form, with a button covering the point. The foil is called in French _fleuret_, and in Italian _fioretto_ (literally "bud") from this button. The classic small-sword play of the 17th and 18th centuries is represented at the present time by fencing with the _epee de combat_ (fighting-rapier), which is merely the modern duelling-sword furnished with a button (see EPEE-DE-COMBAT), and by foil-fencing. Foil-fencing is a conventional art, its characteristic limitation lying in the rule that no hits except those on the body shall be considered good, and not even those unless they be given in strict accordance with certain standard precepts. In epee-fencing on the contrary, a touch on any part of the person, however given, is valid. Foil-fencing is considered the basis, so far as practice is concerned, of all sword-play, whether with foil, epee or sabre.

There are two recognized schools of foil-fencing, the French and the Italian. The French method, which is now generally adopted everywhere except in Italy, is described in this article, reference being made to the important differences between the two schools.

_The Foil._--The foil consists of the "blade" and the "handle." The blade, which is of steel and has a quadrangular section, consists of two parts: the blade proper, extending from the guard to the button, and the "tongue," which runs through the handle and is joined to the pommel. The blade proper is divided into the "forte," or thicker half (next the handle), and the "foible" or thinner half. Some authorities divide the blade proper into three parts, the "forte," "middle" and "foible." The handle is comprised of the "guard," the "grip" and the "pommel." The guard is a light piece of metal shaped like the figure 8 (Fr. _lunettes_, spectacles) and backed with a piece of stiff leather of the same shape. The grip, which is grasped by the hand, is a hollow piece of wood, usually wound with twine, through which the tongue of the blade passes. The pommel is a piece of metal, usually pear-shaped, to which the end of the tongue is joined and which forms the extremity of the handle. The blade from guard to button is about 33 in. long (No. 5), though a somewhat shorter and lighter blade is generally used by ladies. The handle is about 8 in. long and slightly curved downwards.

The genuine Italian foil differs from the French in having the blade a trifle longer and more whippy, and in the form of the handle, which consists of a thin, solid, bell-shaped guard from 4 to 5 in. in diameter, a straight grip and a light metal bar joining the grip with the guard, beyond the edge of which it extends slightly on each side. Of late years many Italian masters use French blades and even discard the cross-bar, retaining, however, the bell-guard.

In holding the foil, the thumb is placed on the top or convex surface of the grip (the sides of which are a trifle narrower than the top and bottom), while the palm and fingers grasp the other three sides. This is the position of "supination," or thumb-up. "Pronation" is the reverse position, with the knuckles up. The French lay stress upon holding the foil lightly, the necessary pressure being exerted mostly by the thumb and forefinger, the other fingers being used more to guide the direction of the executed movements. This is in order to give free scope to the _doigte_ (fingering), or the faculty of directing the point of the foil by the action of the fingers alone, and includes the possibility of changing the position of the hand on the grip. Thus, in parrying, the end of the thumb is placed within half an inch, or even less, of the guard, while in making a lunge, the foil is held as near the pommel as possible, in order to gain additional length. It will be seen that _doigte_ is impossible with the Italian foil, in holding which the forefinger is firmly interlaced with the cross-bar, preventing any movement of the hand. The lightness of grasp inculcated by the French is illustrated by the rule of the celebrated master Lafaugere: "Hold your sword as if you had a little bird in your hand, firmly enough to prevent its escape, yet not so firmly as to crush it." This lightness has for a consequence that a disarmament is not considered of any value in the French school.

_To Come on Guard._--The position of "on guard" is that in which the fencer is best prepared both for attack and defence. It is taken from the position of "attention"; the feet together and at right angles with each other, head and body erect, facing forward in the same direction as the right foot, left arm and hand hanging in touch with the body, and the right arm and foil forming a straight line so that the button is about 1 yd. in front of the feet and 4 in. from the floor. From this position the movements to come "on guard" are seven in number:--

1. Raise the arm and foil and extend them towards the adversary (or master) in a straight line, the hand being opposite the eye.

2. Drop the arm and foil again until the point is about 4 in. from the floor.

3. Swing the button round so that it shall point horizontally backwards, and hold the hilt against the left thigh, the open fingers of the left hand being held, knuckles down, against the guard and along the blade.

4. Carry the foil, without altering the position of the hands, above the head until the arms are fully extended, the foil being kept horizontal and close to the body as it is lifted.

5. Let the left arm fall back behind the head to a curved position, the hand being opposite the top of the head; at the same time bring the right hand down opposite the right breast and about 8 in. from it; keeping the elbow well in and the point of the foil directed towards the opponent's eye.

6. Bend the legs by separating them at the knees but without moving the feet.

7. Shift the weight of the body on to the left leg and advance the right foot a short distance (from 14 to 18 in., according to the height of the fencer).

In the Italian school the fencer stands on guard with the right arm fully extended, the body more effaced, i.e. the left shoulder thrown farther back, and the feet somewhat farther apart. At the present time, however, many of the best Italian fencers have adopted the guard with crooked sword-arm, owing to their abandonment of the old long-foil blade.

_The Recover_ (at the close of the lesson or assault).--To recover "in advance": extend the right arm at right angles with the body, drop the left arm and straighten the legs by drawing the rear foot up to the one in advance. To recover "to the rear": extend the right arm and drop the left as before, and straighten the legs by drawing the forward foot back to that in the rear.

_The Salute_ always follows the recover, the two really forming one manoeuvre. Having recovered, carry the right hand to a position just in front of the throat, knuckles out, foil vertical with point upwards; then lower and extend the arm with nails up until the point is 4 in. from the floor and slightly to the right.

_To Advance._--Being on guard, take a short step forward with the right foot and let the left foot follow immediately the same distance, the position of the body not being changed. However the step, or series of steps, is made, the right foot should always move first.

_To Retreat._--This is the reverse of the advance, the left foot always moving first.

_The Calls_ (_deux appels_).--Being on guard, tap the floor twice with the right foot without altering the position of any other part of the person. The object of the calls is to test the equilibrium of the body, and they are usually executed as a preliminary to the recover.

_The Lunge_ is the chief means of attack. It is immediately preceded by the movement of "extension," in fact the two really form one combined movement. Extension is executed by quickly extending the right arm, so that point, hand and shoulder shall have the same elevation; no other part of the person is moved. The "lunge" is then carried out by straightening the left leg and throwing forward the right foot, so that it shall be planted as far forward as possible without losing the equilibrium or preventing a quick recovery to the position of guard. The left foot remains firmly in its position, the right shoulder is advanced, and the left arm is thrown down and back (with hand open and thumb up), to balance the body. The recovery to the position of guard is accomplished by smartly throwing the body back by the exertion of the right leg, until its weight rests again on the left leg, the right foot and arms resuming their on-guard positions. The point upon which the French school lays most stress is, that the movement of extension shall, if only by a fraction of a second, actually precede the advance of the right foot. The object of this is to ensure the accuracy of the lunge, i.e. the direction of the point.

_The Gain._--This consists in bringing up the left foot towards the right (the balance being shifted), keeping the knees bent. In this manner a step is gained and an exceptionally long lunge can be made without the knowledge of the adversary. It is a common stratagem of fencers whose reach is short.

_Defence._--For the purpose of nomenclature the space on the fencer's jacket within which hits count is divided into quarters, the two upper ones being called the "high lines," and the two lower ones the "low lines." Thus a thrust directed at the upper part of the breast is called an attack in the high lines. In like manner the parries are named from the different quarters they are designed to protect. There are four traditional parries executed with the hand in supination, and four others, practically identical in execution, made with the hand held in pronation. Thus the parries defending the upper right-hand quarter of the jacket are "sixte" (sixth; with the hand in supination) and "tierce" (third; hand in pronation). Those defending the upper left-hand quarter are "quarte" (fourth; in supination) and "quinte" (fifth; in pronation). Those defending the lower right-hand quarter are "octave" (eighth; in supination) and "seconde" (second; in pronation). Those defending the lower left-hand quarter are "septime" (seventh; in supination), more generally called "demicircle," or "half-circle"; and "prime" (first; in pronation).

_The Parries._--The tendency of the French school has always been towards simplicity, especially of defence, and at the present day the parries made with the knuckles up (pronation), although recognized and taught, are seldom if ever used against a strong adversary in foil-fencing, owing principally to the time lost in turning the hand. The theory of parrying is to turn aside the opponent's foil with the least possible expenditure of time and exertion, using the arm as little as possible while letting the hand and wrist do the work, and opposing the "forte" of the foil to the "foible" of the adversary's. The foil is kept pointed as directly as possible towards the adversary, and the parries are made rather with the corners than the sides of the blade. The slightest movement that will turn aside the opponent's blade is the most perfect parry. There are two kinds of parries, "simple," in which the attack is warded off by a single movement, and "counter," in which a narrow circle is described by the point of the foil round that of the opponent, which is thus enveloped and thrown aside. There are also complex parries, composed of combinations of two or more parries, which are used to meet complicated attacks, but they are all resolvable into simple parries. In parrying, the arm is bent about at right angles.

_Simple Parries._--The origin of the numerical nomenclature of the parries is a matter of dispute, but it is generally believed that they received their names from the positions assumed in the process of drawing the sword and falling on guard. Thus the position of the hand and blade, the moment it is drawn from the scabbard on the left side, is practically that of the first, or "prime," parry. To go from "prime" to "seconde" it is only necessary to drop the hand and carry it across the body to the left side; thence to "tierce" is only a matter of raising the point of the sword, &c.

_Parry of Prime_ (to ward off attacks on the--usually lower--left-hand side of the body). Hold the hand, knuckles up, opposite the left eye and the point directed towards the opponent's knee. This parry is now regarded more as an elegant evolution than a sound means of defence, and is little employed.

_Parry of Seconde_ (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side). This is executed by a quick, not too wide movement of the hand downwards and slightly to the right, knuckles up.

_Parry of Tierce_ (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). A quick, dry beat on the adversary's "foible" is given, forcing it to the right, the hand, in pronation, being held opposite the middle of the right breast. This parry has been practically discarded in favour of "sixte."

_Parry of Quarte_ (against thrusts at the upper left-hand side). This parry, perhaps the most used of all, is executed by forcing the adversary's blade to the left by a dry beat, the hand being in supination, opposite the left breast.

_Parry of Quinte_ (against thrusts at the left-hand side, like "quarte"). This is practically a low "quarte," and is little used.

_Parry of Sixte_ (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). This parry is, together with "quarte," the most important of all. It is executed with the hand held in supination opposite the right breast, a quick, narrow movement throwing the adversary's blade to the right.

_Parry of Septime or Half-Circle_ (against thrusts at the lower left-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semicircle downward and towards the left, the hand moving a few inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.

_Parry of Octave_ (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semicircle downward and towards the right, the hand moving a few inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.

_Counter Parries_ (Fr. _contre_).--Although the simple parries are theoretically sufficient for defence, they are so easily deceived by feints that they are supplemented by counter parries, in which the blade describes narrow circles, following that of the adversary and meeting and turning it aside; thus the point describes a complete circle while the hand remains practically stationary. Each simple parry has its counter, made with the hand in the same position and on the same side as in the simple parry. The two most important are the "counter of quarte" and the "counter of sixte," while the counters of "septime" and "octave" are less used, and the other four at the present time practically never.

_Counter of Quarte._--Being on guard in quarte (with your adversary's blade on the left of yours), if he drops his point under and thrusts in sixte, in other words at your right breast, describe a narrow circle with your point round his blade, downward to the right and then up over to the left, bringing hand and foil back to their previous positions and catching and turning aside his blade on the way. The "Counter of Sixte" is executed in a similar manner, but the circle is described in the opposite direction, throwing off the adverse blade to the right. The "Counters of Septime and Octave" are similar to the other two but are executed in the low lines.

_Complex or Combined Parries_ are such as are composed of two or more parries executed in immediate succession, and are made in answer to feint attacks by the adversary (see below); e.g. being on guard in quarte, should the adversary drop his point under and feint at the right breast but deflect the point again and really thrust on the left, it is evident that the simple parry of sixte would cover the right breast but would leave the real point of attack, the left, entirely uncovered. The sixte parry is therefore followed, as a continuation of the movement, by the parry of quarte, or a counter parry. The complex parries are numerous and depend upon the attack to be met.

_Engagement_ is the junction of the blades, the different engagements being named from the parries. Thus, if both fencers are in the position of quarte, they are said to be engaged in quarte. To engage in another line (Change of Engagement) e.g. from quarte to sixte, the point is lowered and passed under the adversary's blade, which is pressed slightly outward, so as to be well covered (called "opposition"). "Double Engagement" is composed of two engagements executed rapidly in succession in the high lines, the last with opposition.

_Attack._--The attack in fencing comprises all movements the object of which is to place the point of the foil upon the adversary's breast, body, sides or back, between collar and belt. The space upon which hits count is called the "target" and differs according to the rules prevailing in the several countries, but is usually as above stated. In Great Britain no hits above the collar-bones count, while in America the target is only the left breast between the median line and a line running from the armpit to the belt. The reason for this limitation is to encourage accuracy.

Attacks are either "primary" or "secondary." _Primary Attacks_ are those initiated by a fencer before his adversary has made any offensive movement, and are divided into "Simple," "Feint" and "Force" attacks.

_Simple Attacks_, the characteristic of which is pace, are those made with one simple movement only and are four in number, viz. the "Straight Lunge," the "Disengagement," the "Counter-disengagement" and the "Cut-over." The Straight-Lunge (_coup droit_), used when the adversary is not properly covered when on guard, is described above under "Lunge." The Disengagement is made by dropping the point of the foil under the opponent's blade and executing a straight lunge on the other side. It is often used to take an opponent unawares or when he presses unduly hard on your blade. The Counter-disengagement is used when the adversary moves his blade, i.e. changes the line of engagement, upon which you execute a narrow circle, avoiding his blade, and thrust in your original line. The Cut-over (_coupe_) is a disengagement executed by passing the point of the foil over that of the adversary and lunging in the opposite line. The preliminary movement of raising the point is made by the

## action of the hand only, the arm not being drawn back.

_Feint Attacks_, deceptive in character, are those which are preceded by one or more feints, or false thrusts made to lure the adversary into thinking them real ones. A feint is a simple extension, often with a slight movement of the body, threatening the adversary in a certain line, for the purpose of inducing him to parry on that side and thus leave the other open for the real thrust. At the same time any movement of the blade or any part of the body tending to deceive the adversary in regard to the nature of the attack about to follow, must also be considered a species of feint. The principal feint attacks are the "One-Two," the "One-Two-Three" and the "Double."

The "One-Two" is a feint in one line, followed (as the adversary parries) by a thrust in the original line of engagement. Thus, being engaged in quarte, you drop your point under the adversary's blade and extend your arm as if to thrust at his left breast, but instead of doing this, the instant he parries you move your point back again and lunge in quarte, i.e. on the side on which you were originally engaged. In feinting it is necessary that the extension of the arm and blade be so complete as really to compel the adversary to believe it a part of a real thrust in that line.

The "One-Two-Three" consists of two feints, one at each side, followed by a thrust in the line opposite to that of the original engagement. Thrusts preceded by three feints are also sometimes used. It is evident that the above attacks are useless if the adversary parries by a counter (circular parry), which must be met by a "Double." This is executed by feinting and, upon perceiving that the adversary opposes with a circular parry, by following the circle described by his point with a similar circle, deceiving (i.e. avoiding contact with) his blade and thrusting home.

The "Double," which is a favourite manoeuvre in fencing, is a combination of a disengagement and a counter-disengagement.

_Force-Attacks_, the object of which is to disconcert the opponent by assaulting his blade, are various in character, the principal ones being the "Beat," the "Press," the "Glide" and the "Bind." The "Beat" is a quick, sharp blow of the forte of the foil upon the foible of the adversary's, for the purpose of opening a way for a straight lunge which follows instantly. The blow is made with the hand only. A "false beat" is a lighter blow made for the purpose of drawing out or disconcerting the opponent, and is often followed by a disengagement. The "Press" is similar in character to the beat, but, instead of striking the adverse blade, a sudden pressure is brought to bear upon it, sufficiently heavy to force it aside and allow one's own blade to be thrust home. A "false press" may be used to entice the adversary into a too heavy responsive pressure, which may then be taken advantage of by a disengagement. The "Traverse" (Fr. _froisse_, Ital. _striscio_) is a prolonged press carried sharply down the adverse blade towards the handle. The "Glide" ("Graze," Fr. _coule_) is a stealthy sliding of one's blade down that of the adversary, without his notice, until a straight thrust can be made inside his guard. It is also used as a feint before a disengage. The "Bind" (_liement_) consists in gaining possession of the adversary's foible with one's forte, and pressing it down and across into the opposite low line, when one's own point is thrust home, the adversary's blade being still held by one's hilt. It may be also carried out from a low line into a high one. The bind is less used in the French school than in the Italian. The "Flanconnade" is a bind made by capturing the adversary's blade in high quarte, carrying it down and thrusting in the outside line with strong opposition. Another attack carried out by means of a twist and thrust is the "Cross" (_croise_), which is executed when the adversary's blade is held low by passing one's point over his wrist and forcing down both blades into seconde with a full extension of the arm. The result is to create a sudden and wide opening, and often disarms the adversary.

_Secondary Attacks_ are those made (1) just as your adversary himself starts to attack; (2) during his attack; and (3) on the completion of his attack if it fails.

1. "Attacks on the Preparation" are a matter of judgment and quickness. They are usually attempted when the adversary is evidently preparing a complicated attack, such as the "one-two-three" or some other manoeuvre, involving one or more preliminary movements. At such a time a quick thrust will often catch him unawares and score. Opportunities for preparation attacks are often given when the adversary attempts a beat preliminary to his thrust; the beat is frustrated by an "absence of the blade," i.e. your blade is made to avoid contact with his by a narrow movement, and your point thrust home into the space left unguarded by the force of his unresisted beat. Or the adversary himself may create an "absence" by suddenly interrupting the contact of the blades, in the hope that, by the removal of the pressure, your blade will fly off to one side, leaving an opening; if, however, you are prepared for his "absence" a straight thrust will score.

2. The chief "Attacks on the Development," or "Counter Attacks," are the "Stop Thrust" and the "Time Thrust," both made while the adversary is carrying out his own attack. The "Stop Thrust" (_coup d'arret_) is one made after the adversary has actually begun an attack involving two or more movements, and is only justified when it can be brought off without your being hit by the attacking adversary's point on any part of the person. The reason for this is, that the rules of fencing decree that the fencer attacked must parry, and that, if he disregards this and attempts a simultaneous counter attack, he must touch his opponent while totally avoiding the latter's point. Should he, however, be touched, even on the foot or mask, by the adversary, his touch, however good, is invalid. If both touches are good, that of the original attacker only counts. Stop thrusts are employed mostly against fencers who attack wildly or without being properly covered. The "Time Thrust" is delivered with opposition upon the adversary's composite attack (one involving several movements), and, if successful, generally parries the original attack at the same time. It is not valid if the fencer employing it is touched on any part of the person.

3. "Attacks on the Completion" (i.e. of the adversary's attack) are "Ripostes," "Counter-ripostes," "Remises" and "Renewals of Attack."

The _Riposte_ (literally, response) is an attack made, immediately after parrying successfully, by merely straightening the arm, the body remaining immovable. The "counter-riposte" is a riposte made after parrying the adversary's riposte, and generally from the position of the lunge, or while recovering from it, since one must have attacked with a full lunge if the adversary has had an opportunity to deliver a riposte. There are three kinds of ripostes: direct, with feints and after a pause.

The "direct _riposte_" may be made instantly after parrying the adversary's thrust by quitting his blade and straightening the arm, so that the point will touch his body on the nearest and most exposed part; or by not quitting his blade but running yours quickly down his and at the same time keeping a strong opposition ("riposte d'opposition"). The quickest direct riposte is that delivered after parrying quarte (for a right-hand fencer), and is called by the French the riposte of "_tac-au-tac_," imitative of the sudden succession of the click of the parry and the tap of the riposting fencer's point on his adversary's breast. In making "ripostes with a feint" the point is not jabbed on to the opponent's breast immediately after the parry, but one or more preliminary movements precede the actual riposte, such as a disengagement, a cut-over or a double.

_Ripostes_ with a pause (_a temps perdu_, with lost time) are made after a second's hesitation, and are resorted to when the fencers are too near for an accurate direct riposte, or to give the adversary time to make a quick parry, which is then deceived.

The _remise_ is a thrust made after one's first thrust has been parried and in the same line; it must be made in such a way that the adversary's justified riposte is at the same time parried by opposition or completely avoided. It is really a renewal of the attack in the original line, while the so-called "renewal of attack" ("_redoublement d'attaque_") is a second thrust which ignores the adversary's riposte, but made in a different line. Both the remise and the renewal are valid only when the adversary's riposte does not hit.

"False Attacks" are broad movements made for the purpose of drawing the adversary out or of disconcerting him. They may consist of an advance, an extension, a change of engagement, an intentional uncovering by taking a wide guard (called "invitation guard"), or any movement or combination of movements tending to make the adversary believe that a real attack is under way.

"The Assault" is a formal fencing bout or series of bouts in public, while formal fencing in private is called "loose play" or a "friendly bout." Bouts between fencers take place on a platform about 24 ft. long and 6 ft. wide (in the United States 20 X 3 ft.). Formal bouts are usually for a number of touches, or for a certain number of minutes, the fencer who touches oftenest winning. The judges (usually three or five) are sometimes empowered to score one or more points against a competitor for breaches of good form, or for overstepping the space limits. In the United States bouts are for four minutes, with a change of places after two minutes, and the competitors are not interrupted, the winner being indicated by a vote of the judges, who take into account touches and style. In all countries contestants are required to wear jackets of a light colour, so that hits may be easily seen. Audible acknowledgment of all touches, whether on the target or not, is universally considered to be a fencer's duty. Fencing competitions are held in Great Britain under the rules of the Amateur Fencing Association, and in the United States under those of the Amateur Fencers' League of America.

_Fencing Terms_ (not mentioned above): "_Cavazione_," Ital. for disengagement. "Contraction, Parries of," those which do not parry in the simplest manner, but drag the adverse blade into another line, e.g. to parry a thrust in high sixte by counter of quarte. "_Controtempo_," Ital. for time-thrust. "Coronation," an attack preceded by a circular movement from high sixte to high quarte (and vice versa) made famous by Lafaugere. "_Corps-a-corps_" (body to body), the position of two fencers who are at such close quarters that their persons touch: when this occurs the fencers must again come on guard. "_Coule_," Fr. for glide. "Disarm," to knock the foil out of the adversary's hand; it is of no value in the French school. "Double Hit," when both fencers attack and hit at the same time; neither hit counts. "_Filo_," Ital. for glide (graze). "Flying Cut-over," a cut-over executed as a continuation of a parry, the hand being drawn back towards the body. "_Incontro_," Ital. for double attack. "Give the blade," to allow the adversary easy contact with the foil; it is often resorted to in order to tempt the adversary into a beat or bind. "Menace," to threaten the adversary by an extension and forward movement of the trunk. "_Mur_," see "Salute." "Passage of arms," a series of attacks and parries, ending in a successful hit. "Phrase of arms," a series of attacks and parries ending in a hit or invalidation. "Invalidation," a hit on some part of the person outside the target, made by the fencer whose right it is at that moment to attack or riposte; such a hit invalidates one made simultaneously or subsequently by his opponent, however good. "Rebeat," two beats, executed as quickly as possible together, one on each side of the adversary's blade. "_Reprises d'attaque_," Fr. for renewed attacks. "Salute," the courteous salutation of the public and the adversary before and after a bout. A more elaborate salute, called by the French the _Mur_, consists of a series of parries, lunges and other evolutions carried out by both fencers at the same time. Important exhibition assaults are usually preceded by the _Mur_, which is called in English the Grand Salute. "_Septime enveloppee_," a riposte by means of a twist and thrust after a parry in septime. It envelops and masters the adverse blade, whence the name. "Secret thrusts," the French "_bottes secretes_," pretended infallible attacks of which the user is supposed alone to know the method of execution; they have no real existence. "_Sforza,_" Ital. for disarmament. "_Scandaglio,_" Ital for examination, studying the form of an opponent at the beginning of a bout. "_Toccato!_" Ital. for "Touched!",. Fr. "_Touche._"

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of foil-fencing is practically identical with that of the art in general (see FENCING). The following modern works are among the best. French School: _Fencing_, in the Badminton library (1897); _Foil and Sabre_, by L. Rondelle (Boston, 1892); "Fencing," by C. Prevost in the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_ (1901); _Fencing_, by Edward Breck (New York, 1906). Italian school: _Istruzione per la scherma, &c._, by S. de Frae (Milan, 1885); _La Scherma italiana di spada e di sciabola_, by F. Masiello (Florence, 1887). (E. B.)

FOIX, PAUL DE (1528-1584), French prelate and diplomatist. He studied Greek and Roman literature at Paris, and jurisprudence at Toulouse, where shortly after finishing his curriculum he delivered a course of lectures on civil law, which gained him great reputation. At the age of nineteen he was named councillor of the parlement of Paris. Having in this capacity expressed himself favourable to the adoption of mild measures in regard to certain persons accused of Lutheranism, he was arrested, but escaped punishment, and subsequently regained the favour of the French court. At the end of 1561 he was sent ambassador to England, where he remained four years. He was then sent to Venice, and returned a short time afterwards to England to negotiate a marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou. He again fulfilled several important missions during the reign of Henry III. of France. In 1577 he was made archbishop of Toulouse, and in 1579 was appointed ambassador to Rome, where he remained till his death in 1584.

_Les Lettres de Messire de Paul de Foix, archevesque de Toloze et ambassadeur pour le roy aupres du pape Gregoire XIII, au roi Henry III_, were published in 1628, but there are some doubts as to their authenticity. See _Gallia Christiana_ (1715 seq.); M.A. Muret, _Oraison funebre de Paul de Foix_ (Paris, 1584); "Lettres de Catherine de Medicis," edited by Hector de la Ferriere (Paris, 1880 seq.) in the _Collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de France_.

FOIX, a town of south-western France, in the middle ages capital of the counts of Foix, and now capital of the department of Ariege, 51 m. S. of Toulouse, on the Southern railway from that city to Ax. Pop. (1906) town, 4498; commune, 6750. It is situated between the Ariege and the Arget at their confluence. The old part of the town, with its ill-paved winding streets and old houses, is dominated on the west by an isolated rock crowned by the three towers of the castle (12th, 14th and 15th centuries), while to the south it is limited by the shady Promenade de Villotte. The chief church is that of St Volusien, a Gothic building of the 14th century. The town is the seat of a prefecture, a court of assizes and a tribunal of first instance, and has a lycee, training colleges, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Flour-milling and iron-working are carried on. Foix probably owes its origin to an oratory founded by Charlemagne. This afterwards became an abbey, in which were laid the remains of St Volusien, archbishop of Tours in the 5th century.

The county of Foix included roughly the eastern part of the modern department of Ariege, a region watered chiefly by the Ariege and its affluents. During the later middle ages it consisted of an agglomeration of small holdings ruled by lords, who, though subordinate to the counts of Foix, had some voice in the government of the district. Protestantism obtained an early entrance into the county, and the religious struggles of the 16th and 17th centuries were carried on with much implacability therein. The estates of the county, which can be traced back to the 14th century, consisted of three orders and possessed considerable power and virility. In the 17th and 18th centuries Foix formed one of the thirty-three governments of France, and in 1790 it was incorporated in the department of Ariege.

_Counts of Foix._--The counts of Foix were an old and distinguished French family which flourished from the 11th to the 15th century. They were at first feudatories of the counts of Toulouse, but chafing under this yoke they soon succeeded in throwing it off, and during the 13th and 14th centuries were among the most powerful of the French feudal nobles. Living on the borders of France, having constant intercourse with Navarre, and in frequent communication with England, they were in a position peculiarly favourable to an assertion of independence, and acted rather as the equals than as the dependents of the kings of France.

The title of count of Foix was first assumed by Roger, son of Bernard Roger, who was a younger son of Roger I., count of Carcassonne (d. 1012), when he inherited the town of Foix and the adjoining lands, which had hitherto formed part of the county of Carcassonne. Dying about 1064, Roger was succeeded by his brother Peter, who died six years later, and was succeeded in turn by his son, Roger II. This count took part in the crusade of 1095, and was afterwards excommunicated by Pope Paschal II. for seizing ecclesiastical property; but subsequently he appeased the anger of the church by rich donations, and when he died in 1125 he was succeeded by his son, Roger III. The death of Roger III. about 1149, and of his son, Roger Bernard I., in 1188, brought the county to Roger Bernard's only son, Raymond Roger, who, in 1190, accompanied the French king, Philip Augustus, to Palestine and distinguished himself at the capture of Acre. He was afterwards engaged in the wars of the Albigenses, and on being accused of heresy his lands were given to Simon IV., count of Montfort. Raymond Roger, who came to terms with the church and recovered his estates before his death in 1223, was a patron of the Provencal poets, and counted himself among their number. He was succeeded by his son, Roger Bernard II., called the Great, who assisted Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, and the Albigenses in their resistance to the French kings, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., was excommunicated on two occasions and died in 1241. His son, Roger IV., who followed, died in 1265, and was succeeded by his son, Roger Bernard III., who, more famous as a poet than as a warrior, was taken prisoner both by Philip III. of France and by Peter III. of Aragon. This count married Marguerite, daughter and heiress of Gaston VII., viscount of Bearn (d. 1290), and this union led to the outbreak of a long feud between the houses of Foix and Armagnac; a quarrel which was continued by Roger Bernard's son and successor, Gaston I., who became count in 1302, inheriting both Foix and Bearn. Becoming embroiled with the French king, Philip IV., in consequence of the struggle with the count of Armagnac, Gaston was imprisoned in Paris; but quickly regaining his freedom he accompanied King Louis X. on an expedition into Flanders in 1315, and died on his return to France in the same year. His eldest son, Gaston II., was the next count. Having become reconciled with the house of Armagnac, Gaston took part in various wars both in France and Spain, dying at Seville in 1343, when he was succeeded by his son, Gaston III. (1331-1391). Gaston III., who was surnamed Phoebus on account of his beauty, was the most famous member of the old Foix family. Like his father he assisted France in her struggle against England, being entrusted with the defence of the frontiers of Gascony; but when the French king, John II., showed a marked preference for the count of Armagnac, Gaston left his service and went to fight against the heathen in Prussia. Returning to France about 1357 he delivered some noble ladies from the attacks of the adherents of the _Jacquerie_ at Meaux, and was soon at war with the count of Armagnac. During this struggle he also attacked the count of Poitiers, the royal representative in Languedoc, but owing to the intervention of Pope Innocent VI. he made peace with the count in 1360. Gaston, however, continued to fight against the count of Armagnac, who, in 1362, was defeated and compelled to pay a ransom; and this war lasted until 1377, when peace was made. Early in 1380 the count was appointed governor of Languedoc, but when Charles VI. succeeded Charles V. as king later in the same year, this appointment was cancelled. Refusing, however, to heed the royal command, and supported by the communes of Languedoc, Gaston fought for about two years against John, duke of Berry, who had been chosen as his successor, until, worsted in the combat, he abandoned the struggle and retired to his estates, remaining neutral and independent. In 1348 the count had married Agnes, daughter of Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343), by his wife Jeanne II., queen of Navarre. By Agnes, whom he divorced in 1373, he had an only son, Gaston, who is said to have been incited by his uncle, Charles II., king of Navarre, to poison his father, and who met his death in 1381. It is probable, as Froissart says, that he was killed by his father. Left without legitimate sons, Gaston was easily persuaded to bequeath his lands to King Charles VI., who thus obtained Foix and Bearn when the count died at Orthes in 1391. Gaston was very fond of hunting, but was not without a taste for art and literature. Several beautiful manuscripts are in existence which were executed by his orders, and he himself wrote _Deduits de la chasse des bestes sauvaiges et des oiseaulx de proye_. Froissart, who gives a graphic description of his court and his manner of life, speaks enthusiastically of Gaston, saying: "I never saw none like him of personage, nor of so fair form, nor so well made," and again, "in everything he was so perfect that he cannot be praised too much."

Almost immediately after Gaston's death King Charles VI. granted the county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castelbon, a descendant of Count Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398, Matthew's lands were seized by Archambault, count of Grailly and captal de Buch, the husband of his sister Isabella (d. 1426), who became count of Foix in 1401. Archambault's eldest son, John (c. 1382-1436), who succeeded to his father's lands and titles in 1412, had married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter of Charles III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in Guienne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the royal representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between Foix and Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs, he intrigued with both parties, and consequently was distrusted by the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the cause of France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former allegiance and became the king's representative in Languedoc and Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding bands which were devastating France; fought for Aragon against Castile; and aided his brother, the cardinal of Foix, to crush some insurgents in Aragon. Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-1464), was the fifth son of Archambault of Grailly, and was made archbishop of Arles in 1450. He took a prominent

## part in the struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed

the College de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John's son, Gaston IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of John, king of Aragon and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the viscounty of Narbonne, and having assisted King Charles VII. in Guienne, he was made a peer of France in 1458. In 1455 his father-in-law designated him as his successor in Navarre, and Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and Guienne; but these marks of favour did not prevent him from joining a league against Louis in 1471. His eldest son, Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a daughter of Charles VII. of France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV. died two years later, his lands descended to his grandson, Francis Phoebus (d. 1483), who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded by his sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516). Thus the house of Foix-Grailly was merged in that of Albret and subsequently in that of Bourbon; and when Henry of Navarre became king of France in 1589 the lands of the counts of Foix-Grailly became part of the French royal domain. A younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d. 1500), who received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and married Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good terms both with Louis XI. and Louis XII., and on the death of his nephew Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom of Navarre against Jean d'Albret and his wife, Catherine de Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted until 1497, when John renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix (1489-1512), the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine, who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain. In 1507 Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with King Louis XII. for the duchy of Nemours, and as duke of Nemours he took command of the French troops in Italy. Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston encountered the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pursuit. From the younger branch of the house of Foix-Grailly have also sprung the viscounts of Lautrec and of Meilles, the counts of Benanges and Candale, and of Gurson and Fleix.

See D.J. Vaissete, _Histoire generale de Languedoc_, tome iv. (Paris, 1876); L. Flourac, _Jean I^er, comte de Foix, vicomte souverain de Bearn_ (Paris, 1884); Le Pere Anselme, _Histoire genealogique_, tome iii. (Paris, 1726-1733); Castillon, _Histoire du comte de Foix_ (Toulouse, 1852); Madaune, _Gaston Phoebus, comte de Foix et souverain de Bearn_ (Pau, 1865); and Froissart's _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897).

FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES, CHEVALIER DE (1669-1752), French soldier and military author, was born at Avignon on the 13th of February 1669. His military ardour was first awakened by reading Caesar's _Commentaries_, and he ran away from home and joined the army. He soon saw active service, and, young as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the manuscript of which passed with Folard's other papers to Marshal Belleisle on the author's death. In 1702 he became a captain, and aide-de-camp to the duke of Vendome, then in command of the French forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendome's brother, the Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a gallant feat of arms, and in the same year he distinguished himself at the battle of Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was during his tedious recovery from his wounds that he conceived the tactical theories to the elucidation of which he devoted most of his life. In 1706 he again rendered good service in Italy, and in 1708 distinguished himself greatly in the operations attempted by Vendome and the duke of Burgundy for the relief of Lille, the failure of which was due in part to the disagreement of the French commanders; and it is no small testimony to the ability and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both. Folard was wounded at Malplaquet in 1709, and in 1711 his services were rewarded with the governorship of Bourbourg. He saw further active service in 1714 in Malta, under Charles XII. of Sweden in the north, and under the duke of Berwick in the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII. he regarded as the first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm that Folard began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commentary on Polybius. On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all his papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh, and in 1724 appeared his _Nouvelles Decouvertes sur la guerre dans une dissertation de Polybe_, followed (1727-1730) by _Histoire de Polybe traduite par ... de Thuillier avec un commentaire ... de M. de Folard, Chevalier de l'Ordre de St Louis_. Folard spent the remainder of his life in answering the criticisms provoked by the novelty of his theories. He died friendless and in obscurity at Avignon in 1752.

An analysis of Folard's military writings brings to light not a connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of independent ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far more often extravagant. The central point of his tactics was his proposed column formation for infantry. Struck by the apparent weakness of the thin line of battle of the time, and arguing from the [Greek: embolon] or _cuneus_ of ancient warfare, he desired to substitute the shock of a deep mass of troops for former methods of attack, and further considered that in defence a solid column gave an unshakable stability to the line of battle. Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst some famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Guido Starhemberg, approved it and put it in practice, the weight of military opinion throughout Europe was opposed to it, and eventually history justified this opposition. Amongst the most discriminating of his critics was Frederick the Great, who is said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian king certainly caused a _precis_ to be made by Colonel von Seers, and wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like others by Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its publication (Paris, 1760) under the title _Esprit du Chev. Folard_, created a great impression. "Thus kept within bounds," said the prince de Ligne, "Folard was the best author of the time." Frederick himself said tersely that "Folard had buried diamonds in a rubbish-heap." Thus began the controversy between line and column formations, which long continued and influenced the development of tactics up to the most modern times. Folard's principal adherents in the 18th century were Joly de Maizeroy and Menil Durand.

See _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard_ (Paris and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard's works and those of his critics and supporters. Max Jahns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. ii. pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig, 1890).

FOLD, a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any surface, whence its particular application in geology with which this article deals. The verb "to fold" (O. Eng. _fealdan_) meant originally to double back a piece of cloth or other material so as to form a pleat, whence has evolved its various senses of to roll up, to enclose, enfold or embrace as with the arms, to clasp the hands or arms together, &c. The word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _falten_, Dutch _vouwen_ (for _vouden_), &c., and the ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr. [Greek: plekein], Lat. _plicare_, _plectere_, to plait, pleat, weave, and in the suffixes of such words as [Greek: diplasios], _duplex_, double, _simplex_, &c. Similarly the termination "-fold" is added to numbers implying "so many," e.g. twofold, hundredfold, cf. "manifold." The similar word for an enclosure or pen for animals, especially for sheep, and hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of worshippers, or to the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ's flock, must be distinguished. In O. Eng. it is _falaed_, and cognate forms are found in Dutch _vaalt_, &c. It apparently meant a planked or boarded enclosure, cf. Dan. _fjael_, Swed. _fjol_, plank.

In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified rocks of the earth's crust, whereby they have been made to take up less horizontal space. The French equivalents are _pli_, _plissement_, _ridement_; in Germany, _Falte_, _Faltung_, _Sattelung_ are the terms usually employed. It is comparatively rarely that bedded rocks are observed in the position in which they were first deposited, a certain amount of buckling up or sagging down of the crust being continually in progress in one region or another. In every instance therefore where, in walking over the surface, we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and without dislocations, increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part of a great curvature in the strata of the earth's crust.

Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on some cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his researches in the field without discovering that the rocks of the earth's crust have been almost everywhere thrown into curves, usually so broad and gentle as to escape observation except when specially looked for. The outcrop of beds at the surface is commonly the truncation of these curves. The strata must once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip, the intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of the Isle of Wight--a Monoclinal Curve, a, Chalk; b, Woolwich and Reading beds; c, London clay; d, Bagshot series; e, Headon series; f, g, Osborne and Bembridge series.]

The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or gently inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and then an immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping character. The strata are thus bent up and continue on the other side of the tilt at a higher level. Such bends are called _monoclines_, _monoclinal folds_ or _flexures_, because they present only one fold, or one half of a fold, instead of the two which we see in an arch or trough. The most notable instance of this structure in Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of which a section is given in fig. 1. The Cretaceous rocks on the south side of the island rapidly rise in inclination till they become nearly vertical. The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip, but rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable cases of the same structure have been brought to light by J.W. Powell in his survey of the Colorado region.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.]

It much more frequently happens that the strata have been bent into arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping under the surface on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up again on the other side. Where they dip away from the axis of movement the structure is termed an _anticline_ or _anticlinal fold_; where they dip towards the axis, it is a _syncline_ or _synclinal fold_. The diagram in fig. 2 may be taken to represent a series of strata (1-17) thrown into an anticline (AA') and syncline (BB'). A section drawn across these folds in the line CD would show the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the part of the anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4 forms the crown of the arch, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it. On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under the next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the centre of a trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on the east side the same beds rise to the surface which passed beneath it on the west side. The

## particular bed marked EF has been entirely removed by denudation from

the top of the anticline, and is buried deep beneath the centre of the syncline.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the line CD (fig. 2).]

Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are abruptly terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig. 2, both the arch and trough are represented as diminishing, the former towards the north, the latter towards the south. The observer in passing northwards along the axis of that anticline finds himself getting into progressively higher strata as the fold sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing southwards along the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and gets into lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this way it is said to "nose out." In fig. 2 there is obviously a general inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward dip from the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline. Hence the anticline noses out to the north and the syncline to the south.

_Simple Folds._--In describing rock-folds special terms have been assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping sides of an anticline or syncline are known as the "limbs," "slopes," "flanks" or "members" of the fold; in an anticline, the