CHAPTER II

_SUMMARY OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF CRIMINALITY TO AID IN DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN CRIMINALS AND LUNATICS AND IN DETECTING SIMULATIONS OF INSANITY. A FEW CASES SHOWING THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY_

The cases described in this chapter show the necessity of being able to estimate correctly accusations made against insane persons by criminals or normal individuals. Since, moreover, criminals are prone to sham insanity in order to avoid punishment, I sum up the characteristics that distinguish the various types of criminals. With regard to insane criminals, it must be remembered that every form of mental alienation assumes a specific criminality.

The idiot is addicted to bursts of rage, savage assaults, and homicide. His unbridled sexual appetite prompts him to commit rape. He is sometimes guilty of arson in order to gratify a childish pleasure at the sight of the flames.

The imbecile or weak-minded egotist is a frequent though unnecessary accomplice in nearly every crime, owing to his susceptibility to suggestion and incapability of understanding the gravity of his actions.

Melancholia is often the cause of suicide or homicide (as a species of indirect suicide). The sufferer generally confesses and gives himself up to the police. Delusions that he is being poisoned or insulted are often the cause of the murders committed by this type of lunatic.

Maniacs commit robbery, rape, homicide, and arson, and behave indecently in public.

Stealing is common among those afflicted with general paralysis, who believe everything they see belongs to them, or do not understand the meaning of property.

Dementia causes general cerebral irritation, which frequently results in murder and violence.

Hysterical persons invent slanders, especially of an erotic nature. They are given to sexual aberrations and delight in fraud and extravagant

## actions to make themselves notorious.

Persons subject to a mania for litigation offend statesmen and others.

Epileptics, of whom born criminals and the morally insane are the most dangerous variety, are familiar with the whole scale of criminality. Their special offences are assault and battery, rape, theft, and forgery. The first offences are committed intermittingly at the prompting of attacks of cortical irritation, the last two almost continuously owing to a state of constant irritation.

To distinguish between genuine insanity and simulation, it must be remembered that exaggeration of the symptoms is one of the chief characteristics of shamming. The simulator exaggerates the morbid phenomena and manifests a greater inco-ordination of ideas than does the genuine lunatic who gives sensible replies to simple questions, whereas the simulator talks nonsense. For instance, if a simulator is asked his name, his answer will show no connection with the question. He will say, perhaps: "Did you bring the bill?" or if asked how old he is, will answer: "I am not hungry."

Above all, in order to distinguish between dementia, idiocy, cretinism, and an imitation of these forms, a minute somatic examination is necessary. It should be remarked that in idiots, imbeciles, and cretins we generally find hypertrophy of the connective tissues, earthen hue, scanty beard, _stenocrotaphy_, malformations of the skull, ears, teeth, face, and especially jaws, and there are invariably anomalies in the field of vision, lessened sensibility to touch and pain (which cannot be simulated since pain invariably produces dilatation of the pupils), meteoric sensibility, attacks of hemicrania, neuralgia, hallucinations, and even convulsions, epileptic fits, tremors disposing to propulsive forms, and, psychologically, absence of natural feeling, sadism, and the inability to adopt a regular occupation.

When dealing with a simulation of epilepsy, it must be borne in mind that the epileptic always manifests salient degenerate characteristics, especially asymmetry of the face, skull, and thorax; and a careful investigation reveals neurosis of some kind in the family and trauma or serious illness in childhood. During the seizure, the pupil does not react (this cannot be simulated) or there is excessive mydriasis. The sudden pallor, and the exhaustion which follows the fit, are absent in the simulator, nor does he bite his tongue or injure himself in other ways. Furthermore, he reacts at the application of ammonia, and as he is not in that state of asphyxia in which the epileptic lies during the fit, the closing of his mouth and nostrils likewise produces a reaction.

_Hysteria._ Here the detection of shamming is more difficult, since deceit is a characteristic of this disease. Tests with metals, to which hysterical persons are extremely sensitive, suggestion and hypnotism should be resorted to. The character of the crime should be specially considered, because, as we stated, the foundation of hysteria is an erotic one, and offences committed by the hysterical are nearly always of this nature in the means or the end.

An examination of sensibility with suitable instruments, and of reflex

## action, is to be recommended in all cases.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY

The minute study of the criminal admits of infinite applications. It is generally used in deciding to which category of crime a particular offender belongs, whether he is a born criminal, a morally insane subject, an occasional criminal, or a criminaloid; but in certain cases the examination may be of value in establishing the innocence of an accused person, or in recognising in an accuser an insane individual whose accusation originates in some delusion and not in a knowledge of the facts.

AN ACCUSED MAN PROVED INNOCENT BY THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

On the 12th of January, 1902, a little girl of six, living at Turin, suddenly disappeared. Two months later, the corpse was discovered hidden in a case in a cellar of the very house the little victim had inhabited. It bore traces of criminal violence and the clothing was in disorder. Various persons were arrested, among them a coachman named Tosetti, who had been seen joking and playing with the child on several occasions.

Tosetti was of honest extraction, his grandparents and parents having died at an advanced age (between sixty and ninety) without having manifested nervous anomalies, vices, or crimes. Tosetti himself, although fond of drinking, was rarely, if ever, intoxicated, and was an individual of quiet, peaceful aspect with a benevolent smile and serenity of look and countenance. His hair had become grey at an early age, and he was devoid of any degenerate characteristics except excessive maxillary development. [Height 5 feet, 7 inches (1.70 m.); weight, 158 lbs. (72 kilogrammes); cranial capacity, 93 inches (1531 c.c.); cephalic index, 84 (brachycephaly; characteristic of the Piedmontese); tactile sensibility, 3 mm. left, 2.5 mm. right; general sensibility, 83 right, 78 left; sensibility to pain, 55 right, 45 left. The sensibility was, therefore, almost normal without any trace of left-handedness. Analysis of urine--absence of earthy phosphates common to born criminals. Tendinous reflex action feeble, few cutaneous reflexes, no tremors. The field of vision was not much reduced but manifested a few peculiarities, due no doubt to the abuse of alcohol.]

Psychologically, Tosetti appeared to be a man of average or perhaps slightly less than average intelligence. He was quiet, very respectful, not to say servile, entirely devoid of impulsiveness of any form, and averse to quarrels, on which account he was rather despised by his companions. His natural affections were normal, and he was a good son and brother; he was excessively timid and disconcerted by the slightest reproof from his employer. He was rather fond of wine, though not of liquors. His sexual instincts he had lost very early, a fact which caused his companions to indulge in many jokes at his expense. His stinginess bordered on avarice, and he had never changed his trade.

During his trial he showed no resentment against anyone, not even the police and warders, of whom he said on one occasion, "They have treated me like a son."

The examination proved beyond a doubt that Tosetti was not a born criminal, and was incapable of committing the action of which he was suspected--the murder of a child for purely bestial pleasure.

To obtain stronger proof, my father adopted the plethysmograph and found a slight diminution of the pulse when Tosetti was set to do a sum; when, however, skulls and portraits of children covered with wounds were placed before him, the line registered showed no sudden variation, not even at the sight of the little victim's photograph.

The results of the foregoing examination proved conclusively that Tosetti was innocent of a crime which can only be committed by sadists, idiots, and the most degenerate types of madmen, like Vacher and Verzeni and all bestial criminals, who have reached the summit of criminality and unite in their persons the greatest number of morbid physical and psychic characteristics.

A few months after my father had diagnosed this case, an assault of the same nature was committed on another little girl living in the same house. In this case, however, the victim survived and was able to point out the criminal--an imbecile, afflicted with goitre, stammering, strabismus, hydrocephaly, trochocephaly, and plagiocephaly, with arms of disproportionate length, the son and grandson of drunkards, who confessed the double crime and entreated pardon for the "trifling offence" since he had always done his duty and swept the staircase, even on the day he committed the crime.

Other cases of this kind might be cited, but one instance will suffice. I may, however, mention a case in which my father demonstrated the innocence of an unfortunate individual who had been sentenced to ten years' penal servitude and released at the expiration of his sentence. By means of a thorough examination, which showed a complete absence of criminal characteristics, my father declared the man to be innocent of the crime for which he had been imprisoned; and subsequent investigations resulted in his rehabilitation and the discovery of the actual culprit.

ACCUSATION PROVED TO BE FALSE BY THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

An individual named Ferreri suddenly disappeared, and ten days later his corpse was found down a well. The evidence of several persons led to the arrest of the owner of the well, a certain Fissore, a man of very bad reputation, with whom Ferreri had been seen on the day of his disappearance.

On being arrested, Fissore admitted having committed the crime, but not alone, and named as his accomplices three others, Martinengo, Boulan, and a prostitute, named Ada. All three strenuously denied their guilt. They all appeared perfectly normal.

But after a month of investigations, Martinengo, a tipsy porter of thirty-five, the son and grandson of drunkards, who at first had advanced an alibi, after being confronted several times with Fissore, admitted his complicity, and in the latter's absence added various details to his (Fissore's) version.

The four accused persons were examined anthropologically with the following results:

Boulan had the appearance of an honest country notary with broad forehead, precocious grey hairs and baldness, small jaws and a well-shaped mouth. He was a quiet man and had only once come into conflict with the law, but for an action which is not a crime in the eyes of an anthropologist (striking a carabinier who had ill-treated his father). He worked hard at his trade, which was that of a journeyman baker, and showed his kindly nature by substituting for sick comrades. He showed great attachment to all his companions, relatives, and family, and was generally beloved. In short, he was an honest, hard-working man. His alibi was corroborated by several persons who had been playing cards with him on the evening of the crime.

The second prisoner, Ada, although a prostitute, had never shown other criminal tendencies; she had adopted her calling in order to maintain her father and children, of whom she was very fond.

Martinengo, who had admitted his complicity, had no previous convictions. He was, however, an individual of earthy hue, with precocious wrinkles. Height, 5 feet, 3 inches (1.60 m.); span of the arms, 5 feet, 7 inches (1.70 m.); flattened, nanocephalous head, normal urine (phosphates 3.1), but anomalous reflex action and senses. Rigid, unequal pupils, tongue and lips inclined towards the right, shaky hand, astasia, aphasia, strong rotular reflex action, absence of cutaneous and cremasteric reflexes, illegible handwriting--a defect of long standing, since it was also found in writing dating back nine months before his arrest, uncertainty and errors of pronunciation (bradyphasia and dysarthria), complete insensibility to touch and the electric current, which gave him no sensation of pain. On the other hand, he was subject to unbearable pains in various parts of the body.

He was in the habit of laughing continually, even when reprimanded, or when sad subjects were mentioned. In spite of sharp pains in the epigastric region, he appeared to be in a strange state of euphoria or morbid bodily well-being, which prevented him from realising that he was in prison. He manifested regret when taken from his cell, where he said he had enjoyed himself so much in passing the hours in reading. Occasionally he had hallucinations of ghosts, lizards, mice, etc.

At night, he seemed to suffer from acute mental confusion, which caused him to spring out of bed. Sometimes he was seized by a fit of chorea, followed by deep sleep.

These phenomena led my father to the conclusion that Martinengo was an inebriate in the first stage of paralytical dementia.

The demented paralytic and the imbecile, like children, are easily influenced by the suggestions of others or their own fancies. Mere reading may produce a strong impression on such minds, as in the case of the little girl who accused the Mayor of Gratz of assault, because she had listened to the account of a similar case; and the impression is intensified when, as in the case of Martinengo, it is preceded by arrest, seclusion in a cell, the remarks of magistrates, warders, etc.

In order to test Martinengo's susceptibility to suggestion, my father told him that his cell was a room in the "Albergo del Sole," the name of a hotel in his native town. At first the idea amused him, but after a few days he began to mention it to other persons and at last he firmly believed in it. A few months later, he was transferred in a state of paralysis to the asylum, and there he was fond of boasting of the "Albergo del Sole" where he had been staying a few months before, and where they had treated him to choice dishes, etc.

We now come to Fissore, the accuser of the other three. Investigation of his origin showed that a male cousin had died raving mad, a female cousin had died in an asylum, a great-uncle on the maternal side had been crazy and had committed suicide; another cousin was weak-minded and subject to fits; another, a deaf-mute, had died in an asylum; another great-uncle was a drunkard and a loafer; one sister was an idiot, the other had run away from home, and a brother had been convicted several times.

Giuseppe Fissore had suffered from somnambulism and _pavor nocturnus_ (fear of darkness) when quite a child; when a little older, he used to get up in the night, walk about and try to throw himself out of the window. At school he shunned the company of other boys and grew violently angry when called by his name. When ten years old, he was bitten by a mad dog and while being tended in Turin by the wife of an inn-keeper, had an epileptic seizure. At thirteen, he was seized by another fit, and in falling broke his arm. His restless and capricious character led him to change his occupation a great many times; he became, in turn, baker, carpenter, forester, and farm-labourer. He appeared to have little affection for his mother and still less for his father, with whom he had come to blows on one occasion. At the age of twenty, in a quarrel with some companions, one of them struck him with a sickle and fractured his skull. He had been convicted several times of theft, assault, etc.

He manifested only a few physical anomalies,--exaggerated facial asymmetry, due to the disproportionate development of the left side of his skull, Carrara's lines in the palm of his hands, and a scar resulting from the fracture of his skull; but the convulsions, the _pavor nocturnus_, the two fits, and other characteristics showed him to be an epileptic and an abnormal individual, and explained how he could have accomplished a murder single-handed, which was moreover rendered more easy by the fact that the victim had been drinking heavily. Nor was the crime without a motive, since the murdered man had been robbed of a large sum of money. The total lack of moral sense that distinguished Fissore explains why he should have sought to implicate three persons who had never wronged him for the pleasure of harming and enjoying the sufferings of others. In fact, during his trial he made many false accusations against the police merely for the sake of lying, which is characteristic of degenerates.

Irrefutable alibis and a mass of evidence in favour of the three others corroborated the anthropological diagnoses and led to their acquittal, while Fissore was convicted of the crime.

SIMULATION OF DEMENTIA AND APHASIA BY MORALLY INSANE SUBJECT

In August, 1899, a certain E. M. (see Fig. 44) was removed from prison to an asylum. Although only eighteen, he had been convicted several times of theft and robbery. As a child he had always shown a strong dislike to school and was given to inventing strange falsehoods. In one instance, he asserted that he had killed and robbed a man, although it was known that he had not left the house during the time.

After six months in prison, he began to show signs of mental alienation, with insomnia, loss of speech, and coprophagy. Whenever the cells were opened, he made wild attempts to escape by climbing up the grating. He was often seized with epileptic convulsions.

On the 30th of August, 1899, he was examined medically with the following results:

Stature, 5 ft., 1 in. (1.55 m.); weight, 130 lbs. (59 kilogrammes). Other measurements could not be obtained, owing to the subject's obstinate resistance. His skeletal constitution appeared to be regular and his body well nourished. His skull was brachycephalic, with strongly developed frontal sinuses, and fine, long, dark-brown hair. In the parieto-occipital region were a scar and lesion of the bone, the marks of a wound received during one of his dishonest adventures. He had a normal type of face with frequent contractions of the mimic muscles; the hair-growth on the face scanty for his age. Extremely mobile eyes of vivacious expression, slight strabismus. An examination of the mouth showed a slight obliqueness of the palate, and the mucous membrane was rather pale. The colourless skin was inclined to sallowness.

The functions showed an extraordinary degree of cutaneous anæsthesia and analgesia. In winter and summer the patient wore only a pair of trousers and a thin jersey covering his chest and leaving the arms bare; these he was fond of adorning with ribbons and medals. He was in the habit of slipping pieces of ice between his clothing and skin, and pricking himself on the chin with a needle for the purpose of inserting hairs in the holes. On one occasion, one of the doctors came quietly behind him and thrust a needle rather deeply into the nape of his neck, apparently without producing any sensation. Various tests were made by pricking him with a needle when asleep, but without causing the slightest reflex movement on his part.

_Psychology._ He was subject to strange impulses, which appeared to be irresistible. On one occasion he was caught cutting off the head of a cat, and at times he would devour mice, spiders, nails, excrements, and the sputum of the other patients. He committed acts of self-abuse publicly, with ostentatious indecency; was in the habit of snatching at bright objects and frequently tore his clothes. His obstinate mutism procured him the nickname of "the mute," but he talked in his sleep and replied to questions by signs.

At first, medical men judged him to be in the first stages of dementia, but the course of the symptoms and certain biological and psychic data obtained from the examination led them to the conclusion that the case was one of simulation by a morally insane individual.

In the first place, the patient's look expressed a certain amount of confusion and constant distrust; furthermore, it was noticed that the filthy, indecent, and cruel acts practised by him were committed only when he knew he was being observed. The warders often saw him retire to a quiet spot and vomit all the nauseous substances he had swallowed publicly. As soon as he believed himself to be secure from observation, the usual apathetic look on his face was replaced by one of vivacity and intelligence.

In November of the same year, although he had not discarded his air of imbecility, he gave abundant proofs of intelligence. He helped the asylum barber, and showed skill and neatness in the way he soaped the other patients' faces, but if a doctor appeared on the scene, he would daub the soap clumsily in their eyes and mouths. In playing cards he showed no lack of skill and never missed an opportunity of cheating.

All these facts pointed to shamming, and the suspicions of medical men were amply confirmed by his escape on the 26th of November. The manner in which he had prepared and executed this plan showed great astuteness on his part. Some time before, he had completely changed his clothes and dressed with a certain amount of elegance. He left a note bidding an affectionate farewell to everyone. Later on, he confessed to a fellow-prisoner that he had prepared everything beforehand for his escape as soon as he should have sufficient money. He also asserted that he had felt pain when pricked.

Some of the peculiarities manifested in this case, aphasia, insensibility, and coprophagia, have been noticed in other simulators, and it is easy to see why morally insane persons, who are naturally insensible and filthy in their habits, should adopt these peculiarities as traits of their insanity. The stubborn resistance offered by the subject to all attempts to apply diagnostic instruments, except those for measuring insensibility, may be explained by fear lest the simulation should be detected.

Simulators of insanity are generally psycho-physiologically, and often anatomically, degenerate, and their inferiority obliges them to resort to violence and trickery--the traits of savage races--to counter-balance their natural disadvantages. The simulation of insanity resembles in its motive the mimicry of certain insects which assume a protective resemblance to other and noxious species. Naturally inferior individuals tend to imitate characters of a terrifying nature (psychic in this case) which serve to protect them and enable them to compete with others who are better equipped for the battle of life.

MENTAL DERANGEMENT AND CRIMINAL MONOMANIA DEMONSTRATED BY THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

In June, 1895, Michele Balmi, aged 30, was arrested for stabbing Maria Balmi in the neck and hands. The deed had been committed in broad daylight and apparently without any motive, but the accused asserted that it was done in revenge, because the girls were always jeering at him.

From evidence given, it appeared that far from insulting Balmi, the girls of the village were in the habit of avoiding him as much as possible on account of his lubricity. The testimony of other witnesses, including the mayor of the place, showed that he was looked upon generally as a semi-insane person, because in a very short time he had squandered all his inheritance and had quite ceased to work.

_Somatic Examination._ Body fairly well nourished, height 5 ft., 3 in. (1.60 m.), weight 150 lbs. (68 kilogrammes). Shape of the skull apparently normal but more exaggeratedly brachycephalic than the mean cephalic index of the Piedmontese, which is 85; probable capacity 90 cu. in. (1475 c.c.), or slightly below that of a normal male skull, but proportioned to the low stature.

General sensibility and sensibility to pain and touch more obtuse on the left, the general sensibility of the right hand being 68 and the left 81. Dolorific sensibility, 35 right and 41 left; tactile sensibility, 1.5 right, 3.5 left. The strength tested by the dynamometer showed 47 on the right and 54 on the left, which proved that the subject was left-handed.

The field of vision manifested extraordinary irregularities, with serious scotoma on the inner side of the right eye; on the left side the eye showed only slight scotoma but there was myopia on the inner side.

_Psychic Examination._ The behaviour of the subject was very strange. From the very first day of his imprisonment he seemed to be perfectly calm and composed, as though nothing had happened. When asked how he found prison life, he only remarked: "I certainly thought the food was better."

When asked why he had committed the crime, he replied:

"Crime indeed! I have only done my duty. Those women were always annoying me. Even in the night, they would come tapping at my window and calling me [acoustic hallucinations] and they insulted me because they wanted me to marry them."

"Did they insult you during your absence from Italy?"

"Yes, they worried me all the time I was in America. It was no use changing my occupation. I tried everything; first I was a musician, then a barber, then I tried weaving, but they went on just the same, until I lost my situations through them and had to leave the country."

"Have you ever been insane or suffered from pains in the head?"

"At Chicago, all of a sudden, a doctor called on me, but I have never been mad and should be all right if those women would leave me alone. After all, I only wanted to give them a lesson."

He showed a profound and unshaken belief in his own assertions, such as is rare in simulators or in sufferers from melancholia, but is peculiar to monomaniacs, especially if subject to delusions and convinced that they are the object of general persecution.

Careful investigation of the crime showed that it was entirely without motives and had been committed openly without any attempt to escape or to establish an alibi. It bore no resemblance to ordinary crimes and was clearly a case of monomania with hallucinations. This diagnosis was confirmed by the fact of the anomalies in the field of vision and sensibility, the acoustic hallucinations, and, psychologically, the anomalous nature of the affections and moral sense.

It was impossible to suppose that any of these peculiarities had been simulated, because the subject was far too ignorant to be aware of the importance of hallucinations and alterations in the senses and affections. Moreover, his whole bearing was that of a man profoundly convinced that he had done his duty, and he had no motive for shamming to escape punishment, since it evidently never entered his head that he ran any risk of incurring it. He was sent to an asylum.

APPENDIX

WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO (BRIEFLY SUMMARISED)

I

_The Man of Genius (L'Uomo di Genio)_

In 1863, my father was appointed to deliver a series of lectures on psychiatry to the University of Pavia. His introductory lecture, "Genius and Insanity," showed the close relationship existing between genius and insanity; and the theme proved so absorbingly interesting to him that he threw himself into the study of the problem with all the ardour of which he was capable.

Those who have never come into contact with mentally deranged persons may deem it absurd to mention genius and insanity in the same breath, and still more absurd to seek to demonstrate the existence of flashes of inspiration in insane persons. In the minds of most people, the word _lunatic_ has from earliest childhood conjured up the vision of an incoherent, stupid, or demented being, with wildly streaming hair, raging in paroxysms of maniacal fury, or sunk in imbecile apathy; not, certainly, a sharp-witted individual capable of reasoning logically. But the briefest of visits to an ordinary asylum will make it plain to any observer that such extreme types form only a very small minority. The greater number, when drawn outside the small circle of their delusions, often reason with greater acumen than normal persons; and their ideas, unhampered by stale prejudices which hinder freedom of thought, are remarkable for their originality. Fine fragments of prose and poetry and really beautiful snatches of melody, the work of inmates of lunatic asylums, were collected by my father and published, as special monographs, in _The Man of Genius_; and his museum at Turin contains specimens of embroidery of marvellously beautiful design and execution, and carvings of extreme delicacy.

The well-known cases of mathematical, musical, and artistic prodigies and somnambulists with prophetic gifts, who nevertheless appear to be perfectly imbecile apart from their special talents, are interesting examples of the transition from madness to genius. The solving of equations of the fourth and fifth degree or mental calculations involving the multiplication or division of a large number of figures, are difficult operations for normal persons; yet individuals barely able to read and write, and often afflicted with insanity or imbecility, have been known to possess marvellous mathematical faculties. Imualdi was a cretin, and Dase, Juller, Buxton, Mondeur, and Prolongeau, men of feeble intellect. Among the inmates of asylums, we may find cretins and idiots that are able to play on a whistle any melody they have heard. The drawings of cats, executed by a Norwegian cretin, have been deemed worthy of a place among the treasures of art-galleries and museums. Such cases prove that the possession of one highly developed faculty does not imply a corresponding development of all the intellectual powers. Unintelligent, unbalanced, or even mentally deficient women, when in a somnambulistic or hypnotic state, are able to predict future events, an impossible feat for normal persons, or to discover the whereabouts of objects hidden at a distance, a marvellous phenomenon, which can be explained only by presuming the existence of a far-seeing vision, and the working of a powerful synthetic process resembling the inspirations of genius.

Although not a difficult task to prove the existence of traits of genius in mentally diseased persons, the bringing to light of instances of insanity in men of genius was a much simpler matter.

These instances, carefully classified, form the longest and most important part of _The Man of Genius_, but it is not necessary to give space to any of these instances here. The proofs of the connection between genius and insanity were supplemented by data supplied by the physical examination of a number of geniuses, compared with insane subjects, and a careful investigation of the ethnical, social, and geographical causes which influence the formation of both types. All the facts elicited demonstrated their complete analogy.

But my father's studies did not stop short at the discovery of this analogy, or that of the sources whence the diverse varieties of genius spring, which is perhaps the most interesting part of the book, or even at the application of the new doctrines for the purpose of clearing up obscure points in history and shedding light on the lives of great men. He pursued his investigations until he found the keystone of the edifice reared by insanity and genius--epilepsy.

It is a well-known fact that a great many men of genius have suffered from epileptic seizures and a still greater number from those symptoms which we have shown to be the equivalent of the seizure. Julius Cæsar, St. Paul, Mahomet, Petrarca, Swift, Peter the Great, Richelieu, Napoleon, Flaubert, Guerrazzi, De Musset, and Dostoyevsky were subject to fits of morbid rage; and Swift, Marlborough, Faraday, and Dickens suffered from vertigo.

But it is in the descriptions written by men of genius of their methods of working and creating that we find the strongest resemblance to the different phenomena of epilepsy, which have already been described in detail in this work, in the part treating of the connection between epilepsy and crime. While writing his poems, Tasso appeared to be out of his senses; Alfieri felt everything go dark around him; Lagrange's pulse became irregular; Milton, Leibnitz, Cujas, Rossini, and Thomas could work only under special conditions. Others have encouraged inspiration by using those stimulants which provoke epileptic attacks. Baudelaire made use of hashish; and wine evoked the creative spirit in Gluck, Gerard de Nerval, Verlaine, De Musset, Hoffmann, Burns, Coleridge, Poe, Byron, Praga, and Carducci. Gluck was wont to declare that he valued money only because it enabled him to procure wine, and that he loved wine because it inspired him and transported him to the seventh heaven. Schiller was satisfied with cider; and Goethe could not work unless he felt the warmth of a ray of sunlight on his head. Many have asserted that their writings, inventions, and solutions of difficult problems have been done in a state of unconsciousness. Mozart confessed that he composed in his dreams, and Lamartine and Alfieri made similar statements. The _Henriade_ was suggested to Voltaire in a dream; Newton and Cardano solved the most difficult problems in a similar manner; and Mrs. Beecher Stowe, George Eliot, and George Sand asserted that their novels had been written in a dream-like state, and that they themselves were ignorant of the ultimate fate of their personages. In a preface to one of her books Mrs. Beecher Stowe even went to the length of denying her authorship. Socrates and Tolstoi declared that their works were written in a condition of semi-unconsciousness; Leopardi, that he followed an inspiration; and Dante described the source of his genius in those beautiful lines:

"... quando Amore spira, noto, ed a quel modo Che detta dentro, vo significando."

"When love inspires, I write, And put my thoughts as it dictates in me."

"I call inspiration," says Beethoven, "that mysterious state during which the whole world seems to form one vast harmony, and all the forces of Nature become instruments, when every sentiment and thought resounds within me, a shudder thrills through my frame, and every hair on my head stands on end."

These expressions show that when a genius attains to the fulness of his development and, consequently, to the widest possible deviation from the normal, he is more or less in that condition of unconsciousness which characterises psychic epilepsy and is represented by a series of unconscious psychic activities.

Having demonstrated the frequent existence of a spice of insanity in the genius and flashes of genius in the insane, and, further, that geniuses are subject to a special form of insanity, my father, who was no mere theorist, but an admirer of facts and eager to turn them to account, considered next the possibility of making practical use of these discoveries. This he had no difficulty in doing.

The prevalence of insanity in men of genius explained innumerable contradictions and mad traits in their lives and works, the true meaning of which had hitherto escaped biographers, who either ignored them altogether or covered reams of paper with vain attempts to represent them as inspirations or, at any rate, reasonable actions. It also explained the origin of some of the extraordinary errors committed by great men; for example, the absurdly contradictory actions of Cola di Rienzi, who, after making himself master of Rome when the city was in a state of chaos, restoring peace and order, reorganising the army and conceiving the vast idea of a united Italy, ended his patriotic mission with a series of extravagances worthy of a madhouse.

The fact that traits of genius are so often found in mentally unsound persons and _vice versa_, permits us to suppose that lunatics have not infrequently held the destinies of nations in their hands and furthered progress by revolutionary movements, of which by reason of their natural tendencies and marked originality they are so often the promoters.

It may seem a simple idea to class great men, who have exercised such an enormous influence on civilisation, with wretched beings, to whom no brilliant part has been allotted, and to estimate mad ideas at their true worth; yet it had never occurred to any one before.

It is in the minor works of geniuses that the greater number of absurdities abound, but they are little known to the general public, who are acquainted only with the masterpieces. Critics either ignored the absurdities and heresies contained in these works, or, dazzled by the genius of the author, made them the subject of infinite studies, in the conviction that they were merely allusions or symbols demanding interpretation. All the defects of great men, all the extravagant notions written or spoken by them were covered with the magic veil of glory; and there was no innocent little child, as in Andersen's charming story, to tell the world of the nakedness of geniuses.

Thus idiocy, epilepsy and genius, crimes and sublime deeds were forged into one single chain; and the brilliant lights of some of its links, and the gloomy shadows thrown by others, were reduced to a play of molecules, like those which transform carbon into a refulgent diamond or a sombre lump of graphite.

II

_Criminal Man (L'Uomo Delinquente) considered in relation to Anthropology, Jurisprudence, and Psychiatry_

Although my father's theories on the male criminal have already been set forth in the volume now presented to the public, I feel that it would not be inappropriate to add to the descriptions of his other important works a brief survey of the original book for the use of readers desirous of studying the subject more thoroughly.

The first volume is devoted to an investigation of the atavistic origin of crime among plants, animals, savages, and children. This is followed by an exhaustive study of the physical nature of the born criminal and the epileptic, modern craniology, the anomalies connected with the different classes of offences, the spine, pelvis, limbs, and physiognomy. The data given are based on the results obtained from the examination of about 7000 criminals.

In the study of the brain, the macroscopic anomalies in the convolutions and histological structure of the cerebral cortex of criminals and epileptics are the object of special consideration, since these anomalies solve the problem of the origin of criminality.

Certain additional degenerate characters, the prehensile foot, wrinkles, lines on the finger-tips, the ethmoid-lachrymal suture, anomalies of dentition, the existence of a single horizontal line on the palm of the hand, etc., are further described, and a careful examination made of the field of vision and olfactory and auditory sensibility.

The psychological examination of the criminal includes psychometry, the discovery of new characteristics, such as neophily, lack of exactitude, frequent existence of traits of genius, pictography, hieroglyphics, gestures, and the arts and crafts peculiar to the criminal.

Finally, the different types of offenders--epileptic and morally insane criminals, political and passionate offenders, inebriate, hysterical, and mentally unbalanced (mattoid) criminals--are described separately and compared with each other, their diversities and analogies being thrown into relief. Around these types are grouped juridical figures of crimes, reproduced from psychiatric forms. These are followed by an examination of occasional or pseudo-criminals, criminaloids, latent criminals, and geniuses.

The second volume treats of epileptics, and discusses, among other things, their ergography, psychology, graphology, and anomalies of the field of vision. The studies on criminals of passion are supplemented by observations on suicides and political offenders, those on the insane include investigations of their age, psychology, sex, tattooing, heredity, and the difference between insane and ordinary criminals with respect to the motives that prompt their crimes, and the manner in which these are carried out, thus furnishing a new theory of sexual psychopathy.

The third volume of the fifth edition treats of the etiology and cure of crime.

In the part dealing with the etiology of crime, the geological, ethnical, political, and economical factors determining or influencing criminality, as well as other causes,--density of population, food, alcoholism, sex, heredity, instruction, religion, etc., are examined statistically and sifted with critical care. For the first time, light is thrown on the influence exercised by criminality and wealth on the increase or decrease of emigration.

My father demonstrates by means of data, contributed for the most part by Bodio and Cognetti, that the importance attributed to poverty as a factor of criminality, especially by certain socialistic schools, has been largely exaggerated; while, at the same time, the fact that both wealth and education have their specific crimes, has been ignored by these schools.

In dealing with collective criminality, my father merely repeats the original theories on the subject, expressed by him in 1872 and constantly confirmed since then. These theories have been utilised and illustrated by a number of writers: Ferri, Sighele, Ferrero, Le Bon, and Tarde.

In the prophylaxis and cure of crime, not content with mere criticism of present methods, the new doctrines suggest practical and efficacious means of repressing crime.

In view of the fact that criminality is assuming a changed aspect, adapted to the conditions of modern life and civilisation, it should be combated by the very means furnished by progress,--the telegraph, press, all measures for fighting alcoholism, popular places of recreation, etc.

For the prevention of crime, besides those measures designed to minimise the influence of physical and economic factors,--baths, sanitary regulations, clearing of forests, prevention of over-crowding, social legislation, limitation of wealth, graduated system of taxation, collective services, expropriation, etc.,--my father suggests special measures for diminishing certain kinds of crime,--divorce for sexual offences, affiliation orders for infanticide and government of a truly liberal character, with freedom of the press and public opinion to combat political crime. He also emphasises the importance of provident and charitable institutions, specially for orphan and destitute children, to aid in suffocating germs of criminality, in view of the fact that it is to ragged schools and similar institutions that the decrease of crime in England is certainly due.

Finally, with regard to the direct repression of crime, the new methods of identification devised by Bertillon and Anfosso, and all modern aids for the detection and apprehension of criminals, such as rapid communication and publicity, should be utilised in all countries where the police aspire to be considered scientific in their methods.

A minute and intelligent individualisation of penalties is suggested as being far more efficacious than the uniform and injurious punishment of detention in prison; so that while society defends itself, it tends to improve the perverted faculties of criminals, or where improvement is impossible, to utilise them in their natural state, following the example set by nature in the transformation of injurious parasitical relationships into pacific and mutually beneficial symbioses.

III

_The Female Offender (La Donna Delinquente); The Prostitute and the Normal Woman_

(In Collaboration with Guglielmo Ferrero)

The first part of this book is devoted to a study of the normal woman, or rather the female of every species, beginning with the lowest strata of the zoölogical world and working upwards through the higher mammals and primitive human races to civilised peoples.

As a result of this study, it is shown that although in the lower species, the female is the superior in intelligence, strength, and longevity, among the higher mammals she is surpassed in strength, intelligence, and beauty by the male, who is developed and perfected by the struggle for the possession of the female; while on the other hand, owing to her maternal functions, the female tends to a perpetuation of her physical and psychic characters; and this prevents variation and evolution.

The same phenomenon is encountered in the human race. After a careful examination of the normal woman (height, weight, brain, nervous system, hair, senses, physiognomy, and intellectual and moral manifestations), the authors arrived at the conclusion that the physical, anatomical, physiological, functional, and sensory characters of the female show a lower degree of variability than those of the male.

In the same way, cases of monstrosity, degeneration, epilepsy, and insanity are less frequent in the female of the human race; and the percentage of genius and criminality is decidedly lower. The examination of the senses showed that the normal human female possesses a lower degree of tactile, olfactory, auditory, and visual sensibility than the male, and also, contrary to the hitherto accepted opinion, a diminished moral and dolorific sensibility. Among savage peoples, the female appears to be less sensitive,--that is, more cruel than the male and more inclined to vindictiveness.

But when we consider woman from the point of view of her maternal functions, her physiological, psychological, and intellectual nature assumes an entirely changed aspect; for maternity is the natural function of the female, the end to which she has been created. Lofty sentiments, complete altruism, and far-sighted intelligence develop all of a sudden when she becomes a mother. Maternity neutralises her moral and physical inferiority, pity extinguishes cruelty, and maternal love counteracts sexual indifference. Maternity stimulates her intelligence and sharpens her senses, explains and exalts those characteristics which have hitherto constituted her inferiority until they become signs of superiority when considered from the point of view of the reproduction of the species.

A lessened sensibility enables woman to bear with greater ease the pains inherent to childbirth; her refractoriness to all kinds of variation--also that of a degenerate nature--serves to correct morbid heredity and to bring back the race, which owes its continuation to her, to its normal state.

Women commit fewer crimes than men; and offenders of the female sex, generally speaking, exhibit fewer degenerate characteristics. This is due in part to the tenacity with which the female adheres to normality, but also to the deviation caused in her criminality by prostitution. The history of this social phenomenon, and an examination of the anatomy and functions of the types representing this variation of criminality show that the prostitute generally exhibits a greater number of degenerate and criminal characters than the ordinary female offender.

Prostitution is therefore the feminine equivalent of criminality in the male, because it satisfies the desire for licence, idleness, and indecency, characteristic of the criminal nature.

In addition to prostitutes and ordinary offenders, who constitute the larger part of female criminality, there exists a small number of born criminals of the female sex, who are more ferocious and terrible even than the male criminal of the same type. The criminality of this class of women develops on the same foundation of epilepsy and moral insanity. The physical characters are those peculiar to the male born criminal--projecting ears, strabismus, anomalies of dentition, and abnormal conformation of the skull, brain, etc.; in addition, an absence of feminine traits. In voice, structure of the pelvis, distribution of hair, etc., she tends to resemble the opposite sex and to lose all the instincts peculiar to her own.

From this brief description it may be gathered that this work on the female offender owes much of its interest to the light it throws on the normal woman. It is true that it casts doubt on many of the postulates of feminism; but, on the other hand, it lays stress on and exalts the many invaluable qualities characteristic of the female sex.

The preface to the work concludes with the following remarks:

"Not one of the conclusions drawn from the history and examination of woman can justify the tyranny of which she has been and is still a victim, from the laws of savage peoples, which forbade her to eat meat and the flesh of the cocoanut, to those modern restrictions, which shut her out from the advantages of higher education and prevent her from exercising certain professions for which she is qualified. These ridiculous, cruel, and tyrannical prohibitions have certainly been largely instrumental in maintaining or, worse still, increasing her present state of inferiority and permitting her exploitation by the other sex. The very praises, not always sincere, alas, heaped on the docile victim, are often intended more as a preparation for further sacrifices than as an honour or reward."

IV

_Political Crime (Delitto Politico)_

(In Collaboration with Rodolfo Laschi)

The law of inertia governs nature. Every organism tends to adhere indefinitely to the same mode of life and will not change unless forced to do so.

In the depths of the ocean, where existence, comparatively speaking, is uniform and undisturbed, we still find organisms allied to the species of pre-historic epochs. Those stars and suns, which are outside the sphere of action of other worlds, continue eternally their vertiginous gyrations in the trajectories assigned to them at the beginning of all things.

Every progress in nature is the result of a struggle between the tendency to immobility, manifested by misoneism, or the hatred of novelty, and a foreign force which seeks to conquer this tendency.

As in nature, misoneism dominates every human community. It is most invincible in children and neuropathic and insane individuals, very powerful among barbarous peoples, and more or less disguised among civilised nations. But the world progresses: every day new conditions and new interests arise to combat the law of inertia and render impossible the realisation of the much-desired invariability; and progress, unwelcome yet inevitable, prevails.

By political crime we understand every action which attacks the laws, the historical, economical, political and social traditions of a nation or, in fact, any part of the existing social fabric, and which comes into collision with the law of inertia.

Any attempt to obtain forcibly a change in existing systems, to enforce by violence, for instance, the claims of free trade in a protectionist country, to plunge a nation into war or to incite workers to strike--all such actions represent the first steps in political crime, which reaches its climax in revolts and insurrections, and which victory alone can exalt above a host of blameworthy and base deeds, and crown with glory.

Revolution is the struggle between the tendency to immobility innate in a community, and the force which urges it to move. Revolution is the historical expression of evolution and has always great and sublime ends in view. It is the struggle against an institution or a system which hinders the progress of a nation, never against any temporary oppression, no matter how unbearable it may be. The French revolution was not a struggle against an individual king or even a dynasty, but against the institutions of monarchy and feudalism; nor was Lutheranism a revolt against any pope, but against the corruption that had invaded the Roman Catholic Church. The Italian revolution was not directed against foreign rule, which indeed was mild and generous in some parts of the country, but it voiced an imperious demand for independence indispensable to every people that desires to become truly civilised.

A revolution is therefore a slow, constant effort towards progress, preceded by propaganda. In some instances, it may last for years; in others, for centuries, until an entire nation, from the humblest citizen to the most wealthy patrician, is convinced of the necessity of the proposed change, and the habitual misoneism of the masses overcome, the existing order of things being defended by only a few, whose personal interests are bound up in the old system. The ultimate triumph is inevitable, even when the leaders of the movement perish and the first risings are suffocated in blood; nay, death and martyrdom serve only to kindle greater enthusiasm for an ideal, if it be worthy to live. This becomes apparent when we consider the impulse given to Christianity by the crucifixion of its Leader, and to Italian independence by the death of the two brothers, Emilio and Attilio Bandiera.

But bloody episodes are not always essential to the march of a revolution. The triumph of Hungary over Austria was almost a bloodless one, and that of Free Trade in England was effected practically without violence.

Since a revolution implies a change in the ideas of the masses and not of a minority, be this of the elect or merely of turbulent spirits, revolutions are rare occurrences in history and their effects are lasting. In fact, after the death of Cromwell, feudalism was extinct in England.

Like the pear which falls in autumn when the process of ripening has caused the gradual reabsorption of the juices in the stalk, revolution triumphs and the ancient system perishes when an entire people is persuaded of the necessity for a change. The fall of the pear, however, is not always the result of a slow physiological process, but may be caused by a gust of wind, which dashes it to the ground before the pulp has developed the sweet juices that are the sign of its maturity. In the same way, a revolt or an armed rising of men, whose demands are enforced by threats, may result in the carrying into effect of some programme of reform which is nevertheless too progressive or reactionary, or otherwise unsuited to the country.

In fact, nearly every revolution is preceded by an insurrection, which is suppressed by violence, because it seeks to realise premature ideals, and on this account is frequently followed by a counter-revolution, provoked by reactionary elements.

Unlike revolutions, insurrections are always the work of a minority, inspired by an excessive love or hatred of change, who seek forcibly to establish systems or ideas rejected by the majority. Unlike revolutions, also, they may break out for mere temporary causes--a famine, a tax, the tyranny of some official, which suddenly disturbs the tranquil march of daily life; in many cases they may languish and die without outside interference.

In practice, however, it is extremely difficult to distinguish a revolt from a revolution since the results alone determine its nature, victory being the proof that the ideas have permeated the whole mass of the people.

Political offenders, insurrectionists, and revolutionists are the men who seize the standard of progress and contest every inch of the ground with the masses, who naturally incline towards a dislike of a new order of things. The army of progress is recruited from all ranks and conditions--men of genius, intellectual spirits who are the first to realise the defects of the old system and to conceive a new one, synthesising the needs and aspirations of the people; lunatics, enthusiastic propagandists of the new ideas, which they spread with all the impetuous ardour characteristic of unbalanced minds; criminals, the natural enemies of order, who flock to the standard of revolt and bring to it their special gifts, audacity and contempt of death. These latter types accomplish the work of destruction which inevitably accompanies every revolution: they are the faithful and unerring arm ready to carry out the ideas that others conceive but lack the courage to execute.

Finally, there are the saints, the men who live solely for high purposes and to whom the revolution is a veritable apostolate. They rank high above the mass of mankind, from whom they are frequently distinguished by a singular beauty of countenance, recalling ancient paintings of holy men. They are consumed by a passion for altruism and self-immolation, and experience a strange delight in martyrdom for their ideals. These men sweep the masses along with them and lead to victory with their propaganda, their inspired songs, and thrilling accents. Tyrtæus was not the only poet who led soldiers to war: every insurrection has had its own songs, in which the love of a whole people is crystallised.

Lunatics, unbalanced individuals, and saints are the promoters of progress and revolutions. These types have one thing in common--their passionate devotion to a sublime ideal and their love for humanity, which torments and crushes them in every case where they fail to attain that for which they have fought. But whether victorious or defeated, on the throne or on the scaffold, their efforts are not lost. Love is the spiritual sun of mankind. A ray shed by a human heart may spread far and wide, traversing unknown regions and sojourning with unknown races; and if powerless to revive some timid flower that has been numbed by the chilly night, it may still be stored up in the songs of a people, like the sunlight in green plants, to be retransformed at some future time into light and warmth.

V

_Too Soon! (Troppo Presto!)_

(A Criticism of the New Italian Penal Code)

In this book, which was written during the interval between the publication of the new Penal Code and its sanction by the Italian Parliament, my father makes a rapid criticism of the Code, which he considered premature. Only a few decades had elapsed since the proclamation of Italian Unity; and the widely differing races that people the provinces constituting the kingdom of Italy had not been able in that brief period to acquire sufficient uniformity of customs to make a single code of laws desirable.

But the book is not merely a criticism. It also contains an exposition of the fundamental principles that, according to my father, should underlie every serious and efficacious code of laws. It is this part that makes this somewhat hastily written book of such importance to criminologists; because it sets forth under the chief heads the juridical desiderata of the New School.

The following brief extract gives an indication of the nature of these principles:

1. The legislation of a country should always be regulated by the customs of the people whom it is to govern; and although a system of different penal codes to suit the varying races and customs in the different regions of one State may offer certain disadvantages, they are always of less importance than the difficulties caused by a uniform code.

2. The object of every code should be the attainment of social safety, not the careful weighing of guilt and individual responsibility. The worst and most dangerous criminals should be treated with the greatest severity; but indulgence should be shown towards minor offenders. The former should be segregated for life in prisons or asylums; the latter should never be allowed to become acquainted with prison life, but should be corrected by means of other penalties, which would not bring them into contact with true criminals, nor necessitate their temporary retirement from civil life.

3. Certain reprehensible actions (abortion, infanticide, suicide or complicity therein, passionate crimes, duelling, swearing, adultery, etc.), which are not considered criminal by the general public, should be non-criminal in the eyes of the law.

4. Born criminals, the morally insane, and hopeless recidivists, whose first convictions are not followed by any signs of improvement, should be regarded as incurable and confined for life in criminal lunatic asylums, relegated to penal colonies, or condemned to death.

A second edition of this book was published shortly afterwards with the title _Notes on the New Penal Code_. In this edition, each of the most notable adherents of the new doctrines: Ferri, Garofalo, Ballestrini, Rossi, Masé Dari, Carelli, Caragnani, and others, discussed one special point of the code and suggested the necessary modifications.

VI

_Prison Palimpsests_ (_I Palimsesti del Carcere_)

(A Collection of Prison Inscriptions for the Use of Criminologists)

"Ordinary individuals, and even scientific observers, are apt to regard prisons, especially those in which the cellular system prevails, as mute and paralytical organisms, deprived of speech and action, because silence and immobility have been imposed on them by law. Since, however, no decree, even when backed up by physical force, avails against the nature of things, these organisms speak and act, and sometimes manifest themselves in brutal assaults and murders; but as always happens when human needs come into conflict with laws, all these manifestations are made in hidden and subterranean ways. Walls, drinking-vessels, planks of the prisoners' beds, margins of books, medicine wrappers, and even the unstable sands of the exercise-grounds, and the uniform in which the prisoner is garbed, supply him with a surface on which to imprint his thoughts and feelings."

With this paragraph my father begins the introduction to his book _Prison Palimpsests_, a collection of inscriptions and documents revealing the inmost thoughts of prisoners.

In the first part, these inscriptions are classified under different headings: opinions on prison life, penalties, morality, women, etc., and according to the surface on which they are inscribed--books, walls, pitchers, clothing, paper, etc.

For the psychologist and the student of degenerate types of humanity, this collection is of the greatest interest. The inscriptions are followed by a series of poems, autobiographies, and letters written by intending suicides, and criminals immediately before their execution. The comments made by criminals on the margins of books belonging to the prison library are especially interesting, because they enable the student to compare the effect produced on criminals by certain works with the impressions of normal individuals. The poems written by prisoners are equally interesting, since, like popular songs, they represent the intimate expression of the poet's desires and aspirations.

In the second part, these prison inscriptions are compared with the remarks commonly found scribbled in the streets, on school benches, and on the walls of public buildings of all kinds--courts of justice, places of worship, and even those edifices in which the legislation of the State is framed. All the inscriptions are classified according to the sentiments they express and the sex of the writer, distinction being made between the writings of prisoners and those of the ordinary public.

The book closes with practical suggestions regarding the use to which similar collections might be put, as critical hints on the present methods of dealing with criminals and as an aid in investigating the characters of accused persons.

All offenders, except the most degenerate types, born criminals or the morally insane, desire work or occupation of some kind, and books of an interesting character. This demand emanates from innumerable inscriptions on the walls of cells and the margins of prison books: "How unbearable is enforced idleness for a man who has always been accustomed to work and study, and in whom activity and the desire of some ennobling pursuit are not quite extinct!" ... "The nun of Cracow cried, 'Bread, bread!' but my voice pleads from my solitary cell, 'Work, work!'"

"If jurists would leave their desks and libraries," says my father in conclusion, "put aside all pre-conceived notions, enter the prisons and study the problem of criminality not on the walls of the cells, but on the living documents they enclose, they would speedily realise that all reforms evolved and applied without the aid of practical experience are only dangerous illusions."

VII

_Ancient and Modern Crimes_ (_Delitti Vecchi e Delitti Nuovi_)

"This volume contains a collection of facts, sometimes valuable, at other times merely curious, that I was able to glean during long years of study in the field of criminal anthropology and psychiatry. They all tend to show the great difference that exists between ancient and modern crimes."

With these words my father begins the preface to this book, in which cases of recent crimes are described and compared with those committed in by-gone ages.

It is divided into three parts. The first part contains a comparative and statistical study of criminality in Europe, Mexico, the United States, and Australia.

The second part describes the careers of typical criminals of former times, such as the Tozzis of Rome, a family of anthropophagous criminals, and Vacher, Ballor, and other assassins of the Jack-the-Ripper type, whose perverted sexual instincts prompted them to murder a number of women and mutilate the corpses in a horrible fashion.

The third part treats of those modern criminals, like Holmes and Peace, who accomplish their misdeeds in a refined and elegant manner, substituting for the more brutal knife or hammer, the resources of chemistry, physics, and modern toxicology. In other cases, some product of modern times, such as the motor-car or bicycle, forms the motive for the crime, or is of assistance in its accomplishment.

"From the data we have been able to gather relating to crime in by-gone ages," continues my father in his preface, "we are led to conclude that crimes of a violent and bloody nature predominated exclusively in more barbarous times, and that fraudulent offences are characteristic of modern communities. Violence is more primitive than trickery and must always precede it, exactly as a more barbarous state in which property is gained or maintained by force, at the point of the sword, precedes a state in which ownership is regulated by means of contracts; and crime always adapts itself to the prevailing customs.

"The admirable work of Coghlan shows criminality in Australia to be of this latter type, as contrasted with its semi-barbarous nature in states like Mexico, and gives us a picture of the character it will assume a century or two later in Europe.

"As the fundamental nature of the criminal has not changed, his actions are still of the same character; and violence and cunning are mingled or alternate in modern crime. But though the individual remains unchanged, he is subordinated to a more powerful factor than himself--modern progress. It is true that many modern crimes are facilitated by modern contrivances; but the same contrivances often furnish means for their defeat; and so we may foresee a time, perhaps not very remote, when such anti-social elements shall partially, if not totally, have disappeared."

VIII

_Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry_ (_La Perizia Psichiatrica Legale_)

This work was not intended to introduce the doctrines of modern criminology to the general public, but as a text-book for the guidance of jurists, doctors, experts--in short, all those whose professions bring them, into contact with criminals.

It consists of two parts, the first of which contains about fifty cases diagnosed according to the new methods, and collected by the author of the work and his followers. These cases include all types of delinquents: born criminals, morally insane individuals, hysterical, insane, inebriate, and epileptic criminals, criminaloids, criminals of passion, etc.

In each case, as the diagnosis was intended to serve a practical purpose, the criminal is examined physically, psychologically, and psychiatrically; and his antecedents are investigated with great care.

In the second part, "The Technical Aspect of Criminal Anthropology," a detailed description is given of the methods to be employed in the examination of a supposed criminal, the rules for determining to what class he belongs, the manner in which the physical examination should be conducted, a list of the necessary measurements, a description of the most suitable apparatus, and the mode of using them, the methods of procedure in the interrogation of a criminal, in order to elicit useful information, and instructions for analysing his intellectual manifestations (handwriting, drawing, and work), movements, attitude, and gestures.

Thanks to the methodical instruction imparted by this book, the inexperienced student is enabled to progress gradually until he is in a position to conduct a complete psychiatric and medico-legal examination.

The third part treats of the methods for discriminating between criminals and lunatics. The various forms of mental alienation are described in detail; and an examination of cases of feigned insanity shows that simulators of lunacy are generally mentally unsound.

In the concluding part are discussed the various uses to which a careful diagnosis may be applied.

The Appendix contains studies on the application of mental tests in medico-legal practice, and a glossary, alphabetically arranged, of the terms commonly employed in criminal anthropology, compiled by Dr. Legiardi-Laura.

IX

_Anarchists_ (_Gli Anarchici_)

The book opens with an examination of the theories of anarchists, from which the author arrives at the conclusion that in view of the importance generally conceded to economic ideals to-day and the universal abuse of power, these theories in reality are not so absurd as they are supposed to be. It is the methods adopted by anarchists for the realisation of their ideals that are both absurd and dangerous.

"However valuable many of the proposals of anarchism may be," says the author, "they become absurd in practice; because all reforms should be introduced very gradually in order to escape the inevitable reaction which neutralises all previous efforts."

The crimes of anarchists tend to mingle with ordinary crimes when certain dreamers attempt to reach their goal by any means possible--theft, or the murder of a few, often innocent, persons. It is easy to realise, therefore, why, with a few exceptions, anarchists are recruited from among ordinary criminals, lunatics, and insane criminals. Investigations made by the author showed that 12 per cent. of the communards were of a criminal type, and this percentage was still higher in anarchists (31 per cent.). Of forty-five anarchists examined at Chicago, 40 per cent. had faces of a criminal cast. The majority of anarchists possess the passions and vices peculiar to ordinary criminals: impulsiveness, love of orgies, lack of natural affections and moral sense; and similar intellectual manifestations, such as slang, ballads, tattooing, hieroglyphics. But there are a greater number of genuine epileptic and hysterical subjects, lunatics, and indirect suicides among anarchists than among ordinary criminals; greater, too, is the proportion of criminals from passion. These truly heroic natures, profoundly convinced that the remedy for so many social evils lies in the murder of certain personages of high standing, who appear to bear the greatest share of responsibility for the existing system, do not hesitate to have recourse to violence when they deem it necessary; although it is distasteful to them and although they have hitherto disassociated themselves from the excesses of their companions. The anarchists Caserio and Bresci were of this type. The crimes of these passionate criminals are always accomplished single-handed; they always surrender to the police immediately afterwards and make no attempt to defend themselves. On the contrary, when in court, they frequently give a lucid explanation of the motives that have induced them to commit their crimes and affront the penalty with stoicism.

Such being the origin, and such the promoters of anarchism, it is evident that the methods for curing crimes deriving from this source should differ greatly from those used in suppressing ordinary crime.

In spite of the fact that anarchists are frequently criminals, their ideas, although often absurd, imply a greater elevation of character than the cynical apathy in which the worst types of criminals are sunk.

Instead of combating violence by violence and dealing out death sentences with a prodigality almost rivalling that of anarchists themselves, the authorities should segregate the most dangerous types or relegate them to distant islands, and adopt exile as a penalty for genuine criminals of passion. However, political liberty and some safety-valve, whereby lawless instincts may be turned into harmless channels, are the best methods for preventing anarchism. Constitutional government and freedom of speech and the press may go a long way towards combating anarchism; but the restoration of popular tribunates, like those to which Rome owed her balance and tranquillity, would be still more efficacious. If the governing bodies were to favour, instead of hindering, the formation of such institutions, which tend to spring up everywhere and to voice the grievances of the people, just causes would not be abandoned exclusively to the advocacy of extremists.

X

_Lectures on Legal Medicine_ (_Lezioni di Medicina Legale_)

This book, as the preface explains, was an attempt to present in a concise and popular form the theories of criminal anthropologists, on which the author had previously delivered a series of university lectures, and which he feared might have been erroneously or imperfectly understood by those of his hearers who were diffident or insufficiently prepared.

It is divided into three parts, criminal anthropology, mental alienation, and the relation of serious offences (assault, murder, poisoning, etc.) to legal medicine.

The first part contains a summing-up of the author's ideas on the atavistic and pathological origin of the criminal. He examines the equivalents of crime among plants, animals, savages, and children, describes the pathological causes which call forth atavistic instincts and alludes to other special kinds of degeneration peculiar to criminals. Finally, the anatomy, functions, and internal organs of the criminal are examined, and a careful study made of his intellectual manifestations and psychology. Similar studies on epileptics and the morally insane show that the three forms are only variations of the same degeneration.

We have an examination of occasional, habitual, and latent criminals, who represent an attenuated type of delinquency, following on the investigations of these serious forms, admitting of correction, prevention, or cure. It develops much later in life than the vicious propensities of instinctive criminals or may even remain latent; yet at the root we always find the same anatomical and pathological anomalies, although less marked and fewer in number.

The origin of passionate and political criminals is entirely diverse. Their criminality springs from an excess of noble passions, the impetuosity of which prevents them from exercising sober judgment and urges them to unpremeditated actions that afterwards cause them the deepest remorse.

After a rapid survey of feminine criminality and its equivalent, prostitution, the author discusses juridical and social methods of curing crime.

In the second part, mental alienation in relation to legal medicine, the author examines the anthropological and psychic characters of lunacy, which he divides into various classes: congenital mental alienation (cretinism, idiocy, imbecility, eccentricity); acquired mental alienation (mania, melancholia, paranoia, circular insanity, dementia); mental alienation in conjunction with neurosis (epilepsy, hysteria, progressive general paralysis); alienation resulting from toxic influences (alcoholism, including forms produced by indulgence in absinthe and coca, saturnine encephalopathy, pellagra). An investigation is made into the etiology of these various forms with special reference to their juridical importance.

The third part is devoted exclusively to medico-legal questions, to an examination of the various forms of violent death: by heat, electricity, starvation, hanging, strangulation, asphyxia, and poisoning, the symptoms which distinguish each type being carefully defined. This is followed by a study on wounds produced by firearms, pointed weapons or blades, on living and dead bodies, in order to determine the exact situation of the wound and the manner in which it has been inflicted. Finally, we have an examination of the different forms of poisoning.

A separate lecture treats of sexual psychopathy and offences against morality; and other lectures discuss questions of legal obstetrics: abortion, infanticide, and matrimonial questions.

XI

_Recent Discoveries in Psychiatry and Criminal Anthropology and the Practical Application of these Sciences_

This volume was published in 1893. It contains a complete summary of the latest research of criminologists in jurisprudence, psychiatry, and anthropology, during the interval between the publication of the fifth and that of the last edition of Prof. Lombroso's _Criminal Man_.

The research includes anthropological discoveries in the skull, skeleton, internal organs, and brains of criminals, as well as others of a biological and functional nature. They are followed by a study of the methods to be employed for the cure and punishment of crime.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE CHIEF WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO

Archivio di Psichiatria, antropologia criminale e scienze affini (Archives of Psychiatry, Criminal Anthropology and Kindred Sciences). Thirty-two volumes. Published by Fratelli Bocca, Turin and Lausanne.

L'Uomo Delinquente (Criminal Man). Fifth Edition. Vols. I, II and III of xxxv + 650, 576, and 677 pages respectively, with separate volume of plates, maps, etc. Bocca, Turin, 1906, 1907.

_Translations:_

L'Hommea criminel. Vols. I and II published 1895, Vol. III (Le crime, ses causes et remèdes) 1907, by F. Alcan, Paris.

Die Ursachen und Bekâmpfung des Verbrechens. Bermuheler Verlag, Berlin, 1902.

El Delito, sus causas y remedios. Librería de Victoriano Suárez, Madrid, 1902.

La Donna Delinquente, la prostituta e la donna normale. (With Guglielmo Ferrero.) New Edition. Bocca, Turin, 1903.

_Translations:_

Das Weib als Verbrecherin und Prostitute. Verlagsanstalt und Druckerei, Hamburg, 1894.

The Female Offender. Fisher Unwin, London, 1895.

Il Delitto Politico e le Rivoluzioni. (With R. Laschi.) Bocca, Turin, 1890.

_Translations:_

Das politische Verbrechen und die Revolutionen. Two vols. 1890.

Le Crime politique. Two vols. Félix Alcan, Paris, 1890.

Le piu recenti scoperte ed applicazioni della psichiatria ed antropologia criminale. Bocca, Turin, 1893.

_Translations:_

Neue Fortschritte in den Verbrecherstudien. Wilhelm Friedrich, Leipzig. 1894.

Neue Fortschritte der kriminellen Anthropologie. Marhold, Halle, 1908.

Neue Verbrecherstudien. Marhold, Halle, 1908.

Nouvelles recherches de Psychiatrie et d'Anthropologie criminelle. Alcan, Paris, 1890.

Gli anarchici. Bocca, Turin, 1894.

_Translations:_

Die Anarchisten. Verlagsanstalt und Druckerei, Hamburg, 1895.

Les Anarchistes. E. Flammarion, Paris, 1896.

La Perizia psichiatrico-legale. Bocca, Turin, 1905.

Lezioni di Medicina legale. Bocca, Turin, 1900.

Troppo Presto: Appunti al nuovo codice penale. Bocca, Turin, 1888.

Palimsesti del carcere. Bocca, Turin, 1888.

_Translations:_

Kerker Palimpsesten. Hamburg, 1899.

Les Palimpsestes des prisons. Stock, Lyon.

La Delinquenza e la rivoluzione francese. Treves, Milan, 1897.

Criminal Anthropology. (Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine, Vol. XII, pp. 372-433.) New York, 1897.

Luccheni e l'antropologia criminale. Bocca, Turin, 1899.

Il caso Olivo. (With A. G. Bianchi.) Libreria Editrice Internazionale, Milan, 1905.

Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotici e spiritici. Unione Tip. Edit. Turin, 1909.

L'Uomo di genio. Sixth Edition. Bocca, Turin, 1894.

_Translations:_

L'Homme de génie. Alcan, Paris, 1889.

The Man of Genius. Walter Scott, London, 1891.

Genio e degenerazione. Second Edition. Remo Sandron, Palermo, 1908.

_Translations:_

Entartung und Genie. Wiegand, Leipzig, 1894.

Nuovi studi sul genio. Two vols. Sandron, Palermo, 1902.

_Translations:_

Neue Studien über Genialität (Schmidt's Jahrbücher der gesammten Medizin, 1907).

Pazzi e anormali. Lapi, Citta di Castello, 1890.

In Calabria. Niccolo Giannotta, Catania, Sicily, 1898.

L'Antisemitismo e le scienze moderne. Roux, Turin, 1894.

_Translations:_

Der Antisemitismus und die Juden. Wiegand's Verlag, Leipzig, 1894.

L'Antisémitisme. Giard et Brière, Paris, 1899.

Problèmes du jour. Flammarion, Paris, 1906.

Il momento attuale in Italia. Casa Editrice Nazionale, Milan, 1905.

Grafologia. Ulrich Hoepli, Milan, 1895.

_Translations:_

Graphologie. Reclam, Leipzig.

Trattato profilattico e clinico della pellagra. Bocca, Turin, 1890.

_Translations:_

Die Lehre von der Pellagra. Oscar Coblenz, Berlin, 1898.

INDEX

A

Affection for animals, 62, 63

Affections, of born criminals, 27 in children, 133 examination of, 222-225

Age and crime, 102, 151, 152

Akkas, tribe of Central Africa, 15

Alcoholism, and hallucinations, 30, 82-84 chronic, 81, 142-143 physical characteristics, 81, 82 psychic disturbances caused by, 82-84 results of, 83 apathy and impulsiveness of victims, 84, 85 crimes peculiarly due to, 85, 142 course of the disease, 86 hereditary, 138 important factor in criminality, 138, 141 temporary, 141-142 and epilepsy, 142 effect on handwriting, 229

Algometer, 25, 246

Anfossi's tachyanthropometer, 237 craniograph, 239

Angelucci (_Actes du Congrès d' Anthropologie_), case of epileptic moral insanity, 69

Anomalies, of criminals, 7, 10-24, 231-235 of morally insane, 53

Anthropology, criminal, defined, 5 most important discovery of, 137 practical application of, 262-279

Aphasia, simulation of, 272 _ff._, 275

Arson, 121

Arts and industries of criminals, 44, 135

Assaulters, 25

Asylums for criminal insane, 205-208

Asymmetry, 13, 53, 242, 261

Atavism, 18, 135, 136

Atavistic origin of the criminal, 8, 9, 19, 48, 135

Australia, probation system in, 189, 191

Austria, percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144 percentage of women among criminals, 151

Auto-illusion, 108, 109

Aymaras, the, an Indian tribe of South America, 6

Azara, d' (_Travels in America_, 1835), 126

Azeglio, Massimo d' (_Reminiscences_), 148

B

Bain, 130

Ballvé, Señor, director of Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres, 201

Bank of Rome case, 106, 107

Barnardo, Dr., work for orphans and destitute children of London, 158-160

Beccaria, Cesare, founder of Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, 3, 4

Bedlam, 207

Belgian Government, agricultural colony founded at Meseplas by, 202

Belgium, probation system in, 191

Bernard, experiments with dogs, 60

Blasio, de, explanation of hieroglyphics of the Camorristi, 43, 44

Booth, General, 156, 157

Born criminals, 3-51 percentage of, among criminals, 8, 100 physical characteristics, 10-24, 231-255 sensory and functional peculiarities, 24-27 affections and passions, 27, 28 moral characteristics, 28-40 intelligence, 41 relation to moral insanity and epilepsy, 58-73, 87, 259 professional characteristics, 71 difference between epileptics and, 72 no criminal scale among, 152 institutions for, 205 _ff._

Bosco and Rice (_Les Homicides aux Etats-Unis_), on crime in Massachusetts, 173

Brigands, 35, 113-115, 215

Broadmoor, 207, 208

Brockway, 192

Büchner, on instincts in bees and ants, 142

Burglars, 25

Burton (_First Footsteps in East Africa_), 128

C

Cabred, Professor, 203, 204

Camorra, 44, 48, 117, 230

Camorristi, hieroglyphics of, 43, 44 dress, 230

Canada, homes for destitute children, 160

Capital punishment, 208, 209

Carrara, Francesco, 4

Carrara, Prof. Mario, on neglected children, 130

Cephalic index, 10, 241

Children, destructive tendency, 65 instincts, 130 _ff._ affection, 133 effect of environment on, 144 institutions for destitute, 156 _ff._ methods of dealing with, 176 _ff._ susceptibility to suggestion, 226

Children's courts. _See_ Juvenile courts

Cinædus, 231, 244

Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, 4, 9

Classification of criminals, 8

Colour-blindness, 26, 249

Confession of criminaloids, 105

Connon, Richard, 53

Coprophagia, 274, 275

Corporal punishment, 191

Cretins, physical characteristics, 227, 234, 236, 260 dress, 231

Crime, origin of the word, 125 among primitive races, 125 _ff._ in civilised communities, 134 atavistic origin, 135, 136, 137 ætiology of, 136 pathological origin, 137 organic factors, 137 percentage of, among Jews, 140 social causes, 143 prevention, 153 _ff._ curability, 153, 156

Criminal, the, defined, 3

Criminal type, 24, 48

Criminaloids, 100-121 percentage of, among criminals, 8 physical characteristics, 102, 251 psychological distinctions between born criminals and, 102 _ff._ cases of, 103, 104 reluctance to commit crimes, 105 easily induced to confess, 105 moral sense and intelligence, 106 natural affections and sentiments, 106 social position and culture, 107 _ff._ clever swindlers, 108 development into habitual criminals, 111-113 and certain crimes, 121 punishment, 186

Cruelty, 39

Cynicism, 31

D

Dalton (_Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_), 129

Danish prisons, 195

"Darwin's tubercle," 15, 235

Dejerine, 138

Delirium, 98

Dementia, 76, 227, 259, 260 simulations of, 272 _ff._

Despine's method of punishment, 195, 196

Destitute children, care of, 156 institutions for, 156 _ff._

Dewson, Miss Mary, 189

Disease and its relation to crime, 8, 220

Don Bosco, the Black Pope, 157, 173

Drunkenness, temporary, 141. _See also_ Alcoholism

Du Bois-Reymond's apparatus, 25, 246

Dundrum, Ireland, 207

Dynamometer, 252, 253

E

Economic conditions, relation to crime, 150

Education, and moral insanity, 143 and crime, 143, 149 in Elmira Reformatory, 193

"Educational Alliance," for Jewish emigrants, 172

Egypt, theft in, 128

Elmira Reformatory, 192-194

England, crime in, 173 juvenile court in, 176 probation system in, 189, 191 asylums for criminal insane, 207

Environment, 8, 144, 145

Epilepsy, ancient application of the term, 58 characteristic phenomena, 58 mild forms, 59, 60 multiformity, 59, 60, 87 psychological characteristics, 61 effect on character, 62 relation to crime, 69, 71 motory and criminal, 71 psychic, 88 ambulatory, 89, 90 alcoholic psychic, 142

Epileptics, brain cells of, 22 relation to born criminals and morally insane 58 _ff._, 87 physical anomalies common to criminals and, 60, 61, 234 psychological characteristics, 61 _ff._ cases, 64-65 criminal, 66-69, 70, 259 difference between born criminals and, 72 non-criminal, 89-92 obsessions, 226 dress, 230 special offences, 259, 260

Epileptoids, 101

Erotomania, 96

Esthesiometer, 245

Examination of criminals, 219-257 antecedents and psychic individuality, 220-222 intelligence, 222 affections, 222-225 morbid phenomena, 225-226 speech, 226-228 memory, 228 handwriting, 228-230 dress, 230-231 physical, 231-245 sensibility, 245-251 movements, 251-255 functions, 255 table of, 255-257

F

Fines, 187, 191

Fisherton House, 207

Forgers, 46, 140, 245

France, percentage of illegitimates or orphans among minors arrested, 144 system for minor offences, 187 probation system in, 191

Frank, Francis, 223

French Panama Scandal, 106, 107

G

Gambling, 40

Games, 40

Garofalo, Senator, his table of penalties, 210

George, Henry, 164

George Junior Republic, 160, 164-167

Germans, ancient, theft among, 128, 129

Gilmour (_Among the Mongols_), 130

Gipsies, 140

Goitre, 220, 244

H

Habitual criminals, 44, 110-115, 198

Hallucinations, 30, 82-84

Hamburg, percentage of illegitimates among prostitutes, 144

Handwriting, 228-230

Harwick, quoted, on sense of right and wrong, 33

Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society in New York City, 160-164

Heredity, indirect, 137 direct, 57, 137-139 influence of, 144, 220, 235

Hieroglyphics, 43, 44

Homicide, among criminaloids, 121 in Italy, 140 relation of temperature to, 145 in Massachusetts, 173 and melancholia, 259

Hydrosphygmograph, 223

Hypnotism, 101

Hysteria, 92-99 relation to epilepsy, 92 physical and functional characteristics, 93 psychology, 94 susceptibility to suggestion, 95, 226 and delirium, 98 sensibility to metals, 248, 261 special offences of, 259 simulation of, 261

I

Idiots, impulses, 74, 258 speech, 227 physical characteristics, 235, 260

Idleness, 40, 150

Illegitimates, percentage of, among criminals, 144

Imbeciles, 75, 259, 260, 269

Imitation, 146

Immigration and its relation to crime, 147, 148

Imprisonment, 154, 186, 187

Impulsiveness, 36, 85

Incendiaries, 26

Indemnity, 191

India, infanticide in, 126 theft in, 129

Industrial Homes of the Salvation Army, 168

Inebriates, crimes peculiar to, 85-86 hallucinations of, 226

Infanticide, 121, 126, 127

Insane, the morally, relation to born criminals, 53, 57, 58 cases, 53 _ff._ relation to epileptics, 61, 65 _ff._ professional characteristics, 71 institutions for, 206 dress, 230 special offences, 259, 260

Insane criminals, 74-99, 234 characteristics distinguishing them from habitual criminals, 77, 78 antecedents, 78 motives, 78 typical cases, 79 institutions for, 205 _ff._ two classes, 208

Insanity, moral, 56, 65-69, 272 _ff._ criminal, 74-99 genuine and simulation of, 260, 276. _See also_ Lunacy

Institutions, for destitute children, 156 for destitute adults, 167 for women criminals, 180 for minor offenders, 185 for habitual criminals, 198 for born criminals and the morally insane, 205. _See also_ Reformatories, Penitentiaries

Intellectual manifestations of born criminals, 42-44

Intelligence, of born criminals, 41 of criminaloids, 106 examination, 222

Invulnerability of criminals, 64

Italy, hot-beds of crime in, 140 percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144 percentage of women among criminals, 151 institutions for orphans, 157

J

Jackson, on epileptic fits, 60

Jews, percentage of crime among, 140

Jukes family, the, 138, 139

Juridical criminals, 115-117

Juvenile courts, 176, 178, 179

Juvenile offenders, 139 methods of dealing with, 176 _ff._, 192

K

Kleptomania, 141

Kowalewsky (_Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1885), 63

Krafft-Ebing, 84 quoted, on somnambulism and epileptics, 63

L

Labour, in reformatories, 166, 199 enforced, profitable to the State, 202, 203, 213

Lacassagne, 47

Ladelci (_Il Vino_, 1868), 37

Landolt's apparatus for testing the field of vision, 249

Lewisohn, Mr., 161

Lombroso, Cesare, discovery of _median occipital fossa_, 6 new theory as to criminals, 52, 56, 57 view of hysteria and epilepsy, 99 on percentage of criminals of inebriate families, 138 on criminal associations, 146 _Criminal Man_, 9, 288-291 _Modern Forms of Crime_, 9 _Recent Research in Criminal Anthropology_, 9, 309 _Prison Palimpsests_, 9, 155, 300-302 _The Female Offender_, 180, 291-294 _Crimes, Ancient and Modern_, 173, 302-303 _The Man of Genius_, 283-288 _Political Crime_, 294-298 _Too Soon_, 298-300 _Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry_, 303-305 _Anarchists_, 305-307 _Lectures on Legal Medicine_, 307-308

Luciani, experiments of, 59

Lunacy, general forms, 74, _See also_ Insanity

M

Maccabruni, Dr. (_Notes on Hidden Forms of Epilepsy_, 1886), 89

Mafia, 117, 230

Magnaud, 187

Maniacs, 76, 259

Manzoni (_Promessi Sposi_), on instinctive tendency to law-breaking, 152

Marey's tympanum, 224

Marro (_Annalidi Freniatia_, 1890), 64

Massachusetts, crime in, 173 probation office in Boston, 189 reformatories at Boston, 190

Mattoids, 228, 229

_Median occipital fossa_, discovery of, 6

Melancholia, 75, 227, 252, 259

Memory, 228

Mendacity, 96-98

Meseplas, agricultural colony at, 202, 203

Metchnikoff, 14

Meteoric sensibility, 26

Modern School of Penal Jurisprudence, 4, 5, 9, 153, 155, 156

Monomaniacs, impulses and motives, 77 cases, 78, 276 _ff._ handwriting, 228, 230 dress, 231 examination of, 276 _ff._

Moral sense, of criminals, 28-40 of criminaloids, 106

Moreau, 130 (_De l' Homicide chez les enfants_, 1882), 131

Morel, 53, 98

Mülhausen (_Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the Pacific_), 129

Murder, among gipsies, 140 among Jews, 140 in United States, 145

Murderers, physical characteristics, 16, 18, 26, 46, 236 moral sense, 29, 38 imprisonment, 182 dress, 230

N

Newspaper reports of crimes, influence of, 146, 147

Nothnagel's thermo-esthesiometer, 247

O

Obermayer's methods in prisons, 195, 196

Obscenity, 63

Occupations suitable for prisoners, 197, 203, 204

"Open Door," the, penal institution in Buenos Ayres, 203, 204

Orange, 208

Orgies, 40

Osmometer, 251

Ottolenghi, discoveries of, 61

P

Paralysis, 75, 226, 229

Paralytic, demented, 269

"Paranza," 48

Paresis, 82, 83

Parkinson's disease, 252

Passion, criminals of, 117-121, 186

Patrizi, 224

"Patta, La" 41

Pears (_Prisons and Reform_, 1872), 196

Pederasts, 232

Pellagra, 76, 150

Pelvimeter, 239

Penal codes, 176, 178

Penal colonies, 201-204

Penalties, 153 table of, proposed by the Modern School, 210-212

Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres, 198-203

Penitentiaries, 194-198

Penta, on percentage of criminals of inebriate families, 138

Perez,(_Psychologie de l'enfant_), quoted, on anger in children, 131

Perth, Scotland, 207

Peruvian Indians, 6, 7

Physical anomalies of criminals, 7, 10-24, 231-245

Pictet, 125

Pictography, 43

Pinel, 37, 53

Plethysmograph, 223, 225, 264

Poisoners, 31, 182

Political offenders, 186

Polyandry, 127

Population, density of, effect on criminality, 146, 148

Positive School of Penal Jurisprudence. _See_ Modern School of Penal Jurisprudence

Pott, 125

Poverty and crime, 150

Precocity in crime, 222

Preventive methods, 175 _ff._

Primitive races, tattooing among, 45 views of crime, 125-129, 134 death penalty among, 209

Prison life, effect upon criminals, 148, 149, 153, 154, 186

Probation Office in Boston, 189

Probation system, 178, 179, 188-191

Professions and crime, 149, 150, 221

Progeneismus, 13, 60, 243

Prognathism, 7, 12

Prostitution, 144, 151, 180

Proverbial sayings concerning criminals, 49, 50

Prussia, percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144

Psychology of born criminals, 27 _ff._

Ptosis, 14, 236

Punishments, 185 corporal, 191 capital, 208, 209

R

Race and crime, 139, 140

Recidivists, 46, 222

Reformatories, 182, 192

_Reformatory Prison for Women_ at South Framingham, near Boston, 183-185

Remorse, 29

Repentance, 29

Rescue Homes of the Salvation Army, 169

_Revue d'Anthropologie_, 1874, 128

Ribaudo, Brancaleone, 138

Richet, experiments with dogs, 59, 60 on hysteria, 95

Roncoroni, discoveries of, 21, 22, 61, 100

Rosenbach, experiments of, 59

"Rota, La" 41

S

Salvation Army, 167-170

Samt, on epilepsy, 88, 90, 91

San Stefano, island, convict population, 34

Sensibility, general, 24, 245, 246, 277 to touch and pain, 25, 245, 246, 277 to the magnet, 26 meteoric, 26 of the senses, 26, 249-251 localisation of, 247 to metals, 248

Simulation, 97, 261, 272

Sisterhoods founded by Rabbi Gottheil, 170-172

Skin diseases, 232

Skull, formations, 10-12 measurements, 239-242

Slang, 28, 33, 42, 152

Smugglers, 114

Snow (_Two Years' Cruise round Tierra del Fuego_), 129

Social causes of crime, 143

Somatic examination, 260, 277

Somnambulism, 63, 141

South America, institutions for orphans, 157 Salvation Army in, 170 reformatories, 192 penal institution in Buenos Ayres, 203

Spain, percentage of women among criminals, 151

Spencer (_Principles of Ethics_, 1895), 129

Strabismus, 14, 236

Strength, 27, 252

Suggestion, susceptibility to, 95, 269 examination of, 226 case, 269

Suicide, 119, 259

Swindlers, characteristics, 16, 18, 20, 25, 46, 231, 245, 246 percentage among criminaloids, 108 cases, 109 imprisonment of, 182

Sydenham, on hysteria, 95

Symbiosis, 212-215

T

Tachyanthropometer, 237

Tamburini, quoted, 37

Tardieu (_De la Folie_, 1870), 85

Tattooing, 39, 45-48, 232

Temperature, relation to crime, 145

Theft, instincts of, 37, 38 petty, 117 percentage of, among criminaloids, 121 among primitive races, 128-130 and paralysis, 259 and epileptics, 260

Thieves, physical characteristics, 20, 46, 150, 236, 243-244 cases, 28, 29, 37, 38 moral sense, 32-35 handwriting, 230

Tissié (_Les alienés voyageurs_, 1887), 88

Tonnini, 62, 64, 65

Traumatism, 140, 141

Treachery, 34

U

United States, institutions for destitute children, 160 percentage of crime in, 173, 174 probation system in, 178, 189, 190 juvenile courts in, 178 reformatories in, 192

V

Vanicek, 126, 127

Vanity, 35

Vidocq, 35

Vindictiveness, 38

Volumetric glove, 224

Volumetric tank, 223

W

Weber's esthesiometer, 245

_Where the Shadows Lengthen_, 168

Women, percentage of criminality among, 151, 180 nature of criminality among, 181, 182

Work, motive force of every institute, 197

Wormian bones, 12

Z

Zakka Khel, criminal tribe in India, 129, 140

Zehen, experiments of, 59

Zino, 41

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27.--+Criminal Man.+ According to the Classification of CESARE LOMBROSO. Briefly Summarized by his Daughter, Gina Lombroso Ferrero. With 36 Illustrations and a Bibliography of Lombroso's Publications on the Subject.

_In preparation:_

+The Invisible Spectrum.+ By Professor C. E. MENDENHALL, University of Wisconsin.

+The Physiology and Hygiene of Exercise.+ By Dr. G. L. MEYLAN, Columbia University.

_Other volumes to be announced later_

Footnotes:

[1] For a description of the methods employed in measuring skulls see

## Part III.

[2] For a description of the methods used in measuring the acuteness of these senses, see Part III.

[3] As in the case of the Sicilian brigand Salomone (see Fig. 19).

Transcriber's Notes:

Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_.

Passages in bold are indicated by +bold+.

Illustration captions are indicated by =caption=.

Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text.

The original text includes Greek characters. These characters have been removed from this text version because the original text provides a translation.

The following misprints were corrected: "possesssed" corrected to "possessed" (page xiv) "Ethnolgy" corrected to "Ethnology" (page 129) "pecuilar" corrected to "peculiar" (page 135) "associaton" corrected to "association" (page 187) "segregrated" corrected to "segregated" (page 206) "distinguising" corrected to "distinguishing" (page 228) "chlidren" corrected to "children" (page 321) "his" corrected to "has" (advertisements)