chapter cxii
.; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London, 1904), i. 496 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 62 _sq._
119 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8. E. Lefébure (_op. cit._ p. 46) recognises that in this story the boar is Typhon himself.
120 This important principle was first recognised by W. Robertson Smith. See his article, “Sacrifice,” _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, xxi. 137 _sq._ Compare his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 373, 410 _sq._
121 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31.
M26 Evidence of the depredations committed by wild boars on the crops.
122 H. B. Tristram, _The Natural History of the Bible_, Ninth Edition (London, 1898), pp. 54 _sq._
123 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London, 1857), pp. 18-20.
124 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London, 1906), pp. 182 _sq._
125 E. Modigliano, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), pp. 524 _sq._, 601.
126 A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_, (Manilla, 1905), pp. 100, 102.
127 A. Bastian, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Gebirgs-stämme in Kambodia,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, i. (1866) p. 44.
128 G. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, 1903), p. 348.
129 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), p. 125.
M27 The ravages of wild boars among the crops help us to understand the ambiguous attitude of the ancient Egyptians to swine.
130 E. Lefébure, _Le Mythe Osirien_, Première Partie, _Les yeux d’Horus_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 48 _sq._
M28 Egyptian sacrifices of red oxen and red-haired men.
131 See above, pp. 260 _sq._; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 331, 338.
132 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 33, 73; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88.
133 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. Compare Herodotus, ii. 38.
M29 Osiris identified with the sacred bulls Apis and Mnevis. Stratification of three great types of religion or superstition in ancient Egypt.
134 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20, 29, 33, 43; Strabo, xvii. 1. 31; Diodorus Siculus, i. 21, 85; Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 55 _sqq._ On Apis and Mnevis, see also Herodotus, ii. 153, with A. Wiedemann’s comment, iii. 27 _sq._; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184 _sqq._; Solinus, xxxii. 17-21; Cicero, _De natura deorum_, i. 29; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, xviii. 5; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xi. 10 _sq._; Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ viii. 1. 3; _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 5, 35; Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 13. 1 _sq._; Pausanias, i. 18. 4, vii. 22. 3 _sq._; W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_ (Leipsic, 1903-1905), Nos. 56, 90 (vol. i. pp. 98, 106, 159). Both Apis and Mnevis were black bulls, but Apis had certain white spots. See A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_ (Münster i. W., 1890), pp. 95, 99-101. When Apis died, pious people used to put on mourning and to fast, drinking only water and eating only vegetables, for seventy days till the burial. See A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905), pp. 170 _sq._
135 Diodorus Siculus, i. 21.
136 On the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle, and the possible derivation of the Apis and Isis-Hathor worship from the pastoral stage of society, see W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 296 _sqq._
137 Herodotus, ii. 41.
138 Herodotus, ii. 41, with A. Wiedemann’s commentary; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 19; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 8. In his commentary on the passage of Herodotus Prof. Wiedemann observes (p. 188) that “the Egyptian name of the Isis-cow is _ḥes-t_ and is one of the few cases in which the name of the sacred animal coincides with that of the deity.”
139 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184; Solinus, xxxii. 18; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7. The spring or well in which he was drowned was perhaps the one from which his drinking-water was procured; he might not drink the water of the Nile (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 5).
140 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 56.
141 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne_4 (Paris, 1886), p. 31. Compare Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 56. It has been conjectured that the period of twenty-five years was determined by astronomical considerations, that being a period which harmonises the phases of the moon with the days of the Egyptian year. See L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 182 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 180 _sq._
M30 On the stratification of religions corresponding to certain social types. M31 Reverence of the Dinka for their cattle.
142 G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_, Third Edition (London, 1878), i. 59 _sq._
143 E. de Pruyssenaere, _Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des Weissen und Blauen Nil_ (Gotha, 1877), pp. 22 _sq._ (_Petermann’s Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 50).
M32 Reverence of the Nuehr for their cattle.
144 Ernst Marno, _Reisen im Gebiete des Blauen und Weissen Nil_ (Vienna, 1874), p. 343. The name _Nyeledit_ is explained by the writer to mean “very great and mighty.” It is probably equivalent to _Nyalich_, which Dr. C. G. Seligmann gives as a synonym for Dengdit, the high god of the Dinka. According to Dr. Seligmann, _Nyalich_ is the locative of a word meaning “above” and, literally translated, signifies, “in the above.” See C. G. Seligmann, _s.v._ “Dinka,” in _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, edited by J. Hastings, D.D., vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 707. The Sakalava of Ampasimene, in Madagascar, are said to worship a black bull which is kept in a sacred enclosure in the island of Nosy Be. On the death of the sacred bull another is substituted for it. See A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 247 _sq._, quoting J. Carol, _Chez les Hova_ (Paris, 1898), pp. 418 _sq._ But as the Sakalava are not, so far as I know, mainly or exclusively a pastoral people, this example of bull-worship does not strictly belong to the class illustrated in the text.
M33 The tradition that Virbius had been killed in the character of Hippolytus by horses, and the custom of excluding horses from the sacred Arician grove, may point to the conclusion that the horse was regarded as an embodiment of Virbius and was annually sacrificed in the grove. Similarly at Athens the goat was usually excluded from the Acropolis but was admitted once a year for a necessary sacrifice.
145 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 19 _sqq._
146 See above, vol. i. pp 292-294.
147 Athenaeus, xiii. 51, p. 587 A; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 204. Compare W. Robertson Smith, in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, article “Sacrifice,” vol. xxi. p. 135.
148 Varro, _De agri cultura_, i. 2. 19 _sq._: “_hoc nomine etiam Athenis in arcem non inigi, praeterquam semel ad necessarium sacrificium._” By _semel_ Varro probably means once a year.
149 The force of this inference is greatly weakened, if not destroyed, by a fact which I had overlooked when I wrote this book originally. A goat was sacrificed to Brauronian Artemis at her festival called the Brauronia (Hesychius, _s.v._ Βραυρωνίοις; compare Im. Bekker’s _Anecdota Graeca_, p. 445, lines 6 _sqq._). As the Brauronian Artemis had a sanctuary on the Acropolis of Athens (Pausanias, i. 23. 7), it seems probable that the goat sacrificed once a year on the Acropolis was sacrificed to her and not to Athena. (Note to Second Edition of _The Golden Bough_.)
150 Herodotus, ii. 42.
151 It is worth noting that Hippolytus, with whom Virbius was identified, is said to have dedicated horses to Aesculapius, who had raised him from the dead (Pausanias, ii. 27. 4).
M34 Annual sacrifice of a horse at Rome in October.
152 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 178, 179, 220; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 97; Polybius, xii. 4 B. The sacrifice is referred to by Julian, _Orat._ v. p. 176 D (p. 228 ed. F. C. Hertlein). It is the subject of a valuable essay by W. Mannhardt, whose conclusions I summarise in the text. See W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 156-201.
153 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 731 _sqq._, compare 629 _sqq._; Propertius, v. 1. 19 _sq._
M35 The horse so sacrificed seems to have embodied the corn-spirit.
154 The Huzuls of the Carpathians attribute a special virtue to a horse’s head. They think that fastened on a pole and set up in a garden it protects the cabbages from caterpillars. See R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Wienna, 1894), p. 102. At the close of the rice-harvest the Garos of Assam celebrate a festival in which the effigy of a horse plays an important part. When the festival is over, the body of the horse is thrown into a stream, but the head is preserved for another year. See Note at the end of the volume.
155 Above, pp. 9 _sq._
156 Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.
157 Above, vol. i. pp. 141, 155, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 301.
M36 Archaic character of the sacrifice and its analogies in the harvest customs of Northern Europe.
158 Livy, ii. 5.
159 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 130, 131.
M37 Other examples of the exclusion of horses from sanctuaries. Uncertainty as to the reason for excluding horses from the Arician grove.
160 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 560 (vol. ii. pp. 259-261); Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, 1900), No. 434, pp. 323 _sq._; P. Cauer, _Delectus Inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum memorabilium_2 (Leipsic, 1883), No. 177, pp. 117 _sq._ As to Alectrona or Alectryona, daughter of the Sun, see Diodorus Siculus, v. 65. 5.
161 Festus, _s.v._ “October equus,” p. 181 ed. C. O. Müller. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 315.
162 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in West-afrika,” _Zeitschrift für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, xii. (1877) pp. 415 _sq._
163 Rev. W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, preface dated 1838), i. 402 _sq._
164 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939 (vol. ii. p. 803).
165 Pausanias, viii. 37. 7.
M38 Custom of eating the new corn sacramentally as the body of the corn-spirit. Loaves baked of the new corn in human shape and eaten.
166 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 179.
167 W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), p. 205. It is not said that the dough-man is made of the new corn; but probably this is, or once was, the case.
M39 Old Lithuanian ritual at eating the new corn.
168 M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae oder Preussische Schaubuhne, im wörtlichen Auszüge aus dem Manuscript herausgegeben_ von Dr. William Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 60-64; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 249 _sqq._ Mathaeus Praetorius, the author to whom we owe the account in the text, compiled a detailed description of old Lithuanian manners and customs in the latter part of the seventeenth century at the village of Niebudzen, of which he was Protestant pastor. The work, which seems to have occupied him for many years and to have been finished about 1698, exists in manuscript but has never been published in full. Only excerpts from it have been printed by Dr. W. Pierson. Praetorius was born at Memel about 1635 and died in 1707. In the later years of his life he incurred a good deal of odium by joining the Catholic Church.
M40 Modern European ceremonies at eating the new corn or new potatoes.
169 A. Bezzenberger, _Litauische Forschungen_ (Göttingen, 1882), p. 89.
170 Simon Grunau, _Preussischer Chronik_, herausgegeben von Dr. M. Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 91.
171 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 108.
172 On iron as a charm against spirits, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 232 _sqq._
_ 173 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 54.
174 Communicated by the Rev. J. J. C. Yarborough, of Chislehurst, Kent. See _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 50.
M41 Ceremony of the heathen Cheremiss at eating the new corn.
175 Von Haxthausen, _Studien über die innern Zustände, das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländliche Einrichtungen Russlands_, i. 448 _sq._
176 J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des Russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 37.
M42 Ceremony of the Aino at eating the new millet.
177 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 204, 206.
M43 Ceremonies of the Melanesians of Reef Island at eating the new bread-fruits and yams.
178 “Native Stories from Santa Cruz and Reef Islands,” translated by the Rev. W. O’Ferrall, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiv. (1904) p. 230.
M44 Ceremony of the New Caledonians at eating the first yams.
179 Glaumont, “La culture de l’igname et du taro en Nouvelle-Calédonie,” _L’Anthropologie_, viii. (1897) pp. 43-45.
M45 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in Buru and Celebes.
180 G. A. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland Boeroe,” p. 26 (_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_ vol. xxxviii., Batavia, 1875).
181 P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) p. 127.
182 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaang Mongondou,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) pp. 369 _sq._
M46 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in Ceram and Borneo.
183 J. Boot, “Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram,” _Tiidschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) pp. 671 _sq._
184 See above, vol. i. pp. 184 _sqq._
185 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 156; _id._, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 117 _sq._ In the latter passage “_ist jeder_” is a misprint for “_isst jeder_”; the Dutch original is “_eet ieder_.”
M47 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in India.
186 H. Harkness, _Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills_ (London, 1832), pp. 56 _sq._
187 Ch. E. Gover, _The Folk-songs of Southern India_ (London, 1872), pp. 105 _sqq._; “Coorg Folklore,” _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 302 _sqq._
188 Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., v. (1871) pp. 91 _sqq._
189 From notes sent to me by my friend Mr. W. Crooke.
190 Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880), p. 103.
M48 Ceremonies observed by the Chams at ploughing, sowing, reaping, and eating the new rice.
191 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) pp. 272-274.
M49 Ceremony at eating the new yams at Onitsha on the Niger.
192 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_ (London, 1859), pp. 287 _sq._ Mr. Taylor’s information is repeated in _West African Countries and Peoples_, by J. Africanus B. Horton (London, 1868), pp. 180 _sq._
M50 Ceremonies at eating the new yams among the Ewe negroes of Togoland.
193 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 304-310, 340; compare _id._ pp. 435, 480, 768. The “slaves of the Earth-gods” are children whom women have obtained through prayers offered to Agbasia, the greatest of the Earth-gods. When such a child is born, it is regarded as the slave of Agbasia; and the mother dedicates it to the service of the god, as in similar circumstances Hannah dedicated Samuel to the Lord (1 Samuel i.). If the child is a girl, she is married to the priest’s son; if it is a boy, he serves the priest until his mother has given birth to a girl whom she exchanges for the boy. See J. Spieth, _op. cit._ pp. 448-450. In all such cases the original idea probably was that the child has been begotten in the woman by the god and therefore belongs to him as to his father, in the literal sense of the word.
M51 Festival of the new yams among the Ashantees in September.
194 T. E. Bowdich, _Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_, New Edition (London, 1873), pp. 226-229.
195 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London, 1887), pp. 229 _sq._
196 J. C. Reichenbach, “Etude sur le royaume d’Assinie,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii.ème Série, xi. (1890) p. 349.
M52 Festival of the new yams at Coomassie and Benin.
197 Ramseyer and Kühne, _Four Years in Ashantee_ (London, 1875), pp. 147-151; E. Perregaux, _Chez les Achanti_ (Neuchatel, 1906), pp. 158-160.
198 H. Ling Roth, _Great Benin_ (Halifax, England, 1903), pp. 76 _sq._
M53 Ceremonies observed by the Nandi at eating the new eleusine grain.
199 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 46 _sq._
200 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 428.
M54 Festival of the new fruits among the Caffres of Natal and Zululand.
201 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika_ (Hermannsburg, 1876), pp. 150 _sq._
202 L. Grout, _Zulu-land_ (Philadelphia, N.D.), p. 161.
_ 203 (South African) Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) p. 135; Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part iii. p. 389 note.
204 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 216 _sq._ On the conception of the two fire-sticks as husband and wife, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 208 _sqq._
M55 Dance of the Zulu king at the festival. Licentious character of the festival. The festival as celebrated by the Pondos. Bull-fights and games. License accorded to chiefs and others at this festival among the Zulus. Traces of an annual abdication of Zulu kings, perhaps of a custom of burning them and scattering their ashes.
205 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 27; N. Isaacs, _Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1836), ii. 293; Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 270, 271.
206 J. Macdonald, _op. cit._ p. 189.
207 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 136-138, from manuscript notes furnished by J. Sutton. Mr. Macdonald has described the custom more briefly in his _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 189.
208 N. Isaacs, _Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1836), ii. 292.
209 A. Delegorgue, _Voyage dans l’Afrique Australe_ (Paris, 1847), ii. 237.
210 Above, vol. i. p. 240.
211 See _The Dying God_, pp. 36 _sq._ On the Zulu festival of first-fruits see also T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d’Exploration au Nord-Est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne Espérance_ (Paris, 1843), pp. 308 _sq._; G. Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_ (Breslau, 1872), p. 143. Fritsch mentions that after executing a grotesque dance in the presence of the assembled multitude the king gives formal permission to eat of the new fruits by dashing a gourd or calabash to the ground. This ceremony of breaking the calabash is mentioned also by J. Shooter (_Kafirs of Natal_, p. 27), L. Grout (_Zulu-land_, p. 162), and Mr. Dudley Kidd (_The Essential Kafir_, p. 271). According to this last writer the calabash is filled with boiled specimens of the new fruits, and the king sprinkles the people with the cooked food, frequently spitting it out on them. Mr. Grout tells us (_l.c._) that at the ceremony a bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and the people. In killing it the warriors must use nothing but their naked hands. The flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and burn the rest; the men may not taste it. See L. Grout, _op. cit._ p. 161. According to Shooter, two bulls are killed; the first is black, the second of another colour. The boys who eat the beef of the black bull may not drink till the next morning, else the king would be defeated in war or visited with some personal misfortune. See Shooter, _op. cit._ pp. 26 _sq._ According to another account the sacrifice of the bull, performed by the warriors of a particular regiment with their bare hands, takes place several weeks before the festival of first-fruits, and “the strength of the bull is supposed to enter into the king, thereby prolonging his health and strength.” See D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_2 (Edinburgh, 1875), p. 91. For a general account of the Caffre festival of first-fruits, see Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 270-272.
M56 Ceremonies observed by the Bechuanas before eating the new fruits.
212 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp. 311-313. It is very remarkable that among several Bantu tribes the cohabitation of husband and wife is enjoined as a religious or magical rite on a variety of solemn occasions, such as after the death of a son or daughter, the circumcision of a child, the first menstruation of a daughter, the occupation of a new house or of a new village, etc. For examples see C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 58, 59, 60, 65, 67, 69, 74; H. A. Junod, “Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou Sud-Africains et leurs tabous,” _Revue d’Ethnographie et de Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 148; Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 48, 144, 357, 363, 378, 428, etc.; _id._, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 59, 61. Among the Baganda the act of stepping or leaping over a woman is regarded as equivalent to cohabitation with her, and is accepted as a ritual substitute for it (J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 357 note). The ideas on which this custom of ceremonial cohabitation is based are by no means clear.
M57 Ceremonies observed by the Matabele at eating the new fruits.
213 Ch. Croonenberghs, S.J., “La fête de la Grande Danse dans le haut Zambeze,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) pp. 230-234; L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), pp. 157 _sq._ The two accounts supplement each other. I have combined features from both in the text.
M58 Ceremony observed by the Ovambo at eating the new fruits.
214 H. Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 200 _sq._
M59 Ceremony observed by the Bororo Indians before eating the new maize.
215 V. Frič and P. Radin, “Contributions to the Study of the Bororo Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) p. 392.
M60 The _busk_ or festival of first-fruits among the Creek Indians of North America. Fast and purgation. New fire made by friction.
216 The ceremony is described independently by James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 96-111; W. Bartram, _Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida_ (London, 1792), pp. 507 _sq._; A. Hodgson, _Letters from North America_ (London, 1824), i. 131 _sq._; B. Hawkins, “Sketch of the Creek Country,” in _Collections of the Georgia Historical Society_, iii. (Savannah, 1848) pp. 75-78; A. A. M’Gillivray, in H. R. Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 267 _sq._; F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), pp. 112-131. The fullest descriptions are those of Adair and Speck. In the text I have chiefly followed Adair, our oldest authority. A similar ceremony was observed by the Cherokees. See the description (from an unpublished MS. of J. H. Payne, author of _Home, Sweet Home_) in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, by William Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and supplementary notes by E. G. Squier,” _Transactions of the American Ethnological Society_, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 75. The Indians of Alabama also held a great festival at their harvest in July. They passed the day fasting, lit a new fire, purged themselves, and offered the first-fruits to their _Manitoo_: the ceremony ended with a religious dance. See Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), ii. 54. These Indians of Alabama were probably either the Creeks or the Cherokees.
217 W. Bartram, _Travels_, p. 507.
218 So amongst the Cherokees, according to J. H. Payne, an arbour of green boughs was made in the sacred square; then “a beautiful bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots, and planted in the very centre of the sacred square. Every man then provided himself with a green bough.”
219 So Adair. Bartram, on the other hand, as we have seen, says that the people provided themselves with new household utensils.
220 B. Hawkins, “Sketch,” etc., p. 76.
M61 Festival of the new fruits among the Yuchi Indians. Game of ball.
221 F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), pp. 86-89, 105-107, 112-131.
M62 Green Corn Dance among the Seminole Indians. Festival of the new corn among the Natchez Indians.
222 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p. 42; A. S. Gatschet, _A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians_, i. (Philadelphia, 1884) pp. 66 _sqq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 167.
223 C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” _Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. 522 _sq._
224 That is, the grand chief of the nation. All the chiefs of the Natchez were called Suns and were connected with the head chief or Great Sun, who bore on his breast an image of the sun and claimed to be descended from the luminary. See Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 42.
M63 New fire made by friction. M64 Torchlight dance. M65 Game of ball.
225 Le Page Du Pratz, _History of Louisiana, or of the western parts of Virginia and Carolina_, translated from the French, New Edition (London, 1774), pp. 338-341. See also J. R. Swanton, _Indian Tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley_ (Washington, 1911), pp. 110 _sqq._, where the passage of Du Pratz is translated in full from the original French. From Mr. Swanton’s translation it appears that the English version of Du Pratz, which I have quoted in the text, is a good deal abridged. On the festival of first-fruits among the Natchez see also _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, vii. (Paris, 1781) p. 19; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 183; De Tonti, “Relation de la Louisiane et du Mississippi,” _Recueil de Voyages au Nord_, v. (Amsterdam, 1734) p. 122; Le Petit, “Relation des Natchez,” _ibid._ ix. 13 _sq._ (reprint of the account in the _Lettres édifiantes_ cited above); Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 43. According to Charlevoix, Le Petit, and Bossu the festival fell in July. For Chateaubriand’s description of the custom, see below, pp. 135 _sqq._
M66 Ceremonies observed by the Salish and Tinneh Indians before they eat the first wild berries or roots of the season.
226 C. Hill-Tout, _The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_ (London, 1907), pp. 168-170.
M67 Ceremonies observed by the Thompson Indians before they eat the first wild berries or roots of the season.
227 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 349 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April, 1900).
M68 The ceremonies observed by savages at eating the first fruits of any crop seem to be based on the idea that the plant or tree is animated by a spirit, who must be propitiated before it is safe to partake of the fruit.
228 See above, p. 52.
M69 The sanctity of the new fruits indicated in various ways. Care taken to prevent the contact of sacred and profane food in the stomach of the eater. Contact between certain foods in the stomach of the eater forbidden.
229 See above, pp. 50, 53, 65, 66, 72, 81.
230 See above, pp. 59, 60, 63, 69 _sq._, 71, 73, 75 _sq._, 82.
231 Joseph Thomson, _Through Masai Land_ (London, 1885), p. 430; P. Reichard, _Deutsch-Ostafrika_ (Leipsic, 1892), p. 288; O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 162; M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 33; M. Weiss, _Die Völkerstämme im Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas_ (Berlin, 1910), p. 380. However, the motive which underlies the taboo appears to be a fear of injuring by sympathetic magic the cows from which the milk is drawn. See my essay “Folk-lore in the Old Testament,” in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_ (Oxford, 1907), pp. 164 _sq._ According to Reichard the warriors may partake of honey both with meat and with milk. Thomson does not mention honey and speaks of a purgative only. The periods during which meat and milk are alternately consumed vary, according to Reichard, from twelve to fifteen days. We may conjecture, therefore, that two of them, making up a complete cycle, correspond to a lunar month, with reference to which the diet is perhaps determined.
232 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford, 1911), p. 9. In both cases the motive, as with the Masai, is probably a fear of injuring the cattle, and especially of causing the cows to loose their milk. This is confirmed by other taboos of the same sort observed by the Suk. Thus they think that to eat the flesh of a certain forest pig would cause the cattle of the eater to run dry, and that if a rich man ate fish his cows would give no milk. See M. W. H. Beech, _op. cit._ p. 10.
233 O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 171.
234 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, vol. xv. part i. (New York, 1901) pp. 122-124. For more details see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 208 _sqq._
235 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 134.
236 Pausanias, v. 13. 3. We may assume, though Pausanias does not expressly say so, that persons who sacrificed to Telephus partook of the sacrifice.
237 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 576 (vol. ii. p. 267); Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 723, p. 622. Further, no one who had suffered a domestic bereavement might enter the sanctuary for forty days. Hence the pollution of death was clearly deemed more virulent, or at all events more lasting, than the pollution of food.
238 Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5.
M70 The sacrament of first-fruits sometimes combined with a sacrifice of them to gods or spirits.
239 See above, pp. 51 _sq._, 54, 58, 60 _sq._, 64, 74.
240 See below, pp. 109 _sqq._
M71 Aztec custom of eating sacramentally a dough image of the god Huitzilopochtli or Vitzilipuztli as a mode of communion with the deity. M72 Eating the flesh and bones of the god Vitzilipuztli sacramentally.
241 J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch. 24, vol. ii. pp. 356-360 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). I have modernised the old translator’s spelling. Acosta’s authority, which he followed without acknowledgment, was an anonymous writer of about the middle of the sixteenth century, whose manuscript, written in Spanish, was found in the library of the Franciscan monastery at Mexico in 1856. A French translation of it has been published. See _Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l’Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle-Espagne selon leurs traditions_, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 149-154. Acosta’s description is followed by A. de Herrera (_General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 213-215).
M73 The doctrine of transubstantiation or the magical conversion of bread into flesh recognised by the ancient Aztecs and Brahmans.
_ 242 The Satapatha-Brâhmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882) p. 51 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).
_ 243 Op. cit._ pp. 51 _sq._, with the translator’s note.
M74 The sacred food not to be defiled by contact with common food.
244 See above, pp. 73 _sqq._
245 Above, p. 68, note 3.
M75 Aztec custom of killing the god Huitzilopochtli in effigy and eating him afterwards.
246 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876), iii. 297-300 (after Torquemada); F. S. Clavigero, _History of Mexico_, translated by Ch. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 309 _sqq._; B. de Sahagun, _Histoire générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite et annotée par D. Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 203 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_ (Bâle, 1867), p. 605; Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 531-534.
M76 Mexican custom of eating images of dough.
247 F. S. Clavigero, _op. cit._ i. 311; B. de Sahagun, _op. cit._ pp. 74, 156 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _op. cit._ p. 606; H. H. Bancroft, _op. cit._ iii. 316; Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 535. This festival took place on the last day of 16th month (which extended from 23rd December to 11th January). At another festival the Mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it sacramentally as the bone of the god. See Sahagun, _op. cit._ p. 33.
248 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 539.
249 G. F. de Oviedo, _Histoire du Nicaragua_ (Paris, 1840), p. 219. Oviedo’s account is borrowed by A. de Herrera (_General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens, iii. 301).
M77 Mexican custom of eating a man as a human embodiment of the god Tetzcatlipoca.
250 J. de Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. pp. 259 _sqq._ (Madrid, 1723); Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 510-512.
M78 Communion with a god by eating of his effigy among the Huichol Indians of Mexico and the Malas of Southern India. Catholic custom of eating effigies of the Madonna.
251 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 166-171. When Mr. Lumholtz revisited the temple in 1898, the idol had disappeared. It has probably been since replaced by another. The custom of abstaining both from salt and from women as a mode of ceremonial purification is common among savage and barbarous peoples. See above, p. 75 (as to the Yuchi Indians), and _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 224 _sqq._
252 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), iv. 357 _sq._
253 Graf Paul von Hoensbroech, _14 Jahre Jesuit_ (Leipsic, 1909-1910), i. 25 _sq._ The practice was officially sanctioned by a decree of the Inquisition, 29th July 1903.
M79 Loaves called _Maniae_ baked at Aricia. Woollen effigies dedicated at Rome to Mania, the Mother or Grandmother of Ghosts, at the Compitalia. The loaves at Aricia perhaps sacramental bread made in the likeness of the King of the Wood. Practice of putting up dummies to divert the attention of ghosts or demons from living people.
254 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 22.
255 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 128, 129, 145. The reading of the last passage is, however, uncertain (“_et Ariciae genus panni fieri; quod manici † appelletur_”).
256 Varro, _De lingua latina_, ix. 61; Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, iii. 41; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 7. 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. C. O. Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the _larvae_; the other writers speak of the mother of the _lares_.
257 Macrobius, _l.c._; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. C. O. Müller. The effigies hung up for the slaves were called _pilae_, not _maniae_. _Pilae_ was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown to the bulls to gore in the arena. See Martial, _Epigr._ ii. 43. 5 _sq._; Asconius,_ In Cornel._ p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell.
258 The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to offer an image of it made of bread or wax. See Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 116; compare Pausanias, x. 18. 5. Poor people who could not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them (Suidas, _s.v._ βοῦς ἕβδομος; compare Hesychius, _s.vv._ βοῦς, ἕβδομος βοῦς). Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods (Proculus, quoted and emended by Chr. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 1079). When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Persephone, they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar (Plutarch, _Lucullus_, 10). In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two to represent horns (Julius Pollux, i. 30 _sq._). The Athenians are said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox (Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 22). And the Locrians, being at a loss for an ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it instead of the animal (Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 5). At the Athenian festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed (Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, p. 36, ed. Didot). We have seen above (p. 25) that the poorer Egyptians offered cakes of dough instead of pigs. The Cheremiss of Russia sometimes offer cakes in the shape of horses instead of the real animals. See P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,” _Globus_, lviii. (1890) pp. 203 _sq._ Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl’s parents were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. See _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 11 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).
259 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 55 _sqq._
M80 Tibetan custom of putting effigies at the doors of houses to deceive demons.
260 L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895), pp. 484-486.
M81 Effigies buried with the dead in order to deceive their ghosts.
261 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 402.
262 M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlv. (1895) p. 539.
263 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 275.
264 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 9.
265 W. M. Donselaar, “Aanteekeningen over het eiland Saleijer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, i. (1857) p. 290.
266 Le Comte C. N. de Cardi, “Ju-ju laws and customs in the Niger Delta,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxix. (1899) p. 58.
267 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, 1894), p. 80.
268 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 473.
M82 Fictitious burials to divert the attention of demons from the real burials.
269 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_ (London, 1859), pp. 250 _sq._
270 J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii. (1893) pp. 114 _sq._; _id._, _Myth and Religion_ (London, 1893), pp. 155 _sq._ (from MS. notes of Dr. Elmslie).
271 B. Schwarz, _Kamerun_ (Leipsic, 1886), pp. 256 _sq._; E. Reclus, _Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, xiii. 68 _sq._
272 J. Fraser, “The Aborigines of New South Wales,” _Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvi. (1882) p. 229; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 467.
273 This I learned from Dr. Burton Brown (formerly of 3 Via Venti Setembri, Rome), who lived for some time among the Nagas.
274 Strabo, xvii. 1. 23, p. 803; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.
_ 275 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 39, § 240 (December 1884).
M83 Effigies used to cure or prevent sickness by deluding the demons of disease or inducing them to accept the effigies instead of the persons.
276 Some examples of this vicarious use of images as substitutes for the sick have been given in an earlier part of this work. See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 62 _sq._
277 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 326.
278 P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Wester-Afdeeling_ (Zaltbommel, 1854-56), ii. 309.
279 F. Grabowsky, “Ueber verschiedene weniger bekannte Opfer bei den Oloh Ngadju in Borneo,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, i. (1888) pp. 132 _sq._
280 E. L. M. Kühr, “Schetsen uit Borneo’s Westerafdeeling,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvii. (1897) pp. 60 _sq._ For another mode in which these same Dyaks seek to heal sickness by means of an image, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 55 _sq._
281 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 465.
282 H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 117.
283 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 531.
284 M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) pp. 413 _sq._
285 N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, “Some Preliminary Results of an Expedition to the Malay Peninsula,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 416.
M84 Effigies used to divert the attention of demons in Nias and various parts of Asia.
286 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 489.
287 A. Bastian, _Die Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 73.
288 Sarat Chandra Das, _Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_ (London, 1902), p. 134.
289 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), ii. 138.
290 Pallegoix, _Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854), ii. 48 _sq._ Compare A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_ (Leipsic and Jena, 1866-1871), iii. 293, 486; E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), p. 121.
291 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 176.
292 A. Woldt, “Die Kultus-Gegenstände der Golden und Giljaken,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, i. (1888) pp. 102 _sq._
M85 Effigies used to divert ghostly and other evil influence from people in China.
293 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 1103 _sq._; for a description of the effigies or “substitutes for a person” see _id._, vol. v. (Leyden, 1907) p. 920. Can the monkish and clerical tonsure have been originally designed in like manner to let out the evil influence through the top of the head?
294 T. Watters, “Some Corean Customs and Notions,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 82 _sq._
M86 Effigies used as substitutes to save the lives of people among the Abchases of the Caucasus and the Ewe negroes of West Africa.
295 N. v. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” _Globus_, lxvi. (1894) p. 54.
296 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 502-506, 512, 513, 838, 848, 910. It is a disputed point in Ewe theology whether there are many spiritual mothers in heaven or only one. Some say that there are as many spiritual mothers as there are individual men and women; others doubt this and say that there is only one spiritual mother, and that she is the wife of God (_Mawu_) and gave birth to all spirits that live in heaven, both men and women.
297 G. Binetsch, “Beantwortung mehrerer Fragen über unser Ewe-Volk und seine Anschauungen,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxviii. (1906) p. 37.
M87 Effigies used as substitutes to save the lives of people among the Nishga Indians.
_ 298 The Illustrated Missionary News_, April 1st, 1891, pp. 59 _sq._
M88 Hence the woollen effigies hung out at the Compitalia in Rome were probably offered as substitutes for living persons to the Mother or Grandmother of Ghosts.
299 As to the custom see Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 45; Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 621 _sqq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ i. 38; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 32 and 86. For various explanations which have been proposed, see L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 ii. 134 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 265 _sqq._; _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885) p. 156 note; R. von Ihering, _Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer_, pp. 430-434; W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 111 _sqq._; _id._, _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_ (London, 1911), pp. 54 _sq._, 321 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur römischen Religions- und Stadtgeschichte_ (Munich, 1904), pp. 211-229. The ceremony was observed on the fifteenth of May.
300 See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 107.
301 Plutarch, _Quaest. Roman._ 86.
M89 The sacrifice of first-fruits to gods is probably later than the custom of partaking of them sacramentally. First-fruits sometimes presented to the king and often to the dead.
302 See above, vol. i. pp. 231 _sqq._
M90 Sacrifice of first-fruits among the Ovambo of South-West Africa.
303 H. Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), p. 195.
M91 Sacrifices of first-fruits in South Africa.
304 Rev E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 251 _sq._
_ 305 Ibid._ p. 252.
_ 306 Ibid._ pp. 252 _sq._ In the southern province of Ceylon “the threshers behave as if they were in a temple of the gods when they put the corn into the bags.” See C. J. R. Le Mesurier, “Customs and Superstitions connected with the Cultivation of Rice in the Southern Province of Ceylon,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S. xvii. (1885), p. 371.
307 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 173.
308 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p. 397.
M92 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Central Africa.
309 “Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, Muembas, Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkünde_ (Berlin), vi. (1856) pp. 272, 273.
310 Rev. A. Hetherwick, “Some Animistic Beliefs among the Yaos of British Central Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 94 _sq._
311 Rev. A. Hetherwick, _op. cit._ pp. 91-94.
312 Dr. J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga and Wiwa,” _Journal of the African Society_, vol. ix. No. 36 (July 1910), pp. 366 _sq._ Among the Winamwanga, as among the Yaos, the human soul or spirit is called _muzimu_ (_op. cit._ p. 363).
313 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), pp. 294 _sq._
M93 Sacrifices of first-fruits in East Africa.
314 C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 66, 85 _sq._
315 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 428.
_ 316 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) p. 57. The account is extracted from the letter of a Catholic priest, himself a Dinka. The name of God, according to him, is _Den-dit_, meaning “Great Rain.” The form of the name agrees closely, and the interpretation of it agrees exactly, with the results of Dr. C. G. Seligmann’s independent enquiries, according to which the name of the Dinka God is _Dengdit_, “Great Rain,” the word for rain being _deng_. See Dr. C. G. Seligmann, in Dr. J. Hastings’ _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, _s.v._ “Dinka,” vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911) p. 707.
317 “Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba (Afrique centrale), notes communiquées par les missionnaires de Vérone,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 459. As to the Nubas and their pontiff see further Stanislas Carceri, “Djebel-Nouba,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xv. (1883) pp. 448-452.
M94 Sacrifices of first-fruits in West Africa.
318 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), pp. 141 _sq._
319 Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 266 _sq._
320 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 795 _sq._
321 J. Spieth, _op. cit._ p. 344. As to the goddess Mawu Sodza, see _ibid._ pp. 424 _sq._
322 H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), p. 504.
323 L. Conradt, “Das Hinterland der deutschen Kolonie Togo,” _Petermanns Mittheilungen_, xlii. (1896) p. 18.
M95 First-fruits offered to kings in Madagascar and Burma.
324 G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 346.
325 J. Cameron, “On the Early Inhabitants of Madagascar,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 263.
326 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1866), p. 105.
327 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p. 97.
M96 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Assam and other parts of India. Sacrifices of first-fruits among hill tribes of India. Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Central Provinces of India. Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Punjaub.
328 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p. 91.
329 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), p. 94.
330 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 198; (Sir) H. H. Risley, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic Glossary_ (Calcutta, 1891-1892), ii. 104.
331 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., _Religion and Customs of the Uraons_ (Calcutta, 1906), p. 137 (_Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9).
_ 332 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. 57, No. 428, quoting Moorcroft and Trebeck, _Travels in the Himalayan Provinces_, i. 317 _sq._
333 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 825. As to Bhumiya see further W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 105-107, who observes (pp. 106 _sq._): “To illustrate the close connection between this worship of Bhûmiya as the soil godling with that of the sainted dead, it may be noted that in some places the shrine of Bhûmiya is identified with the Jathera, which is the ancestral mound, sacred to the common ancestor of the village or tribe.”
334 Thomas Shaw, “The Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” _Asiatic Researches_, iv. (London, 1807) pp. 56 _sq._
_ 335 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 60, § 502 (February 1884).
_ 336 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907) p. 45.
_ 337 Op. cit._ iii. 73.
_ 338 Op. cit._ v. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 66.
_ 339 Op. cit._ vii. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 102.
340 The practice is curiously unlike the custom of ancient Italy, in most parts of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the highroads twirling a spindle, because this was supposed to injure the crops (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 28). The purpose of the Indian custom may be to ward off evil influences from the field, as Mr. W. Crooke suggests (_Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_, ii. 305, “This forms a sacred circle which repels evil influence from the crop”). Compare _The Magic Art and Evolution of Kings_, i. 113 _sq._
341 D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta, 1883), p. 119.
M97 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the ancient Hindoos.
_ 342 The Satapatha Brâhmana_, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882), pp. 369-373 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).
M98 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Burma and Corea.
343 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900), pp. 425 _sq._
344 Rev. G. Whitehead, “Notes on the Chins of Burma,” _Indian Antiquary_, xxxvi. (1907) p. 207.
345 A. Bourlet, “Les Thay,” _Anthropos_, ii. (1907) pp. 627-629.
346 Ch. Dallet, _Histoire de l’Eglise de Corée_ (Paris, 1874), i. p. xxiv.
M99 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the East Indies.
347 Fr. Junghuhn, _Die Battaländer auf Sumatra_ (Berlin, 1847), ii. 312.
348 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London, 1863), i. 191.
349 B. F. Matthes, _Beknopt Verslag mijner reizen in de Binnenlanden van Celebes, in de jaren 1857 en 1861_, p. 5 (_Verzameling van Berigten betreffende de Bijbelverspreiding_, Nos. 96-99).
350 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_ (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 165.
351 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 107.
352 Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 281, 296 _sq._
353 Fr. Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 10.
354 C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 801.
355 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 482.
356 C. Semper, _Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner_ (Würzburg, 1869), p. 56.
357 F. Blumentritt, “Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindano,” _Petermanns Mittheilungen_, xxxvii. (1891) p. 111.
M100 Sacrifices of first-fruits in New Guinea.
358 Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 434-436.
M101 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Fiji and the New Hebrides.
359 Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or Sacred Stone Enclosure, of Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) p. 27.
360 J. E. Erskine, _Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific_ (London, 1853), p. 252.
361 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), pp. 318 _sq._
M102 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Solomon Islands.
362 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 132 _sq._
363 C. M. Woodford, _A Naturalist among the Head-hunters, being an Account of Three Visits to the Solomon Islands_ (London, 1890), pp. 26-28.
364 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 138.
M103 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Kingsmill Islands.
365 Horatio Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 97.
M104 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Tonga Islands. M105 The first-fruits of the yams deposited on the grave of the last Tooitonga (divine chief).
366 The _malái_ is “a piece of ground, generally before a large house, or chief’s grave, where public ceremonies are principally held” (W. Mariner, _Tonga Islands, Vocabulary_).
367 The _mataboole_ is “a rank next below chiefs or nobles” (_ibid._).
368 W. Mariner, _Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands_, Second Edition (London, 1818), ii. 78, 196-203. As to the divine chief Tooitonga see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 21.
M106 Significance of the presentation of first-fruits to the divine chief at the grave of his predecessor. M107 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Samoa and other parts of Polynesia.
369 Ch. Wilkes,. _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 133.
370 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 70 _sq._
371 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 350.
372 D. Tyerman and G. Bennet, _Journal of Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1831), i. 284.
373 Geiseler, _Die Oster-Insel_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 31.
374 E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 110; R. Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London, 1870), pp. 165 _sq._; _Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori (London, 1884), pp. 103 _sq._
M108 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the old Prussians, Greeks, and Romans.
375 Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684), p. 161; _id._, _Dissertationes historicae de variis rebus Prussicis_, p. 163 (appended to his edition of P. de Dusburg’s _Chronicon Prussiae_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1679). Compare W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 27.
376 See above, vol. i. pp. 53 _sqq._
377 Plutarch, _Theseus_, 6.
378 Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 130.
379 Festus, _s.v._ “Sacrima,” p. 319, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 8.
380 Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 16, ed. C. O. Müller.
M109 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the Indians of America. Chateaubriand’s description of the harvest festival among the Natchez.
381 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 345 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, May, 1900).
382 C. Hill Tout, “Report on the Ethnology of the Okanaken of British Columbia,” _Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute_, xli. (1911) p. 132.
383 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 566.
_ 384 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, i. (Paris and Lyons, 1826) p. 386.
385 Above, pp. 77 _sqq._
386 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 130-136 (Michel Lévy, Paris, 1870).
M110 Custom of killing and eating the corn-spirit sacramentally. Belief of the savage that by eating an animal or man he acquires the qualities of that animal or man.
387 See _The Dying God_, pp. 9 _sqq._
M111 Beliefs of the American Indians as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.
388 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), p. 133.
389 Alfred Simson, _Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador_ (London, 1887), p. 168; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vii. (1878) p. 503.
390 A. Thevet, _Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement nommée Amerique_ (Antwerp, 1558), p. 55; _id._, _La Cosmographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1575), ii. pp. 929, [963], 940 [974]; J. Lerius, _Historia Navigationis in Brasiliam, quae et America dicitur_ (1586), pp. 126 _sq._
391 Rochefort, _Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Iles Antilles_, Seconde Edition (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 465.
392 C. Cuny, “De Libreville au Cameroun,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, xvii. (1896) p. 342.
393 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, ii. (London, 1817) p. 373; _id._, iii. (London, 1819) p. 164.
394 P. Lozano, _Descripcion Chorographica del Gran Chaco_ (Cordova, 1733), p. 90.
395 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), i. 289 _sq._
396 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 348 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April, 1900).
M112 Bushman beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.
397 W. H. I. Bleek and C. L. Lloyd, _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_ (London, 1911), pp. 271-275.
M113 Other African beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals. Ancient beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.
398 A. Bertrand, _The Kingdom of the Barotsi, Upper Zambezia_ (London, 1899), p. 277, quoting the description given by the French missionary M. Coillard.
399 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_ (London, 1881), p. 106.
400 W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd, _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_ (London, 1911), p. 373.
401 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.
402 Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_, Second Edition (London, 1904), ii. 787.
403 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 174; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 282.
404 Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, p. 438, note 16.
405 O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p. 128.
406 Sir H. H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 438; J. Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, p. 138.
407 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford, 1911), p. 11.
408 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London, 1857), p. 399.
409 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 99.
410 M. Merker, _Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga_ (Gotha, 1902), p. 38 (_Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 138).
411 Rev. H. Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus_ (Natal and London, 1868), p. 175 note.
412 Ovid, _Metam._ vii. 271 _sqq._ As to the supposed longevity of deer and crows, see L. Stephani, in _Compte Rendu de la Commission Archéologique_ (St. Petersburg), 1863, pp. 140 _sq._, and my note on Pausanias, viii. 10. 10.
413 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 119.
414 Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_, ii. 48: οἱ γοῦν ζώων μαντικῶν ψυχὰς δέξασθαι βουλόμενοι εἰς ἑαυτούς, τὰ κυριώτατα μόρια καταπιόντες, οἷον καρδίας κοράκων ἢ ἀσπαλάκων ἢ ἱεράκων, ἔχουσι παριοῦσαν τὴν ψυχὴν καὶ χρηματίζουσαν ὡς θεὸν καὶ εἰσιοῦσαν εἰς αὐτοὺς ἄμα τῇ ἐνθέσει τῇ τοῦ σώματος. Pliny also mentions the custom of eating the heart of a mole, raw and palpitating, as a means of acquiring skill in divination (_Nat. Hist._ xxx. 19).
M114 Beliefs of the Dyaks and Aino as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.
415 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, Second Edition (London, 1863), i. 186, 206.
416 W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902), p. 71; compare _id._, pp. 166 _sq._
417 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 511-513.
418 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ p. 337.
419 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 279.
M115 Beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of dogs, tigers, etc.
420 Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 112.
421 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, ii. (Philadelphia, 1853) pp. 79 _sq._
422 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 10, 262.
423 James Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London, 1887), p. 166.
_ 424 Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) p. 179.
425 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p. 33.
_ 426 Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S., viii. (1886) p. 307.
427 J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” _Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 _sq._ Compare Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 79.
428 Mrs. S. S. Allison, “Account of the Similkameen Indians of British Columbia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 313.
M116 Beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of wolves, bears, and serpents.
429 P. E. Müller on Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_ (Copenhagen, 1839-1858), vol. ii. p. 60.
_ 430 Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock8 (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 180, 309.
431 Pliny, _Hist. Natur._ x. 137, xxix. 72.
432 Philostratus, _Vita Apollonii_, i. 20, iii. 9.
433 Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, ed. P. E. Müller (Copenhagen, 1839-1858), i. 193 _sq._
434 P. E. Müller, note in his edition of Saxo Grammaticus, vol. ii. p. 146.
435 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 110, § 153; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 230, § 1658.
436 Grimm, _Kinder- und Hausmärchen_, No. 17; _id._, _Deutsche Sagen_2 (Berlin, 1865-1866), No. 132 (vol. i. pp. 174-176); A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 154; A. Waldau, _Böhmisches Märchenbuch_ (Prague, 1860), pp. 13 _sqq._; Von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), pp. 302 _sqq._; W. von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), p. 96; P. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882), ii. 224; W. Grant Stewart, _The Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of Scotland_, New Edition (London, 1851), pp. 53, 56; J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition (Paisley and London, 1890), No. 47, vol. ii. pp. 377 _sqq._; E. Prym und A. Socin, _Syrische Sagen und Maerchen_ (Göttingen, 1881), pp. 150 _sq._ On the serpent in relation to the acquisition by men of the language of animals, see further my article, “The Language of Animals,” _The Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 166 _sqq._ Sometimes serpents have been thought to impart a knowledge of the language of animals voluntarily by licking the ears of the seer. See Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 9. 11 _sq._; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, iii. 4.
M117 Various beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.
437 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), p. 281.
438 M. Quedenfelt, “Aberglaube und halb-religiöse Bruderschaft bei den Marokkanarn,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1886, p. 682 (bound up with the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xviii. 1886).
439 H. Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), p. 218.
440 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 8.
441 P. J. Veth, “De leer der Signatuur,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) pp. 140 _sq._
442 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the For Tribe of Central Africa,” _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 218.
M118 The flesh and blood, but especially the hearts, of dead men eaten or drunk for the sake of acquiring the good qualities of the dead.
443 Rev. J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, etc., of the South African Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 116; _id._, _Light in Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 212. Compare Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 257 _sq._; Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 309.
444 Rev. J. Macdonald, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 138; _id._, _Light in Africa_, p. 220.
445 H. Schinz, _Deutsch Südwest-Afrika_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic, preface dated 1891), p. 320.
446 J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii. (1893) p. 111. Compare J. Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, p. 138; Sir H. H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 438.
447 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 27.
448 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.
449 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), pp. 167 _sq._
450 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, 1890), pp. 99 _sq._
451 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, 1894), p. 69.
452 A. Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia_ (1779), p. 98.
453 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), vi. 187.
454 F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 382.
455 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), p. 135.
456 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 129 _sq._; _id._, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 45.
457 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 328.
458 E. Clement, “Ethnographical Notes on the Western Australian Aborigines,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xvi. (1904) p. 8.
M119 Other parts than the heart are eaten for the purpose of acquiring the virtues of the deceased.
459 O. Opigez, “Aperçu général sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, vii. (1886) p. 433.
460 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 753.
461 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 752.
462 S. Gason, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) p. 172.
463 Rev. W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 160.
_ 464 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xi. (Lyons, 1838-1839) p. 258.
465 J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” _Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 _sq._
466 A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 201.
467 N. Adriani en A. C. Kruijt, “Van Posso naar Mori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 162.
468 F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geograph. Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 154; _id._, _Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), p. 32 (_Petermann’s Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67).
469 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 131.
470 L. Magyar, _Reisen in Süd-Afrika in den Jahren 1849-1857_ (Buda-Pesth and Leipsic, 1859), pp. 273-276.
471 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 216.
472 Rev. H. Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions and Histories of the Zulus_ (Natal and London, 1868), p. 163 note.
473 A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 414, compare p. 312; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 301.
474 A. C. Haddon, _op. cit._ p. 420; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 301 _sq._
475 S. J. Hickson, _A Naturalist in North Celebes_ (London, 1889), p. 216.
476 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 352. Compare _ibid._ p. 173; W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, 1831-1836), i. 358; J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du Monde et à la recherche de la Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe_ (Paris, 1832-1833), ii. 547; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 108.
M120 Moral virtues of the dead acquired through simple contact with their bones.
477 A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 166.
_ 478 The Spectator_, No. 316, March 3, 1712; Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. lxvii.
479 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 56.
M121 Savages sometimes seek to form a covenant of friendship with their dead foes by drinking their blood.
480 For examples of the blood-covenant see H. C. Trumbull, _The Blood Covenant_ (London, 1887). The custom is particularly common in Africa.
481 Rev. J. H. Bernau, _Missionary Labours in British Guiana_ (London, 1847), pp. 57 _sq._; R Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch-Guiana_ (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 497.
482 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 27.
483 A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp. 180, 181 _sq._
484 Mrs. Leslie Milne, _Shans at Home_ (London, 1910), p. 192.
M122 Blood-covenant formed by manslayers with the ghosts of their victims.
485 The Kukis of north-eastern India believe that the ghost of an animal as well as of a man will haunt its slayer and drive him mad unless he performs a ceremony called _ai_. For example, a man who has killed a tiger must dress himself up as a woman, put flints into the tiger’s mouth, and eat eggs himself, after which he makes a speech to the tiger and gives it three cuts over the head with a sword. During this performance the principal performer must keep perfectly grave. Should he accidentally laugh, he says, “The porcupine laughed,” referring to a real porcupine which he carries in his arms for the purpose. See Lieut.-Colonel J. Shakespeare, “The Kuki-Lushai Clans,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) pp. 380 _sq._
486 J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du Monde et à la recherche de la Pérouse_ (Paris, 1832-1833), iii. 305.
487 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), p. 138.
488 F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 382.
489 Some of the evidence has already been cited by me in _Psyche’s Task_, pp. 56-58.
M123 Communion with the dead by swallowing their ashes.
490 A. R. Wallace, _Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_, Second Edition (London, 1889), ch. xvii. pp. 346 _sq._
491 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, iii. (London, 1819) p. 722.
492 R. Southey, _op. cit._ iii. 204.
493 A. de Herrera, _The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 45.
494 A. Reich und F. Stegelmann, “Bei den Indianern des Urubamba und des Envira,” _Globus_, lxxxiii. (1903) p. 137. On similar custom practised by the American Indians see further De la Borde, _Relation de l’Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes, Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes Sauvages_, p. 37 (forming part of the _Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l’Amerique_, Paris, 1684); J. F. Lafitau, _Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains_ (Paris, 1724), ii. 444-446; A. N. Cabeça de Vaca, _Relation et Naufrages_ (Paris, 1837), p. 109 (in Ternaux Compans’ _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux pour servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_); R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, i. (Second Edition, London, 1822), Supplemental Notes, p. xxxvi.; F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les
## parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 380;
J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_ (Bâle, 1867), pp. 289 _sq._; H. A. Coudreau, _La France Équinoxiale_ (Paris, 1887), ii. 173; Theodor Koch, “Die Anthropophagie der südamerikanischen Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xii. (1899) pp. 78-110; Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 152. Some Indians of Guiana rubbed their limbs with water in which the ashes of their dead were mingled. See A. Biet, _Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l’Isle de Cayenne_ (Paris, 1664), p. 392.
495 Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, x. 18; Valerius Maximus, iv. 6. 5.
496 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 55.
497 See above, p. 154 _sqq._
M124 Savages attempt to inoculate themselves with moral and other virtues by making cuts in their bodies and inserting in the cuts the ashes of animals and plants which they suppose to be endowed with the virtues in question.
498 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_, (London, 1861), pp. 256 _sq._
499 E. Holub, _Sieben Jahre in Süd Afrika_ (Vienna, 1881), ii. 361.
500 See above, p. 148.
501 J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, etc., of South African Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 133. The Barolong, a Bechuana tribe, observe a custom of this sort. See W. Joest, “Bei den Barolong,” _Das Ausland_, 16th June 1884, p. 464.
502 Col. Maclean, _A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), p. 82.
503 Father Porte, “Les reminiscences d’un missionnaire du Basutoland,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 149.
504 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), p. 70, compare p. 43.
505 Lieut. H. Pope-Hennessy, “Notes on the Jukos and other Tribes of the Middle Benue,” _Anthropological Reviews and Miscellanea_, p. (30); appended to _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxx. (1900).
M125 The Zulus think they can inoculate themselves with celestial power. Some Caffres inoculate themselves against lightning.
506 Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, pp. 380-382.
507 Col. Maclean, _A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), pp. 83 _sq._
508 Du Tertre, _Histoire generale des Isles de S. Christophe, de la Guadeloupe, de la Martinique et autres dans l’Amerique_ (Paris, 1654), pp. 417 _sq._; _id._, _Histoire generale des Antilles_ (Paris, 1667-1671), ii. 377; Rochefort, _Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Iles Antilles_2 (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 556.
M126 Some savages attempt to acquire the physical and mental qualities of the dead by anointing themselves with their remains. The juices of animals are sometimes similarly applied for the same purpose.
509 R. Brough Smith, _Aborigines of Victoria_ (Melbourne and London, 1878), i. p. xxix., ii. 313; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 367 _sqq._
510 Rev. W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 160.
511 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 467, 468.
512 J. Chalmers and W. W. Gill, _Work and Adventure in New Guinea_ (London, 1885), pp. 130, 265, 308; J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 308; Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 241. Other or the same peoples sometimes drink the juices of the decaying bodies of their kinsfolk, doubtless for a similar reason. See _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, vi. (Cambridge, 1906) p. 159; J. Chalmers and W. Gill, _op. cit._ pp. 27, 265; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 139; J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 267; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, ii. (Berlin, 1885) p. 95; _id._, _Die Völker des Ostlichen Asien_, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 91; P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Westerafdeeling_ (Zaltbommel, 1854-1856), ii. 270; J. Jacobs, _Eenigen Tijd onder de Baliers_ (Batavia, 1883), p. 53.
513 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 394.
514 Mgr. Le Roy, “Les Pygmées,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxix. (1897) p. 210.
515 “Mourning for the Dead among the Digger Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 530.
516 E. H. Man, _Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_, p. 66.
517 Jerome Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 366.
518 Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 153.
519 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d’Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 349 _sq._
520 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 204 _sq._ Men of other totem clans also partake of their totems sacramentally at these _Intichiuma_ ceremonies (Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 202-206). As to the _Intichiuma_ ceremonies, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 85 _sqq._ Another Central Australian mode of communicating qualities by external application is seen in the custom of beating boys on the calves of their legs with the leg-bone of an eagle-hawk; strength is supposed to pass thereby from the bone into the boy’s leg. See Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 472; _Report on the Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia_, Part iv. (London and Melbourne, 1896), p. 180.
M127 Magical ointment used by Mexican priests.
_ 521 Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l’Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions_, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 171-173; J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 364-367; E. Seler, _Altmexikanische Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899), pp. 43 _sq._ (_Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_).
M128 Qualities of a person, animal, or thing imparted by fumigation.
522 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), pp. 12 _sq._
523 Dudley Kidd, _op. cit._ pp. 20 _sq._
M129 The savage custom of eating a god. Cicero on transubstantiation.
524 On the custom of eating a god, see also a paper by Felix Liebrecht, “Der aufgegessene Gott,” _Zur Volkskunde_ (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 436-439; and especially W. R. Smith, article “Sacrifice,” _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, vol. xxi. pp. 137 _sq._ On wine as the blood of a god, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 248 _sqq._
525 Cicero, _De natura deorum_, iii. 16. 41.
M130 Hunting and pastoral tribes, as well as agricultural peoples, have been in the habit of killing and eating the beings whom they worship. The Californian Indians used solemnly to kill the great buzzard which they adored; but they believed that though they slew it annually, it always came to life again.
526 This does not refer to the Californian peninsula, which is an arid and treeless wilderness of rock and sand.
527 Father Geronimo Boscana, “Chinigchinich; a historical account of the origin, customs, and traditions of the Indians at the missionary establishment of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California,” appended to Alfred Robinson’s _Life in California_ (New York, 1846), pp. 291 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, iii. 168. The mission station of San Juan Capistrano is described by R. H. Dana (_Two Years before the Mast_, chaps. xviii. and xxiv.). A favourable picture of the missions is drawn by H. von Langsdorf (_Reise um die Welt_, Frankfort, 1812, ii. pp. 134 _sqq._), by Duflos de Mofras (“Fragment d’un Voyage en Californie,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), ii. Série, xix. (1843) pp. 9-13), and by a writer (H. H.) in _The Century Magazine_, May, 1883, pp. 2-18. But the severe discipline of the Spanish monks is noticed by other travellers. We are told that the Indians laboured during the day in the fields to support their Spanish masters, were driven to church twice or thrice a day to hear service in a language which they did not understand, and at night were shut up in crowded and comfortless barracks, without windows and without beds. When the monks desired to make new proselytes, or rather to capture new slaves, they called in the aid of the soldiery, who attacked the Indian villages by night, lassoed the fugitives, and dragged them back at their horses’ tails to slavery in the missions. See O. von Kotzebue, _Reise um die Welt_ (Weimar, 1830), ii. 42 _sqq._; F. W. Beechey, _Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait_ (London, 1831), ii. chap. i.; A. Schabelski, “Voyage aux colonies russes de l’Amérique,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), ii. Série, iv. (1835) pp. 216-218. A poet has described with prosaic accuracy the pastoral crook by which these good shepherds brought back their strayed lambs to the spiritual fold:—
“_Six horses sprang across the level ground_ _ As six dragoons in open order dashed;_ _ Above their heads the lassos circled round,_ _ In every eye a pious fervour flashed;_ _ They charged the camp, and in one moment more_ _ They lassoed six and reconverted four._”
(Bret Harte, _Friar Pedro’s Ride_.)
In the verses inscribed _The Angelus, heard at the Mission Dolores_, 1868, and beginning
“_Bells of the Past, whose long-forgotten music_ _ Still fills the wide expanse_,”
the same poet shews that he is not insensible to the poetical side of those old Spanish missions, which have long passed away.
M131 Perhaps they hoped by the sacrifice of the individual bird to preserve the species.
528 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 21. Compare _id._, pp. 26, 61.
M132 Ancient Egyptian sacrifice of a ram at the festival of Ammon.
529 Herodotus, ii. 42. The custom has been already referred to above, p. 41.
530 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1909), p. 73 § 180. Compare Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 1 _sqq._
531 Above, p. 36.
M133 Use of the skin of the sacrificed animal.
532 Above, p. 170; vol. i. p. 285.
533 The Italmens of Kamtchatka, at the close of the fishing season, used to make the figure of a wolf out of grass. This figure they carefully kept the whole year, believing that it wedded with their maidens and prevented them from giving birth to twins; for twins were esteemed a great misfortune. See G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 327 _sq._ According to Chr. Hartknoch (_Dissertat. histor. de variis rebus Prussicis_, p. 163; _Alt- und neues Preussen_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684, p. 161) the image of the old Prussian god Curcho was annually renewed. But see W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 27.
534 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. pp. 70 _sq._
M134 The sacred serpent of Issapoo in Fernando Po.
535 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), pp. 196 _sq._ The writer does not expressly state that a serpent is killed annually, but his statement implies it.
536 Dr. Tautain, “Notes sur les croyances et pratiques religieuses des Banmanas,” _Revue d’Ethnographie_, iii. (1885) p. 397. Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 543 _sq._
537 Varro in Priscian, x. 32, vol. i. p. 524, ed. Keil; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 14. Pliny’s statement is to be corrected by Varro’s.
M135 The killing of sacred turtles by the Zuni Indians.
538 When I wrote _The Golden Bough_ originally I said that in these three cases “the animal slain probably is, or once was, a totem.” But this seems to me less probable now than it did then. In regard to the Californian custom in particular, there appears to be no good evidence that within the area now occupied by the United States totemism was practised by any tribes to the west of the Rocky Mountains. See H. Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 199; George Gibbs, in _Contributions to North American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1877), i. 184; S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 5; A. S. Gatschet, _The Klamath Indians of South-western Oregon_ (Washington, 1890), vol. i. p. cvi. “California and Oregon seem never to have had any gentes or phratries” (A. S. Gatschet in a letter to me, dated November 5th, 1888). Beyond the very doubtful case cited in the text, I know of no evidence that totemism exists in Fernando Po.
M136 The return of the procession with the turtles. M137 The turtle addressed as a dead relative. The turtle killed.
539 Frank H. Cushing, “My Adventures in Zuñi,” _The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine_, May 1883, pp. 45 _sq._
M138 In this custom is expressed a belief in the transmigration of human souls into turtles. From a later account it appears that the custom is a mode of interceding with the ancestral spirits for rain.
540 Mr. Cushing, indeed, while he admits that the ancestors of the Zuni may have believed in transmigration, says, “Their belief, to-day, however, relative to the future life is spiritualistic.” But the expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the transmigration into turtles is a living article of Zuni faith.
541 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iv. 86. On the totem clans of the Moquis, see J. G. Bourke, _Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona_ (London, 1884), pp. 116 _sq._, 334 _sqq._
542 For this information I am indebted to the kindness of the late Captain J. G. Bourke, 3rd Cavalry, U.S. Army, author of the work mentioned in the preceding note. In his letter Captain Bourke gave a list of fourteen totem clans of Zuni, which he received on the 20th of May 1881 from Pedro Dino (?), Governor of Zuni.
543 It should be observed, however, that Mr. Cushing omits to say whether or not the persons who performed the ceremony described by him had the turtle for their totem. If they had not, the ceremony need not have had anything to do with totemism.
544 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 301-318.
545 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” _Twenty-Third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1904), pp. 148-162.
M139 Ambiguous attitude of the Aino towards the bear.
546 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” _Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens_ (Yokohama), Heft xxii. p. 45.
547 We are told that the Aino have gods for almost every conceivable object, and that the word _kamui_ “has various shades of meaning, which vary if used before or after another word, and according to the object to which it is applied.” “When the term _kamui_ is applied to good objects, it expresses the quality of usefulness, beneficence, or of being exalted or divine. When applied to supposed evil gods, it indicates that which is most to be feared and dreaded. When applied to devils, reptiles, and evil diseases, it signifies what is most hateful, abominable, and repulsive. When applied as a prefix to animals, fish or fowl, it represents the greatest or fiercest, or the most useful for food or clothing. When applied to persons, it is sometimes expressive of goodness, but more often is a mere title of respect and reverence.” See the Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu of Japan_ (London, 1892), pp. 245-251; _id._, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 581 _sq._ Thus the Aino _kamui_ appears to mean nearly the same as the Dacotan _wakan_, as to which see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 225, note.
548 W. Martin Wood, “The Hairy Men of Yesso,” _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., iv. (1866) p. 36.
549 J. J. Rein, _Japan_ (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 446.
550 H. von Siebold, _Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso_ (Berlin, 1881), p. 26.
551 Miss Isabella L. Bird, _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_ (new edition, 1885), p. 275.
552 W. Martin Wood, _l.c._
553 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 471.
554 Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ p. 269.
555 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 4 (reprinted from _Mittheilungen d. deutsch. Gesell. b. S. und S. Ostasiens_, Yokohama).
556 B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 45; W. Joest, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1882, p. 188.
557 W. Martin Wood, _l.c._
558 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 476 _sq._ As to the _inao_ see below, p. 186, note.
559 Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ p. 277.
560 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 15; H. von Siebold, _op. cit._ p. 26; W. Martin Wood, _l.c._; J. J. Rein, _Japan_, i. 447; Von Brandt, “The Ainos and Japanese,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 134; Miss Bird, _op. cit._ pp. 275, 276; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 495 _sq._
561 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, pp. 15, 16; Von Brandt, _l.c._; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 352-354, 504 _sq._
562 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 16.
563 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 8-10. E. Reclus (_Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, vii. 755) mentions a (Japanese?) legend which attributes the hairiness of the Ainos to the suckling of their first ancestor by a bear. But in the absence of other evidence this is no proof of totemism.
M140 Aino custom of catching a bear cub, rearing it for several years, and killing it at a solemn festival.
564 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 483-485. Mr. Batchelor formerly doubted or denied that the Aino women suckle the bear cubs (_The Ainu of Japan_, p. 173); but since then he has repeatedly seen them do it. Once, while he was preaching, a cub was being passed round among all the young women present and suckled by each in turn.
565 J. J. Rein, _Japan_ (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 447.
566 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 485 _sq._
567 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 486-496. The killing of the bear is described somewhat differently by Miss I. L. Bird (_Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_, New Edition, 1885, pp. 276 _sq._), but she did not witness the ceremony. She tells us that at Usu, on Volcano Bay, when the bear is being killed, the Aino shout, “We kill you, O bear! Come back soon into an Aino.” According to Dr. Siebold, a very respectable authority, the bear’s own heart is frequently offered to the dead beast to assure him that he is still in life (_Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso_, p. 26). This, however, is denied by Dr. Scheube, who says that the heart is eaten (“Baerencultus,” p. 50 note). The custom may vary in different places.
M141 Dr. Scheube’s description of the Aino custom of killing of a bear ceremonially.
568 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” _Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens_ (Yokohama), Heft xxii. pp. 46 _sqq._
569 B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 46; _id._, _Die Ainos_, p. 15; Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ pp. 273 _sq._ As to these whittled wands (_inao_), which are so conspicuous about the Aino huts, see the Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 89-95. He remarks (p. 92): “I have often insisted both in my lectures and also in my writings that the Ainu do not worship their _inao_, but that they make them as offerings to the deities, and set them up as signs showing reverence towards them. This, I must now remark, is true but in part, for while some of the ordinary or less important kinds are not worshipped, there are several others which are. Those _not_ worshipped may almost always be regarded as offerings and charms pure and simple, while those which _are_ worshipped must generally be regarded as messengers sent to the higher deities.” On the whole Mr. Batchelor would describe the _inao_ as fetishes of various degrees of power. See further P. Labbé, _Un bagne Russe, l’Isle de Sakhaline_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 194 _sq._, who compares the use of these whittled sticks to the use of holy candles among Roman Catholics. In Borneo the search for camphor is attended by many superstitions; among other things, when the searchers have found a tree which promises to yield much camphor “they plant near their hut a stake, whereof the outer surface has been cut into curled shavings and tufts down the sides and at the top” (W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_, Philadelphia, 1902, p. 168). According to some ancient authorities, the old Italians worshipped peeled sticks as gods or as the images of gods; however, the statement seems no better than an etymological guess to explain the word _delubrum_. See Festus, _s.v._ “Delubrum,” p. 73, ed. C. O. Müller; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 225.
M142 Early Japanese account of the Aino festival of the bear.
570 “Ieso-Ki, ou description de l’île d’Iesso, avec une notice sur la révolte de Samsay-in, composée par l’interprète Kannemon,” printed in Malte-Brun’s _Annales des Voyages_, xxiv. (Paris, 1814) p. 154.
M143 The custom of rearing and killing bears among the Aino of Saghalien.
571 P. Labbé, _Un Bagne Russe, l’Isle de Sakhaline_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 227, 232-258. The Gilyaks of Saghalien similarly keep and sacrifice bears; but the ceremonies are simpler, and they treat the animals with less respect than the Aino. See P. Labbé, _op. cit._ pp. 261-267.
M144 Bear-festivals of the Gilyaks.
572 They inhabit the banks of the lower Amoor and the north of Saghalien. See E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (London, 1861), p. 389.
573 “Notes on the River Amur and the Adjacent Districts,” translated from the Russian, _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xxviii. (1858) p. 396.
574 Compare the custom of pinching a frog before cutting off his head; see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 86. In Japan sorceresses bury a dog in the earth, tease him, then cut off his head and put it in a box to be used in magic. See A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_ (Berlin, 1878), i. 475 note, who adds “_wie im ostindischen Archipelago die Schutzseele gereizt wird_.” He probably refers to the Batta _Pang-hulu-balang_. See H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 59 _sq._; W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) pp. 478 sq.; J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” in _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. (1886) Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 306; Van Dijk, in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxviii. (1895) pp. 307 _sq._
575 W. Joest, in B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 17; J. Deniker, “Les Ghiliaks d’après les derniers renseignements,” _Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. (1883) pp. 307 _sq._ (on the authority of Mr. Seeland); _Internationales Archiv für Ethnologie_, i. (1888) p. 102 (on the authority of Captain Jacobsen); _Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (abstract of a Russian work on the Gilyaks by Dr. Seland or Seeland). What exactly is meant by “dancing as bears” (“_tanzen beide Geschlechter Reigentänze, wie Bären_,” Joest, _l.c._) does not appear.
M145 L. von Schrenck’s description of a bear-festival among the Gilyaks of the Amoor. Bears led in procession about the village. Slaughter of the bears. M146 Treatment of the bears’ skins. M147 Treatment of the bears’ flesh. M148 Banquet on the bears’ flesh. Dance of the women. Disposal of the skull and bones of the bear.
576 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_ (St. Petersburg, 1891), iii. 696-731.
M149 Mr. L. Sternberg’s description of the bear-festivals of the Gilyaks.
577 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) pp. 260-274.
M150 Bear-festivals of the Goldi.
578 E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (London, 1861), pp. 379 _sq._; T. W. Atkinson, _Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor_ (London, 1860), pp. 482 _sq._
M151 Bear-festivals of the Orotchis.
579 E. H. Fraser, “The Fish-skin Tartars,” _Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for the year 1891-1892_, New Series, xxvi. 36-39. L. von Schrenck describes a bear-feast which he witnessed in 1855 among the Oltscha (_Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_, iii. 723-728). The Oltscha are probably the same as the Orotchis.
M152 Respect shewn by all these tribes for the bears which they kill and eat.
_ 580 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 59 _sqq._
581 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 492, 493, 495, 496.
_ 582 Op. cit._ p. 482. Mr. Batchelor says “totem gods.”
_ 583 Op. cit._ pp. 580 _sqq._
584 See above, pp. 188 _sq._
585 This account of the attitude of the Gilyaks to the bear, and of their reasons for holding the festival, is the one given by Mr. Leo Sternberg. See his articles, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) pp. 273 _sq._, 456-458. He speaks of the bear as a minor deity (“_Er selbst ist ja eine Gottheit, wenn auch eine kleine_”). Mr. Sternberg and Mr. Batchelor, two of the best-informed writers on the subject, agree in denying that the slaughter of the bear at the festival is a sacrifice to the gods. See L. Sternberg, _op. cit._ p. 457; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 482. As to the belief of the Gilyaks in evil spirits, which menace and destroy the life of man, see L. Sternberg, _op. cit._ pp. 460 _sqq._
M153 Similar respect shewn by the Aino for the eagle-owls which they keep in cages and kill.
586 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 410-415.
M154 Similar respect shewn by the Aino for the eagles and hawks which they keep in cages and kill.
587 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ pp. 432 _sq._
588 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ p. 438.
M155 Advantages which the Aino hopes to reap from slaughtering the worshipful animals.
589 See above, pp. 183, 184, 196.
590 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 479.
591 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ pp. 481, 482.
M156 The bear-festivals of these tribes are probably nothing but an extension of the similar rites which the hunter performs over any wild bear which he kills in the forest.
592 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) p. 272.
M157 The apparent contradiction in the behaviour of these tribes to bears is not so great as it seems to us at first sight. Savage logic. M158 The savage believes that animals, like men, are endowed with souls which survive the death of their bodies. The American Indians draw no sharp distinction between animals and men.
593 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), p. 350.
594 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 261.
595 Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States,” _Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society_, vol. i. (Philadelphia, 1819) pp. 247 _sq._
596 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 157 _sq._
M159 Some savages apparently fail to distinguish clearly even the bodies of animals from the bodies of men.
597 John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a Second Journey in the Interior of that Country_ (London, 1822), ii. 34.
598 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) p. 248.
599 I. Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska_, p. 145.
600 Above, p. 141.
601 A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 393; _id._, _Head-hunters_ (London, 1901), p. 133; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 166.
602 Miss Alice C. Fletcher, _The Import of the Totem, a Study from the Omaha Tribe_, p. 6 (paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, August 1897).
603 James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” p. 356 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April 1900).
604 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 352 _sq._, 512. The Chambioa Indians of Central Brazil kept birds of the same species in captivity and used their brilliant feathers to cover enormous head-dresses or masks, some six feet high, which were worn by dancers in certain mystic dances. The masks were guarded in a special hut of each village, and no woman might see them under pain of death. See F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), i. 436 _sq._, 440, 449-451.
M160 Hence the savage attempts to propitiate the animals which he kills and the other members of the species. Scruples entertained by the Dyaks as to the killing of crocodiles.
605 However, many savages hunt the crocodile for the sake of its flesh, which some of them even regard as a delicacy. See H. von Wissmann, _My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa, from the Congo to the Zambesi_ (London, 1891), p. 298; Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), p. 149; A. F. Mocler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), p. 222; Captain G. Burrows, _The Land of the Pigmies_ (London, 1898), p. 247; R. E. Dennett, "Bavili Notes," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 399; J. Halkin, _Quelques Peuplades du district de l’Uelé_, I. _Les Ababua_ (Liége, 1907), p. 33; H. Reynolds, “Notes on the Azandé Tribe of the Congo,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. xi. (April, 1904) p. 242; Brard, “Der Victoria-Nyansa,” _Petermann’s Mittheilungen_, xliii. (1897) p. 78; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p. 209; G. Kurze, “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer,” _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xxiii. (1905) p. 30; W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An unknown People in an unknown Land_ (London, 1911), pp. 82 _sq._; _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xxvi., _Travancore_ (Trivandrum, 1903), p. 353; Max Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, N.D.), p. 163; Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 770; W. E. Roth, _Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane and London, 1897), p. 94; N. W. Thomas, _Natives of Australia_ (London, 1906), p. 106. In antiquity some of the Egyptians worshipped crocodiles, but others killed and ate them. See Herodotus, ii. 69; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 50; Aelian, _De natura animalium_, x. 21.
606 Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 221. Compare C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 160; S. Müller, _Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel_ (Amsterdam, 1857), i. 238; M. T. H. Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks_ (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), p. 7.
M161 Ceremonies observed by the Dyaks at killing a crocodile.
607 F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogonie der Dajaken auf Borneo,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1892) pp. 119 _sq._
608 H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i. 447 _sq._ Compare E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ (London, 1911), pp. 56-60. Similarly the Kenyahs, Kayans, and Ibans, three tribes of Sarawak, will not kill crocodiles except in revenge for the death of one of their people. See C. Hose and W. MacDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 186, 190, 199, compare _ib._ pp. 193 _sq._
M162 Ceremonies observed by the Minangkabauers of Sumatra at killing a crocodile.
609 J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 75 _sq._
M163 Belief in the kinship of men with crocodiles among the Malays.
610 Nelson Annandale, “Primitive Beliefs and Customs of the Patani Fishermen,” _Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology_, i. (April, 1903) pp. 76-78.
_ 611 Voyages of Captain James Cook round the World_ (London, 1809), ii. 316-319.
M164 Crocodiles respected in Africa.
612 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 336.
613 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 318, 322, 335.
614 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 510 _sq._
615 A. Raffenel, _Voyage dans l’Afrique occidentale_ (Paris, 1846), pp. 84 _sq._
M165 Crocodiles respected in Madagascar.
616 J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 269.
617 Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xii. (1880) p. 527; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 283 _sq._
618 W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 57 _sq._
M166 Tigers respected in Sumatra. Ceremonies at killing tigers in Sumatra and Bengal.
619 W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_ (London, 1811), p. 292.
620 J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 74, 75 _sq._
621 H. Ris, “De onderafdeeling Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan en hare Bevolking,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xlvi. (1896) pp. 472 _sq._
622 G. G. Batten, _Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago_ (Singapore, 1894), p. 86.
623 Th. Shaw, “On the Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” _Asiatic Researches_, Fourth Edition, iv. (London, 1807) p. 37.
_ 624 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, v. (1831) pp. 363 _sq._
M167 Snakes, especially rattlesnakes, respected by the North American Indians.
625 J. Bricknell, _The Natural History of North Carolina_ (Dublin, 1737), p. 368.
626 W. Bartram, _Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida_, etc. (London, 1792) pp. 258-261.
627 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 273.
628 Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States,” _Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society_, i. (Philadelphia, 1819) p. 245.
629 W. Keating, _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_ (London, 1825), i. 127.
630 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 294-296. Compare _id._, pp. 456-458; J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 237 _sq._
631 Henry, _Travels_, pp. 176-179, quoted by J. Mooney, _op. cit._ pp. 457 _sq._
632 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii. (1895) p. 204.
M168 Ceremonies observed in Kiziba at the killing of a snake.
633 H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), pp. 130 _sq._
M169 Ceremonies observed by the North American Indians and others at the killing of a wolf.
634 Fr. Boas, in _Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 9 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1896_).
635 Rev. J. Jetté, “On the Medicine-men of the Ten’a,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) p. 158.
636 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 265.
637 T. de Pauly, _Description Ethnographique des Peuples de la Russie_ (St. Petersburg, 1862), _Peuples de la Sibérie Orientale_, p. 7.
638 Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonaut._ ii. 124.
M170 Certain birds respected.
639 “Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 458.
640 C. B. Klunzinger, _Upper Egypt_ (London, 1878), pp. 402 _sq._
641 Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia_, p. 96: “_Reusan mucho matar qualquier animal no comestibile que no sea nocibo_,” etc. Here _reusan_ appears to be a misprint for _recusan_.
M171 Apologies offered by savages to the animals which they are obliged to kill. Propitiation of slain bears by Kamtchatkans, Ostiaks, Koryak, Finns, and Lapps.
642 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 85, 280, 331.
_ 643 Voyages au Nord_ (Amsterdam, 1727), viii. 41, 416; P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 64; J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 83.
644 A. Erman, _Travels in Siberia_ (London, 1848), ii. 43. For the veneration of the polar bear by the Samoyedes, who nevertheless kill and eat it, see ib_id._ pp. 54 _sq._
645 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), iii. 26.
646 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 88 _sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).
647 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 139.
648 A. Featherman, _Social History of the Races of Mankind, Fourth Division, Dravido-Turanians_, etc. (London, 1891) p. 422.
649 J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 233 _sq._ The Lapps “have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear. They pray and chant to his carcase, and for several days worship before eating it” (E. Rae, _The White Sea Peninsula_ (London, 1881), p. 276).
M172 Propitiation of slain bears by the North American Indians.
650 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 173 _sq._; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 172-181 (Paris, Michel Lévy, 1870).
_ 651 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, vi. (Paris, 1781) p. 171. L. H. Morgan states that the names of the Otawa totem clans had not been obtained (_Ancient Society_, London, 1877, p. 167). From the _Lettres édifiantes_, vi. 168-171, he might have learned the names of the Hare, Carp, and Bear clans, to which may be added the Gull clan, as I learn from an extract from _The Canadian Journal_ (Toronto) for March 1858, quoted in _The Academy_, 27th September 1884, p. 203.
_ 652 A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_, p. 117 (Middletown, 1820), p. 133 (Edinburgh, 1824).
653 De Smet, _Western Missions and Missionaries_ (New York, 1863), p. 139.
654 A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 111.
655 Henry’s _Travels_, pp. 143-145, quoted by J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900), pp. 446 _sq._
656 A. Mackenzie, “Descriptive notes on certain implements, weapons, etc., from Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, B.C.,” _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_, ix. (1891) section ii. p. 58.
657 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 347 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April 1900). The Thompson Indians used to be known as the Couteau or Knife Indians.
658 J. Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), p. 279 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_); _id._, _The Shuswap_ (Leyden and New York, 1909), pp. 602 _sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_).
M173 Propitiation of slain elephants in Africa.
659 Stephen Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), p. 138.
660 L. Alberti, _De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika_ (Amsterdam, 1810), p. 95. Alberti’s information is repeated by H. Lichtenstein (_Reisen im südlichen Afrika_, Berlin, 1811-1812, i. 412) and by Cowper Rose (_Four Years in Southern Africa_, London, 1829, p. 155). The burial of the trunk is also mentioned by Kay, _l.c._
661 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 215.
662 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 87.
663 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 447.
M174 Propitiation of lions in Africa.
664 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 785.
665 J. Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 298 _sq._, 305.
M175 Propitiation of slain leopards in Africa.
666 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_ (Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 243.
667 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), p. 309.
668 Lieut. Herold, “Bericht betreffend religiöse Anschauungen und Gebräuche der deutschen Ewe-Neger,” _Mittheilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten_, v. Heft 4 (Berlin, 1892), p. 156.
669 H. Spieth, “Jagdgebräuche in Avatime,” _Mitteilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, ix. (1890) pp. 18-20. Compare H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), pp. 145-147. The ceremonies observed after the slaughter of a wild buffalo are of the same general character with variations in detail.
M176 Propitiation of slain buffaloes and sheep in Uganda.
670 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 54; _id._, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 289, 448.
671 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 288 _sq._ Another curious notion which the Baganda have about sheep is that they give health to cattle and prevent them from being struck by lightning. Hence a sheep is often herded with cows to serve as a sort of lightning-conductor. See J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ p. 421.
672 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 423 _sq._ Further, “if a man’s dog died in the house, his wife dared not touch it, because she feared its ghost; she would call her husband to take it away” (op. cit. p. 425).
M177 Propitiation of dead whales among the Koryak.
673 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 66 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).
674 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 66-76 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).
M178 Propitiation of whales, hippopotamuses, ounces, and apes.
675 Captain W. F. W. Owen, _Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar_ (London, 1833), i. 170.
676 Rev. R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (London, 1904), p. 204.
677 A. Thevet, _La Cosmographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1575), ii. 936 [970] _sq._
678 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1844) p. 202.
679 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), p. 352.
M179 Propitiation of dead eagles. Deceiving the ghosts of spiders.
680 G. B. Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_ (London, 1893), p. 240.
681 A. Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia Guayana y Vertientes del Rio Orinoco_ (1779), p. 97.
682 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 282.
683 J. Owen Dorsey, “Teton Folklore Notes,” _Journal of American Folklore_, ii. (1889) p. 134; _id._, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 479.
M180 The ceremonies of propitiation offered to slain animals vary with the more or less dangerous character of the creature. Animals which, without being feared, are valued for their flesh or their skin, are also treated with respect.
684 H. Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China_ (London, 1864), i. 252; J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 422.
685 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 420.
M181 Respect shewn to dead sables. Bones of sables and beavers kept out of reach of dogs, lest the spirits of the dead animals should be offended.
686 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), ii. 278.
687 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_, iii. 564.
688 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 89; _id._, in _The Yukon Territory_ (London, 1898), p. 89.
689 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 92 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1890_).
690 A. G. Morice, “Notes, archæological, industrial, and sociological, on the Western Dénés,” _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.
691 A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l’Ours Noir, chez les sauvages de la Colombie Britannique_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 71.
692 L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1683), pp. 97 _sq._
_ 693 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 24 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858). Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. See F. Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 256 (pp. 178 _sq._ of the reprint, Librairie Tross, Paris, 1865); S. Hearne, _Journey to the Northern Ocean_ (London, 1795), pp. 329 _sq._; _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 109; _ibid._ 1639, p. 95; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 225; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 140 _sqq._ The Hebrews sacrificed and burned incense to their nets (Habakkuk i. 16). In some of the mountain villages of Annam the people, who are great hunters, sacrifice fowls, rice, incense, and gilt paper to their nets at the festival of the New Year. See Le R. P. Cadière, “Coutumes populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So’n,” _Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient_, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) p. 381. When a net has caught little or nothing, the Ewe negroes think that it must be hungry; so they call in the help of a priest, who commonly feeds the hungry net by sprinkling maize-flour and fish, moistened with palm oil, on its meshes. See G. Härtter, “Der Fischfang im Evheland,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxviii. (1906) p. 55.
694 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 175, 178 (Paris, Michel Lévy Frères, 1870). They will not let the blood of beavers fall on the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone (_Relations des Jésuites_, 1633, p. 21). Compare the rule about not allowing the blood of kings to fall on the ground. See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 241 _sqq._
M182 Deer, elk, and elan treated by the American Indians with ceremonious respect.
695 L. Hennepin, _Nouveau voyage d’un pais plus grand que l’Europe_ (Utrecht, 1698), pp. 141. _sq._; _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 109; F. Gabriel Sagard, Le _Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 255 (p. 178 of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865). Not quite consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows (Sagard, _l.c._).
696 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 142.
_ 697 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) p. 339.
698 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii. (1895) pp. 195 _sq._
699 J. Mooney, “Cherokee Theory and Practice of Medicine,” _American Journal of Folk-lore_, iii. (1890) pp. 45 _sq._; _id._, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), pp. 320 _sq._, 347; _id._, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 263 _sq._
700 J. G. Bourke, “Religion of the Apache Indians,” _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) p. 438.
701 L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1683), pp. 80 _sq._
702 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, pp. 346 sq. (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April 1900).
703 James Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 281 sq. (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).
_ 704 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 26 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).
M183 Porcupines, turtles, and mice treated by American Indians with ceremonious respect.
705 Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” _Report of the British Association for 1894_, PP. 459 sq.
706 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 230.
707 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 443.
M184 Dead foxes, turtles, deer, and pigs treated with ceremonious respect.
708 W. Bogaras, _The Chuckchee_ (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), p. 409 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vii., _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).
709 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 389 _sq._
710 J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 234.
711 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xli. (1897) pp. 4 _sq._
M185 Ghost of ostrich outwitted.
712 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London, 1911), pp. 125 _sq._
M186 Esquimau propitiation of the spirit who controls reindeer. Ceremonious treatment of sea-beasts by the Esquimaux.
713 L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), pp. 200 _sq._
714 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) pp. 119 _sqq._ As to the antagonism which these Esquimaux suppose to exist between marine and terrestrial animals, see above, p. 84; and with regard to the taboos observed by these Esquimaux after the slaughter of sea-beasts, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 205 _sqq._
715 D. Crantz, _History of Greenland_ (London, 1767), i. 216.
M187 Annual ceremony of returning the bladders of the sea-beasts to the sea in order that the animals may come to life again.
716 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899), pp. 379-393, 437. Compare A. Woldt, _Captain Jacobsen’s Reise an der Nordwestküste Americas 1881-1883_ (Leipsic, 1884), pp. 289-291. In the text the ceremony has been described mainly as it was witnessed by Mr. E. W. Nelson at Kushunuk, near Cape Vancouver, in December, 1879. As might have been expected, the ritual varies in details at different places.
M188 Fish treated with respect by fishing tribes. The Peruvian Indians worshipped the various sorts of fish which they caught. Fish treated with respect by the North American Indians. Herring respected by European fishermen. Compensation made to fish for catching them.
717 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, translated by C. R. Markham, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. pp. 49 _sq._ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871). Compare _id._, vol. ii. p. 148.
718 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 61 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1890_); _id._, _Kwakiutl Texts_, ii. pp. 303 _sq._, 305 _sq._, 307, 317 (_Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, December, 1902).
_ 719 Relations des Jésuites_, 1667, p. 12 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).
720 F. Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, pp. 255 _sqq._ (pp. 178 _sqq._ of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865).
721 B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 270.
722 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 529 _sq._
_ 723 A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_ (Middletown, 1820), p. 116.
724 M. J. Schleiden, _Das Salz_ (Leipsic, 1875), p. 47. For this reference I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith.
725 Hugh Miller, _Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland_, ch. xvii. pp. 256 _sq._ (Edinburgh, 1889).
726 M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) p. 620.
727 W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_ (London, 1883), pp. 66 _sq._
728 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 403.
729 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 200; A. S. Thomson, _The Story of New Zealand_ (London, 1859), i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 109.
730 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 395.
M189 Ceremonious treatment of the first fish of the season.
731 A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l’Ours Noir_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 28.
732 Sir John Lubbock, _Origin of Civilisation_4 (London, 1882), p. 277, quoting _Metlahkatlah_, p. 96.
733 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 413.
734 Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” _Report of the British Association for 1894_, p. 461. Compare J. Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 280 _sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_); C. Hill Tout, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 140; _id._, _The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_ (London, 1907), pp. 170-172.
735 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 16 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1890_).
_ 736 Id._, in _Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 51 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1889_).
737 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 31 _sq._
738 Alex. Ross, _Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River_ (London, 1849), p. 97.
739 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851), iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before they sell it.”
740 H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 253; _id._, _Notes and Sketches from the Wild Coasts of Nipon_, pp. 27 _sq._ Similarly it is a rule with the Aino to bring the flesh of bears and other game into the house, not by the door, but by the window or the smoke-hole. See Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 123; P. Labbé, _Un Bagne Russe_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 255 _sq._
_ 741 Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (as to the Gilyak of the Amoor); J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 242 _sq._; C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et religione pristina commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 503; _Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. (1883) pp. 308 _sq._; _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vii. (1878) p. 207; Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” in _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 148; A. G. Morice, in _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.
M190 Some savages preserve the bones of the animals they kill in order that the animals may come to life again.
742 E. James, _Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_ (London, 1823), i. 257.
743 D. G. Brinton, _Myths of the New World_2 (New York, 1876), p. 278.
744 W. H. Keating, _Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_ (London, 1825), i. 452.
745 Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 161.
746 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1844) p. 201. However, in this case a belief in the resurrection of the animals is not expressly affirmed, and the practice of burning the bones seems inconsistent with it.
747 E. J. Jessen, _De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana tractatus singularis_, pp. 46 _sq._, 52 _sq._, 65 (bound with C. Leem’s _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione pristina commentatio_, Copenhagen, 1767). Compare Leem’s work, pp. 418-420, 428 _sq._; J. Acerbi, _Travels through Sweden, Finnland, and Lapland_ (London, 1802), ii. 302.
748 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), p. 269; S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo, 1766), p. 246.
749 See A. Erman, referred to above, p. 223; J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 274, ii. 182 _sq._, 214; H. Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 118 _sq._ When a fox, the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its skin was stuffed and set up (A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_, i. 443). Compare the _bouphonia_, above, pp. 4 _sqq._
750 At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its bones; the dog was afterwards burned (L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_, Rochester, 1851, p. 210). It is a rule with some of the Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they may not break his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his skin before roasting him, he would do so again (R. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 447 _sqq._). Some of the Queensland aborigines believe that if the bones or skulls of dugong were not put away in a heap or otherwise preserved, no more dugong would be caught (W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography_, Bulletin No. 5, Brisbane, 1903, p. 27). When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them with fire (Carpini, _Historia Mongalorum_ (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § i. 2, p. 620). North American Indians might not break the bones of the animals which they ate at feasts (Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 72). In the war feast held by Indian warriors after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the flesh the bones were hung on a tree (_Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner_, London, 1830, p. 287). On St. Olaf’s Day (29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as May-trees next year (W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 160 _sq._, note). Some of the Esquimaux in skinning a deer are careful not to break a single bone, and they will not break the bones of deer while walrus are being hunted (Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), pp. 595 _sq._). The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune in the pursuit of seals (_Report of the International Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), p. 40). In this last custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear (H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 741). In Syria at the present time people offer a sacrifice for a boy when he is seven days old, and they will not break a bone of the victim, “because they fear that if a bone of the sacrifice should be broken, the child’s bones would be broken, too” (S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, Chicago, etc., 1902, p. 178). This last may be a later misinterpretation of the old custom. For West African cases of refusal to break the bones of sacrificial victims, see J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 458, 466, 480, 527, 712, 796, 824. Amongst the Narrinyeri of South Australia, when an animal was being cut up, the bystanders used to leap and yell as often as a bone was broken, thinking that if they did not do so their own bones would rot within them (A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 763).
_ 751 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 25 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858); A. Mackenzie, _Voyages through the Continent of America_ (London, 1801), p. civ.; J. Dunn, _History of the Oregon Territory_ (London, 1844), p. 99; F. Whymper, in _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; _id._, in _Transactions of the Ethnological Society_, N.S., vii. (1869) p. 174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 111; Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 596; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 123; E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. 438 _sq._ For more examples see above, pp. 225, 238 _sqq._, 242 _sq._, 246. After a meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. See W. M. Gabb, _On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica_ (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520 (Philadelphia, 1875). The custom of burning the bones to prevent the dogs getting them does not necessarily contradict the view suggested in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal (_Native Tribes of South Australia_, Adelaide, 1879, pp. 24, 196).
M191 Some savages preserve or destroy the bones of men in order to assist or prevent their resurrection.
752 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 279 _sqq._
753 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 126.
754 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 475.
M192 Unquestioning faith of savages in the immortality of animals. The savage faith in human immortality is commonly supposed to be deduced from a primitive theory of dreams. M193 But can a theory of dreams account for the savage belief in the immortality of animals? M194 Apparently the savage conceives life as an indestructible form of energy. Analogy of the conception to the modern scientific conception of the conservation of energy.
755 For this suggestion I am indebted to a hint thrown out in conversation by my friend Professor G. F. Stout.
756 See _The Dying God_, p. 1.
757 The principle of the conservation of energy is clearly stated and illustrated by Balfour Stewart in his book _The Conservation of Energy_, Fourth Edition (London, 1877). The writer does not countenance the view that life is a form of energy distinct from and independent of physical and chemical forces; he regards a living being simply as a very delicately constructed machine in which the natural forces are in a state of unstable equilibrium. To avoid misapprehension it may be well to add that I do not pretend to argue either for or against the theory of life which appears to be implicitly adopted by the savage; my aim is simply to explain, not to justify or condemn, the mental attitude of primitive man towards these profound problems.
M195 The resurrection of the body in tales and legends.
758 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), pp. 57-74; _id._, _Baumkultus_, p. 116; C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), i. 219 _sqq._; J. Curtin, _Myths and Folk-lore of Ireland_ (London, N.D.), pp. 45 _sq._; E. Cosquin, _Contes populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), ii. 25; E. S. Hartland, “The Physicians of Myddfai,” _Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 30 _sq._ In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes not allowed to fall on the ground. See E. Cosquin, _l.c._
759 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, p. 66.
760 Jamblichus, _Vita Pythag._ 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, _Vita Pythag._ 28.
761 Pindar, _Olymp._ i. 37 _sqq._, with the Scholiast.
762 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 34.
763 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. This is one of the sacred stories which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch divulged.
M196 The sinew of the thigh regularly cut out and thrown away by some American Indians.
764 Adam Hodgson, _Letters from North America_ (London, 1824), i. 244.
765 J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 137 _sq._ This writer, animated by a curious though not uncommon passion for discovering the ten lost tribes of Israel, imagined that he detected the missing Hebrews disguised under the red skins and beardless faces of the American Indians.
M197 Story told by the Indians to explain the custom.
766 É. Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjie_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81 _sq._; _id._, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest_ (Paris, 1886), pp. 132 _sqq._, compare pp. 41, 76, 213, 264. The story is told in a briefer form, though without any reference to the custom, by another French missionary. See the letter of Mgr. Tache, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxiv. (1852) pp. 336 _sq._
M198 The custom of cutting out the sinew of the thigh in animals seems to be based on the principle of sympathetic magic.
767 The first part of this suggestion is due to my friend W. Robertson Smith. See his _Lectures on the Religion of the Semites_2 (London, 1894), p. 380, note 1. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia, after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” See Halévy, “Travels in Abyssinia,” in _Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature_, Second Series, vol. ii. p. 220. Caffre men will not eat the sinew of the thigh; “it is carefully cut out and sent to the principal boy at the kraal, who with his companions consider it as their right.” See Col. Maclean, _Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), p. 151. Gallas who pride themselves on their descent will not eat the flesh of the biceps; the reasons assigned for the custom are inconsistent and unsatisfactory. See Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1893), p. 154. When the Bushmen kill a hare, they cut out a sinew of the thigh and will not eat it, alleging as their reason that the hare was once a man, and that this particular sinew is still human flesh. See W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd. _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_ (London, 1911), pp. xxxix., 60 _sq._, 63.
768 J. Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), p. 323. Compare _id._, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 267, 447. In the last of these passages the writer quotes Buttrick, _Antiquities_, p. 12, as follows: “The Indians never used to eat a certain sinew in the thigh.... Some say that if they eat of the sinew they will have cramp in it on attempting to run. It is said that once a woman had cramp in that sinew, and therefore none must eat it.”
769 See above, pp. 138 _sqq._
M199 Some hunters hamstring the dead game in order to lame the ghosts of the animals. Some savages put out the eyes of dead game in order perhaps to blind the ghosts of the animals.
770 É. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 23.
771 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 423.
772 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 504.
773 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande_, iii. 546.
774 P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 70.
775 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 171.
776 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians cf British Columbia_, p. 317 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April, 1900).
777 So among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait a girl at puberty is considered unclean. “A peculiar atmosphere is supposed to surround her at this time, and if a young man should come near enough for it to touch him it would render him visible to every animal he might hunt, so that his success as a hunter would be gone.” See E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 291.
778 P. Dobell, _Travels in Kamtchatka and Siberia_ (London, 1830), i. 19.
M200 The custom of cutting out the tongues of dead animals may sometimes be intended to prevent their ghosts from telling tales. Tongues of animals cut out in order to confer superhuman knowledge or power on their possessors.
779 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 289 _sq._
780 J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_ (Bremen, 1859), ii. 251 sq.; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 173; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 179 _sq._, 184.
781 For examples of the incident, see J. F. Bladé, _Contes populaires recueillis en Agenais_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 12, 14; G. W. Dasent, _Popular Tales from the Norse_ (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 133 sq. (“Shortshanks”); Aug. Schleicher, _Litauische Märchen_ (Weimar, 1857), p. 58; Sepp, _Altbayerischer Sagenschatz_ (Munich, 1876), p. 114; R. Köhler, on L. Gonzenbach’s _Sicilianische Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1870), ii. 230; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 13. 3; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonaut._ i. 517; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 53; J. C. Poestion, _Lappländische Märchen_ (Vienna, 1876), pp. 231 sq.; A. F. Chamberlain, in _Eighth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 35 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1892_); I. V. Zingerle, _Kinder und Hausmärchen aus Tirol_2 (Gera, 1870), No. 25, p. 127; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 342; S. Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, übersetzt von W. Leo (Leipsic, 1878), p. 289; A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, _Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen_ (Strasburg, 1882), pp. 405 _sq._, 409 _sq._; A. und A. Schott, _Walachische Maerchen_ (Stuttgart and Tübingen), No. 10, p. 142; Chr. Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), No. 39, pp. 116 _sq._; G. Basile, _Pentamerone_, übertragen von F. Liebrecht (Breslau, 1846), i. 99; P. Sébillot, _Contes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1885), No. 11, p. 80; E. Cosquin, _Contes Populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), i. p. 61; J. Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen_4 (Vienna and Hermannstadt, 1885), No. 24, pp. 104 _sqq._; Grimm, _Household Tales_, No. 60. The incident often occurs in the type of tale analysed by Mr. E. S. Hartland in his _Legend of Perseus_ (vol. i. pp. 12, 17, 18, etc.; vol. iii. pp. 6, 7, 8, etc.).
782 Fr. Boas, in _Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 58 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1889_); _id._, in _Journal of American Folk-lore_, i. (1888) p. 218.
783 See W. H. Dall, “Masks and Labrets,” _Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 111 _sq._ Compare _id._, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 425; Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska_, p. 176.
784 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die Geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 47.
785 Ph. Paulitschke, _op. cit._ p. 156; _id._, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur_, etc. (Berlin, 1893), p. 226.
786 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 54, § 354.
787 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 94, § 381; E. Monseur, in _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, xxxi. (1895) pp. 297 _sq._
788 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 81, § 576.
789 Homer, _Od._ iii. 332, 341.
790 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 1110; Athenaeus, i. 28, p. 16 B; _Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 415, No. 100.
791 See further H. Gaidoz, “Les Langues coupées,” _Mélusine_, iii. (1886-87) coll. 303-307; E. Monseur, _loc. cit._
M201 Bechuana custom of mutilating a sacrificial ox in order to inflict corresponding mutilations on the enemy. Mutilation of the corpses of enemies or other dangerous persons for the purpose of maiming their ghosts. Disabling the ghost by mutilating his dead body.
792 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Relation d’un Voyage d’Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 562-564.
793 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 60. This custom appears not to be mentioned by the writer in his book _The Baganda_ (London, 1911).
794 A. Oldfield, “On the Aborigines of Australia,” _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 287.
795 E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (Melbourne and London, 1886), i. 348, 381.
796 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, vol. i. Second Edition (London, 1822), p. 231.
797 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 423.
798 Rev. S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_ (London, 1871), pp. 203 _sq._
799 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 420.
800 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 126.
M202 Propitiation of the vermin which infest crops and cattle in Europe.
801 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 105 note.
802 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), pp. 15 _sq._
803 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 79, 103; _id._, “Viehzucht und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten,” _Globus_, lxix. (1906) p. 387.
804 E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 93.
M203 Similar attempts made to propitiate vermin by savages.
805 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 160.
806 Vetter, “Aberglaube unter dem Jabim-Stamme in Kaiser-Wilhelmsland,” _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xii. (1893) pp. 95 _sq._
807 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 626.
808 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 303.
809 M. Merker, “Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga,” _Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft_ No. 113 (Gotha, 1902), pp. 35 _sq._
810 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 320.
M204 Sometimes in dealing with vermin the farmer aims at a judicious mean between undue severity and weak indulgence.
_ 811 Geoponica_, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field assigned to the mice is a neighbour’s, but it may be a patch of waste ground on the farmer’s own land. The charm is said to have been employed formerly in the neighbourhood of Paris (A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, Paris and Lyons, 1846, p. 383).
812 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), p. 176.
_ 813 American Journal of Folk-lore_, xi. (1898) p. 161.
814 G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlvi. (1903) pp. 329 _sq._
815 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 509.
M205 Sometimes a few of the vermin are treated with high distinction, while the rest are pursued with relentless rigour. Mock lamentations of women for insects which destroy the crops.
816 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië_, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 125.
817 J. L. van Gennep, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van den Kangean-Archipel,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvi. (1896) p. 101.
818 C. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 198 _sq._
819 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 60, § 405.
820 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), Heft i. p. 157.
821 Lagarde, _Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae_, p. 135. For this passage I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith, who kindly translated it for me from the Syriac. It occurs in the Canons of Jacob of Edessa, of which a German translation has been published by C. Kayser (_Die Canones Jacob’s von Edessa übersetzt und erläutert_, Leipsic, 1886; see pp. 25 _sq._).
822 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p. 255.
823 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children_ (London, 1906), p. 292.
M206 Ceremony performed by Baronga women to drive insects from the crops.
824 H. A. Junod, _Les Ba-ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 419 _sq._ As to the rain-making ceremony among the Baronga, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 267 _sq._
M207 Images made of vermin as a charm to get rid of them.
825 J. Malalas, _Chronographia_, ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831), p. 264.
826 D. Comparetti, _Vergil in the Middle Ages_ (London, 1895), p. 265. I have to thank Mr. J. D. May of Merton College, Oxford, for this and the following references to Comparetti’s book.
827 D. Comparetti, _op. cit._ pp. 259, 293, 341.
828 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), p. 144.
_ 829 Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iv. (London, 1903) col. 4395.
830 Grégoire de Tours, _Histoire Ecclésiastique des Francs_, traduction de M. Guizot, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1874), viii. 33, vol. i. p. 514. For some stories of the same sort, see J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 306-308.
831 1 Samuel vi. 4-18. The passage in which the plague of mice is definitely described has been omitted in the existing Hebrew text, but is preserved in the Septuagint (1 Samuel v. 6, καὶ μέσον τῆς χώρας αὐτῆς ἀνεφύησαν μύες). See Dean Kirkpatrick’s note on 1 Samuel v. 6 (_Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges_).
832 Numbers xxi. 6-9.
M208 Greek gods who took titles from vermin. Mouse (Smintheus) Apollo.
833 Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39, with the Scholia and the comment of Eustathius; Strabo, xiii. 1. 48 and 63; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 5; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 39, p. 34, ed. Potter; Pausanias, x. 12. 5.
834 Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Pausanias, i. 24. 8.
835 Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Eustathius, on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39, p. 34; Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 609 (vol. ii. p. 386).
836 Strabo and Eustathius, _ll.cc._
837 Professor W. Ridgeway has pointed out that the epithet Bassareus applied to Dionysus (Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 30) appears to be derived from bassara, “a fox.” See J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 771; W. Ridgeway, in _The Classical Review_, x. (1896) pp. 21 _sqq._; S. Reinach, _Cultes, Mythes, et Religions_, ii. (Paris, 1906) pp. 106 _sqq._
838 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ x. 75; Pausanias, v. 14. 1, viii. 26. 7; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 38, p. 33, ed. Potter.
_ 839 Robigo_ or personified as _Robigus_. See Varro, _Rerum rusticarum_, i. 1. 6; _id._, _De lingua latina_, vi. 16; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905 _sqq._; Tertullian, _De spectaculis_, 5; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, iv. 21; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ i. 20; L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 43 _sqq._; W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 88 _sqq._
840 Aristotle, _Hist. Anim._ vi. 37, p. 580 b 15 _sqq._; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xvii. 41; W. Warde Fowler, in _The Classical Review_ vi. (1892) p. 413. In Laos, a province of Siam, the ravages committed by rats are terrible. From time to time whole armies of these destructive rodents appear and march across the country in dense columns and serried ranks, devouring everything as they go, and leaving famine, with all its horrors, in their train. See Lieut.-Col. Tournier, _Notice sur le Laos Français_ (Hanoi, 1900), pp. 104, 135. So in Burma, the rats multiply in some years to such an extent that they cause a famine by destroying whole crops and granaries. See Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), pp. 149 _sq._
841 Polemo, cited by a scholiast on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39 (ed. Im. Bekker). Compare Eustathius on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39.
842 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 5.
843 Aelian, _l.c._
844 See above, p. 279.
845 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 236.
M209 Wolfish Apollo.
846 Λύκειος or Λύκιος, Pausanias, i. 19. 3 (with my note), ii. 9. 7, ii. 19. 3, viii. 40. 5; Lucian, _Anacharsis_, 7; Im. Bekker, _Anecdota Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 277, lines 10 _sq._
847 Pausanias, ii. 9. 7; Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.
848 Sophocles, _Electra_, 6.
849 Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.
850 Pausanias, ii. 9. 7.
851 P. Einhorn, _Reformatio gentis Letticae in Ducatu Curlandiae_, reprinted in _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, vol. ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 621. The preface of Einhorn’s work is dated 17th July 1636.
M210 Many savages spare certain animals because they believe the souls of their dead to be lodged in them. Examples of this belief among the American Indians.
852 A. Biet, _Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l’Isle de Cayenne_ (Paris, 1664), p. 361.
853 J. Chaffanjon, _L’Orénoque et le Caura_ (Paris, 1889), p. 203.
854 Levrault, “Rapport sur les provinces de Canélos et du Napo,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), Deuxième Série, xi. (1839) p. 75.
855 G. Osculati, _Esplorazione delle regioni equatorali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni_ (Milan, 1850), p. 114.
856 J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),” _Boletin del Instituto Geografico Argentino_, xv. (Buenos Ayres, 1895) p. 740.
857 Ch. Wiener, _Pérou et Bolivie_ (Paris, 1880), p. 369.
_ 858 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) pp. 335 _sqq._
859 Fr. Coreal, _Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Amsterdam, 1722), ii. 132.
860 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 215 _sq._
861 H. R. Schoolcraft, _op. cit._ iii. 113.
M211 Belief of the transmigration of human souls into animals in Africa.
862 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 210.
863 J. C. Reichenbach, “Étude sur le royaume d’Assinie,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, xi. (1890) pp. 322 _sq._
864 D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (London, 1857), p. 615.
865 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London, 1906), p. 64.
866 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 200.
867 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 _sq._ Compare Major J. A. Meldon, “Notes on the Bahima of Ankole,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. 22 (January, 1907), p. 151.
868 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 202. The belief that the human dead are turned into serpents is common in Africa; and the practice of offering milk to the reptiles appears to be not infrequent. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,2 pp. 71 _sq._
869 J. Halkin, _Quelques Peuplades du district de l’Uelé_ (Liége, 1907), p. 102; _Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo, La Religion_ (Brussels, 1906), p. 162.
870 Father Courtois, “Scènes de la vie Cafre,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xv. (1883) p. 593. For more evidence of similar beliefs in Africa, see Father Courtois, “À travers le haut Zambèze,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 299 (souls of the dead in guinea-fowl); Father Lejeune, “Dans la forêt,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxvii. (1895) p. 248 (souls of the dead in apes, owls, etc.).
M212 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Madagascar.
871 Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xii. (1880) pp. 549-551. A somewhat different account of the Betsileo belief in the transmigration of souls is given by another authority. See G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 411. Compare A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 272 _sq._, 283, 291.
872 Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 270.
873 “Das Volk der Tanala,” _Globus_, lxxxix. (1906) p. 362.
M213 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Assam, Burma, and Cochin China.
874 W. H. Furness, “The Ethnography of the Nagas of Eastern Assam,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 463.
875 T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), p. 159.
876 (Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. i. p. 26.
877 Guerlach, “Chez les sauvages de la Cochinchine Orientale, Bahnar, Reungao, Sédang,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxvi. (1894) pp. 143 _sq._
878 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 267. Compare D. Grangeon, “Les Cham et leurs superstitions,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 46. According to the latter writer, white horses are specially set apart to serve as domiciles for these domestic deities. After its dedication such a horse is carefully tended and never mounted again.
M214 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in the Philippines, the Sandwich Islands, and the Pelew Islands.
879 F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 164; _id._, _Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), p. 29 (_Petermanns Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67).
880 L. de Freycinet, _Voyage autour du Monde_, ii. (Paris, 1829) pp. 595 _sq._
881 K. Semper, _Die Palau-Inseln im Stillen Ocean_ (Leipsic, 1873), pp. 87 _sq._, 193. These sacred animals were called _kalids_. A somewhat different account of the _kalids_ of the Pelew Islanders is given by J. Kubary (“Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_, Leipsic, 1888, i. 5 _sqq._).
M215 Transmigration of human souls into tigers in Sumatra.
882 W. D. Helderman, “De tijger en het bijgeloof der Bataks,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiv. (1891) pp. 170-175. The account which this writer gives of the reception of a dead tiger by the Battas agrees with, and is probably the source of, Mr. Batten’s account cited above (pp. 216 _sq._).
M216 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Borneo.
883 C. Hose, “The Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii. (1894) p. 165. Compare A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 148; _id._, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 105. According to the latter writer the Kayans or Bahaus in general abstain from the flesh both of deer and of grey apes, because they think that the souls of the dead may be in them.
884 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 193.
885 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ (London, 1911), p. 143.
M217 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in New Guinea.
886 F. S. A. de Clercq, “De West en Noordkust van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea,” _Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 635.
887 Max Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, N.D.), p. 404.
888 K. Vetter, _Komm herüber und hilf uns!_ iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 22. Compare _id._, in _Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land_, 1897, pp. 87 _sq._; B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 225.
889 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 310.
890 R. Parkinson, “Die Berlinhafen Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Neu-Guinea Küste,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) p. 40.
891 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 150 _sq._
M218 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in the Solomon Islands.
892 Mr. Sleigh of Lifu, quoted by Prof. E. B. Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1898) p. 147.
893 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 179 _sq._
894 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 177.
895 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 33. East Indian evidence of the belief in transmigration into animals is collected by G. A. Wilken (“Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, pp. 988 _sqq._), who argues that this belief supplies the link between ancestor-worship and totemism. Compare the same writer’s article “Iets over de Papoewas van de Geelvinksbaai,” pp. 24 _sqq._ (separate reprint from _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië_, 5e Volgreeks ii.). Wilken’s view on this subject is favoured by Professor E. B. Tylor (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1898) pp. 146 _sq._). See further, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 45 _sqq._
M219 The doctrine of the transmigration of human souls into animals in ancient India. The doctrine of transmigration in Buddhism.
_ 896 The Laws of Manu_, ii. 201.
_ 897 Id._, v. 164.
_ 898 Id._, xi. 25.
_ 899 Id._, xii. 39-78.
900 Sir Monier Monier-Williams, _Buddhism_, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 111 _sq._ Full, if not always authentic, particulars of the Buddha’s manifold transmigrations are contained in the _Jatakas_, a large collection of stories which has been completely translated into English by the late Professor E. B. Cowell, Dr. W. H. D. Rouse, and other scholars (6 volumes, Cambridge, 1895-1907).
M220 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls taught in ancient Greece by Pythagoras and Empedocles.
901 Diodorus Siculus, x. 6. 1-3; Jamblichus, _De Pythagorica vita_, xiv. 63; Porphyry, _Vita Pythag._ 26 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ xv. 160 _sqq._ According to Heraclides Ponticus, the philosopher remembered his personal identity in four different human lives before he was born into the world as Pythagoras (Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 1. 4 _sq._). See further E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Leipsic and Tübingen, 1903), ii. 417 _sqq._
902 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 1. 4 and 36.
903 Jamblichus, _De Pythagorica vita_, xxiv. 107-109; Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11.
904 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 2. 77; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 208, frag. 117.
905 Sextus Empiricus, ix. 129; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 213 _sq._, frag. 137.
906 Compare Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130.
907 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iii. 1. 2. 7; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11. 9; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. p. 214, fragments 140, 141.
M221 The doctrine of transmigration used by Pythagoras and Empedocles mainly to inculcate certain ethical precepts. The pessimism of Empedocles unlike the ordinary Greek view of life; its similarity to Buddhism.
908 As to Pythagoras in this respect, see E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 161 _sqq._
909 Plutarch, _De exilio_, 17; _id._, _De esu carnium_, i. 7. 4; Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ iv. 4. 12, p. 569 ed. Potter; Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium Haeresium_, vii. 29, p. 388 ed. L. Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 207 _sq._, fragments 115, 119.
910 Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 8.
911 H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 208 _sq._, frag. 121.
912 Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ iii. 3. 14, iv. 23. 152, v. 14. 123, pp. 516 _sq._, 632, 722 ed. Potter; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 207, 209, 215 _sq._, fragments 115, 124, 144-147.
913 Empedocles is cited by Aristotle as an example of the melancholy which he believed to be characteristic of men of genius. See Aristotle, _Problem_. 30, p. 953 a 27 ed. Im. Bekker.
914 Stobaeus, _Eclogae_, i. 41. 60 (vol. i. p. 331 ed. A. Meineke); Plutarch, _De esu carnium_ ii. 4. 4; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. p. 210, frag. 126.
915 It seems to be fairly certain that Buddha died and Empedocles was born somewhere about the year 480 B.C. Hence it is difficult to suppose that the ideas of the former should have percolated from India to Greece, or rather to Sicily, in the lifetime of the latter. As to their respective dates see H. Oldenberg, _Buddha_5 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1906), pp. 115, 227; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) p. 678 note 1.
M222 Analogy of the physical speculations of Empedocles to those of Herbert Spencer.
916 Plutarch, _Adversus Coloten_, 10; Aristotle, _De Xenophane_, 2, p. 975 a 39-b 4 ed. Im. Bekker; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 175, 176, fragments 8 and 12.
917 The evidence, consisting of the testimonies of ancient authorities and the fragments of Empedocles’s own writings, is fully collected by H. Diels in his excellent work _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_, Zweite Auflage, i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 158 _sqq._, 173 _sqq._ Compare _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 1 _sqq._; H. Ritter et L. Preller, _Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta_, Editio Quinta (Gothae, 1875), pp. 91 _sqq._; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 678 _sqq._
M223 Herbert Spencer’s theory of alternate periods of concentration and dissipation of matter.
918 Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, Third Edition (London, 1875), pp. 536 _sq._
M224 Evolution or dissolution.
919 On the discovery of the atomic disintegration of certain chemical elements, and the general question (Evolution or Dissolution?) raised by that discovery, see W. C. D. Whetham, “The Evolution of Matter,” in _Darwin and Modern Science_ (Cambridge, 1909), pp. 565-582, particularly his concluding paragraph: “In the strict sense of the word, the process of atomic disintegration revealed to us by the new science of radio-activity can hardly be called evolution. In each case radio-active change involves the breaking up of a heavier, more complex atom into lighter and simpler fragments. Are we to regard this process as characteristic of the tendencies in accord with which the universe has reached its present state, and is passing to its unknown future? Or have we chanced upon an eddy in a backwater, opposed to the main stream of advance? In the chaos from which the present universe developed, was matter composed of large highly complex atoms, which have formed the simpler elements by radio-active or rayless disintegration? Or did the primaeval substance consist of isolated electrons, which have slowly come together to form the elements, and yet have left here and there an anomaly such as that illustrated by the unstable family of uranium and radium, or by some such course are returning to their state of primaeval simplicity?”
M225 Empedocles as a forerunner of Darwin.
920 H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 190 _sqq._; _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 8 _sqq._; H. Ritter und L. Preller, _Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta_5 (Gothae, 1875), pp. 102 _sq._; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 718 _sqq._
921 Aristotle, _Physic. Auscult._ ii. 8, p. 198 b 29 _sqq._, ed. Im. Bekker; ὅπου μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα συνέβη ὥσπερ κὰν εἰ ἔνεκά του ἐγίνετο, ταῦτα μὲν ἐσωθη ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου συστάντα ἐπιτηδείως; ὅσα δὲ μὴ οὕτως, ἀπώλετο καὶ ἀπόλλυται, καθάπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς λέγει τὰ βουγενῆ ἀνδρόπρῳρα. This passage is quoted by Darwin in the “Historical Sketch” prefixed to _The Origin of Species_ with the remark, “We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth.” Darwin omits Aristotle’s reference to Empedocles, apparently deeming it irrelevant or unimportant. Had he been fully acquainted with the philosophical speculations of Empedocles, we can scarcely doubt that Darwin would have included him among the pioneers of evolution.
M226 Empedocles as a pretender to divinity.
922 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 2. 62; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 205, frag. 112. Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 390.
M227 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls in Plato.
923 Plato, _Phaedo_, pp. 81 B-84 C; _Republic_, x. pp. 617 D-620 D; _Timaeus_, pp. 41 D-42 D; _Phaedrus_, p. 249 B.
924 This is the view of E. Zeller (_Die Philosophie der Griechen_, ii.3 Leipsic, 1875, pp. 706 _sqq._), Sir W. E. Geddes (on Plato, _Phaedo_, p. 81 E), and J. Adam (on Plato, _Republic_, x. p. 618 A). We have no right, with some interpreters ancient and modern, to dissolve the theory into an allegory because it does not square with our ideas.
925 In our own time the theory of transmigration is favoured by Dr. McTaggart, who argues that human beings may have lived before birth and may live many, perhaps an infinite number of, lives after death. Like Plato he further suggests that the nature of the body into which a person transmigrates at death may be appropriate to and determined by his or her character in the preceding life. See J. McT. Ellis McTaggart, _Some Dogmas of Religion_ (London, 1906), pp. 112-139. However, Dr. McTaggart seems only to contemplate the transmigration of human souls into human bodies; he does not discuss the possibility of their transmigration into animals.
M228 The ambiguous behaviour of the Aino and the Gilyaks towards bears explained. M229 Two forms of the worship of animals.
926 This is known, for example, of the Yuchi Indians, for among them “members of each clan will not do violence to wild animals having the form and name of their totem. For instance, the Bear clan people never molest bears.” See F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), p. 70. But in spite of the attention which has been paid to American totemism, we possess very little information as to the vital point of the system, the relation between a man and his totemic animal. Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 88 _sq._, 311.
927 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 85 _sqq._ However, Collins reports that among the natives of New South Wales the women were “compelled to sit in their canoe, exposed to the fervour of the mid-day sun, hour after hour, chaunting their little song, and inviting the fish beneath them to take their bait” (D. Collins, _An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales_, London, 1804, p. 387). This may have been a form of conciliation like that employed by the American Indians towards the fish and game. But the account is not precise enough to allow us to speak with confidence. It is sometimes reported that the Australians attempt to appease the kangaroos which they have killed, assuring the animals of their affection and begging them not to come back after death to torment them. But the writer who mentions the report disbelieves it. See Dom Théophile Bérengier, in _Les Missions Catholiques_, x. (1878) p. 197.
928 G. Catlin, _O-Kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans_ (London, 1867), Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke, _Travels to the Source of the Missouri River_ (London, 1815), i. 205 _sq._
M230 Two types of animal sacrament, the Egyptian and the Aino type. M231 Examples of animal sacraments among pastoral tribes. Aino or expiatory type of animal sacrament among the Abchases and Kalmucks.
929 A. Bastian, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1870-71, p. 59. J. Reinegg (_Beschreibung des Kaukasus_, Gotha, St. Petersburg, and Hildesheim, 1796-97, ii. 12 sq.) describes what seems to be a sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried there.
930 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, vi. (Jena, 1871) pp. 632, note. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton, see J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), pp. 406 _sq._, compare p. 207; B. Bergmann, _Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken_ (Riga, 1804-5), ii. 80 _sqq._, 122; P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating; ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially the rich who need to make expiation.
M232 Egyptian type of animal sacrament among the Todas and Madi.
931 W. E. Marshall, _Travels amongst the Todas_ (London, 1873), pp. 129 _sq._
932 W. E. Marshall, _op. cit._ pp. 80 _sq._, 130.
933 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru Tribe of Central Africa,” _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xii. (1882-84) pp. 336 _sq._
934 Mutton appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food (R. W. Felkin, _op. cit._ p. 307), but this is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep.
935 See W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_2 (London, 1894), pp. 344 _sqq._ As to communion by means of an external application, see above, pp. 162 _sqq._
M233 Form of communion with a sacred animal by taking it from house to house. Effigy of a snake carried from house to house by members of the Snake tribe.
936 See above, pp. 190, 192.
_ 937 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 91, § 555 (March 1885).
M234 “Hunting the Wren” in Europe. Sacred character of the wren in popular superstition.
938 See Ch. Vallancey, _Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis_, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 195 _sq._ (Bohn’s ed.); Rev. C. Swainson, _Folk-lore of British Birds_ (London, 1886), p. 36; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 288 _sqq._ The names for the bird are βασιλίσκος, _regulus_, _rex avium_ (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 90, x. 203), _re di siepe_, _reyezuelo_, _roitelet_, _roi des oiseaux_, _Zaunkönig_, etc. On the custom of hunting the wren see further N. W. Thomas, “The Scape-Goat in European Folklore,” _Folk-lore_, xvii. (1906) pp. 270 _sqq._, 280; Miss L. Eckstein, _Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes_ (London, 1906), pp. 172 _sqq._ Miss Eckstein suggests that the killing of the bird called “the king” may have been a mitigation of an older custom of killing the real king.
939 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 194.
940 R. Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, New Edition (London and Edinburgh, N.D.), p. 188.
_ 941 Ibid._ p. 186.
942 P. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882), ii. 214.
943 A. Bosquet, _La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 221; E. Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 294 _sq._; P. Sébillot, _l.c._; Rev. C. Swainson, _op. cit._ p. 42.
M235 Hunting the Wren in the Isle of Man.
944 G. Waldron, _Description of the Isle of Man_ (reprinted for the Manx Society, Douglas, 1865), pp. 49 _sqq._; J. Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, 1845), ii. 124 _sqq._, 141.
945 In _The Morning Post_ of Wednesday, 27th December 1911, we read that “the observance of the ancient and curious custom known as ‘the hunt of the wren’ was general throughout the Isle of Man yesterday.
## Parties of boys bearing poles decked with ivy and streamers went
from house to house singing to an indescribable tune a quaint ballad detailing the pursuit and death of the wren, subsequently demanding recompense, which is rarely refused. Formerly boys actually engaged in the chase, stoning the bird to death with the object of distributing the feathers ‘for luck.’ ” From this account we may gather that in the Isle of Man the hunting of the wren is now merely nominal and that the pretence of it is kept up only as an excuse for collecting gratuities. It is thus that the solemnity of ritual dwindles into the pastime of children. I have to thank Mrs. J. H. Deane, of 41 Iverna Court, Kensington, for kindly sending me the extract from _The Morning Post_.
M236 Hunting the Wren in Ireland and England.
946 Ch. Vallancey, _Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis_, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 195.
947 G. H. Kinahan, “Notes on Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore Record_, iv. (1881) p. 108; Rev. C. Swainson, _Folk-lore of British Birds_, pp. 36 _sq._; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 297; Professor W. Ridgeway, in _Academy_, 10th May 1884, p. 332; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 497; L. L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” _Folk-lore_, v. (1894) p. 197. The custom is still, or was down to a few years ago, practised in County Meath, where the verses sung are practically the same as those in the text. Wrens are scarce in that part of the country, “but as the boys go round more for the fun of dressing up and collecting money, the fact that there is no wren in their basket is quite immaterial.” These particulars I learn from a letter of Miss A. H. Singleton, dated Appey-Leix, Ireland, 24th February 1904.
948 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_ (London, 1879), p. 125.
949 Rev. C. Swainson, _op. cit._ pp. 40 _sq._
M237 Hunting the Wren in France.
950 Madame Clément, _Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc., _de la Belgique Méridionale_ (Avesnes, 1846), pp. 466-468; A. De Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 77 _sqq._; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 295 _sq._; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. (Göttingen, 1857) pp. 437 _sq._ The ceremony was abolished at the revolution of 1789, revived after the restoration, and suppressed again after 1830.
951 E. Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 296 _sq._
952 C. S. Sonnini, _Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt_, translated from the French (London, 1800), pp. 11 _sq._; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 198. The “hunting of the wren” may be compared with a Swedish custom. On the 1st of May children rob the magpies’ nests of both eggs and young. These they carry in a basket from house to house in the village and shew to the housewives, while one of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that, if a present is not given, the hens, chickens, and eggs will fall a prey to the magpie. They receive bacon, eggs, milk, etc., upon which they afterwards feast. See L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 237 _sq._ The resemblance of such customs to the “swallow song” and “crow song” of the ancient Greeks (on which see Athenaeus, viii. 59 _sq._, pp. 359, 360) is obvious and has been remarked before now. Probably the Greek swallow-singers and crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of them. The “crow song” is referred to in a Greek inscription found in the south of Russia ἕξ δεκάδας λυκάβας κεκορώνικα. See _Compte Rendu_ of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, St. Petersburg, 1877, pp. 276 _sqq._ In modern Greece and Macedonia it is still customary for children on 1st March to go about the streets singing spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow, which is kept turning on a cylinder. See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 636; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 301; G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903), p. 18; J. C. Lawson, _Modern Greek Folklore and ancient Greek Religion_ (Cambridge, 1910), p. 35. The custom of making the image of the swallow revolve on a pivot, which is practised in Macedonia as well as Greece, may be compared with the pirouetting of the girl in the Servian rain-making ceremony. The meaning of these revolutions is obscure. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 273, 275.
M238 Religious processions with sacred animals. Ceremony of beating a man clad in a cow’s skin in the Highlands of Scotland.
953 S. Johnson, _A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland_, pp. 128 _sq._ (_The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D._, edited by the Rev. R. Lynam, London, 1825, vol. vi.).
954 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_ (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 438 _sq._ The custom is clearly referred to in the “Penitential of Theodore,” quoted by Kemble, _Saxons in England_, i. 525; Ch. Elton, _Origins of English History_ (London, 1882), p. 411: “_Si quis in Kal. Januar. in cervulo vel vitula vadit, id est in ferarum habitus se communicant, et vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum_,” etc.
M239 Another description of the Highland custom.
955 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 230-232. Shinty is the Scotch name for hockey: the game is played with a ball and curved sticks or clubs.
956 R. Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, New Edition (London and Edinburgh, N.D.), pp. 166 _sq._
957 See above, vol. i. pp. 246 _sq._
M240 Processions of men disguised as animals, in which the animal seems to represent the corn-spirit. The Shrovetide Bear in Bohemia.
958 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 183.
959 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest- Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D., preface dated 1861), pp. 49-52. Compare E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), p. 83. Similar processions with a Shrovetide Bear take place among some of the German peasantry of Moravia, though there the mummer is said to be wrapt in skins and furs rather than in straw and to personate Winter. See W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 431. This latter interpretation may be due to a misunderstanding of the old custom.
960 On this custom see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137 _sqq._
961 Real bears and other animals were formerly promenaded about both town and country with rags of coloured cloth attached to them. Scraps of these cloths and hairs of the animals were given, rather perhaps sold, to all who asked for them as preservatives against sickness and the evil eye. The practice was condemned by the Council of Constance. See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 315 _sq._ We need not suppose that these animals represented the corn-spirit.
M241 The Oats-goat, the Pease-bear, etc. The Yule-goat in Sweden.
962 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 183 _sq._
963 See above, vol. i. pp. 281 _sqq._
964 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 190.
965 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 188.
966 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 191-193.
967 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 184 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 196 _sq._
968 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 196.
969 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 197 _sq._
970 See above, vol. i. pp. 275, 298 _sqq._
M242 The Straw-bear at Whittlesey.
971 Letter of Professor G. C. Moore Smith, dated The University, Sheffield, 13th January, 1909.
M243 The ceremonies of Plough Monday in England.
972 R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 94 _sq._; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 506 _sqq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 37 _sqq._; O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 27 _sq._ Compare W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 557 _sq._; T. Fairman Ordish, “English Folk-drama,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) pp. 163 _sqq._; _Folk-lore_, viii. (1897) p. 184; E. K. Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_ (Oxford, 1903), i. 208-210; H. Munro Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907), p. 238. Counties in which the custom of Plough Monday is reported to have been observed are Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire. Thus the custom would seem to have been characteristic of a group of counties in the centre of England. In January 1887, I witnessed the ceremony in the streets of Cambridge. Wooden ploughs of a primitive sort were dragged about by bands of young men who were profusely decked with scarves and ribbons. They ran at a good pace, and beside them ran a companion with a money-box collecting donations. Amongst them I did not observe any woman or man in female attire. Compare _The Folk-lore Journal_, v. (1887) p. 161.
M244 The object of the dances on Plough Monday is probably to ensure the growth of the corn. M245 The Straw-bear a representative of the corn-spirit. M246 The rites of Plough Monday resemble the rites at the end of the Carnival in Thrace. Similar rites are performed at the same time by the Bulgarian peasants of Thrace. The intention of the rites is clearly to fertilise the ground.
973 See above, vol. i. pp. 25 _sqq._
974 G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, xi. (1908) pp. 407 _sq._
M247 Similar customs are observed at the Carnival in Bulgaria.
975 G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft,_ xi. (1908) pp. 408 _sq._
M248 In all these cases the ceremonial ploughing and sowing are probably charms to ensure the growth of the crops. M249 Such rites no doubt date from a remote antiquity. M250 Effigy of a horse in a harvest festival of the Garos.
976 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), pp. 94 _sq._
M251 Major Playfair’s description of the festival. M252 Dance of a man wearing the mask of a horse’s head. M253 The effigy of the horse at rice-harvest perhaps represents the spirit of the rice.
977 See above, p. 21.
978 See my note on Pausanias, viii. 37. 3 (vol. iv. pp. 375 _sqq._).