part ii

. (1875), and the Life of _Sir Richard Southey, K.C.M.G._, by A. Wilmot (London, 1904). For the Griqua people consult G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_, chapters xvii.-xx. (London, 1905).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The Griquas, as a distinct tribe, numbered at the Cape census of 1904 but 6289. They have largely intermarried with Kaffir and Bechuana tribes.

[2] The order of discovery of the chief mines was:--Dutoitspan, Sept. 1870; Bultfontein, Nov. 1870; De Beers, May 1871; Colesberg Kop (Kimberley), July 1871.

[3] Sir Richard Southey (1809-1901) was the son of one of the emigrants from the west of England to Cape Colony (1820). He organized and commanded a corps of Guides in the Kaffir war of 1834-35, and was with Sir Harry Smith at Boomplaats (1848). From 1864 to 1872 he was colonial secretary at the Cape. He gave up his appointment in Griqualand West in 1875, and lived thereafter in retirement. In 1891 he was created a K.C.M.G.

GRISAILLE, a French term, derived from _gris_, grey, for painting in monochrome in various shades of grey, particularly used in decoration to represent objects in relief. The frescoes of the roof of the Sistine chapel have portions of the design in _grisaille_. At Hampton Court the lower part of the decoration of the great staircase by Verrio is in _grisaille_. The term is also applied to monochrome painting in enamels, and also to stained glass; a fine example of _grisaille_ glass is in the window known as the Five Sisters, at the end of the north transept in York cathedral.

GRISELDA, a heroine of romance. She is said to have been the wife of Walter, marquis of Saluces or Saluzzo, in the 11th century, and her misfortunes were considered to belong to history when they were handled by Boccaccio and Petrarch, although the probability is that Boccaccio borrowed his narrative from a Provencal _fabliau_. He included it in the recitations of the tenth day (_Decamerone_), and must have written it about 1350. Petrarch related it in a Latin letter in 1373, and his translation formed the basis of much of the later literature. The letter was printed by Ulrich Zel about 1470, and often subsequently. It was translated into French as _La Patience de Griselidis_ and printed at Brehan-Loudeac in 1484, and its popularity is shown by the number of early editions quoted by Brunet (_Manuel du libraire, s.v._ Petrarca). The story was dramatized in 1395, and a _Mystere de Griselidis, marquise de Saluses par personnaiges_ was printed by Jehan Bonfons (no date). Chaucer followed Petrarch's version in the _Canterbury Tales_. Ralph Radcliffe, who flourished under Henry VIII., is said to have written a play on the subject, and the story was dramatized by Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle and W. Haughton in 1603.

An example of the many ballads of Griselda is given in T. Deloney's _Garland of Good Will_ (1685), and the 17th-century chap-book, _The History of Patient Grisel_ (1619), was edited by H. B. Wheatley (1885) for the Villon Society with a bibliographical and literary introduction.

GRISI, GIULIA (1811-1869), Italian opera-singer, daughter of one of Napoleon's Italian officers, was born in Milan. She came of a family of musical gifts, her maternal aunt Josephina Grassini (1773-1850) being a favourite opera-singer both on the continent and in London; her mother had also been a singer, and her elder sister Giudetta and her cousin Carlotta were both exceedingly talented. Giulia was trained to a musical career, and made her stage debut in 1828. Rossini and Bellini both took an interest in her, and at Milan she was the first Adalgisa in Bellini's _Norma_, in which Pasta took the title-part. Grisi appeared in Paris in 1832, as Semiramide in Rossini's opera, and had a great success; and in 1834 she appeared in London. Her voice was a brilliant dramatic soprano, and her established position as a prima donna continued for thirty years. She was a particularly fine actress, and in London opera her association with such singers as Lablache, Rubini, Tamburini and Mario was long remembered as the palmy days of Italian opera. In 1854 she toured with Mario In America. She had married Count de Melcy in 1836, but this ended in a divorce; and in 1856 she married Mario (q.v.). She died in Berlin on the 29th of November 1869.

GRISON (_Galictis vittata_), a carnivorous mammal, of the family _Mustelidae_, common in Central and South America and Mexico. It is about the size of a marten, and has the upper surface of a bluish-grey tint, and the under surface is dark brown. The grison lives on small mammals and birds, and in settled districts is destructive to poultry. Allamand's grison (_G. allamandi_), with the same range, is somewhat larger. Another member of the genus is the tayra or taira (_G. barbara_), about as large as an otter, with a range from Mexico to Argentina. This species hunts in companies (see CARNIVORA).

GRISONS (Ger. _Graubunden_), the most easterly of the Swiss cantons and also the largest in extent, though relatively the most sparsely populated. Its total area is 2753.2 sq. m., of which 1634.4 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 503.1 sq. m. and vineyards 1.3 sq. m.), but it has also 138.6 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking in this respect next after the Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is mountainous, the principal glacier groups being those of the Todi, N. (11,887 ft.), of Medels, S.W. (Piz Medel, 10,509 ft.), of the Rheinwald or the Adula Alps, S.W. (Rheinwaldhorn, 11,149 ft.), with the chief source of the Rhine, of the Bernina, S.E. (Piz Bernina, 13,304 ft.), the most extensive, of the Albula, E. (Piz Kesch, 11,228 ft.), and of the Silvretta, N.E. (Piz Linard, 11,201 ft.). The principal valleys are those of the upper Rhine and of the upper Inn (or Engadine, q.v.). The three main sources of the Rhine are in the canton. The valley of the Vorder Rhine is called the Bundner Oberland, that of the Mittel Rhine the Val Medels, and that of the Hinter Rhine (the principal), in different parts of its course, the Rheinwald, the Schams valley and the Domleschg valley, while the upper valley of the Julia is named the Oberhalbstein. The chief affluents of the Rhine in the canton are the Glenner (flowing through the Lugnetz valley), the Avers Rhine, the Albula (swollen by the Julia and the Landwasser), the Plessur (Schanfigg valley) and the Landquart (coming from the Prattigau). The Rhine and the Inn flow respectively into the North and the Black Seas. Of other streams that of Val Mesocco joins the Ticino and so the Po, while the Maira or Mera (Val Bregaglia) and the Poschiavino join the Adda, and the Rambach (Munster valley) the Adige, all four thus ultimately reaching the Adriatic Sea. The inner valleys are the highest in Central Europe, and among the loftiest villages are Juf, 6998 ft. (the highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps), at the head of the Avers glen, and St Moritz, 6037 ft., in the Upper Engadine. The lower courses of the various streams are rent by remarkable gorges, such as the Via Mala, the Rofna, the Schyn, and those in the Avers, Medels and Lugnetz glens, as well as that of the Zuge in the Landwasser glen. Below Coire, near Malans, good wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco, &c., maize and chestnuts flourish. But the forests and the mountain pasturages are the chief source of wealth. The lower pastures maintain a fine breed of cows, while the upper are let out in summer to Bergamasque shepherds. There are many mineral springs, such as those of St Moritz, Schuls, Alvaneu, Fideris, Le Prese and San Bernardino. The climate and vegetation, save on the southern slope of the Alps, are alpine and severe. But yearly vast numbers of strangers visit different spots in the canton, especially Davos (q.v.), Arosa and the Engadine. As yet there are comparatively few railways. There is one from Maienfeld (continued north to Constance and north-west to Zurich) to Coire (11 m.), which sends off a branch line from Landquart, E., past Klosters to Davos (31 m.). From Coire the line bears west to Reichenau (6 m.), whence one branch runs S.S.E. beneath the Albula Pass to St Moritz (50 m.), and another S.W. up the Hinter Rhine valley to Ilanz (20-1/2 m.). There are, however, a number of fine carriage roads across the passes leading to or towards Italy. Besides those leading to the Engadine may be noted the roads from Ilanz past Disentis over the Oberalp Pass (6719 ft.) to Andermatt, from Disentis over the Lukmanier Pass (6289 ft.) to Biasca, on the St Gotthard railway, from Reichenau past Thusis and Splugen over the San Bernardino Pass (6769 ft.) to Bellinzona on the same railway line, and from Splugen over the Splugen Pass (6946 ft.) to Chiavenna. The Septimer Pass (7582 ft.) from the Julier route to the Maloja route has now only a mule path, but was probably known in Roman times (as was possibly the Splugen), and was much frequented in the middle ages.

The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520. Of this number 55,155 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau and in the Schanfigg valley) were Protestants, while 49,142 (mainly in the Bundner Oberland, the Val Mesocco and the Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were also 114 Jews (81 of whom lived in Davos). In point of language 48,762 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau and in the Schanfigg valley) were German-speaking, while 17,539 (mostly in the Val Mesocco, the Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiavo, but including a number of Italian labourers engaged on the construction of the Albula railway) were Italian-speaking. But the characteristic tongue of the Grisons is a survival of an ancient Romance language (the _lingua rustica_ of the Roman Empire), which has lagged behind its sisters. It has a scanty printed literature, but is still widely spoken, so that, of the 38,651 persons in the Swiss Confederation who speak it, no fewer than 36,472 are in the Grisons. It is distinguished into two dialects: the Romonsch (sometimes wrongly called Romansch), which prevails in the Bundner Oberland and in the Hinter Rhine valley (Schams and Domleschg), and the Ladin (closely related to the tongue spoken in parts of the South Tyrol), that survives in the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of Bergun, Oberhalbstein and Munster. (See F. Rausch's _Geschichte der Literatur des rhaeto-romanischen Volkes_, Frankfort, 1870, and Mr Coolidge's bibliography of this language, given on pp. 22-23 of Lorria and Martel's _Le Massif de la Bernina_, Zurich, 1894.) Yet in the midst of this Romance-speaking population are islets (mostly, if not entirely, due to immigration in the 13th century from the German-speaking Upper Valais) of German-speaking inhabitants, so in the Vals and Safien glens, and at Obersaxen (all in the Bundner Oberland), in the Rheinwald (the highest part of the Hinter Rhine valley), and in the Avers glen (middle reach of the Hinter Rhine valley), as well as in and around Davos itself.

There is not much industrial activity in the Grisons. A considerable portion of the population is engaged in attending to the wants of the foreign visitors, but there is a considerable trade with Italy,

## particularly in the wines of the Valtellina, while many young men seek

their fortunes abroad (returning home after having accumulated a small stock of money) as confectioners, pastry-cooks and coffee-house keepers. A certain number of lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are now abandoned. The capital of the canton is Coire (q.v.).

The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts, and includes 224 communes. It sends 2 members (elected by a popular vote) to the Federal _Standerath_, and 5 members (also elected by a popular vote) to the Federal _Nationalrath_. The existing cantonal constitution was accepted by the people in 1892, and came into force on 1st January 1894. The legislature (_Grossrath_--no numbers fixed by the constitution) is elected for 2 years by a popular vote, as are the 5 members of the executive (_Kleinrath_) for 3 years. The "obligatory referendum" obtains in the case of all laws and important matters of expenditure, while 3000 citizens can demand ("facultative referendum") a popular vote as to resolutions and ordinances made by the legislature. Three thousand citizens also have the right of "initiative" as to legislative projects, but 5000 signatures are required for a proposed revision of the cantonal constitution. In the revenue and expenditure of the canton the taxes are never counted. This causes an apparent deficit which is carried to the capital account, and is met by the land tax (art. 19 of the constitution), so that there is never a real deficit, as the amount of the land tax varies annually according to the amount that _must_ be provided. In the pre-1799 constitution of the three Raetian Leagues the system of the "referendum" was in working as early as the 16th century, not merely as between the three Leagues themselves, but as between the bailiwicks (_Hochgerichte_), the sovereign units within each League, and sometimes (as in the Upper Engadine) between the villages composing each bailiwick.

The greater part (excluding the three valleys where the inhabitants speak Italian) of the modern canton of the Grisons formed the southern part of the province of Raetia (probably the aboriginal inhabitants, the Raeti, were Celts rather than, as was formerly believed, Etruscans), set up by the Romans after their conquest of the region in 15 B.C. The Romanized inhabitants were to a certain extent (The Romonsch or Ladin tongue is a survival of the Roman dominion) Teutonized under the Ostrogoths (A.D. 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537 onwards). Governors called _Praesides_ are mentioned in the 7th and 8th centuries, while members of the same family occupied the episcopal see of Coire (founded 4th-5th centuries). About 806 Charles the Great made this region into a county, but in 831 the bishop procured for his dominions exemption ("immunity") from the jurisdiction of the counts, while before 847 his see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the German province of Mainz (Mayence) and was thus cut off from Italy to be joined to Germany. In 916 the region was united with the duchy of Alamannia, but the bishop still retained practical independence, and his wide-spread dominions placed him even above the abbots of Disentis and Pfafers, who likewise enjoyed "immunity." In the 10th century the bishop obtained fresh privileges from the emperors (besides the Val Bregaglia in 960), and so became the chief of the many feudal nobles who struggled for power in the region. He became a prince of the empire in 1170 and later allied himself with the rising power (in the region) of the Habsburgers. This led in 1367 to the foundation of the League of God's House or the _Gotteshausbund_ (composed of the city and chapter of Coire, and of the bishop's subjects, especially in the Engadine, Val Bregaglia, Domleschg and Oberhalbstein) in order to stem his rising power, the bishop entering it in 1392. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis, the men of the Lugnetz valley, and the great feudal lords of Razuns and Sax (in 1399 the counts of Werdenberg came in) formed another League, called the _Ober Bund_ (as comprising the highlands in the Vorder Rhine valley) and also wrongly the "Grey League" (as the word interpreted "grey" is simply a misreading of _graven_ or counts, though the false view has given rise to the name of Grisons or Graubunden for the whole canton), their alliance being strengthened in 1424 when, too, the free men of the Rheinwald and Schams came in, and in 1480 the Val Mesocco also. Finally, in 1436, the third Raetian League was founded, that of the _Zehngerichtenbund_ or League of the Ten Jurisdictions, by the former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose dynasty then became extinct; they include the inhabitants of the Prattigau, Davos, Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Churwalden, and the lordship of Belfort (i.e. the region round Alvaneu), and formed ten bailiwicks, whence the name of the League. In 1450 the _Zehngerichtenbund_ concluded an alliance with the _Gotteshausbund_ and in 1471 with the _Ober Bund_; but of the so-called perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefenkastels, there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though diets were held there. By a succession of purchases (1477-1496) nearly all the possessions of the extinct dynasty of the counts of Toggenburg in the Prattigau had come to the junior or Tyrolese line of the Habsburgers. On its extinction (1496) in turn they passed to the elder line, the head of which, Maximilian, was already emperor-elect and desired to maintain the rights of his family there and in the Lower Engadine. Hence in 1497 the Ober Bund and in 1498 the _Gotteshausbund_ became allies of the Swiss Confederation. War broke out in 1499, but was ended by the great Swiss victory (22nd May 1499) at the battle of the Calven gorge (above Mals) which, added to another Swiss victory at Dornach (near Basel), compelled the emperor to recognize the _practical_ independence of the Swiss and their allies of the Empire. The religious Reformation brought disunion into the three Leagues, as the _Ober Bund_ clung in the main to the old faith, and for this reason their connexion with the Swiss Confederation was much weakened. In 1526, by the Articles of Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction of the bishop of Coire was abolished. In 1486 Poschiavo had at last been secured from Milan, and Maienfeld with Malans was bought in 1509, while in 1549 the Val Mesocco (included in the _Ober Bund_ since 1480) purchased its freedom of its lords, the Trivulzio family of Milan. In 1512 the three Leagues conquered from Milan the rich and fertile Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, and held these districts as subject lands till in 1797 they were annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. The struggle for lucrative offices in these lands further sharpened the long rivalry between the families of Planta (Engadine) and Salis (Val Bregaglia), while in the 17th century this rivalry was complicated by political enmities, as the Plantas favoured the Spanish side and the Salis that of France during the long struggle (1620-1639) for the Valtellina (see JENATSCH and VALTELLINA). Troubles arose (1622) also in the Prattigau through the attempts of the Habsburgers to force the inhabitants to give up Protestantism. Finally, after the emperor had _formally_ recognized, by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the independence of the Swiss Confederation, the rights of the Habsburgers in the Prattigau and the Lower Engadine were bought up (1649 and 1652). But the Austrian _enclaves_ of Tarasp (Lower Engadine) and of Razuns (near Reichenau) were only annexed to the Grisons in 1809 and 1815 respectively, in each case France holding the lordship for a short time after its cession by Austria. In 1748 (finally in 1762) the three Leagues secured the upper portion of the valley of Munster. In 1799 the French invaded the canton, which became the scene of a fierce conflict (1799-1800) between them and the united Russian and Austrian army, in the course of which the French burnt (May 1799) the ancient convent of Disentis with all its literary treasures. In April 1799 the provisional government agreed to the incorporation of the three Leagues in the Helvetic Republic, though it was not till June 1801 that the canton of Raetia became formally part of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803, by Napoleon's Act of Mediation, it entered, under the name of Canton of the Grisons or Graubunden, the reconstituted Swiss Confederation, of which it then first became a full member.

AUTHORITIES.--A. Andrea, Das Bergell (Frauenfeld, 1901); _Bundnergeschichte in 11 Vortragen_, by various writers (Coire, 1902); _Codex diplomaticus Raetiae_ (5 vols., Coire, 1848-1886); W. Coxe, _Travels in Switzerland_, vol. ii. of the 1789 London edition; E. Dunant, _La Reunion des Grisons a la Suisse_ (1798-1799) (Basel, 1899); G. Fient, _Das Prattigau_ (2nd ed., Davos, 1897); P. Foffa, _Das bundnerische Munsterthal_ (Coire, 1864); F. Fossati, _Codice diplomatico della Rezia_ (originally published in the _Periodico_ of the _Societa storica a Comense_ at Como; separate reprint, Como, 1901); R. A. Ganzoni, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis d. bundnerischen Referendums_ (Zurich, 1890); Mrs Henry Freshfield, _A Summer Tour in the Grisons_ (London, 1862); C. and F. Jecklin, _Der Anteil Graubundens am Schwabenkrieg_ (1499) (Davos, 1899); C. von Moor, _Geschichte von Curraetien_ (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874), and _Wegweiser_ (Coire, 1873); E. Lechner, _Das Thal Bergell_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1874); G. Leonhardi, _Das Poschiavinothal_ (Leipzig, 1859); A. Lorria and E. A. Martel, _Le Massif de la Bernina_ (Upper Engadine and Val Bregaglia) (Zurich, 1894); P. C. von Planta, _Das alte Raetien_ (Berlin, 1872); _Die curraetischen Herrschaften in d. Feudalzeit_ (Bern, 1881); _Geschichte von Graubunden_ (Bern, 1892); and _Chronik d. Familie von Planta_ (Zurich, 1892); W. Plattner, _Die Entstehung d. Freistaates der 3 Bunde_ (Davos, 1895), R. von Reding-Biberegg, _Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799_ (Stans, 1895); N. Salis-Soglio, _Die Familie von Salis_ (Lindau, 1891); G. Theobald, _Das Bundner Oberland_ (Coire, 1861), and _Naturbilder aus den rhatischen Alpen_ (3rd ed., Coire, 1893); N. Valaer, _Johannes von Planta_ (d. 1572) (Zurich, 1888); R. Wagner and L. R. von Salis, _Rechtsquellen d. Cant. Graubunden_ (Basel, 1877-1892); F. Jecklin, _Materialen zur Standes- und Landesgeschichte Gem. iii. Bunde_ (Graubunden), _1464-1803_ (pt. i., _Regesten_, was published at Basel in 1907). See also COIRE, ENGADINE, JENATSCH and VALTELLINA. (W. A. B. C.)

GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT (1815-1857), American editor and compiler, was born in Benson, Vermont, on the 15th of February 1815. He travelled extensively, worked in newspaper offices, was a Baptist clergyman for a time, and finally became a journalist in New York City, where he was successively a member of the staffs of _The Brother Jonathan_, _The New World_ (1839-1840) and _The New Yorker_ (1840). From 1841 to 1843 he edited _Graham's Magazine_ (Philadelphia), and added to its list of contributors many leading American writers. From 1850 to 1852 he edited the _International Magazine_ (New York), which in 1852 was merged into _Harper's Magazine_. He died in New York City on the 27th of August 1857. He is best known as the compiler and editor of various anthologies (with brief biographies and critiques), such as _Poets and Poetry of America_ (1842), his most popular and valuable book; _Prose Writers of America_ (1846); _Female Poets of America_ (1848); and _Sacred Poets of England and America_ (1849). Of his own writings his _Republican Court: or American Society in the Days of Washington_ (1854) is the only one of permanent value. He edited the first American edition of Milton's prose works (1845), and, as literary executor, edited, with James R. Lowell and N. P. Willis, the works (1850) of Edgar Allan Poe. Griswold's great contemporary reputation as a critic has not stood the test of time; but he rendered a valuable service in making Americans better acquainted with the poetry and prose of their own countrymen.

See _Passages from the Correspondence and Other Papers of Rufus W. Griswold_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1898), edited by his son William McCrillis Griswold (1853-1899).

GRIVET, a monkey, _Cercopithecus sabaeus_, of the guenon group, nearly allied to the green monkey. It is common throughout equatorial Africa. The chin, whiskers and a broad band across the forehead, as well as the under-parts, are white, and the head and back olive-green. These monkeys are very commonly seen in menageries.

GROAT (adapted from the Dutch _groot_, great, thick; cf. Ger. _Groschen_; the Med. Lat. _grossus_ gives Ital. _grosso_, Fr. _gros_, as names for the coin), a name applied as early as the 13th century on the continent of Europe to any large or thick coin. The groat was almost universally a silver coin, but its value varied considerably, as well at different times as in different countries. The English groat was first coined in 1351, of a value somewhat higher than a penny. The continuous debasement of both the penny and the groat left the latter finally worth four pennies. The issue of the groat was discontinued after 1662, but a coin worth fourpence was again struck in 1836. Although frequently referred to as a groat, it had no other official designation than a "fourpenny piece." Its issue was again discontinued in 1856. The groat was imitated in Scotland by a coin struck by David II. in 1358. In Ireland it was first struck by Edward IV. in 1460.

GROCER, literally one who sells by the gross, a wholesale dealer; the word is derived through the O. Fr. form, _grossia_, from the Med. Lat. _grossarius_, defined by du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. _Grossares_, as _solidae mercis propola_. The name, as a general one for dealers by wholesale, "engrossers" as opposed to "regrators," the retail dealers, is found with the commodity attached; thus in the _Munimenta Gildhallae_ ("Rolls" series) ii. 1.304 (quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) is found an allusion to _grossours de vin_, cf. _groser of fysshe_, _Surtees Misc._ (1888) 63, for the customs of Malton (quoted _ib._). The specific application of the word to one who deals either by wholesale or retail in tea, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits, spices, sugar and all kinds of articles of use or consumption in a household is connected with the history of the Grocers' Company of London, one of the twelve "great" livery companies. In 1345 the pepperers and the spicers amalgamated and were known as the Fraternity of St Anthony. The name "grocers" first appears in 1373 in the records of the company. In 1386 the association was granted a right of search over all "spicers" in London, and in 1394 they obtained the right to inspect or "garble" spices and other "subtil wares." Their first charter was obtained in 1428; letters patent in 1447 granted an extension of the right of search over the whole county, but removed the "liberties" of the city of London. They sold all kinds of drugs, medicines, ointments, plasters, and medicated and other waters. For the separation of the apothecaries from the grocers in 1617 see APOTHECARY. (See further LIVERY COMPANIES.)

See _The Grocery Trade_, by J. Aubrey Rees (1910).

GROCYN, WILLIAM (1446?-1519), English scholar, was born at Colerne, Wiltshire, about 1446. Intended by his parents for the church, he was sent to Winchester College, and in 1465 was elected to a scholarship at New College, Oxford. In 1467 he became a fellow, and had among his pupils William Warham, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479 he accepted the rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but continued to reside at Oxford. As reader in divinity in Magdalen College in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of divinity, in presence of King Richard III., and the king acknowledged his skill as a debater by the present of a buck and five marks. In 1485 he became prebendary of Lincoln cathedral. About 1488 Grocyn left England for Italy, and before his return in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and Padua, and studied Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalchondyles and Politian. As lecturer in Exeter College he found an opportunity of indoctrinating his countrymen in the new Greek learning.

Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek at Oxford before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College, Thomas Chaundler, invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to Oxford, to act as praelector. This was about 1475, and as Vitelli was certainly familiar with Greek literature, Grocyn may have learnt Greek from him. He seems to have lived in Oxford until 1499, but when his friend Colet became dean of St Paul's in 1504 he was settled in London. He was chosen by his friend to deliver lectures in St Paul's; and in this connexion he gave a singular proof of his honesty. He had at first denounced all who impugned the authenticity of the _Hierarchia ecclesiastica_ ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, but, being led to modify his views by further investigation, he openly declared that he had been completely mistaken. He also counted Linacre, William Lily, William Latimer and More among his friends, and Erasmus writing in 1514 says that he was supported by Grocyn in London, and calls him "the friend and preceptor of us all." He held several preferments, but his generosity to his friends involved him in continual difficulties, and though in 1506 he was appointed on Archbishop Warham's recommendation master or warden of All Hallows College at Maidstone in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his friends, and even to pledge his plate as a security. He died in 1519, and was buried in the collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted as his executor, and expended the money he received in gifts to the poor and the purchase of books for poor scholars. With the exception of a few lines of Latin verse on a lady who snowballed him, and a letter to Aldus Manutius at the head of Linacre's translation of Proclus's _Sphaera_ (Venice, 1499), Grocyn has left no literary proof of his scholarship or abilities. His proposal to execute a translation of Aristotle in company with Linacre and Latimer was never carried out. Wood assigns some Latin works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority. By Erasmus he has been described as "vir severissimae castissimae vitae, ecclesiasticarum constitutionum observantissimus pene usque ad superstitionem, scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus ac natura etiam acerrimi judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum genere exacte versatus" (_Declarationes ad censuras facultatis theologiae Parisianae_, 1522).

An account of Grocyn by Professor Burrows appeared in the Oxford Historical Society's _Collectanea_ (1890).

GRODNO, one of the Lithuanian governments of western Russia, lying between 51 deg. 40' and 52 deg. N. and between 22 deg. 12' and 26 deg. E., and bounded N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk, S. by Volhynia, and W. by the Polish governments of Lomza and Siedlce. Area, 14,926 sq. m. Except for some hills (not exceeding 925 ft.) in the N., it is a uniform plain, and is drained chiefly by the Bug, Niemen, Narev and Bobr, all navigable. There are also several canals, the most important being the Augustowo and Oginsky. Granites and gneisses crop out along the Bug, Cretaceous, and especially Tertiary, deposits elsewhere. The soil is mostly sandy, and in the district of Grodno and along the rivers is often drift-sand. Forests, principally of _Coniferae_, cover more than one-fourth of the area. Amongst them are some of vast extent, e.g. those of Grodno (410 sq. m.) and Byelovitsa (Bialowice) (376 sq. m.), embracing wide areas of marshy ground. In the last mentioned forest the wild ox survives, having been jealously preserved since 1803. Peat bogs, sometimes as much as 4 to 7 ft. thick, cover extensive districts. The climate is wet and cold; the annual mean temperature being 44.5 deg. F., the January mean 22.5 deg. and the July mean 64.5 deg. The rainfall amounts to 21-1/2 in.; hail is frequent. Agriculture is the predominant industry. The peasants own 42-1/2% of the land, that is, about 4,000,000 acres, and of these over 2-1/4 million acres are arable. The crops principally grown are potatoes, rye, oats, wheat, flax, hemp and some tobacco. Horses, cattle and sheep are bred in fairly large numbers. There is, however, a certain amount of manufacturing industry, especially in woollens, distilling and tobacco. In woollens this government ranks second (after Moscow) in the empire, the centre of the industry being Byelostok. Other factories produce silk, shoddy and leather. The government is crossed by the main lines of railway from Warsaw to St Petersburg and from Warsaw to Moscow. The population numbered 1,008,521 in 1870 and 1,616,630 in 1897; of these last 789,801 were women and 255,946 were urban. In 1906 it was estimated at 1,826,600. White Russians predominate (54%), then follow Jews (17.4%), Poles (10%), Lithuanians and Germans. The government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns, with their populations in 1897, being Grodno (q.v.), Brest-Litovsk (pop. 42,812 in 1901), Byelsk (7461), Byelostok or Bialystok (65,781 in 1901), Kobrin (10,365), Pruzhany (7634), Slonim (15,893), Sokolsk (7595) and Volkovysk (10,584). In 1795 Grodno, which had been Polish for ages, was annexed by Russia.

GRODNO, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name in 53 deg. 40' N. and 23 deg. 50' E., on the right bank of the Niemen, 160 m. by rail N.E. of Warsaw and 98 m. S.W. of Vilna on the main line to St Petersburg. Pop. (1901) 41,736, nearly two-thirds Jews. It is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek church and the headquarters of the II. Army Corps. It has two old castles, now converted to other uses, and two churches (16th and 17th centuries). Tobacco factories and distilleries are important; machinery, soap, candles, vehicles and firearms are also made. Built in the 12th century, Grodno was almost entirely destroyed by the Mongols (1241) and Teutonic knights (1284 and 1391). Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, made it his capital, and died there in 1586. The Polish Estates frequently met at Grodno after 1673, and there in 1793 they signed the second partition of Poland. It was at Grodno that Stanislaus Poniatowski resigned the Polish crown in 1795.

GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME (1801-1876), Dutch politician and historian, was born at Voorburg, near the Hague, on the 21st of August 1801. He studied at Leiden university, and graduated in 1823 both as doctor of literature and LL.D. From 1829 to 1833 he acted as secretary to King William I. of Holland, afterwards took a prominent part in Dutch home politics, and gradually became the leader of the so-called anti-revolutionary party, both in the Second Chamber, of which he was for many years a member, and outside. In Groen the doctrines of Guizot and Stahl found an eloquent exponent. They permeate his controversial and political writings and historical studies, of which his _Handbook of Dutch History_ (in Dutch) and _Maurice et Barnevelt_ (in French, 1875, a criticism of Motley's _Life of Van Olden-Barnevelt_) are the principal. Groen was violently opposed to Thorbecke, whose principles he denounced as ungodly and revolutionary. Although he lived to see these principles triumph, he never ceased to oppose them until his death, which occurred at the Hague on the 19th of May 1876. He is best known as the editor of the _Archives et correspondance de la maison d'Orange_ (12 vols., 1835-1845), a great work of patient erudition, which procured for him the title of the "Dutch _Gachard_." J. L. Motley acknowledges his indebtedness to Groen's Archives in the preface to his _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, at a time when the American historian had not yet made the acquaintance of King William's archivist, and also bore emphatic testimony to Groen's worth as a writer of history in the correspondence published after his death. At the first reception, in 1858, of Motley at the royal palace at the Hague, the king presented him with a copy of Groen's _Archives_ as a token of appreciation and admiration of the work done by the "worthy vindicator of William I., prince of Orange." This copy, bearing the king's autograph inscription, afterwards came into the possession of Sir William Vernon Harcourt, Motley's son-in-law.

GROIN. (1) An obsolete word for the grunting of swine, from Lat. _grunnire_, and so applied to the snout of a pig; it is probably the origin of the word, more commonly spelled "groyne," for a small timber framework or wall of masonry used on sea coasts as a breakwater to prevent the encroachment of sand and shingle. (2) (Of uncertain origin; from an older form _grynde_ or _grinde_; the derivation from "grain," an obsolete word meaning "fork," cannot, according to the _New English Dictionary_, be accepted), in anatomy the folds or grooves formed between the lower part of the abdomen and the thighs, covering the inguinal glands, and so applied in architecture to the angle or "arris" formed by the intersection of two vaults crossing one another, occasionally called by workmen "groin point." If the vaults are both of the same radius and height, their intersections lie in a vertical plane, in other cases they form winding curves for which it is difficult to provide centering. In early medieval vaulting this was sometimes arranged by a slight alteration in the geometrical curve of the vault, but the problem was not satisfactorily solved until the introduction of the rib which henceforth ruled the vaulting surface of the web or cell (see VAULT). The name "Welsh groin" or "underpitch" is generally given to the vaulting surface or web where the main longitudinal vault is higher than the cross or transverse vaults; as the transverse rib (of much greater radius than that of the wall rib), projected diagonally in front of the latter, the filling-in or web has to be carried back from the transverse to the wall rib. The term "groin centering" is used where, in groining without ribs, the whole surface is supported by centering during the erection of the vaulting. In ribbed work the stone ribs only are supported by timber ribs during the progress of the work, any light stuff being used while filling in the spandrils. (See VAULT.)

GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON (1777-1843), Prussian soldier, was born in Berlin on the 30th of July 1777. He entered an infantry regiment when scarcely thirteen, became an ensign in 1795, second lieutenant 1797, first lieutenant 1804 and staff-captain in 1805. As a subaltern he had become one of Scharnhorst's intimates, and he was distinguished for his energetic and fearless character before the war of 1806, in which he served throughout, from Jena to the peace of Tilsit, as a staff officer, and won the rank of major for distinguished service in action. After the peace, and the downfall of Prussia, he was one of the most active of Scharnhorst's assistants in the work of reorganization (1809), joined the _Tugendbund_ and endeavoured to take part in Schill's abortive expedition, after which he entered the Austrian service as a major on the general staff. Thereafter he journeyed to Cadiz to assist the Spaniards against Napoleon, and he led a corps of volunteers in the defence of that port against Marshal Victor in 1810. He was present at the battle of Albuera, at Saguntum, and at Valencia, becoming a prisoner of war at the surrender of the last-named place. Soon, however, he escaped to Switzerland, whence early in 1813 he returned to Prussia as a major on the general staff. He served successively under Colonel von Dolffs and General von Kleist, and as commissioner at the headquarters of the Russian general Barclay de Tolly. He took part with Kleist in the victory of Kulm, and recovered from a severe wound received at that action in time to be present at the battle of Leipzig. He played a conspicuous part in the campaign of 1814 in France, after which he was made a major-general. In this rank he was appointed quartermaster-general to Field Marshal Prince Blucher, and, after his chief and Gneisenau, Grolmann had the greatest share in directing the Prussian operations of 1815. In the decision, on the 18th of June 1815, to press forward to Wellington's assistance (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN), Grolmann actively concurred, and as the troops approached the battle-field, he is said to have overcome the momentary hesitation of the commander-in-chief and the chief of staff by himself giving the order to advance. After the peace of 1815, Grolmann occupied important positions in the ministry of war and the general staff. His last public services were rendered in Poland as commander-in-chief, and practically as civil administrator of the province of Posen. He was promoted general of infantry in 1837 and died on the 1st of June 1843, at Posen. His two sons became generals in the Prussian army. The Prussian 18th infantry regiment bears his name.

General von Grolmann supervised and provided much of the material for von Damitz's _Gesch. des Feldzugs 1815_ (Berlin, 1837-1838), and _Gesch. des Feldzugs 1814 in Frankreich_ (Berlin, 1842-1843).

See v. Conrady, _Leben und Wirken des Generals Karl von Grolmann_ (Berlin, 1894-1896).

GROMATICI (from _groma_ or _gruma_, a surveyor's pole), or _Agrimensores_, the name for land-surveyors amongst the Romans. The art of surveying was probably at first in the hands of the augurs, by whom it was exercised in all cases where the demarcation of a _templum_ (any consecrated space) was necessary. Thus, the boundaries of Rome itself, of colonies and camps, were all marked out in accordance with the rules of augural procedure. The first professional surveyor mentioned is L. Decidius Saxa, who was employed by Antony in the measurement of camps (Cicero, _Philippics_, xi. 12, xiv. 10). During the empire their number and reputation increased. The distribution of land amongst the veterans, the increase in the number of military colonies, the settlement of Italian peasants in the provinces, the general survey of the empire under Augustus, the separation of private and state domains, led to the establishment of a recognized professional corporation of surveyors. During later times they were in receipt of large salaries, and in some cases were even honoured with the title _clarissimus_. Their duties were not merely geometrical or mathematical, but required legal knowledge for consultations or the settlement of disputes. This led to the institution of special schools for the training of surveyors and a special literature, which lasted from the 1st to the 6th century A.D. The earliest of the gromatic writers was Frontinus (q.v.), whose _De agrorum qualitate_, dealing with the legal aspect of the art, was the subject of a commentary by Aggenus Urbicus, a Christian schoolmaster. Under Trajan a certain Balbus, who had accompanied the emperor on his Dacian campaign, wrote a still extant manual of geometry for land surveyors (_Expositio et ratio omnium formarum_ or _mensurarum_, probably after a Greek original by Hero), dedicated to a certain Celsus who had invented an improvement in a gromatic instrument (perhaps the dioptra, resembling the modern theodolite); for the treatises of Hyginus see that name. Somewhat later than Trajan was Siculus Flaccus (_De condicionibus agrorum_, extant), while the most curious treatise on the subject, written in barbarous Latin and entitled _Casae litterarum_ (long a school text-book) is the work of a certain Innocentius (4th-5th century). It is doubtful whether Boetius is the author of the treatises attributed to him. The _Gromatici veteres_ also contains extracts from official registers (probably belonging to the 5th century) of colonial and other land surveys, lists and descriptions of boundary stones, and extracts from the Theodosian Codex. According to Mommsen, the collection had its origin during the 5th century in the office of a vicarius (diocesan governor) of Rome, who had a number of surveyors under him. The surveyors were known by various names: _decempedator_ (with reference to the instrument used); _finitor_, _metator_ or _mensor castrorum_ in republican times; _togati Augustorum_ as imperial civil officials; _professor_, _auctor_ as professional instructors.

The best edition of the Gromatici is by C. Lachmann and others (1848) with supplementary volume, _Die Schriften der romischen Feldmesser_ (1852); see also B. G. Niebuhr, _Roman History_, ii., appendix (Eng. trans.), who first revived interest in the subject; M. Cantor, _Die romischen Agrimensoren_ (Leipzig, 1875); P. de Tissot, _La Condition des Agrimensores dans l'ancienne Rome_ (1879); G. Rossi, _Groma e squadro_ (Turin, 1877); articles by F. Hultsch in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgem. Encyklopadie_, and by G. Humbert in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, 58.

GRONINGEN, the most northerly province of Holland, bounded S. by Drente, W. by Friesland and the Lauwers Zee, N. and N.E. by the North Sea and the mouth of the Ems with the Dollart, and on the S.E. by the Prussian province of Hanover. It includes the islands of Boschplaat and Rottumeroog, belonging to the group of Frisian islands (q.v.). Area, 887 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 299,602. Groningen is connected with the Drente plateau by the sandy tongue of the Hondsrug which extends almost up to the capital. West, north and north-east of this the province is flat and consists of sea-clay or sand and clay mixed, except where patches of low and high fen occur on the Frisian borders. Low fen predominates to the east of the capital, between the Zuidlardermeer and the Schildmeer or lakes. The south-eastern portion of the province consists of high fen resting on diluvial sand. A large part of this has been reclaimed and the sandy soil laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas of fen still remain. The so-called Boertanger Morass on the Prussian border was long considered as the natural protection of the eastern frontier, and with the view of preserving its impassable condition neither agriculture nor cattle-rearing might be practised here until 1824, and it was only in 1868 that the building of houses was sanctioned and the work of reclamation begun. The gradual extension of the seaward boundaries of the province owing to the process of littoral deposits may be easily traced, a triple line of sea-dikes in places marking the successive stages in this advance. The rivers of Groningen descending from the Drente plateau meet at the capital, whence they are continued by the Reitdiep to the Lauwers Zee (being discharged through a lock), and by the Ems canal (1876) to Delfzyl. The south-eastern corner of the province is traversed by the Westerwolde Aa, which discharges into the Dollart. The railway system belongs to the northern section of the State railways, and affords communication with Germany via Winschoten. Steam-tramways also serve many parts of the province. Agriculture is the main industry. The proportion of landowners is a very large one, and the prosperous condition of the Groningen farmer is attested by the style of his home, his dress and his gig. As a result, however, partly of the usual want of work on the grasslands in certain seasons, there has been a considerable emigration to America. The ancient custom called the _beklem-recht_, or lease-right, doubtless accounts for the extended ownership of the land. By this law a tenant-farmer is able to bequeath his farm, that is to say, he holds his lease in perpetuity.

The chief agricultural products are barley, oats, wheat, and in the north-east flax is also grown, and exported to South Holland and Belgium. On the higher clay grounds cattle-rearing and horse-breeding are also practised, together with butter and cheese making. The cultivation of potatoes on the sandgrounds in the south and the fen colonies along the Stads-Canal invite general comparison with the industries of Drente (q.v.). Hoogezand and Sappemeer, Veendam and Wildervank, New and Old Pekela, New and Old Stads-Canal are instances of villages which have extended until they overlap one another and are similar in this respect to the industrial villages of the Zaan Streek in North Holland. The coast fisheries are considerable. Groningen (q.v.) is the chief and only large town of the province. Delfzyl, which was formerly an important fortress for the protection of the ancient sluices on the little river Delf (hence its name), has greatly benefited by the construction of the Ems (Eems) ship-canal connecting it with Groningen, and has a good harbour with a considerable import trade in wood. Appingedam and Winschoten are very old towns, having important cattle and horse markets. The pretty wood at Winschoten was laid out by the Society for Public Welfare (_Tot Nut van het Algemeen_) in 1826.

GRONINGEN, a town of Holland, capital of the province of the same name, at the confluence of the two canalized rivers the Drentsche Aa and the Hunse (which are continued to the Lauwers Zee as the Reit Diep), 16 m. N. of Assen and 33 m. E. of Leeuwarden by rail. Pop. (1900) 67,563. Groningen is the centre from which several important canals radiate. Besides the Reit Diep, there are the Ems Canal and the Damster Diep, connecting it with Delfzyl and the Dollart, the Kolonel's Diep with Leeuwarden, the Nord Willem's Canal with Assen and the south and the Stads-Canal south-east with the Ems. Hence steamers ply in all directions, and there is a regular service to Emden and the island of Borkum via Delfzyl, and via the Lauwers Zee to the island of Schiermonnikoog. Groningen is the most important town in the north of Holland, with its fine shops and houses and wide clean streets, while brick houses of the 16th and 17th centuries help it to retain a certain old-world air. The ancient part of the town is still surrounded by the former moat, and in the centre lies a group of open places, of which the Groote Markt is one of the largest market-squares in Holland. Pleasant gardens and promenades extend on the north side of the town, together with a botanical garden. The chief church is the Martini-kerk, with a high tower (432 ft.) dating from 1477, and an organ constructed by the famous scholar and musician Rudolph Agricolo, who was born near Groningen in 1443. The Aa church dates from 1465, but was founded in 1253. The Roman Catholic Broederkerk (rebuilt at the end of the 19th century) contains some remarkable pictures of the Passion by L. Hendricx (1865). There is also a Jewish synagogue. The large town hall (in classical style), one of the finest public buildings, was built at the beginning of the 19th century and enlarged in 1873. The provincial government offices also occupy a fine building which received a splendid front in 1871. Other noteworthy buildings are the provincial museum of antiquities, containing interesting Germanic antiquities, as well as medieval and modern collections of porcelain, pictures, &c.; the courts of justice (transformed in the middle of the 18th century); the old Ommelanderhuis, formerly devoted to the administration of the surrounding district, built in 1509 and restored in 1899; the weigh-house (1874); the civil and military prison; the arsenal; the military hospital; and the concert hall.

The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, received its present fine buildings in classical style in 1850. Among its auxiliary establishments are a good natural history museum, an observatory, a laboratory, and a library which contains a copy of Erasmus' New Testament with marginal annotations by Luther. Other educational institutions are the deaf and dumb institution founded by Henri Daniel Guyot (d. 1828) in 1790, a gymnasium, and schools of navigation, art and music. There are learned societies for the study of law (1761) and natural science (1830); an academy of fine arts (1830); an archaeological society; and a central bureau for collecting information concerning the province.

As capital of the province, and on account of the advantages of its natural position, Groningen maintains a very considerable trade, chiefly in oil-seed, grain, wood, turf and cattle, with Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia and Russia. The chief industries are flax-spinning, rope-making, sugar refining, book printing, wool combing and dyeing, and it also manufactures beer, tobacco and cigars, cotton and woollen stuffs, furniture, organs and pianos; besides which there are saw, oil and grain mills, machine works, and numerous goldsmiths and silversmiths.

_History._--The town of Groningen belonged originally to the _pagus_, or _gouw_, of Triantha (Drente), the countship of which was bestowed by the emperor Henry II. on the bishop and chapter of Utrecht in 1024. In 1040 Henry III. gave the church of Utrecht the royal domain of Groningen, and in the deed of gift the "villa Cruoninga" is mentioned. Upon this charter the bishops of Utrecht based their claim to the overlordship of the town, a claim which the citizens hotly disputed. At the time of the donation, indeed, the town can hardly be said to have existed, but the royal "villa" rapidly developed into a community which strove to assert the rights of a free imperial city. At first the bishops were too strong for the townsmen; the defences built in 1110 were pulled down by the bishop's order two years later; and during the 12th and 13th centuries the see of Utrecht, in spite of frequent revolts, succeeded in maintaining its authority. Down to the 15th century an episcopal prefect, or burgrave, had his seat in the city, his authority extending over the neighbouring districts known as the Gorecht. In 1143 Heribert of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht, converted the office into an hereditary fief in favour of his brother Liffert, on the extinction of whose male line it was partitioned between the families of Koevorden (or Coevorden) and van den Hove. Gradually, however, the burghers, aided by the neighbouring Frisians, succeeded in freeing themselves from the episcopal yoke. The city was again walled in 1255; before 1284 it had become a member of the Hanseatic league; and by the end of the 14th century it was practically a powerful independent republic, which exercised an effective control over the Frisian Ommelande between the Ems and the Lauwers Zee. At the close of the 14th century the heirs of the Koevorden and van den Hove families sold their rights, first to the town, and then to the bishop. A struggle followed, in which the city was temporarily worsted; but in 1440 Bishop Dirk II. finally sold to the city the rights of the see of Utrecht over the Gorecht.

The medieval constitution of Groningen, unlike that of Utrecht, was aristocratic. Merchant gild there was none; and the craft gilds were without direct influence on the city government, which held them in subjection. Membership of the governing council, which selected from its own body the four _rationales_ or burgomasters, was confined to men of approved "wisdom," and wisdom was measured in terms of money. This _Raad_ of wealthy burghers gradually monopolized all power. The bishop's bailiff (_schout_), with his nominated assessors (_scabini_), continued to exercise jurisdiction, but members of the Raad sat on the bench with him, and an appeal lay from his court to the Raad itself. The council was, in fact, supreme in the city, and not in the city only. In 1439 it decreed that no one might trade in all the district between the Ems and the Lauwers Zee except burghers, and those who had purchased the _burwal_ (right of residence in the city) and the freedom of the gilds. Maximilian I. assigned Groningen to Albert of Saxony, hereditary podestat of Friesland, but the citizens preferred to accept the protection of the bishop of Utrecht; and when Albert's son George attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they recognized the lordship of Edzart of East Frisia. On George's renewal of hostilities they transferred their allegiance to Duke Charles of Gelderland, in 1515. In 1536 the city passed into the hands of Charles V., and in the great wars of the 16th century suffered all the miseries of siege and military occupation. From 1581 onwards, Groningen still held by the Spaniards, was constantly at war with the "Ommelanden" which had declared against the king of Spain. This feud continued, in spite of the capture of the city in 1594 by Maurice of Nassau, and of a decree of the States in 1597 which was intended to set them at rest. In 1672 the town was besieged by the bishop of Munster, but it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its fortifications were improved under Coehoorn's direction. The French Republicans planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on the 14th of February 1795, and they continued in authority till the 16th of November 1814. The fortifications of the city were doomed to destruction by the law of the 18th of April 1874.

See C. Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891); Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, iii. 496 (Leiden, 1890-1893); also s.v. in Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources hist. du moyen age_ (_Topo-bibliographie_).

GRONLUND, LAURENCE (1846-1899), American socialist, was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on the 13th of July 1846. He graduated from the university of Copenhagen in 1865, began the study of law, removed to the United States in 1867, taught German in Milwaukee, was admitted to the bar in 1869, and practised in Chicago. He became a writer and lecturer on socialism and was closely connected with the work of the Socialist Labor party from 1874 to 1884, then devoted himself almost exclusively to lecturing until his appointment to a post in the bureau of labour statistics. He again returned to the lecture field, and was an editorial writer for the New York and Chicago _American_ from 1898 until his death in New York City on the 15th of October 1899. His principal works are: _The Coming Revolution_ (1880); _The Co-operative Commonwealth in its Outlines, An Exposition of Modern Socialism_ (1884); _Ca Ira, or Danton in the French Revolution_ (1888), a rehabilitation of Danton; _Our Destiny, The Influence of Socialism on Morals and Religion_ (1890); and _The New Economy_ (1898).

GRONOVIUS (the latinized form of GRONOV), JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1611-1671), German classical scholar and critic, was born at Hamburg on the 8th of September 1611. Having studied at several universities, he travelled in England, France and Italy. In 1643 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and history at Deventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at Leiden, where he died on the 28th of December 1671. (See also FABRETTI, RAPHAEL.) Besides editing, with notes, Statius, Plautus, Livy, Tacitus, Aulus Gellius and Seneca's tragedies, Gronovius was the author, amongst numerous other works, of _Commentarius de sestertiis_ (1643) and of an edition of Hugo Grotius' De jure belli et pacis (1660). His _Observationes_ contain a number of brilliant emendations. His son, JAKOB GRONOVIUS (1645-1716), is chiefly known as the editor of the _Thesaurus antiquitatum Graecarum_ (1697-1702, in 13 volumes).

See J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ ii. (1908); F. A. Eckstein in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_.

GROOM, in modern usage a male servant attached to the stables, whose duties are to attend to the cleaning, feeding, currying and care generally of horses. The earliest meaning of the word appears to be that of a boy, and in 16th and 17th century literature it frequently occurs, in pastorals, for a shepherd lover. Later it is used for any male attendant, and thus survives in the name for several officials in the royal household, such as the grooms-in-waiting, and the grooms of the great chamber. The groom-porter, whose office was abolished by George III., saw to the preparation of the sovereign's apartment, and, during the 16th and 17th centuries, provided cards and dice for playing, and was the authority to whom were submitted all questions of gaming within the court. The origin of the word is obscure. The O. Fr. _gromet_, shop boy, is taken by French etymologists to be derived from the English. From the application of this word to a wine-taster in a wine merchant's shop, is derived _gourmet_, an epicure. According to the _New English Dictionary_, though there are no instances of groom in other Teutonic languages, the word may be ultimately connected with the root of "to grow." In "bridegroom," a newly married man, "grom" in the 16th century took the place of an older _gome_, a common old Teutonic word meaning "man," and connected with the Latin _homo_. The Old English word was _brydguma_, later _bridegome_. The word survives in the German _Brautigam_.

GROOT, GERHARD (1340-1384), otherwise Gerrit or Geert Groet, in Latin Gerardus Magnus, a preacher and founder of the society of Brothers of Common Life (q.v.), was born in 1340 at Deventer in the diocese of Utrecht, where his father held a good civic position. He went to the university of Paris when only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic philosophy and theology under a pupil of Occam's, from whom he imbibed the nominalist conception of philosophy; in addition he studied canon law, medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some Hebrew. After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358, and possibly became master in 1363. He pursued his studies still further in Cologne, and perhaps in Prague. In 1366 he visited the papal court at Avignon. About this time he was appointed to a canonry in Utrecht and to another in Aix-la-Chapelle, and the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly becoming luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every worldly enjoyment. This conversion, which took place In 1374, appears to have been due partly to the effects of a dangerous illness and partly to the influence of Henry de Calcar, the learned and pious prior of the Carthusian monastery at Munnikhuizen near Arnhem, who had remonstrated with him on the vanity of his life. About 1376 Gerhard retired to this monastery and there spent three years in meditation, prayer and study, without, however, becoming a Carthusian. In 1379, having received ordination as a deacon, he became missionary preacher throughout the diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his labours not only in the town of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle, Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden, Delft, Zutphen and elsewhere, was immense; according to Thomas a Kempis the people left their business and their meals to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the crowds that flocked together wherever he came. The bishop of Utrecht supported him warmly, and got him to preach against concubinage in the presence of the clergy assembled in synod. The impartiality of his censures, which he directed not only against the prevailing sins of the laity, but also against heresy, simony, avarice, and impurity among the secular and regular clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and accusations of heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that Groot emitted a _Publica Protestatio_, in which he declared that Jesus Christ was the great subject of his discourses, that in all of them he believed himself to be in harmony with Catholic doctrine, and that he willingly subjected them to the candid judgment of the Roman Church. The bishop was induced to issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all who were not in priest's orders, and an appeal to Urban VI. was without effect. There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either it was only a few months before Groot's death, or else it must have been removed by the bishop, for Groot seems to have preached in public in the last year of his life. At some period (perhaps 1381, perhaps earlier) he paid a visit of some days' duration to the famous mystic Johann Ruysbroeck, prior of the Augustinian canons at Groenendael near Brussels; at this visit was formed Groot's attraction for the rule and life of the Augustinian canons which was destined to bear such notable fruit. At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order, and Groot resolved that they should be canons regular of St Augustine. No time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, but Groot died before a foundation could be made. In 1387, however, a site was secured at Windesheim, some 20 m. north of Deventer, and here was established the monastery that became the cradle of the Windesheim congregation of canons regular, embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses, and leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the 15th century by all the religious orders in Germany. The initiation of this movement was the great achievement of Groot's life; he lived to preside over the birth and first days of his other creation, the society of Brothers of Common Life. He died of the plague at Deventer in 1384, at the age of 44.

The chief authority for Groot's life is Thomas a Kempis, _Vita Gerardi Magni_ (translated into English by J. P. Arthur, _The Founders of the New Devotion_, 1905); also the _Chronicon Windeshemense_ of Johann Busch (ed. K. Grube, 1886). An account, based on these sources, will be found in S. Kettlewell, _Thomas a Kempis and the Brothers of Common Life_ (1882). i. c. 5; and a shorter account in F. R. Cruise, _Thomas a Kempis_, 1887, pt. ii. An excellent sketch, with an account of Groot's writings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groot's theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in his day, and that the attempts to make him "a reformer before the Reformation" are unhistorical. (E. C. B.)

GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL, a large and brilliantly coloured Bornean squirrel, _Rhithrosciurus macrotis_, representing a genus by itself distinguished from all other members of the family _Sciuridae_ by having numerous longitudinal grooves on the front surface of the incisor teeth; the molars being of a simpler type than in other members of the family. The tail is large and fox-like, and the ears are tufted and the flanks marked by black and white bands.

GROS, ANTOINE JEAN, BARON (1771-1835), French painter, was born at Paris in 1771. His father, who was a miniature painter, began to teach him to draw at the age of six, and showed himself from the first an exacting master. Towards the close of 1785 Gros, by his own choice, entered the studio of David, which he frequented assiduously, continuing at the same time to follow the classes of the College Mazarin. The death of his father, whose circumstances had been embarrassed by the Revolution, threw Gros, in 1791, upon his own resources. He now devoted himself wholly to his profession, and competed in 1792 for the _grand prix_, but unsuccessfully. About this time, however, on the recommendation of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, he was employed on the execution of portraits of the members of the Convention, and when--disturbed by the development of the Revolution--Gros in 1793 left France for Italy, he supported himself at Genoa by the same means, producing a great quantity of miniatures and _fixes_. He visited Florence, but returning to Genoa made the acquaintance of Josephine, and followed her to Milan, where he was well received by her husband. On November 15, 1796, Gros was present with the army near Arcola when Bonaparte planted the tricolor on the bridge. Gros seized on this incident, and showed by his treatment of it that he had found his vocation. Bonaparte at once gave him the post of "inspecteur aux revues," which enabled him to follow the army, and in 1797 nominated him on the commission charged to select the spoils which should enrich the Louvre. In 1799, having escaped from the besieged city of Genoa, Gros made his way to Paris, and in the beginning of 1801 took up his quarters in the Capucins. His "esquisse" (Musee de Nantes) of the "Battle of Nazareth" gained the prize offered in 1802 by the consuls, but was not carried out, owing it is said to the jealousy of Junot felt by Napoleon; but he indemnified Gros by commissioning him to paint his own visit to the pest-house of Jaffa. "Les Pestiferes de Jaffa" (Louvre) was followed by the "Battle of Aboukir" 1806 (Versailles), and the "Battle of Eylau," 1808 (Louvre). These three subjects--the popular leader facing the pestilence unmoved, challenging the splendid instant of victory, heart-sick with the bitter cost of a hard-won field--gave to Gros his chief title to fame. As long as the military element remained bound up with French national life, Gros received from it a fresh and energetic inspiration which carried him to the very heart of the events which he depicted; but as the army and its general separated from the people, Gros, called on to illustrate episodes representative only of the fulfilment of personal ambition, ceased to find the nourishment necessary to his genius, and the defect of his artistic position became evident. Trained in the sect of the Classicists, he was shackled by their rules, even when--by his naturalistic treatment of types, and appeal to picturesque effect in colour and tone--he seemed to run counter to them. In 1810 his "Madrid" and "Napoleon at the Pyramids" (Versailles) show that his star had deserted him. His "Francis I." and "Charles V.," 1812 (Louvre), had considerable success; but the decoration of the dome of St Genevieve (begun in 1811 and completed in 1824) is the only work of Gros's later years which shows his early force and vigour, as well as his skill. The "Departure of Louis XVIII." (Versailles), the "Embarkation of Madame d'Angouleme" (Bordeaux), the plafond of the Egyptian room in the Louvre, and finally his "Hercules and Diomedes," exhibited in 1835, testify only that Gros's efforts--in accordance with the frequent counsels of his old master David--to stem the rising tide of Romanticism, served but to damage his once brilliant reputation. Exasperated by criticism and the consciousness of failure, Gros sought refuge in the grosser pleasures of life. On the 25th of June 1835 he was found drowned on the shores of the Seine near Sevres. From a paper which he had placed in his hat it became known that "las de la vie, et trahi par les dernieres facultes qui la lui rendaient supportable, il avait resolu de s'en defaire." The number of Gros's pupils was very great, and was considerably augmented when, in 1815, David quitted Paris and made over his own classes to him. Gros was decorated and named baron of the empire by Napoleon, after the Salon of 1808, at which he had exhibited the "Battle of Eylau." Under the Restoration he became a member of the Institute, professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and was named chevalier of the order of St Michel.

M. Delecluze gives a brief notice of his life in _Louis David et son temps_, and Julius Meyer's _Geschichte der modernen franzosischen Malerei_ contains an excellent criticism on his works.

GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH (1827-1899), Scottish divine and literary editor, the son of a building contractor, was born at Stirling on the 18th of June 1827. He was educated at Edinburgh University, and in 1856 became a Presbyterian minister at Kinross. In 1865 he went to Liverpool, and three years later to Blackburn. He resigned from the ministry in 1892, and died at Dublin on the 16th of March 1899. Dr Grosart is chiefly remembered for his exertions in reprinting much rare Elizabethan literature, a work which he undertook in the first instance from his strong interest in Puritan theology. Among the first writers whose works he edited were the Puritan divines, Richard Sibbes, Thomas Brooks and Herbert Palmer. Editions of Michael Bruce's _Poems_ (1865) and Richard Gilpin's _Demonologia sacra_ (1867) followed. In 1868 he brought out a bibliography of the writings of Richard Baxter, and from that year until 1876 he was occupied in reproducing for private subscribers the "Fuller Worthies Library," a series of thirty-nine volumes which included the works of Thomas Fuller, Sir John Davies, Fulke Greville, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, Richard Crashaw, John Donne and Sir Philip Sidney. The last four volumes of the series were devoted to the works of many little known and otherwise inaccessible authors. His _Occasional Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books_ (1875-1881) is of the utmost interest to the book-lover. It included among other things the _Annalia Dubrensia_ of Robert Dover. In 1876 still another series, known as the "Chertsey Worthies Library," was begun. It included editions of the works of Nicholas Breton, Francis Quarles, Dr Joseph Beaumont, Abraham Cowley, Henry More and John Davies of Hereford. Grosart was untiring in his enthusiasm and energy for this kind of work. The two last-named series were being produced simultaneously until 1881, and no sooner had they been completed than Grosart began the "Huth Library," so called from the bibliophile Henry Huth, who possessed the originals of many of the reprints. It included the works of Robert Greene, Thomas Nash, Gabriel Harvey, and the prose tracts of Thomas Dekker. He also edited the complete works of Edmund Spenser and Samuel Daniel. From the Townley Hall collection he reprinted several MSS. and edited Sir John Eliot's works, Sir Richard Boyle's _Lismore Papers_, and various publications for the Chetham Society, the Camden Society and the Roxburghe Club. Dr Grosart's faults of style and occasional inaccuracy do not seriously detract from the immense value of his work. He was unwearied in searching for rare books, and he brought to light much interesting literature, formerly almost inaccessible.

GROSBEAK (Fr. _Grosbec_), a name very indefinitely applied to many birds belonging to the families _Fringillidae_ and _Ploceidae_ of modern ornithologists, and perhaps to some members of the _Emberizidae_ and _Tanagridae_, but always to birds distinguished by the great size of their bill. Taken alone it is commonly a synonym of hawfinch (q.v.), but a prefix is usually added to indicate the species, as pine-grosbeak, cardinal-grosbeak and the like. By early writers the word was generally given as an equivalent of the Linnaean _Loxia_, but that genus has been found to include many forms not now placed in the same family.

The Pine-grosbeak (_Pinicola enucleator_) inhabits the conifer-zone of both the Old and the New Worlds, seeking, in Europe and probably elsewhere, a lower latitude as winter approaches--often journeying in large flocks; stragglers have occasionally reached the British Islands (Yarrell, _Br. Birds_, ed. 4, ii. 177-179). In structure and some of its habits much resembling a bullfinch, but much exceeding that bird in size, it has the plumage of a crossbill and appears to undergo the same changes as do the members of the restricted genus _Loxia_--the young being of a dull greenish-grey streaked with brownish-black, the adult hens tinged with golden-green, and the cocks glowing with crimson-red on nearly all the body-feathers, this last colour being replaced after moulting in confinement by bright yellow. Nests of this species were found in 1821 by Johana Wilhelm Zetterstedt near Juckasjarwi in Swedish Lapland, but little was known concerning its nidification until 1855, when John Wolley, after two years' ineffectual search, succeeded in obtaining near the Finnish village Muonioniska, on the Swedish frontier, well-authenticated specimens with the eggs, both of which are like exaggerated bullfinches'. The food of this species seems to consist of the seeds and buds of many sorts of trees, though the staple may very possibly be those of some kind of pine.

Allied to the pine-grosbeak are a number of species of smaller size, but its equals in beauty of plumage.[1] They have been referred to several genera, such as _Carpodacus_, _Propasser_, _Bycanetes_, _Uragus_ and others; but possibly _Carpodacus_ is sufficient to contain all. Most of them are natives of the Old World, and chiefly of its eastern division, but several inhabit the western portion of North America, and one, _C. githagineus_ (of which there seem to be at least two local races), is an especial native of the deserts, or their borders, of Arabia and North Africa, extending even to some of the Canary Islands--a singular modification in the _habitat_ of a form which one would be apt to associate exclusively with forest trees, and especially conifers.

The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian nightingale, _Cardinalis virginianus_, claims notice here, though doubts may be entertained as to the family to which it really belongs. It is no less remarkable for its bright carmine attire, and an elongated crest of the same colour, than for its fine song. Its ready adaptation to confinement has made it a popular cage-bird on both sides of the Atlantic. The hen is not so good a songster as the cock bird. Her plumage, with exception of the wings and tail, which are of a dull red, is light-olive above and brownish-yellow beneath. This species inhabits the eastern parts of the United States southward of 40 deg. N. lat., and also occurs in the Bermudas. It is represented in the south-west of North America by other forms that by some writers are deemed species, and in the northern parts of South America by the _C. phoeniceus_, which would really seem entitled to distinction. Another kindred bird placed from its short and broad bill in a different genus, and known as _Pyrrhuloxia sinuata_ or the Texan cardinal, is found on the southern borders of the United States and in Mexico; while among North American "grosbeaks" must also be named the birds belonging to the genera _Guiraca_ and _Hedymeles_--the former especially exemplified by the beautiful blue _G. caerulea_, and the latter by the brilliant rose-breasted _H. ludovicianus_, which last extends its range into Canada.

The species of the Old World which, though commonly called "grosbeaks," certainly belong to the family _Ploceidae_, are treated under WEAVER-BIRD. (A. N.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Many of them are described and illustrated in the _Monographie des loxiens_ of Prince C. L. Bonaparte and Professor Schlegel (1850), though it excludes many birds which an English writer would call "grosbeaks."

GROSE, FRANCIS (c. 1730-1791), English antiquary, was born at Greenford in Middlesex, about the year 1730. His father was a wealthy Swiss jeweller, settled at Richmond, Surrey. Grose early showed an interest in heraldry and antiquities, and his father procured him a position in the Heralds' College. In 1763, being then Richmond Herald, he sold his tabard, and shortly afterwards became adjutant and paymaster of the Hampshire militia, where, as he himself humorously observed, the only account-books he kept were his right and left pockets, into the one of which he received, and from the other of which he paid. This carelessness exposed him to serious financial difficulties; and after a vain attempt to repair them by accepting a captaincy in the Surrey militia, the fortune left him by his father being squandered, he began to turn to account his excellent education and his powers as a draughtsman. In 1757 he had been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1773 he began to publish his _Antiquities of England and Wales_, a work which brought him money as well as fame. This, with its supplementary parts relating to the Channel Islands, was not completed till 1787. In 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour through Scotland, and in the course of this journey met Burns, who composed in his honour the famous song beginning "Ken ye aught o' Captain Grose," and in that other poem, still more famous, "Hear, land o' cakes, and brither Scots," warned all Scotsmen of this "chield amang them taking notes." In 1790 he began to publish the results of what Burns called "his peregrinations through Scotland;" but he had not finished the work when he bethought himself of going over to Ireland and doing for that country what he had already done for Great Britain. About a month after his arrival, while in Dublin, he died in an apoplectic fit at the dinner-table of a friend, on the 12th of June 1791.

Grose was a sort of antiquarian Falstaff--at least he possessed in a striking degree the knight's physical peculiarities; but he was a man of true honour and charity, a valuable friend, "overlooking little faults and seeking out greater virtues," and an inimitable boon companion. His humour, his varied knowledge and his good nature were all eminently calculated to make him a favourite in society. As Burns says of him--

"But wad ye see him in his glee, For meikle glee and fun has he, Then set him down, and twa or three Gude fellows wi' him; And _port, O port!_ shine thou a wee, And THEN ye'll see him!"

Grose's works include _The Antiquities of England and Wales_ (6 vols., 1773-1787); _Advice to the Officers of the British Army_ (1782), a satire in the manner of Swift's _Directions to Servants; A Guide to Health, Beauty, Riches and Honour_ (1783), a collection of advertisements of the period, with characteristic satiric preface; _A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue_ (1785); _A Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons_ (1785-1789); Darrell's _History of Dover_ (1786); _Military Antiquities_ (2 vols., 1786-1788); _A Provincial Glossary_ (1787); _Rules for Drawing Caricatures_ (1788); _The Antiquities of Scotland_ (2 vols., 1789-1791); _Antiquities of Ireland_ (2 vols., 1791), edited and partly written by Ledwich. _The Grumbler_, sixteen humerous essays, appeared in 1791 after his death; and in 1793 _The Olio_, a collection of essays, jests and small pieces of poetry, highly characteristic of Grose, though certainly not all by him, was put together from his papers by his publisher, who was also his executor.

A capital full-length portrait of Grose by N. Dance is in the first volume of the _Antiquities of England and Wales_, and another is among Kay's _Portraits_. A versified sketch of him appeared in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxi. 660. See _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxi. 498, 582; Noble's _Hist. of the College of Arms_, p. 434; _Notes and Queries_, 1st ser., ix. 350; 3rd ser., i. 64, x. 280-281; 5th ser., xii. 148; 6th ser., ii. 47, 257, 291; Hone, _Every-day Book_, i. 655.

GROSS, properly thick, bulky, the meaning of the Late Lat. _grossus_. The Latin word has usually been taken as cognate with _crassus_, thick, but this is now doubted. It also appears not to be connected with the Ger. _gross_, a Teutonic word represented in English by "great." Apart from its direct meaning, and such figurative senses as coarse, vulgar or flagrant, the chief uses are whole, entire, without deduction, as opposed to "net," or as applied to that which is sold in bulk as opposed to "retail" (cf. "grocer" and "engrossing"). As a unit of tale, "gross" equals 12 dozen, 144, sometimes known as "small gross," in contrast with "great gross," i.e. 12 gross, 144 dozen. As a technical expression in English common law, "in gross" is applied to an incorporeal hereditament attached to the person of an owner, in contradistinction to one which is appendant or appurtenant, that is, attached to the ownership of land (see COMMONS).

GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1828-1902), German poet, the son of a military chaplain, was born at Erfurt on the 25th of April 1828. He received his early education at the gymnasium in Magdeburg, and on leaving school and showing disinclination for the ministry, entered an architect's office. But his mind was bent upon literature, and in 1849 he entered the university of Halle, where, although inscribed as a student of law, he devoted himself almost exclusively to letters. His first poetical essay was with the tragedy _Cola di Rienzi_ (1851), followed in the same year by a comedy, _Eine Nachtpartie Shakespeares_, which was at once produced on the stage. The success of these first two pieces encouraged him to follow literature as a profession, and proceeding in 1852 to Munich, he joined the circle of young poets of whom Paul Heyse (q.v.) and Hermann Lingg (1820-1905) were the chief. For six years (1855-1861) he was dramatic critic of the _Neue Munchener Zeitung_, and was then for a while on the staff of the _Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung_, but in 1862 he returned to Munich as editor of the _Bayrische Zeitung_, a post he retained until the paper ceased to exist in 1867. In 1869 Grosse was appointed secretary of the _Schiller-Stiftung_, and lived for the next few years alternately in Weimar, Dresden and Munich, until, in 1890, he took up his permanent residence in Weimar. He was made grand-ducal _Hofrat_ and had the title of "professor." He died at Torbole on the Lago di Garda on the 9th of May 1902.

Grosse was a most prolific writer of novels, dramas and poems. As a lyric poet, especially in _Gedichte_ (1857) and _Aus bewegten Tagen_, a volume of poems (1869), he showed himself more to advantage than in his novels, of which latter, however, _Untreu aus Mitleid_ (2 vols., 1868); _Vox populi, vox dei_ (1869); _Maria Mancini_ (1871); _Neue Erzahlungen_ (1875); _Sophie Monnier_ (1876), and _Ein Frauenlos_ (1888) are remarkable for a certain elegance of style. His tragedies, _Die Ynglinger_ (1858); _Tiberius_ (1876); _Johann von Schwaben_; and the comedy _Die steinerne Braut_, had considerable success on the stage.

Grosse's _Gesammelte dramatische Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. in Leipzig (1870), while his _Erzahlende Dichtungen_ were published at Berlin (6 vols., 1871-1873). An edition of his selected works by A. Bartels is in preparation. See also his autobiography, _Literarische Ursachen und Wirkungen_ (1896); R. Prutz, _Die Literatur der Gegenwart_ (1859); J. Ethe, _J. Grosse als epischer Dichter_ (1872).

GROSSENHAIN, a town In the kingdom of Saxony, 20 m. N. from Dresden, on the main line of railway (via Elsterwerda) to Berlin and at the junction of lines to Priestewitz and Frankfort-on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 12,015. It has an Evangelical church, a modern and a commercial school, a library and an extensive public park. The industries are very important, and embrace manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, buckskin, leather, glass and machinery. Grossenhain was originally a Sorb settlement. It was for a time occupied by the Bohemians, by whom it was strongly fortified. It afterwards came into the possession of the margraves of Meissen, from whom it was taken in 1312 by the margraves of Brandenburg. It suffered considerably in all the great German wars, and in 1744 was nearly destroyed by fire. On the 16th of May 1813, a battle took place here between the French and the Russians.

See G. W. Schuberth, _Chronik der Stadt Grossenhain_ (Grossenhain, 1887-1892).

GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. 1175-1253), English statesman, theologian and bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents at Stradbrook in Suffolk. He received his education at Oxford where he became proficient in law, medicine and the natural sciences. Giraldus Cambrensis, whose acquaintance he had made, introduced him, before 1199, to William de Vere, bishop of Hereford. Grosseteste aspired to a post in the bishop's household, but being deprived by death of this patron betook himself to the study of theology. It is possible that he visited Paris for this purpose, but he finally settled in Oxford as a teacher. His first preferment of importance was the chancellorship of the university. He gained considerable distinction as a lecturer, and was the first rector of the school which the Franciscans established in Oxford about 1224. Grosseteste's learning is highly praised by Roger Bacon, who was a severe critic. According to Bacon, Grosseteste knew little Greek or Hebrew and paid slight attention to the works of Aristotle, but was pre-eminent among his contemporaries for his knowledge of the natural sciences. Between 1214 and 1231 Grosseteste held in succession the archdeaconries of Chester, Northampton and Leicester. In 1232, after a severe illness, he resigned all his benefices and preferments except one prebend which he held at Lincoln. His intention was to spend the rest of his life in contemplative piety. But he retained the office of chancellor, and in 1235 accepted the bishopric of Lincoln. He undertook without delay the reformation of morals and clerical discipline throughout his vast diocese. This scheme brought him into conflict with more than one privileged corporation, but in particular with his own chapter, who vigorously disputed his claim to exercise the right of visitation over their community. The dispute raged hotly from 1239 to 1245. It was conducted on both sides with unseemly violence, and those who most approved of Grosseteste's main purpose thought it needful to warn him against the mistake of over-zeal. But in 1245, by a personal visit to the papal court at Lyons, he secured a favourable verdict. In ecclesiastical politics the bishop belonged to the school of Becket. His zeal for reform led him to advance, on behalf of the courts-Christian, pretensions which it was impossible that the secular power should admit. He twice incurred a well-merited rebuke from Henry III. upon this subject; although it was left for Edward I. to settle the question of principle in favour of the state. The devotion of Grosseteste to the hierarchical theories of his age is attested by his correspondence with his chapter and the king. Against the former he upheld the prerogative of the bishops; against the latter he asserted that it was impossible for a bishop to disregard the commands of the Holy See. Where the liberties of the national church came into conflict with the pretensions of Rome he stood by his own countrymen. Thus in 1238 he demanded that the king should release certain Oxford scholars who had assaulted the legate Otho. But at least up to the year 1247 he submitted patiently to papal encroachments, contenting himself with the protection (by a special papal privilege) of his own diocese from alien clerks. Of royal exactions he was more impatient; and after the retirement of Archbishop Saint Edmund (q.v.) constituted himself the spokesman of the clerical estate in the Great Council. In 1244 he sat on a committee which was empanelled to consider a demand for a subsidy. The committee rejected the demand, and Grosseteste foiled an attempt on the king's part to separate the clergy from the baronage. "It is written," the bishop said, "that united we stand and divided we fall."

It was, however, soon made clear that the king and pope were in alliance to crush the independence of the English clergy; and from 1250 onwards Grosseteste openly criticized the new financial expedients to which Innocent IV. had been driven by his desperate conflict with the Empire. In the course of a visit which he made to Innocent in this year, the bishop laid before the pope and cardinals a written memorial in which he ascribed all the evils of the Church to the malignant influence of the Curia. It produced no effect, although the cardinals felt that Grosseteste was too influential to be punished for his audacity. Much discouraged by his failure the bishop thought of resigning. In the end, however, he decided to continue the unequal struggle. In 1251 he protested against a papal mandate enjoining the English clergy to pay Henry III. one-tenth of their revenues for a crusade; and called attention to the fact that, under the system of provisions, a sum of 70,000 marks was annually drawn from England by the alien nominees of Rome. In 1253, upon being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a papal nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to the pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent, through whom he received the mandate. The text of the remonstrance, as given in the _Burton Annals_ and in Matthew Paris, has possibly been altered by a forger who had less respect than Grosseteste for the papacy. The language is more violent than that which the bishop elsewhere employs. But the general argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so far as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and the apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesiastical reformer of Grosseteste's time. There is much more reason for suspecting the letter addressed "to the nobles of England, the citizens of London, and the community of the whole realm," in which Grosseteste is represented as denouncing in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its branches. But even in this case allowance must be made for the difference between modern and medieval standards of decorum.

Grosseteste numbered among his most intimate friends the Franciscan teacher, Adam Marsh (q.v.). Through Adam he came into close relations with Simon de Montfort. From the Franciscan's letters it appears that the earl had studied a political tract by Grosseteste on the difference between a monarchy and a tyranny; and that he embraced with enthusiasm the bishop's projects of ecclesiastical reform. Their alliance began as early as 1239, when Grosseteste exerted himself to bring about a reconciliation between the king and the earl. But there is no reason to suppose that the political ideas of Montfort had matured before the death of Grosseteste; nor did Grosseteste busy himself overmuch with secular politics, except in so far as they touched the interest of the Church. Grosseteste realized that the misrule of Henry III. and his unprincipled compact with the papacy largely accounted for the degeneracy of the English hierarchy and the laxity of ecclesiastical discipline. But he can hardly be termed a constitutionalist.

Grosseteste died on the 9th of October 1253. He must then have been between seventy and eighty years of age. He was already an elderly man, with a firmly established reputation, when he became a bishop. As an ecclesiastical statesman he showed the same fiery zeal and versatility of which he had given proof in his academical career; but the general tendency of modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and ecclesiastical services, and to neglect his performances as a scientist and scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew Paris and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries, while admitting the excellence of his intentions as a statesman, lay stress upon his defects of temper and discretion. But they see in him the pioneer of a literary and scientific movement; not merely a great ecclesiastic who patronized learning in his leisure hours, but the first mathematician and physicist of his age. It is certainly true that he anticipated, in these fields of thought, some of the most striking ideas to which Roger Bacon subsequently gave a wider currency.

See the _Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste_ (Rolls Series, 1861) edited with a valuable introduction by H. R. Luard. Grosseteste's famous memorial to the pope is printed in the appendix to E. Brown's _Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum_ (1690). A tract _De phisicis, lineis, angulis et figuris_ was printed at Nuremberg in 1503, A French poem, _Le Chastel d'amour_, sometimes attributed to him, has been printed by the Caxton Society. Two curious tracts, the "De moribus pueri ad mensam" (printed by Wynkyn de Worde) and the "Statuta familiae Roberti Grosseteste" (printed by J. S. Brewer in _Monumenta Franciscana_, i. 582), may be from his pen; but the editor of the latter work ascribes it to Adam de Marsh. There is less doubt respecting the _Reules Seynt Robert_, a tract giving advice for the management of the household of the countess of Lincoln. For Grosseteste's life and work see Roger Bacon's _Opus majus_ (ed. J. H. Bridges, 1897, 2 vols.) and _Opera quaedam inedita_ (ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1859); M. Paris's _Chronica majora_ (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1872-1883, 5 vols.); and the _Lives_ by S. Pegge (1793) and F. S. Stevenson (1899). (H. W. C. D.)

GROSSETO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, capital of the province of Grosseto, 90 m. S.S.E. of Pisa by rail. Pop. (1901) 5856 (town), 8843 (commune). It is 38 ft. above sea-level, and is almost circular in shape; it is surrounded by fortifications, constructed by Francis I. (1574-1587) and Ferdinand I. (1587-1609), which form a hexagonal enceinte with projecting bastions, with two gates only. The small cathedral, begun in 1294, is built of red and white marble alternating, in the Italian Gothic style; it was restored in 1855. The citadel was built in 1311 by the Sienese. Grosseto is on the main line from Pisa to Rome, and is also the starting-point (Montepescali, 8 m. to the N., is the exact point of divergence) of a branch line to Asciano and Siena.

The town dates from the middle ages. In 1138 the episcopal see was transferred thither from Rusellae. In 1230 it, with the rest of the Maremma, of which it is the capital, came under the dominion of Siena. By the peace of 1559, however, it passed to Cosimo I. of Tuscany. In 1745 the malaria had grown to such an extent, owing to the neglect of the drainage works, that Grosseto had only 648 inhabitants, though in 1224 it had 3000 men who bore arms. Leopold I. renewed drainage operations, and by 1836 the population had risen to 2392. The malaria is not yet entirely conquered, however, and the official headquarters of the province are in summer transferred to Scansano (1837 ft.), 20 m. to the S.E. by road.

GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (?-1699), one of the greatest Italian singers of the age of _bel canto_, better known as Siface, was born at Pescia in Tuscany about the middle of the 17th century. He entered the papal chapel in 1675, and later sang at Venice. He derived his nickname of Siface from his impersonation of that character in an opera of Cavalli. It has generally been said that he appeared as Siface in Alessandro Scarlatti's _Mitridate_, but the confusion is due to his having sung the part of Mitridate in Scarlatti's _Pompeo_ at Naples in 1683. In 1687 he was sent to London by the duke of Modena, to become a member of the chapel of James II. He probably did much for the introduction of Italian music into England, but soon left the country on account of the climate. Among Purcell's harpsichord music is an air entitled "Sefauchi's Farewell." He was murdered in 1699 on the road between Bologna and Ferrara, probably by the agents of a nobleman with whose wife he had a _liaison_.

See Corrado Ricci's _Vita Barocca_ (Milan, 1904).

GROSSI, TOMMASO (1791-1853), Lombard poet and novelist, was born at Bellano, on the Lake of Como, on the 20th of January 1791. He took his degree in law at Pavia in 1810, and proceeded thence to Milan to exercise his profession; but the Austrian government, suspecting his loyalty, interfered with his prospects, and in consequence Grossi was a simple notary all his life. That the suspicion was well grounded he soon showed by writing in the Milanese dialect the battle poem _La Prineide_, in which he described with vivid colours the tragical death of Prina, chief treasurer during the empire, whom the people of Milan, instigated by Austrian agitators, had torn to pieces and dragged through the streets of the town (1814). The poem, being anonymous, was first attributed to the celebrated Porta, but Grossi of his own accord acknowledged himself the author. In 1816 he published other two poems, written likewise in Milanese--_The Golden Rain_ (La Pioggia d'oro) and _The Fugitive_ (La Fuggitiva). These compositions secured him the friendship of Porta and Manzoni, and the three poets came to form a sort of romantic literary triumvirate. Grossi took advantage of the popularity of his Milanese poems to try Italian verse, into which he sought to introduce the moving realism which had given such satisfaction in his earliest compositions; and in this he was entirely successful with his poem _Ildegonda_ (1814). He next wrote an epic poem, entitled _The Lombards in the First Crusade_, a work of which Manzoni makes honourable mention in _I Promessi Sposi_. This composition, which was published by subscription (1826), attained a success unequalled by that of any other Italian poem within the century. The example of Manzoni induced Grossi to write an historical novel entitled _Marco Visconti_ (1834)--a work which contains passages of fine description and deep pathos. A little later Grossi published a tale in verse, _Ulrico and Lida_, but with this publication his poetical activity ceased. After his marriage in 1838 he continued to employ himself as a notary in Milan till his death on the 10th of December 1853.

His _Life_ by Cantu appeared at Milan in 1854.

GROSSMITH, GEORGE (1847- ), English comedian, was born on the 9th of December 1847, the son of a law reporter and entertainer of the same name. After some years of journalistic work he started about 1870 as a public entertainer, with songs and recitations; but in 1877 he began a long connexion with the Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy Theatre, London, in _The Sorcerer_. For twelve years he had the leading part, his capacity for "patter-songs," and his humorous acting, dancing and singing marking his creations of the chief characters in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas as the expression of a highly original individuality. In 1889 he left the Savoy, and again set up as an entertainer, visiting all the cities of Great Britain and the United States, but retiring in 1901. Among other books he wrote _The Reminiscences of a Society Clown_ (1888); and, with his brother Weedon, _The Diary of a Nobody_ (1894). His humorous songs and sketches numbered over six hundred. His younger brother, Weedon Grossmith, who was educated as a painter and exhibited at the Academy, also took to the stage, his first notable success being in the _Pantomime Rehearsal_; in 1894 he went into management on his own account, and had much success as a comedian. George Grossmith's two sons, Laurence Grossmith and George Grossmith, jun., were both actors, the latter becoming a well-known figure in the musical comedies at the Gaiety Theatre, London.

GROS VENTRES (Fr. for "Great Bellies"), or Atsina, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. The name is said to have reference to the greediness of the people, but more probably originated from their prominent tattooing. They are settled at Fort Belknap agency, Montana. The name has also been given to other tribes, e.g. the Hidatsa or Minitari, now at Fort Berthold, North Dakota.

GROTE, GEORGE (1794-1871), English historian of Greece, was born on the 17th of November 1794, at Clay Hill near Beckenham in Kent. His grandfather, Andreas, originally a Bremen merchant, was one of the founders (1st of January 1766) of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott & Company in Threadneedle Street, London (the name of Grote did not disappear from the firm till 1879). His father, also George, married (1793) Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1747-1787), minister of the countess of Huntingdon's chapel in Westminster (descended from a Huguenot family, the de Blossets, who had left Touraine on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter and ten sons, of whom the historian was the eldest. Educated at first by his mother, George Grote was sent to the Sevenoaks grammar school (1800-1804) and afterwards to Charterhouse (1804-1810), where he studied under Dr Raine in company with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and Henry Havelock. In spite of Grote's school successes, his father refused to send him to the university and put him in the bank in 1810. He spent all his spare time in the study of classics, history, metaphysics and political economy, and in learning German, French and Italian. Driven by his mother's Puritanism and his father's contempt for academic learning to outside society, he became intimate with Charles Hay Cameron, who strengthened him in his love of philosophy, and George W. Norman, through whom he met his wife, Miss Harriet Lewin (see below). After various difficulties the marriage took place on the 5th of March 1820, and was in all respects a happy union.

In the meanwhile Grote had finally decided his philosophic and political attitude. In 1817 he came under the influence of David Ricardo, and through him of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a house attached to the bank in Threadneedle Street, where his only child died a week after its birth. During Mrs Grote's slow convalescence at Hampstead, he wrote his first published work, the _Statement of the Question of Parliamentary Reform_ (1821), in reply to Sir James Mackintosh's article in the _Edinburgh Review_, advocating popular representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments. In 1822 he published in the _Morning Chronicle_ (April) a letter against Canning's attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or rather re-wrote, some discursive papers of Bentham, which he published under the title _Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind by Philip Beauchamp_ (1822). The book was published in the name of Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a member of J. S. Mill's Utilitarian Society (1822-1823). he took a great interest in a society for reading and discussion, which met (from 1823) in a room at the bank before business hours twice a week. From the _Posthumous Papers_ (pp. 22, 24) it is clear that Mrs Grote was wrong in asserting that she first in 1823 (autumn) suggested the _History of Greece_; the book was already in preparation in 1822, though what was then written was subsequently reconstructed. In 1826 Grote published in the _Westminster Review_ (April) a criticism of Mitford's _History of Greece_, which shows that his ideas were already in order. From 1826 to 1830 he was hard at work with J. S. Mill and Henry Brougham in the organization of the new "university" in Gower Street. He was a member of the council which organized the faculties and the curriculum; but in 1830, owing to a difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the philosophical chairs, he resigned his position.

In 1830 he went abroad, and, attracted by the political crisis, spent some months in Paris in the society of the Liberal leaders. Recalled by his father's death (6th of July), he not only became manager of the bank, but took a leading position among the city Radicals. In 1831 he published his important _Essentials of Parliamentary Reform_ (an elaboration of his previous _Statement_), and, after refusing to stand as parliamentary candidate for the city in 1831, changed his mind and was elected head of the poll, with three other Liberals, in December 1832. After serving in three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which time his party ("the philosophic Radicals") had dwindled away. During these years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he severed his connexion with the bank and devoted himself to literature. In 1846 the first two volumes of the _History_ appeared, and the remaining ten between 1847 and the spring of 1856. In 1845 with Molesworth and Raikes Currie he gave monetary assistance to Auguste Comte (q.v.), then in financial difficulties. The formation of the Sonderbund (20th of July 1847) led him to visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of things in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states. This visit resulted in the publication in the _Spectator_ of seven weekly letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a letter to de Tocqueville in Mrs Grote's reprint of the _Seven Letters_, 1876).

In 1856 Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and Aristotle. _Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates_ (3 vols.) appeared in 1865, but the work on Aristotle he was not destined to complete. He had finished the _Organon_ and was about to deal with the metaphysical and physical treatises when he died on the 18th of June 1871, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He was a man of strong character and self-control, unfailing courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the best interests of the nation. To colleagues and subordinates alike, he was considerate and tolerant; he was unassuming, trustworthy in the smallest detail, accurate and comprehensive in thought, energetic and conscientious in action. Yet, hidden under his calm exterior there was a burning enthusiasm and a depth of passion of which only his intimate friends were aware.

His work may best be considered under the following heads:

1. _Grote's Services to Education._--He took, as already stated, an important part in the foundation and organization of the original university of London, which began its public work in Gower Street on the 28th of October 1828, and in 1836, on the incorporation of the university of London proper, became known as University College. In 1849 he was re-elected to the council, in 1860 he became treasurer, and on the death of Brougham (1868) president. He took a keen interest in all the work of the college, presented to it the _Marmor Homericum_, and finally bequeathed the reversion of L6000 for the endowment of a chair of philosophy of mind and logic. The emoluments of this sum were, however, to be held over and added to the principal if at any time the holder of the chair should be "a minister of the Church of England or of any other religious persuasion." In 1850 the senate of the university was reconstituted, and Grote was one of seven eminent men who were added to it. Eventually he became the strongest advocate for open examinations, for the claims not only of philosophy and classics but also of natural science, and, as vice-chancellor in 1862, for the admission of women to examinations. This latter reform was carried in 1868. He succeeded his friend Henry Hallam as a trustee of the British Museum in 1859, and took part in the reorganization of the departments of antiquities and natural science.

The honours which he received in recognition of these services were as follows: D.C.L. of Oxford (1853); LL.D. Cambridge (1861); F.R.S. (1857); honorary professor of ancient history in the Royal Academy (1859). By the French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences he was made correspondent (1857) and foreign associate (the first Englishman since Macaulay) (1864). In 1869 he refused Gladstone's offer of a peerage.

2. _Political Career._--In politics Grote belonged to the "philosophic Radicals" of the school of J. S. Mill and Bentham, whose chief principles were representative government, vote by ballot, the abolition of a state church, frequent elections. He adhered to these principles throughout, and refused to countenance any reforms which were incompatible with them. By this uncompromising attitude, he gradually lost all his supporters save a few men of like rigidity. As a speaker, he was clear, logical and impressive, and on select committees his common sense was most valuable. For his speeches see A. Bain in the _Minor Works_; see also BALLOT.

3. _The History of Greece._--It is on this work that Grote's reputation mainly rests. Though half a century has passed since its production, it is still in some sense the text-book. It consists of two parts, the "Legendary" and the "Historical" Greece. The former, owing to the development of comparative mythology, is now of little authority, and portions of