part one

_from_ another; part _among_ the claimants; part _between_ contestants (archaic); in general, to part _from_ is to relinquish companionship; to part _with_ is to relinquish possession; we part _from_ a person or _from_ something thought of with some sense of companionship; a traveler parts _from_ his friends; he maybe said also to part _from_ his native shore; a man parts _with_ an estate, a horse, a copyright; part _with_ may be applied to a person thought of in any sense as a possession; an employer parts _with_ a clerk or servant; but _part with_ is sometimes used by good writers as meaning simply to separate from.

* * * * *

PART, _n._

Synonyms:

atom, fraction, member, section, component, fragment, particle, segment, constituent, ingredient, piece, share, division, instalment, portion, subdivision. element,

_Part_, a substance, quantity, or amount that is the result of the division of something greater, is the general word, including all the others of this group. A _fragment_ is the result of breaking, rending, or disruption of some kind, while a _piece_ may be smoothly or evenly separated and have a certain completeness in itself. A _piece_ is often taken for a sample; a _fragment_ scarcely would be. _Division_ and _fraction_ are always regarded as in connection with the total; _divisions_ may be equal or unequal; a _fraction_ is one of several equal _parts_ into which the whole is supposed to be divided. A _portion_ is a _part_ viewed with reference to some one who is to receive it or some special purpose to which it is to be applied; in a restaurant one _portion_ (_i. e._, the amount designed for one person) is sometimes, by special order, served to two; a _share_ is a _part_ to which one has or may acquire a right in connection with others; an _instalment_ is one of a series of proportionate payments that are to be continued till the entire claim is discharged; a _particle_ is an exceedingly small _part_. A _component_, _constituent_, _ingredient_, or _element_ is a _part_ of some compound or mixture; an _element_ is necessary to the existence, as a _component_ or _constituent_ is necessary to the completeness of that which it helps to compose; an _ingredient_ may be foreign or accidental. A _subdivision_ is a _division_ of a _division_. We speak of a _segment_ of a circle. Compare

## PARTICLE; PORTION.

* * * * *

## PARTICLE.

Synonyms:

atom, grain, mite, scrap, whit. corpuscle, iota, molecule, shred, element, jot, scintilla, tittle,

A _particle_ is a very small part of any material substance; as, a _particle_ of sand or of dust; it is a general term, not accurately determinate in meaning. _Atom_ (Gr. _a-_ privative, not, and _temno_, cut) etymologically signifies that which can not be cut or divided, and is the smallest conceivable _particle_ of matter, regarded as absolutely homogeneous and as having but one set of properties; _atoms_ are the ultimate _particles_ of matter. A _molecule_ is made up of _atoms_, and is regarded as separable into its constituent parts; as used by physicists, a _molecule_ is the smallest conceivable part which retains all the characteristics of the substance; thus, a _molecule_ of water is made up of two _atoms_ of hydrogen and one _atom_ of oxygen. _Element_ in chemistry denotes, without reference to quantity, a substance regarded as simple, _i. e._, one incapable of being resolved by any known process into simpler substances; the _element_ gold may be represented by an ingot or by a _particle_ of gold-dust. In popular language, an _element_ is any essential constituent; the ancients believed that the universe was made up of the four _elements_, earth, air, fire, and water; a storm is spoken of as a manifestation of the fury of the _elements_. We speak of _corpuscles_ of blood. Compare PART.

Antonyms:

aggregate, entirety, mass, quantity, sum, sum total, total, whole.

* * * * *

PATIENCE.

Synonyms:

calmness, forbearance, long-suffering, sufferance. composure, fortitude, resignation, endurance, leniency, submission,

_Patience_ is the quality or habit of mind shown in bearing passively and uncomplainingly any pain, evil, or hardship that may fall to one's lot. _Endurance_ hardens itself against suffering, and may be merely stubborn; _fortitude_ is _endurance_ animated by courage; _endurance_ may by modifiers be made to have a passive force, as when we speak of "passive endurance;" _patience_ is not so hard as _endurance_ nor so self-effacing as _submission_. _Submission_ is ordinarily and _resignation_ always applied to matters of great moment, while _patience_ may apply to slight worries and annoyances. As regards our relations to our fellow men, _forbearance_ is abstaining from retaliation or revenge; _patience_ is keeping kindliness of heart under vexatious conduct; _long-suffering_ is continued _patience_. _Patience_ may also have an active force denoting uncomplaining steadiness in doing, as in tilling the soil. Compare INDUSTRY.

Antonyms:

See synonyms for ANGER.

Prepositions:

Patience _in_ or _amid_ sufferings; patience _with_ (rarely _toward_) opposers or offenders; patience _under_ afflictions; (rarely) patience _of_ heat or cold, etc.

* * * * *

PAY, _n._

Synonyms:

allowance, hire, recompense, salary, compensation, honorarium, remuneration, stipend, earnings, payment, requital, wages. fee,

An _allowance_ is a stipulated amount furnished at regular intervals as a matter of discretion or gratuity, as of food to besieged soldiers, or of money to a child or ward. _Compensation_ is a comprehensive word signifying a return for a service done. _Remuneration_ is applied to matters of great amount or importance. _Recompense_ is a still wider and loftier word, with less suggestion of calculation and market value; there are services for which affection and gratitude are the sole and sufficient _recompense_; _earnings_, _fees_, _hire_, _pay_, _salary_, and _wages_ are forms of _compensation_ and may be included in _compensation_, _remuneration_, or _recompense_. _Pay_ is commercial and strictly signifies an exact pecuniary equivalent for a thing or service, except when the contrary is expressly stated, as when we speak of "high _pay_" or "poor _pay_." _Wages_ denotes what a worker receives. _Earnings_ is often used as exactly equivalent to _wages_, but may be used with reference to the real value of work done or service rendered, and even applied to inanimate things; as, the _earnings_ of capital. _Hire_ is distinctly mercenary or menial, but as a noun has gone out of popular use, tho the verb _to hire_ is common. _Salary_ is for literary or professional work, _wages_ for handicraft or other comparatively inferior service; a _salary_ is regarded as more permanent than _wages_; an editor receives a _salary_, a compositor receives _wages_. _Stipend_ has become exclusively a literary word. A _fee_ is given for a single service or privilege, and is sometimes in the nature of a gratuity. Compare REQUITE.

* * * * *

PEOPLE.

Synonyms:

commonwealth, nation, race, state, tribe. community, population,

A _community_ is in general terms the aggregate of persons inhabiting any territory in common and viewed as having common interests; a _commonwealth_ is such a body of persons having a common government, especially a republican government; as, the _commonwealth_ of Massachusetts. A _community_ may be very small; a _commonwealth_ is ordinarily of considerable extent. A _people_ is the aggregate of any public _community_, either in distinction from their rulers or as including them; a _race_ is a division of mankind in the line of origin and ancestry; the _people_ of the United States includes members of almost every _race_. The use of _people_ as signifying persons collectively, as in the statement "The hall was full of _people_," has been severely criticized, but is old and accepted English, and may fitly be classed as idiomatic, and often better than _persons_, by reason of its collectivism. As Dean Alford suggests, it would make a strange transformation of the old hymn "All _people_ that on earth do dwell" to sing "All _persons_ that on earth do dwell." A _state_ is an organized political _community_ considered in its corporate capacity as "a body politic and corporate;" as, a legislative act is the act of the _state_; every citizen is entitled to the protection of the _state_. A _nation_ is an organized political _community_ considered with reference to the persons composing it as having certain definite boundaries, a definite number of citizens, etc. The members of a _people_ are referred to as persons or individuals; the individual members of a _state_ or _nation_ are called citizens or subjects. The _population_ of a country is simply the aggregate of persons residing within its borders, without reference to _race_, organization, or allegiance; unnaturalized residents form part of the _population_, but not of the _nation_, possessing none of the rights and being subject to none of the duties of citizens. In American usage _State_ signifies one _commonwealth_ of the federal union known as the United _States_. _Tribe_ is now almost wholly applied to rude _peoples_ with very imperfect political organization; as, the Indian _tribes_; nomadic _tribes_. Compare MOB.

* * * * *

PERCEIVE.

Synonyms:

apprehend, comprehend, conceive, understand.

We _perceive_ what is presented through the senses. We _apprehend_ what is presented to the mind, whether through the senses or by any other means. Yet _perceive_ is used in the figurative sense of seeing through to a conclusion, in a way for which usage would not allow us to substitute _apprehend_; as, "Sir, I _perceive_ that thou art a prophet," _John_ iv, 19. That which we _apprehend_ we catch, as with the hand; that which we _conceive_ we are able to analyze and recompose in our mind; that which we _comprehend_, we, as it were, grasp around, take together, seize, embrace wholly within the mind. Many things may be _apprehended_ which can not be _comprehended_; a child can _apprehend_ the distinction between right and wrong, yet the philosopher can not _comprehend_ it in its fulness. We can _apprehend_ the will of God as revealed in conscience or the Scriptures; we can _conceive_ of certain attributes of Deity, as his truth and justice; but no finite intelligence can _comprehend_ the Divine Nature, in its majesty, power, and perfection. Compare ANTICIPATE; ARREST; CATCH; KNOWLEDGE.

Antonyms:

fail of, ignore, lose, misapprehend, misconceive, miss, overlook.

* * * * *

PERFECT.

Synonyms:

absolute, consummate, holy, spotless, accurate, correct, ideal, stainless, blameless, entire, immaculate, unblemished, complete, faultless, sinless, undefiled. completed, finished,

That is _perfect_ to which nothing can be added, and from which nothing can be taken without impairing its excellence, marring its symmetry, or detracting from its worth; in this fullest sense God alone is _perfect_, but in a limited sense anything may be _perfect_ in its kind; as a _perfect_ flower; a copy of a document is _perfect_ when it is _accurate_ in every particular; a vase may be called _perfect_ when _entire_ and _unblemished_, even tho not artistically _faultless_; the best judges never pronounce a work of art _perfect_, because they see always _ideal_ possibilities not yet attained; even the _ideal_ is not _perfect_, by reason of the imperfection of the human mind; a human character faultlessly _holy_ would be morally _perfect_ tho finite. That which is _absolute_ is free from admixture (as _absolute_ alcohol) and in the highest and fullest sense free from imperfection or limitation; as, _absolute_ holiness and love are attributes of God alone. In philosophical language, _absolute_ signifies free from all necessary, or even from all possible relations, not dependent or limited, unrelated and unconditioned; truth immediately known, as intuitive truth, is _absolute_; God, as self-existent and free from all limitation or dependence, is called the _absolute_ Being, or simply the _Absolute_. Compare INNOCENT; INFINITE; RADICAL.

Antonyms:

bad, defective, imperfect, meager, scant, blemished, deficient, incomplete, perverted, short, corrupt, deformed, inferior, poor, spoiled, corrupted, fallible, insufficient, ruined, worthless. defaced, faulty, marred,

* * * * *

PERMANENT.

Synonyms:

abiding, enduring, lasting, steadfast, changeless, fixed, perpetual, unchangeable, constant, immutable, persistent, unchanging. durable, invariable, stable,

_Durable_ (L. _durus_, hard) is said almost wholly of material substances that resist wear; _lasting_ is said of either material or immaterial things. _Permanent_ is a word of wider meaning; a thing is _permanent_ which is not liable to change; as, a _permanent_ color; buildings upon a farm are called _permanent_ improvements. _Enduring_ is a higher word, applied to that which resists both time and change; as, _enduring_ fame.

Antonyms:

See synonyms for TRANSIENT.

* * * * *

PERMISSION.

Synonyms:

allowance, authorization, leave, license, authority, consent, liberty, permit.

_Authority_ unites the right and power of control; age, wisdom, and character give _authority_ to their possessor; a book of learned research has _authority_, and is even called an _authority_. _Permission_ justifies another in acting without interference or censure, and usually implies some degree of approval. _Authority_ gives a certain right of control over all that may be affected by the action. There may be a failure to object, which constitutes an implied _permission_, tho this is more properly expressed by _allowance_; we _allow_ what we do not oppose, _permit_ what we expressly authorize. The noun _permit_ implies a formal written _permission_. _License_ is a formal _permission_ granted by competent _authority_ to an individual to do some act or pursue some business which would be or is made to be unlawful without such _permission_; as, a _license_ to preach, to solemnize marriages, or to sell intoxicating liquors. A _license_ is _permission_ granted rather than _authority_ conferred; the sheriff has _authority_ (not _permission_ nor _license_) to make an arrest. _Consent_ is _permission_ by the concurrence of wills in two or more persons, a mutual approval or acceptance of something proposed. Compare ALLOW.

Antonyms:

denial, objection, prevention, refusal, resistance. hindrance, opposition, prohibition,

* * * * *

PERNICIOUS.

Synonyms:

bad, evil, mischievous, pestilential, baneful, foul, noisome, poisonous, deadly, harmful, noxious, ruinous, deleterious, hurtful, perverting, unhealthful, destructive, injurious, pestiferous, unwholesome. detrimental, insalubrious,

_Pernicious_ (L. _per_, through, and _neco_, kill) signifies having the power of destroying or injuring, tending to hurt or kill. _Pernicious_ is stronger than _injurious_; that which is _injurious_ is capable of doing harm; that which is _pernicious_ is likely to be _destructive_. _Noxious_ (L. _noceo_, hurt) is a stronger word than _noisome_, as referring to that which is _injurious_ or _destructive_. _Noisome_ now always denotes that which is extremely disagreeable or disgusting, especially to the sense of smell; as, the _noisome_ stench proclaimed the presence of _noxious_ gases.

Antonyms:

advantageous, favorable, helpful, profitable, serviceable, beneficent, good, invigorating, rejuvenating, useful, beneficial, healthful, life-giving, salutary, wholesome.

* * * * *

PERPLEXITY.

Synonyms:

amazement, bewilderment, distraction, doubt, astonishment, confusion, disturbance, embarrassment.

_Perplexity_ (L. _per_, through, and _plecto_, plait) is the drawing or turning of the thoughts or faculties by turns in different directions or toward contrasted or contradictory conclusions; _confusion_ (L. _confusus_, from _confundo_, pour together) is a state in which the mental faculties are, as it were, thrown into chaos, so that the clear and distinct action of the different powers, as of perception, memory, reason, and will is lost; _bewilderment_ is akin to _confusion_, but is less overwhelming, and more readily recovered from; _perplexity_, accordingly, has not the unsettling of the faculties implied in _confusion_, nor the overwhelming of the faculties implied in _amazement_ or _astonishment_; it is not the magnitude of the things to be known, but the want of full and definite knowledge, that causes _perplexity_. The dividing of a woodland path may cause the traveler the greatest _perplexity_, which may become _bewilderment_ when he has tried one path after another and lost his bearings completely. With an excitable person _bewilderment_ may deepen into _confusion_ that will make him unable to think clearly or even to see or hear distinctly. _Amazement_ results from the sudden and unimagined occurrence of great good or evil or the sudden awakening of the mind to unthought-of truth. _Astonishment_ often produces _bewilderment_, which the word was formerly understood to imply. Compare AMAZEMENT; ANXIETY; DOUBT.

* * * * *

PERSUADE.

Synonyms:

allure, dispose, incline, move, bring over, entice, induce, prevail on _or_ upon, coax, impel, influence, urge, convince, incite, lead, win over.

Of these words _convince_ alone has no direct reference to moving the will, denoting an effect upon the understanding only; one may be _convinced_ of his duty without doing it, or he may be _convinced_ of truth that has no manifest connection with duty or action, as of a mathematical proposition. To _persuade_ is to bring the will of another to a desired decision by some influence exerted upon it short of compulsion; one may be _convinced_ that the earth is round; he may be _persuaded_ to travel round it; but persuasion is so largely dependent upon conviction that it is commonly held to be the orator's work first to _convince_ in order that he may _persuade_. _Coax_ is a slighter word than _persuade_, seeking the same end by shallower methods, largely by appeal to personal feeling, with or without success; as, a child _coaxes_ a parent to buy him a toy. One may be _brought over_, _induced_, or _prevailed upon_ by means not properly included in persuasion, as by bribery or intimidation; he is _won over_ chiefly by personal influence. Compare INFLUENCE.

Antonyms:

deter, discourage, dissuade, hinder, hold back, repel, restrain.

* * * * *

PERTNESS.

Synonyms:

boldness, forwardness, liveliness, sprightliness. briskness, impertinence, sauciness, flippancy, impudence, smartness,

_Liveliness_ and _sprightliness_ are pleasant and commendable; _smartness_ is a limited and showy acuteness or shrewdness, usually with unfavorable suggestion; _pertness_ and _sauciness_ are these qualities overdone, and regardless of the respect due to superiors. _Impertinence_ and _impudence_ may be gross and stupid; _pertness_ and _sauciness_ are always vivid and keen. Compare IMPUDENCE.

Antonyms:

bashfulness, demureness, diffidence, humility, modesty, shyness.

* * * * *

PERVERSE.

Synonyms:

contrary, froward, petulant, untoward, factious, intractable, stubborn, wayward, fractious, obstinate, ungovernable, wilful.

_Perverse_ (L. _perversus_, turned the wrong way) signifies wilfully wrong or erring, unreasonably set against right, reason, or authority. The _stubborn_ or _obstinate_ person will not do what another desires or requires; the _perverse_ person will do anything contrary to what is desired or required of him. The _petulant_ person frets, but may comply; the _perverse_ individual may be smooth or silent, but is wilfully _intractable_. _Wayward_ refers to a _perverse_ disregard of morality and duty; _froward_ is practically obsolete; _untoward_ is rarely heard except in certain phrases; as, _untoward_ circumstances. Compare OBSTINATE.

Antonyms:

accommodating, complaisant, genial, kind, amenable, compliant, governable, obliging.

* * * * *

PHYSICAL.

Synonyms:

bodily, corporeal, natural, tangible, corporal, material, sensible, visible.

Whatever is composed of or pertains to matter may be termed _material_; _physical_ (Gr. _physis_, nature) applies to _material_ things considered as parts of a system or organic whole; hence, we speak of _material_ substances, _physical_ forces, _physical_ laws. _Bodily_, _corporal_, and _corporeal_ apply primarily to the human body; _bodily_ and _corporal_ both denote pertaining or relating to the body; _corporeal_ signifies of the nature of or like the body; _corporal_ is now almost wholly restricted to signify applied to or inflicted upon the body; we speak of _bodily_ sufferings, _bodily_ presence, _corporal_ punishment, the _corporeal_ frame.

Antonyms:

hyperphysical, intangible, invisible, moral, unreal, immaterial, intellectual, mental, spiritual, unsubstantial.

* * * * *

PIQUE.

Synonyms:

displeasure, irritation, offense, resentment, umbrage. grudge,

_Pique_, from the French, signifies primarily a prick or a sting, as of a nettle; the word denotes a sudden feeling of mingled pain and anger, but slight and usually transient, arising from some neglect or _offense_, real or imaginary. _Umbrage_ is a deeper and more persistent _displeasure_ at being overshadowed (L. _umbra_, a shadow) or subjected to any treatment that one deems unworthy of him. It may be said, as a general statement, that _pique_ arises from wounded vanity or sensitiveness, _umbrage_ from wounded pride or sometimes from suspicion. _Resentment_ rests on more solid grounds, and is deep and persistent. Compare ANGER.

Antonyms:

approval, contentment, gratification, pleasure, satisfaction. complacency, delight,

* * * * *

PITIFUL.

Synonyms:

abject, lamentable, paltry, sorrowful, base, miserable, pathetic, touching, contemptible, mournful, piteous, woful, despicable, moving, pitiable, wretched.

_Pitiful_ originally signified full of pity; as, "the Lord is very _pitiful_ and of tender mercy," _James_ v, 11; but this usage is now archaic, and the meaning in question is appropriated by such words as merciful and compassionate. _Pitiful_ and _pitiable_ now refer to what may be deserving of pity, _pitiful_ being used chiefly for that which is merely an object of thought, _pitiable_ for that which is brought directly before the senses; as, a _pitiful_ story; a _pitiable_ object; a _pitiable_ condition. Since pity, however, always implies weakness or inferiority in that which is pitied, _pitiful_ and _pitiable_ are often used, by an easy transition, for what might awaken pity, but does awaken contempt; as, a _pitiful_ excuse; he presented a _pitiable_ appearance. _Piteous_ is now rarely used in its earlier sense of feeling pity, but in its derived sense applies to what really excites the emotion; as, a _piteous_ cry. Compare HUMANE; MERCY; PITY.

Antonyms:

august, dignified, grand, lofty, sublime, beneficent, exalted, great, mighty, superb, commanding, glorious, helpful, noble, superior.

* * * * *

PITY.

Synonyms:

commiseration, condolence, sympathy, tenderness. compassion, mercy,

_Pity_ is a feeling of grief or pain aroused by the weakness, misfortunes, or distresses of others, joined with a desire to help or relieve. _Sympathy_ (feeling or suffering with) implies some degree of equality, kindred, or union; _pity_ is for what is weak or unfortunate, and so far, at least, inferior to ourselves; hence, _pity_ is often resented where _sympathy_ would be welcome. We have _sympathy_ with one in joy or grief, in pleasure or pain, _pity_ only for those in suffering or need; we may have _sympathy_ with the struggles of a giant or the triumphs of a conqueror; we are moved with _pity_ for the captive or the slave. _Pity_ may be only in the mind, but _mercy_ does something for those who are its objects. _Compassion_, like _pity_, is exercised only with respect to the suffering or unfortunate, but combines with the tenderness of _pity_ the dignity of _sympathy_ and the active quality of _mercy_. _Commiseration_ is as tender as _compassion_, but more remote and hopeless; we have _commiseration_ for sufferers whom we can not reach or can not relieve. _Condolence_ is the expression of _sympathy_. Compare MERCY.

Antonyms:

barbarity, ferocity, harshness, pitilessness, severity, brutality, hard-heartedness, inhumanity, rigor, sternness, cruelty, hardness, mercilessness, ruthlessness, truculence.

Prepositions:

Pity _on_ or _upon_ that which we help or spare; pity _for_ that which we merely contemplate; "have pity _upon_ me, O ye my friends," _Job_ xix, 21; "pity _for_ a horse o'erdriven," TENNYSON _In Memoriam_ lxii, st. 1.

* * * * *

PLANT.

Synonyms:

seed, seed down, set, set out, sow.

We _set_ or _set out_ slips, cuttings, young trees, etc., tho we may also be said to _plant_ them; we _plant_ corn, potatoes, etc., which we put in definite places, as in hills, with some care; we _sow_ wheat or other small grains and seeds which are scattered in the process. Tho by modern agricultural machinery the smaller grains are almost as precisely _planted_ as corn, the old word for broadcast scattering is retained. Land is _seeded_ or _seeded down_ to grass.

Antonyms:

eradicate, extirpate, root up, uproot, weed out.

* * * * *

PLEAD.

Synonyms:

advocate, ask, beseech, implore, solicit, argue, beg, entreat, press, urge.

To _plead_ for one is to employ argument or persuasion, or both in his behalf, usually with earnestness or importunity; similarly one may be said to _plead_ for himself or for a cause, etc., or with direct object, to _plead_ a case; in legal usage, _pleading_ is argumentative, but in popular usage, _pleading_ always implies some appeal to the feelings. One _argues_ a case solely on rational grounds and supposably with fair consideration of both sides; he _advocates_ one side for the purpose of carrying it, and under the influence of motives that may range all the way from cold self-interest to the highest and noblest impulses; he _pleads_ a cause, or _pleads_ for a person with still more intense feeling. _Beseech_, _entreat_, and _implore_ imply impassioned earnestness, with direct and tender appeal to personal considerations. _Press_ and _urge_ imply more determined or perhaps authoritative insistence. _Solicit_ is a weak word denoting merely an attempt to secure one's consent or cooperation, sometimes by sordid or corrupt motives.

Prepositions:

Plead _with_ the tyrant _for_ the captive; plead _against_ the oppression or the oppressor; plead _to_ the indictment; _at_ the bar; _before_ the court; _in_ open court.

* * * * *

PLEASANT.

Synonyms:

agreeable, good-natured, kindly, pleasing, attractive, kind, obliging, pleasurable.

That is _pleasing_ from which pleasure is received, or may readily be received, without reference to any action or intent in that which confers it; as, a _pleasing_ picture; a _pleasing_ landscape. Whatever has active qualities adapted to give pleasure is _pleasant_; as, a _pleasant_ breeze; a _pleasant_ (not a _pleasing_) day. As applied to persons, _pleasant_ always refers to a disposition ready and desirous to please; one is _pleasant_, or in a _pleasant_ mood, when inclined to make happy those with whom he is dealing, to show kindness and do any reasonable favor. In this sense _pleasant_ is nearly akin to _kind_, but _kind_ refers to act or intent, while _pleasant_ stops with the disposition; many persons are no longer in a _pleasant_ mood if asked to do a troublesome kindness. _Pleasant_ keeps always something of the sense of actually giving pleasure, and thus surpasses the meaning of _good-natured_; there are _good-natured_ people who by reason of rudeness and ill-breeding are not _pleasant_ companions. A _pleasing_ face has good features, complexion, expression, etc.; a _pleasant_ face indicates a _kind_ heart and an _obliging_ disposition, as well as _kindly_ feelings in actual exercise; we can say of one usually _good-natured_, "on that occasion he did not meet me with a _pleasant_ face." _Pleasant_, in the sense of gay, merry, jocose (the sense still retained in _pleasantry_), is now rare, and would not be understood outside of literary circles. Compare AMIABLE; COMFORTABLE; DELIGHTFUL.

Antonyms:

arrogant, displeasing, glum, ill-humored, repelling, austere, dreary, grim, ill-natured, repulsive, crabbed, forbidding, harsh, offensive, unkind, disagreeable, gloomy, hateful, repellent, unpleasant.

Prepositions:

Pleasant _to_, _with_, or _toward_ persons, _about_ a matter.

* * * * *

PLENTIFUL.

Synonyms:

abounding, bountiful, generous, plenteous, abundant, complete, large, profuse, adequate, copious, lavish, replete, affluent, enough, liberal, rich, ample, exuberant, luxuriant, sufficient, bounteous, full, overflowing, teeming.

_Enough_ is relative, denoting a supply equal to a given demand. A temperature of 70° Fahrenheit is _enough_ for a living-room; of 212° _enough_ to boil water; neither is _enough_ to melt iron. _Sufficient_, from the Latin, is an equivalent of the Saxon _enough_, with no perceptible difference of meaning, but only of usage, _enough_ being the more blunt, homely, and forcible word, while _sufficient_ is in many cases the more elegant or polite. _Sufficient_ usually precedes its noun; _enough_ usually and preferably follows. That is _ample_ which gives a safe, but not a large, margin beyond a given demand; that is _abundant_, _affluent_, _bountiful_, _liberal_, _plentiful_, which is largely in excess of manifest need. _Plentiful_ is used of supplies, as of food, water, etc.; as, "a _plentiful_ rain," _Ps._ lxviii, 9. We may also say a _copious_ rain; but _copious_ can be applied to thought, language, etc., where _plentiful_ can not well be used. _Affluent_ and _liberal_ both apply to riches, resources; _liberal_, with especial reference to giving or expending. (Compare synonyms for ADEQUATE.) _Affluent_, referring especially to riches, may be used of thought, feeling, etc. Neither _affluent_, _copious_, nor _plentiful_ can be used of time or space; a field is sometimes called _plentiful_, not with reference to its extent, but to its productiveness. _Complete_ expresses not excess or overplus, and yet not mere sufficiency, but harmony, proportion, fitness to a design, or ideal. _Ample_ and _abundant_ may be applied to any subject. We have time _enough_, means that we can reach our destination without haste, but also without delay; if we have _ample_ time, we may move leisurely, and note what is by the way; if we have _abundant_ time, we may pause to converse with a friend, to view the scenery, or to rest when weary. _Lavish_ and _profuse_ imply a decided excess, oftenest in the ill sense. We rejoice in _abundant_ resources, and honor _generous_ hospitality; _lavish_ or _profuse_ expenditure suggests extravagance and wastefulness. _Luxuriant_ is used especially of that which is _abundant_ in growth; as, a _luxuriant_ crop.

Antonyms:

deficient, inadequate, narrow, scanty, small, drained, insufficient, niggardly, scarce, sparing, exhausted, mean, poor, scrimped, stingy, impoverished, miserly, scant, short, straitened.

Preposition:

Plentiful _in_ resources.

* * * * *

POETRY.

Synonyms:

meter, numbers, poesy, song, metrical composition, poem, rime, verse.

_Poetry_ is that form of literature that embodies beautiful thought, feeling, or action in melodious, rhythmical, and (usually) metrical language, in imaginative and artistic constructions. _Poetry_ in a very wide sense may be anything that pleasingly addresses the imagination; as, the _poetry_ of motion. In ordinary usage, _poetry_ is both imaginative and metrical. There may be _poetry_ without _rime_, but hardly without _meter_, or what in some languages takes its place, as the Hebrew parallelism; but _poetry_ involves, besides the artistic form, the exercise of the fancy or imagination in a way always beautiful, often lofty or even sublime. Failing this, there may be _verse_, _rime_, and _meter_, but not _poetry_. There is much in literature that is beautiful and sublime in thought and artistic in construction, which is yet not _poetry_, because quite devoid of the element of _song_, whereby _poetry_ differs from the most lofty, beautiful, or impassioned prose. Compare METER.

Antonyms:

prosaic speech, prosaic writing, prose.

* * * * *

POLITE.

Synonyms:

accomplished, courtly, genteel, urbane, civil, cultivated, gracious, well-behaved, complaisant, cultured, obliging, well-bred, courteous, elegant, polished, well-mannered.

A _civil_ person observes such propriety of speech and manner as to avoid being rude; one who is _polite_ (literally _polished_) observes more than the necessary proprieties, conforming to all that is graceful, becoming, and thoughtful in the intercourse of refined society. A man may be _civil_ with no consideration for others, simply because self-respect forbids him to be rude; but one who is _polite_ has at least some care for the opinions of others, and if _polite_ in the highest and truest sense, which is coming to be the prevailing one, he cares for the comfort and happiness of others in the smallest matters. _Civil_ is a colder and more distant word than _polite_; _courteous_ is fuller and richer, dealing often with greater matters, and is used only in the good sense. _Courtly_ suggests that which befits a royal court, and is used of external grace and stateliness without reference to the prompting feeling; as, the _courtly_ manners of the ambassador. _Genteel_ refers to an external elegance, which may be showy and superficial, and the word is thus inferior to _polite_ or _courteous_. _Urbane_ refers to a politeness that is genial and successful in giving others a sense of ease and cheer. _Polished_ refers to external elegancies of speech and manner without reference to spirit or purpose; as, a _polished_ gentleman or a _polished_ scoundrel; _cultured_ refers to a real and high development of mind and soul, of which the external manifestation is the smallest part. _Complaisant_ denotes a disposition to please or favor beyond what _politeness_ would necessarily require.

Antonyms:

awkward, clownish, ill-mannered, insulting, uncouth, bluff, coarse, impertinent, raw, unmannerly, blunt, discourteous, impolite, rude, unpolished, boorish, ill-behaved, impudent, rustic, untaught, brusk, ill-bred, insolent, uncivil, untutored.

* * * * *

POLITY.

Synonyms:

constitution, policy, form _or_ system of government.

_Polity_ is the permanent system of government of a state, a church, or a society; _policy_ is the method of management with reference to the attainment of certain ends; the national _polity_ of the United States is republican; each administration has a _policy_ of its own. _Policy_ is often used as equivalent to expediency; as, many think honesty to be good _policy_. _Polity_ used in ecclesiastical use serves a valuable purpose in distinguishing that which relates to administration and government from that which relates to faith and doctrine; two churches identical in faith may differ in _polity_, or those agreeing in _polity_ may differ in faith. Compare LAW.

* * * * *

PORTION.

Synonyms:

lot, parcel, part, proportion, share.

When any whole is divided into _parts_, any _part_ that is allotted to some person, thing, subject or purpose is called a _portion_, tho the division may be by no fixed rule or relation; a father may divide his estate by will among his children so as to make their several _portions_ great or small, according to his arbitrary and unreasonable caprice. When we speak of a _part_ as a _proportion_, we think of the whole as divided according to some rule or scale, so that the different _parts_ bear a contemplated and intended relation or ratio to one another; thus, the _portion_ allotted to a child by will may not be a fair _proportion_ of the estate. _Proportion_ is often used where _part_ or _portion_ would be more appropriate. Compare PART.

* * * * *

POVERTY.

Synonyms:

beggary, distress, mendicancy, pauperism, privation, destitution, indigence, need, penury, want.

_Poverty_ denotes strictly lack of property or adequate means of support, but in common use is a relative term denoting any condition below that of easy, comfortable living; _privation_ denotes a condition of painful lack of what is useful or desirable, tho not to the extent of absolute _distress_; _indigence_ is lack of ordinary means of subsistence; _destitution_ is lack of the comforts, and in part even of the necessaries of life; _penury_ is especially cramping _poverty_, possibly not so sharp as _destitution_, but continuous, while that may be temporary; _pauperism_ is such _destitution_ as throws one upon organized public charity for support; _beggary_ and _mendicancy_ denote _poverty_ that appeals for indiscriminate private charity.

* * * * *

POWER.

Synonyms:

ability, competency, expertness, readiness, aptitude, dexterity, faculty, skill, capability, efficacy, force, strength, capacity, efficiency, might, susceptibility, cleverness, energy, qualification, talent. cogency,

_Power_ is the most general term of this group, including every quality, property, or _faculty_ by which any change, effect, or result is, or may be, produced; as, the _power_ of the legislature to enact laws, or of the executive to enforce them; the _power_ of an acid to corrode a metal; the _power_ of a polished surface to reflect light. _Ability_ is nearly coextensive with _power_, but does not reach the positiveness and vigor that may be included in the meaning of _power_, _ability_ often implying latent, as distinguished from active _power_; we speak of an exertion of _power_, but not of an exertion of _ability_. _Power_ and _ability_ include _capacity_, which is _power_ to receive; but _ability_ is often distinguished from _capacity_, as power that may be manifested in doing, as _capacity_ is in receiving; one may have great _capacity_ for acquiring knowledge, and yet not possess _ability_ to teach. _Efficiency_ is active _power_ to effect a definite result, the _power_ that actually does, as distinguished from that which may do. _Competency_ is equal to the occasion, _readiness_ prompt for the occasion. _Faculty_ is an inherent quality of mind or body; _talent_, some special mental _ability_. _Dexterity_ and _skill_ are readiness and facility in action, having a special end; _talent_ is innate, _dexterity_ and _skill_ are largely acquired. Our _abilities_ include our natural _capacity_, _faculties_, and _talents_, with all the _dexterity_, _skill_, and _readiness_ that can be acquired. _Efficacy_ is the power to produce an intended effect as shown in the production of it; as, the _efficacy_ of a drug. _Efficiency_ is effectual agency, competent _power_; _efficiency_ is applied in mechanics as denoting the ratio of the effect produced to the _power_ expended in producing it; but this word is chiefly used of intelligent agents as denoting the quality that brings all one's _power_ to bear promptly and to the best purpose on the thing to be done. Compare ADDRESS; DEXTERITY; SKILFUL.

Antonyms:

awkwardness, helplessness, inability, incompetence, stupidity, dulness, imbecility, inaptitude, inefficiency, unskilfulness, feebleness, impotence, incapacity, maladroitness, weakness.

* * * * *

PRAISE.

Synonyms:

acclaim, approbation, compliment, laudation, acclamation, approval, encomium, panegyric, adulation, cheering, eulogy, plaudit, applause, cheers, flattery, sycophancy.

_Praise_ is the hearty approval of an individual, or of a number or multitude considered individually, and is expressed by spoken or written words; _applause_, the spontaneous outburst of many at once. _Applause_ is expressed in any way, by stamping of feet, clapping of hands, waving of handkerchiefs, etc., as well as by the voice; _acclamation_ is the spontaneous and hearty approval of many at once, and strictly by the voice alone. Thus one is chosen moderator by _acclamation_ when he receives a unanimous _viva voce_ vote; we could not say he was nominated by _applause_. _Acclaim_ is the more poetic term for _acclamation_, commonly understood in a loftier sense; as, a nation's _acclaim_. _Plaudit_ is a shout of _applause_, and is commonly used in the plural; as, the _plaudits_ of a throng. _Applause_ is also used in the general sense of _praise_. _Approbation_ is a milder and more qualified word than _praise_; while _praise_ is always uttered, _approbation_ may be silent. "_Approbation_ speaks of the thing or action.... _Praise_ is always personal." A. W. AND J. C. HARE _Guesses at Truth_ first series, p. 549. [MACM. '66.] _Acceptance_ refers to an object or action; _approbation_ may refer to character or natural traits. _Approval_ always supposes a testing or careful examination, and frequently implies official sanction; _approbation_ may be upon a general view. The industry and intelligence of a clerk win his employer's _approbation_; his decision in a special instance receives his _approval_. _Praise_ is always understood as genuine and sincere, unless the contrary is expressly stated; _compliment_ is a light form of _praise_ that may or may not be sincere; _flattery_ is insincere and ordinarily fulsome _praise_.

Antonyms:

abuse, contempt, hissing, repudiation, animadversion, denunciation, ignominy, scorn, blame, disapprobation, obloquy, slander, censure, disapproval, reproach, vilification, condemnation, disparagement, reproof, vituperation.

* * * * *

PRAY.

Synonyms:

ask, bid, entreat, invoke, request, beg, call upon, implore, petition, supplicate. beseech, conjure, importune, plead,

To _pray_, in the religious sense, is devoutly to address the Supreme Being with reverent petition for divine grace or any favor or blessing, and in the fullest sense with thanksgiving and praise for the divine goodness and mercy; the once common use of the word to express any earnest _request_, as "I _pray_ you to come in," is now rare, unless in writings molded on older literature, or in certain phrases, as "_Pray_ sit down;" even in these "please" is more common; "I _beg_ you" is also frequently used, as expressing a polite humility of _request_. _Beseech_ and _entreat_ express great earnestness of _petition_; _implore_ and _supplicate_ denote the utmost fervency and intensity, _supplicate_ implying also humility. Compare ASK; PLEAD.

* * * * *

PRECARIOUS.

Synonyms:

doubtful, hazardous, risky, unsettled, dubious, insecure, unassured, unstable, equivocal, perilous, uncertain, unsteady.

_Uncertain_ is applied to things that human knowledge can not certainly determine or that human power can not certainly control; _precarious_ originally meant dependent on the will of another, and now, by extension of meaning, dependent on chance or hazard, with manifest unfavorable possibility verging toward probability; as, one holds office by a _precarious_ tenure, or land by a _precarious_ title; the strong man's hold on life is _uncertain_, the invalid's is _precarious_.

Antonyms:

actual, immutable, real, steady, undeniable, assured, incontestable, settled, strong, undoubted, certain, infallible, stable, sure, unquestionable. firm,

* * * * *

PRECEDENT.

Synonyms:

antecedent, case, instance, pattern, authority, example, obiter dictum, warrant.

A _precedent_ is an authoritative _case_, _example_, or _instance_. The communism of the early Christians in Jerusalem is a wonderful _example_ or _instance_ of Christian liberality, but not a _precedent_ for the universal church through all time. _Cases_ decided by irregular or unauthorized tribunals are not _precedents_ for the regular administration of law. An _obiter dictum_ is an opinion outside of the _case_ in hand, which can not be quoted as an authoritative _precedent_. Compare CAUSE; EXAMPLE.

* * * * *

PREDESTINATION.

Synonyms:

fate, foreknowledge, foreordination, necessity.

_Predestination_ is a previous determination or decision, which, in the divine action, reaches on from eternity. _Fate_ is heathen, an irresistible, irrational power determining all events with no manifest connection with reason or righteousness; _necessity_ is philosophical, a blind something in the nature of things binding the slightest action or motion in the chain of inevitable, eternal sequence; _foreordination_ and _predestination_ are Christian, denoting the rational and righteous order or decree of the supreme and all-wise God. _Foreknowledge_ is simply God's antecedent knowledge of all events, which some hold to be entirely separable from his _foreordination_, while others hold _foreordination_ to be inseparably involved in _foreknowledge_.

Antonyms:

accident, choice, freedom, independence, chance, free agency, free will, uncertainty.

Prepositions:

Predestination _of_ believers _to_ eternal life.

* * * * *

PREJUDICE.

Synonyms:

bias, preconception, presumption,

## partiality, prepossession, unfairness.

A _presumption_ (literally, a taking beforehand) is a partial decision formed in advance of argument or evidence, usually grounded on some general principle, and always held subject to revision upon fuller information. A _prejudice_ or _prepossession_ is grounded often on feeling, fancy, associations, etc. A _prejudice_ against foreigners is very common in retired communities. There is always a _presumption_ in favor of what exists, so that the burden of proof is upon one who advocates a change. A _prepossession_ is always favorable, a _prejudice_ always unfavorable, unless the contrary is expressly stated. Compare INJURY.

Antonyms:

certainty, conviction, evidence, reason, conclusion, demonstration, proof, reasoning.

Prepositions:

_Against_; rarely, _in favor of_, _in one's favor_.

* * * * *

PRETENSE.

Synonyms:

affectation, disguise, pretext, simulation, air, dissimulation, ruse, subterfuge, assumption, excuse, seeming, trick, cloak, mask, semblance, wile. color, pretension, show,

A _pretense_, in the unfavorable, which is also the usual sense, is something advanced or displayed for the purpose of concealing the reality. A person makes a _pretense_ of something for the credit or advantage to be gained by it; he makes what is allowed or approved a _pretext_ for doing what would be opposed or condemned; a tricky schoolboy makes a _pretense_ of doing an errand which he does not do, or he makes the actual doing of an errand a _pretext_ for playing truant. A _ruse_ is something (especially something slight or petty) employed to blind or deceive so as to mask an ulterior design, and enable a person to gain some end that he would not be allowed to approach directly. A _pretension_ is a claim that is or may be contested; the word is now commonly used in an unfavorable sense. Compare ARTIFICE; HYPOCRISY.

Antonyms:

actuality, frankness, ingenuousness, reality, sincerity, candor, guilelessness, openness, simplicity, truth. fact, honesty,

* * * * *

PREVENT.

Synonyms:

anticipate, forestall, obviate, preclude.

The original sense of _prevent_, to come before, act in advance of, which is now practically obsolete, was still in good use when the authorized version of the Bible was made, as appears in such passages as, "When Peter was come into the house, Jesus _prevented_ him" (_i. e._, addressed him first), _Matt._ xvii, 25; "Thou _preventest_ him with the blessings of goodness" (_i. e._, by sending the blessings before the desire is formulated or expressed), _Ps._ xxi, 3. _Anticipate_ is now the only single word usable in this sense; to _forestall_ is to take or

## act in advance in one's own behalf and to the prejudice of another or

others, as in the phrase "to _forestall_ the market." But to _anticipate_ is very frequently used in the favorable sense; as, his thoughtful kindness _anticipated_ my wish (_i. e._, met the wish before it was expressed): or we say, "I was about to accost him when he _anticipated_ me" (by speaking first); or one _anticipates_ a payment (by making it before the time); in neither of these cases could we use _forestall_ or _prevent_. To _obviate_ (literally, to stop the way of or remove from the way), is to _prevent_ by interception, so that something that would naturally withstand or disturb may be kept from doing so; to _preclude_, (literally, to close or shut in advance) is to _prevent_ by anticipation or by logical necessity; walls and bars _precluded_ the possibility of escape; a supposition is _precluded_; a necessity or difficulty is _obviated_. _Prevent_, which at first had only the anticipatory meaning, has come to apply to the stopping of an action at any stage, the completion or conclusion only being thought of as negatived by anticipation; the enemy passed the outworks and were barely _prevented_ from capturing the fortress. Compare HINDER; PROHIBIT.

Preposition:

He was prevented by illness _from_ joining the expedition.

* * * * *

PREVIOUS.

Synonyms:

antecedent, foregoing, front, preceding, anterior, former, introductory, preliminary, earlier, forward, precedent, prior.

_Antecedent_ may denote simple priority in time, implying no direct connection between that which goes before and that which follows; as, the striking of one clock may be always _antecedent_ to the striking of another with no causal connection between them. _Antecedent_ and _previous_ may refer to that which goes or happens at any distance in advance, _preceding_ is limited to that which is immediately or next before; an _antecedent_ event may have happened at any time before; the _preceding_ transaction is the one completed just before the one with which it is compared; a _previous_ statement or chapter may be in any part of the book that has gone before; the _preceding_ statement or

## chapter comes next before without an interval. _Previous_ often

signifies first by right; as, a _previous_ engagement. _Foregoing_ is used only of that which is spoken or written; as, the _foregoing_ statements. _Anterior_, while it can be used of time, is coming to be employed chiefly with reference to place; as the _anterior_ lobes of the brain. _Prior_ bears exclusive reference to time, and commonly where that which is first in time is first also in right; as, a _prior_ demand. _Former_ is used of time, or of position in written or printed matter, not of space in general. We can say _former_ times, a _former_ chapter, etc., but not the _former_ part of a garden; we should say the _front_ part of the garden, the _forward_ car of a train. _Former_ has a close relation, or sharp contrast, with something following; the _former_ always implies the latter, even when not fully expressed, as in _Acts_ i, 1, and _Eccles._ vii, 10.

Antonyms:

after, consequent, hind, hindmost, latter, subsequent, concluding, following, hinder, later, posterior, succeeding.

Preposition:

Such was the state of things previous _to_ the revolution. [_Previous to_ is often used adverbially, in constructions where _previously to_ would be more strictly correct; as, these arrangements were made _previous to_ my departure.]

* * * * *

PRICE.

Synonyms:

charge, cost, expenditure, expense, outlay, value, worth.

The _cost_ of a thing is all that has been expended upon it, whether in discovery, production, refinement, decoration, transportation, or otherwise, to bring it to its present condition in the hands of its present possessor; the _price_ of a thing is what the seller asks for it. In regular business, as a rule, the seller's _price_ on his wares must be more than their _cost_ to him; when goods are sold, the _price_ the buyer has paid becomes their _cost_ to himself. In exceptional cases, when goods are sold at _cost_, the seller's _price_ is made the same as the _cost_ of the goods to him, the _cost_ to the seller and the _cost_ to the buyer becoming then identical. _Price_ always implies that an article is for sale; what a man will not sell he declines to put a _price_ on; hence the significance of the taunting proverb that "every man has his _price_." _Value_ is the estimated equivalent for an article, whether the article is for sale or not; the market _value_ is what it would bring if exposed for sale in the open market; the intrinsic _value_ is the inherent utility of the article considered by itself alone; the market _value_ of an old and rare volume may be very great, while its intrinsic _value_ may be practically nothing. _Value_ has always more reference to others' estimation (literally, what the thing will avail with others) than _worth_, which regards the thing in and by itself; thus, intrinsic _value_ is a weaker expression than intrinsic _worth_. _Charge_ has especial reference to services, _expense_ to minor outlays; as, the _charges_ of a lawyer or physician; traveling _expenses_; household _expenses_.

* * * * *

PRIDE.

Synonyms:

arrogance, ostentation, self-exaltation, assumption, presumption, self-respect, conceit, reserve, superciliousness, disdain, self-complacency, vainglory, haughtiness, self-conceit, vanity. insolence, self-esteem,

_Haughtiness_ thinks highly of itself and poorly of others. _Arrogance_ claims much for itself and concedes little to others. _Pride_ is an absorbing sense of one's own greatness; _haughtiness_ feels one's own superiority to others; _disdain_ sees contemptuously the inferiority of others to oneself. _Presumption_ claims place or privilege above one's right; _pride_ deems nothing too high. _Insolence_ is open and rude expression of contempt and hostility, generally from an inferior to a superior, as from a servant to a master or mistress. In the presence of superiors overweening _pride_ manifests itself in _presumption_ or _insolence_; in the presence of inferiors, or those supposed to be inferior, _pride_ manifests itself by _arrogance_, _disdain_, _haughtiness_, _superciliousness_, or in either case often by cold _reserve_. (See RESERVE under MODESTY.) _Pride_ is too self-satisfied to care for praise; _vanity_ intensely craves admiration and applause. _Superciliousness_, as if by the uplifted eyebrow, as its etymology suggests (L. _supercilium_, eyebrow, from _super_, over and _cilium_, eyelid), silently manifests mingled _haughtiness_ and _disdain_. _Assumption_ quietly takes for granted superiority and privilege which others would be slow to concede. _Conceit_ and _vanity_ are associated with weakness, _pride_ with strength. _Conceit_ may be founded upon nothing; _pride_ is founded upon something that one is, or has, or has done; _vanity_, too, is commonly founded on something real, tho far slighter than would afford foundation for _pride_. _Vanity_ is eager for admiration and praise, is elated if they are rendered, and pained if they are withheld, and seeks them; _pride_ could never solicit admiration or praise. _Conceit_ is somewhat stronger than _self-conceit_. _Self-conceit_ is ridiculous; _conceit_ is offensive. _Self-respect_ is a thoroughly worthy feeling; _self-esteem_ is a more generous estimate of one's own character and abilities than the rest of the world are ready to allow. _Vainglory_ is more pompous and boastful than _vanity_. Compare EGOTISM; OSTENTATION.

Antonyms:

humility, meekness, modesty, self-abasement, self-distrust. lowliness,

* * * * *

PRIMEVAL.

Synonyms:

aboriginal, indigenous, patriarchal, primitive, ancient, native, primal, primordial, autochthonic, old, primary, pristine, immemorial, original, prime, uncreated.

_Aboriginal_ (L. _ab_, from, _origo_, origin) signifies pertaining to the _aborigines_ or earliest known inhabitants of a country in the widest sense, including not merely human beings but inferior animals and plants as well. _Autochthonic_ (Gr. _autos_, self, and _chth[=o]n_, earth) signifies sprung from the earth, especially from the soil of one's native land. _Primeval_ (L. _primum_, first, and _ævum_, age), signifies strictly belonging to the first ages, earliest in time, but often only the earliest of which man knows or conceives, _immemorial_. _Aboriginal_, _autochthonic_, and _primeval_ combine the meanings of _ancient_ and _original_; _aboriginal_ inhabitants, _autochthonic_ races, _primeval_ forests. _Prime_ and _primary_ may signify either first in time, or more frequently first in importance; _primary_ has also the sense of elementary or preparatory; we speak of a _prime_ minister, a _primary_ school. _Primal_ is chiefly poetic, in the sense of _prime_; as, the _primal_ curse. _Primordial_ is first in an order of succession or development; as, a _primordial_ leaf. _Primitive_ frequently signifies having the original characteristics of that which it represents, as well as standing first in time; as, the _primitive_ church. _Primitive_ also very frequently signifies having the original or early characteristics without remoteness in time. _Primeval_ simplicity is the simplicity of the earliest ages; _primitive_ simplicity may be found in retired villages now. _Pristine_ is an elegant word, used almost exclusively in a good sense of that which is _original_ and perhaps _ancient_; as, _pristine_ purity, innocence, vigor. That which is both an _original_ and natural product of a soil or country is said to be _indigenous_; that which is actually produced there is said to be _native_, though it may be of foreign extraction; humming-birds are _indigenous_ to America; canaries may be _native_, but are not _indigenous_. _Immemorial_ refers solely to time, independently of quality, denoting, in legal phrase, "that whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary;" as, an _immemorial_ custom; an _immemorial_ abuse. Compare OLD.

Antonyms:

adventitious, foreign, late, new, recent. exotic, fresh, modern, novel,

Compare synonyms for NEW.

* * * * *

PROFIT.

Synonyms:

advantage, expediency, proceeds, service, avail, gain, receipts, usefulness, benefit, good, return, utility, emolument, improvement, returns, value.

The _returns_ or _receipts_ include all that is received from an outlay or investment; the _profit_ is the excess (if any) of the _receipts_ over the outlay; hence, in government, morals, etc., the _profit_ is what is really good, helpful, useful, valuable. _Utility_ is chiefly used in the sense of some immediate or personal and generally some material _good_. _Advantage_ is that which gives one a vantage-ground, either for coping with competitors or with difficulties, needs, or demands; as to have the _advantage_ of a good education; it is frequently used of what one has beyond another or secures at the expense of another; as, to have the _advantage_ of another in an argument, or to take _advantage_ of another in a bargain. _Gain_ is what one secures beyond what he previously possessed. _Benefit_ is anything that does one good. _Emolument_ is _profit_, _return_, or _value_ accruing through official position. _Expediency_ has respect to _profit_ or _advantage_, real or supposed, considered apart from or perhaps in opposition to right, in actions having a moral character. Compare UTILITY.

Antonyms:

damage, detriment, harm, injury, ruin, destruction, disadvantage, hurt, loss, waste.

Prepositions:

The profit _of_ labor; _on_ capital; _in_ business.

* * * * *

PROGRESS.

Synonyms:

advance, development, improvement, proficiency, advancement, growth, increase, progression. attainment,

_Progress_ (L. _pro_, forward, _gradior_, go) is a moving onward or forward, whether in space or in the mental or moral realm, and may be either mechanical, individual, or social. _Attainment_, _development_, and _proficiency_ are more absolute than the other words of the group, denoting some point of advantage or of comparative perfection reached by forward or onward movement; we speak of _attainments_ in virtue or scholarship, _proficiency_ in music or languages, the _development_ of new powers or organs; _proficiency_ includes the idea of skill. _Advance_ may denote either a forward movement or the point gained by forward movement, but always relatively with reference to the point from which the movement started; as, this is a great _advance_. _Advance_ admits the possibility of retreat; _progress_ (L. _progredi_, to walk forward) is steady and constant forward movement, admitting of pause, but not of retreat; _advance_ suggests more clearly a point to be reached, while _progress_ lays the emphasis upon the forward movement; we may speak of slow or rapid _progress_, but more naturally of swift _advance_. _Progress_ is more frequently used of abstractions; as, the _progress_ of ideas; _progression_ fixes the attention chiefly upon the act of moving forward. In a thing good in itself all _advance_ or _progress_ is _improvement_; there is a growing tendency to restrict the words to this favorable sense, using _increase_ indifferently of good or evil; one may say without limitation, "I am an advocate of _progress_."

Antonyms:

check, delay, falling off, retrogression, stop, decline, falling back, relapse, stay, stoppage.

Prepositions:

The progress _of_ truth; progress _in_ virtue; _toward_ perfection; _from_ a lower _to_ a higher state.

* * * * *

PROHIBIT.

Synonyms:

debar, forbid, inhibit, preclude, disallow, hinder, interdict, prevent.

To _prohibit_ is to give some formal command against, and especially to make some authoritative legal enactment against. _Debar_ is said of persons, _disallow_ of acts; one is _debarred_ from anything when shut off, as by some irresistible authority or necessity; one is _prohibited_ from an act in express terms; he may be _debarred_ by silent necessity. An act is _disallowed_ by the authority that might have allowed it; the word is especially applied to acts which are done before they are pronounced upon; thus, a government may _disallow_ the act of its commander in the field or its admiral on the high seas. _Inhibit_ and _interdict_ are chiefly known by their ecclesiastical use. As between _forbid_ and _prohibit_, _forbid_ is less formal and more personal, _prohibit_ more official and judicial, with the implication of readiness to use such force as may be needed to give effect to the enactment; a parent _forbids_ a child to take part in some game or to associate with certain companions; the slave-trade is now _prohibited_ by the leading nations of the world. Many things are _prohibited_ by law which can not be wholly _prevented_, as gambling and prostitution; on the other hand, things may be _prevented_ which are not _prohibited_, as the services of religion, the payment of debts, or military conquest. That which is _precluded_ need not be _prohibited_. Compare ABOLISH; HINDER; PREVENT.

Antonyms:

allow, empower, let, require, authorize, enjoin, license, sanction, command, give consent, order, suffer, consent to, give leave, permit, tolerate, direct, give permission, put up with, warrant.

Prepositions:

An act is prohibited _by_ law; a person is prohibited _by_ law _from_ doing a certain act. _Prohibit_ was formerly construed, as _forbid_ still is, with the infinitive, but the construction with _from_ and the verbal noun has now entirely superseded the older usage.

* * * * *

PROMOTE.

Synonyms:

advance, encourage, forward, prefer, raise, aid, exalt, foster, push, urge forward, assist, excite, further, push on, urge on. elevate, foment, help,

To _promote_ (L. _pro_, forward, and _moveo_, move) is to cause to move forward toward some desired end or to raise to some higher position, rank, or dignity. We _promote_ a person by _advancing_, _elevating_, or _exalting_ him to a higher position or dignity. A person _promotes_ a scheme or an enterprise which others have projected or begun, and which he _encourages_, _forwards_, _furthers_, _pushes_, or _urges on_, especially when he acts as the agent of the prime movers and supporters of the enterprise. One who _excites_ a quarrel originates it; to _promote_ a quarrel is strictly to _foment_ and _urge_ it _on_, the one who _promotes_ keeping himself in the background. Compare ABET; QUICKEN.

Antonyms:

See synonyms for ABASE; ALLAY.

* * * * *

PROPITIATION.

Synonyms:

atonement, expiation, reconciliation, satisfaction.

_Atonement_ (at-one-ment), originally denoting _reconciliation_, or the bringing into agreement of those who have been estranged, is now chiefly used, as in theology, in the sense of some offering, sacrifice, or suffering sufficient to win forgiveness or make up for an offense; especially and distinctively of the sacrificial work of Christ in his humiliation, suffering and death. _Expiation_ is the enduring of the full penalty of a wrong or crime. _Propitiation_ is an offering, action, or sacrifice that makes the governing power propitious toward the offender. _Satisfaction_ in this connection denotes the rendering a full legal equivalent for the wrong done. _Propitiation_ appeases the lawgiver; _satisfaction_ meets the requirements of the law.

Antonyms:

alienation, curse, penalty, reprobation, vengeance, chastisement, estrangement, punishment, retribution, wrath. condemnation, offense,

* * * * *

PROPITIOUS.

Synonyms:

auspicious, benignant, favorable, gracious, kindly, benign, clement, friendly, kind, merciful.

That which is _auspicious_ is of _favorable_ omen; that which is _propitious_ is of favoring influence or tendency; as, an _auspicious_ morning; a _propitious_ breeze. _Propitious_ applies to persons, implying _kind_ disposition and _favorable_ inclinations, especially toward the suppliant; _auspicious_ is not used of persons.

Antonyms:

adverse, forbidding, ill-disposed, repellent, unfriendly, antagonistic, hostile, inauspicious, unfavorable, unpropitious.

Preposition:

May heaven be propitious _to_ the enterprise.

* * * * *

PROPOSAL.

Synonyms:

bid, offer, overture, proposition.

An _offer_ or _proposal_ puts something before one for acceptance or rejection, _proposal_ being the more formal word; a _proposition_ sets forth truth (or what is claimed to be truth) in formal statement. The _proposition_ is for consideration, the _proposal_ for action; as, a _proposition_ in geometry, a _proposal_ of marriage; but _proposition_ is often used nearly in the sense of _proposal_ when it concerns a matter for deliberation; as, a _proposition_ for the surrender of a fort. A _bid_ is commercial and often verbal; as, a _bid_ at an auction; _proposal_ is used in nearly the same sense, but is more formal. An _overture_ opens negotiation or conference, and the word is especially used of some movement toward reconciliation; as, _overtures_ of peace.

Antonyms:

acceptance, denial, disapproval, refusal, rejection, repulse.

* * * * *

PROPOSE.

Synonym:

purpose.

In its most frequent use, _propose_ differs from _purpose_ in that what we _purpose_ lies in our own mind, as a decisive act of will, a determination; what we _propose_ is offered or stated to others. In this use of the word, what we _propose_ is open to deliberation, as what we _purpose_ is not. In another use of the word, one _proposes_ something to or by himself which may or may not be stated to others. In this latter sense _propose_ is nearly identical with _purpose_, and the two words have often been used interchangeably. But in the majority of cases what we _purpose_ is more general, what we _propose_ more formal and definite; I _purpose_ to do right; I _propose_ to do this specific thing because it is right. In the historic sentence, "I _propose_ to move immediately on your works," _purpose_ would not have the same sharp directness.

* * * * *

PROTRACT.

Synonyms:

continue, delay, elongate, lengthen, procrastinate, defer, draw out, extend, postpone, prolong.

To _protract_ is to cause to occupy a longer time than is usual, expected, or desirable. We _defer_ a negotiation which we are slow to enter upon; we _protract_ a negotiation which we are slow to conclude; _delay_ may be used of any stage in the proceedings; we may _delay_ a person as well as an action, but _defer_ and _protract_ are not used of persons. _Elongate_ is not used of actions or abstractions, but only of material objects or extension in space; _protract_ is very rarely used of concrete objects or extension in space; we _elongate_ a line, _protract_ a discussion. _Protract_ has usually an unfavorable sense, implying that the matter referred to is already unduly long, or would be so if longer _continued_; _continue_ is neutral, applying equally to the desirable or the undesirable. _Postpone_ implies a definite intention to resume, as _defer_ also does, though less decidedly; both are often used with some definite limitation of time; as, to _postpone_ till, until, or to a certain day or hour. One may _defer_, _delay_, or _postpone_ a matter intelligently and for good reason; he _procrastinates_ through indolence and irresolution. Compare HINDER.

Antonyms:

abbreviate, conclude, curtail, hurry, reduce, abridge, contract, hasten, limit, shorten.

Prepositions:

To protract a speech _by_ verbosity, _through_ an unreasonable time, _to_, _till_, or _until_ a late hour.

* * * * *

PROVERB.

Synonyms:

adage, axiom, maxim, saw, aphorism, byword, motto, saying, apothegm, dictum, precept, truism.

The _proverb_ or _adage_ gives homely truth in condensed, practical form, the _adage_ often pictorial. "Hope deferred maketh the heart sick" is a _proverb_; "The cat loves fish, but dares not wet her feet," is an _adage_. Both the _proverb_ and the _adage_, but especially the latter, are thought of as ancient and widely known. An _aphorism_ partakes of the character of a definition; it is a summary statement of what the author sees and believes to be true. An _apothegm_ is a terse statement of what is plain or easily proved. The _aphorism_ is philosophical, the _apothegm_ practical. A _dictum_ is a statement of some person or school, on whom it depends for authority; as, a _dictum_ of Aristotle. A _saying_ is impersonal, current among the common people, deriving its authority from its manifest truth or good sense; as, it is an old _saying_, "the more haste, the worse speed." A _saw_ is a _saying_ that is old, but somewhat worn and tiresome. _Precept_ is a command to duty; _motto_ or _maxim_ is a brief statement of cherished truth, the _maxim_ being more uniformly and directly practical; "God is love" may be a _motto_, "Fear God and fear naught," a _maxim_. The _precepts_ of the Sermon on the Mount will furnish the Christian with invaluable _maxims_ or _mottoes_. A _byword_ is a phrase or _saying_ used reproachfully or contemptuously.

* * * * *

PROWESS.

Synonyms:

bravery, gallantry, intrepidity, courage, heroism, valor.

_Bravery_, _courage_, _heroism_, and _intrepidity_ may be silent, spiritual, or passive; they may be exhibited by a martyr at the stake. _Prowess_ and _valor_ imply both daring and doing; we do not speak of the _prowess_ of a martyr, a child, or a passive sufferer. _Valor_ meets odds or perils with courageous action, doing its utmost to conquer at any risk or cost; _prowess_ has power adapted to the need; dauntless _valor_ is often vain against superior _prowess_. _Courage_ is a nobler word than _bravery_, involving more of the deep, spiritual, and enduring elements of character; such an appreciation of peril as would extinguish _bravery_ may only intensify _courage_, which is resistant and self-conquering; _courage_ applies to matters in regard to which _valor_ and _prowess_ can have no place, as submission to a surgical operation, or the facing of censure or detraction for conscience' sake. Compare BRAVE; FORTITUDE.

Antonyms:

cowardice, cowardliness, effeminacy, fear, pusillanimity, timidity.

* * * * *

PRUDENCE.

Synonyms:

care, discretion, judgment, carefulness, forecast, judiciousness, caution, foresight, providence, circumspection, forethought, wisdom. consideration, frugality,

_Prudence_ may be briefly defined as good _judgment_ and _foresight_, inclining to _caution_ and _frugality_ in practical affairs. _Care_ may respect only the present; _prudence_ and _providence_ look far ahead and sacrifice the present to the future, _prudence_ watching, saving, guarding, _providence_ planning, doing, preparing, and perhaps expending largely to meet the future demand. _Frugality_ is in many cases one form of _prudence_. In a besieged city _prudence_ will reduce the rations, _providence_ will strain every nerve to introduce supplies and to raise the siege. _Foresight_ merely sees the future, and may even lead to the recklessness and desperation to which _prudence_ and _providence_ are so strongly opposed. _Forethought_ is thinking in accordance with wise views of the future, and is nearly equivalent to _providence_, but it is a more popular and less comprehensive term; we speak of man's _forethought_, God's _providence_. Compare CARE; FRUGALITY; WISDOM.

Antonyms:

folly, imprudence, rashness, thoughtlessness, heedlessness, indiscretion, recklessness, wastefulness. improvidence, prodigality,

* * * * *

PURCHASE.

Synonyms:

acquire, barter for, get, procure, secure. bargain for, buy, obtain,

_Buy_ and _purchase_ are close synonyms, signifying to _obtain_ or _secure_ as one's own by paying or promising to pay a price; in numerous cases the two words are freely interchangeable, but with the difference usually found between words of Saxon and those of French or Latin origin. The Saxon _buy_ is used for all the homely and petty concerns of common life, the French _purchase_ is often restricted to transactions of more dignity; yet the Saxon word _buy_ is commonly more emphatic, and in the higher ranges of thought appeals more strongly to the feelings. One may either _buy_ or _purchase_ fame, favor, honor, pleasure, etc., but when our feelings are stirred we speak of victory or freedom as dearly _bought_. "_Buy_ the truth, and sell it not" (_Prov._ xxiii, 23) would be greatly weakened by the rendering "_Purchase_ the truth, and do not dispose of it." Compare BUSINESS; GET; PRICE; SALE.

Antonyms:

barter, dispose of, exchange, put to sale, sell.

Prepositions:

Purchase _at_ a price; _at_ a public sale; _of_ or _from_ a person; _for_ cash; _with_ money; _on_ time.

* * * * *

PURE.

Synonyms:

absolute, guiltless, simple, unmixed, chaste, holy, spotless, unpolluted, classic, immaculate, stainless, unspotted, classical, incorrupt, true, unstained, clean, innocent, unadulterated, unsullied, clear, mere, unblemished, untainted, continent, perfect, uncorrupted, untarnished, genuine, real, undefiled, upright, guileless, sheer, unmingled, virtuous.

That is _pure_ which is free from mixture or contact with anything that weakens, impairs, or pollutes. Material substances are called _pure_ in the strict sense when free from foreign admixture of any kind; as, _pure_ oxygen; the word is often used to signify free from any defiling or objectionable admixture (the original sense); we speak of water as _pure_ when it is bright, clear, and refreshing, tho it may contain mineral salts in solution; in the medical and chemical sense, only distilled water (_aqua pura_) is _pure_. In moral and religious use _pure_ is a strong word, denoting positive excellence of a high order; one is _innocent_ who knows nothing of evil, and has experienced no touch of temptation; one is _pure_ who, with knowledge of evil and exposure to temptation, keeps heart and soul _unstained_. _Virtuous_ refers primarily to right action; _pure_ to right feeling and motives; as, "Blessed are the _pure_ in heart: for they shall see God," _Matt._ v, 8. Compare FINE; INNOCENT.

Antonyms:

adulterated, foul, indecent, obscene, tainted, defiled, gross, indelicate, polluted, tarnished, dirty, immodest, lewd, stained, unchaste, filthy, impure, mixed, sullied, unclean.

* * * * *

PUT.

Synonyms:

deposit, lay, place, set.

_Put_ is the most general term for bringing an object to some point or within some space, however exactly or loosely; we may _put_ a horse in a pasture, or _put_ a bullet in a rifle or into an enemy. _Place_ denotes more careful movement and more exact location; as, to _place_ a crown on one's head, or a garrison in a city. To _lay_ is to _place_ in a horizontal position; to _set_ is to _place_ in an upright position; we _lay_ a cloth, and _set_ a dish upon a table. To _deposit_ is to _put_ in a place of security for future use; as, to _deposit_ money in a bank; the original sense, to _lay_ down or let down (quietly), is also common; as, the stream _deposits_ sediment.

* * * * *

QUEER.

Synonyms:

anomalous, erratic, odd, strange, bizarre, extraordinary, peculiar, uncommon, comical, fantastic, preposterous, unique, crotchety, funny, quaint, unmatched, curious, grotesque, ridiculous, unusual, droll, laughable, singular, whimsical. eccentric, ludicrous,

_Odd_ is unmated, as an _odd_ shoe, and so uneven, as an _odd_ number. _Singular_ is alone of its kind; as, the _singular_ number. What is _singular_ is _odd_, but what is _odd_ may not be _singular_; as, a drawerful of _odd_ gloves. A _strange_ thing is something hitherto unknown in fact or in cause. A _singular_ coincidence is one the happening of which is unusual; a _strange_ coincidence is one the cause of which is hard to explain. That which is _peculiar_ belongs especially to a person as his own; as, Israel was called Jehovah's "_peculiar_ people," _i. e._, especially chosen and cherished by him; in its ordinary use there is the implication that the thing _peculiar_ to one is not common to the majority nor quite approved by them, though it may be shared by many; as, the Shakers are _peculiar_. _Eccentric_ is off or aside from the center, and so off or aside from the ordinary and what is considered the normal course; as, genius is commonly _eccentric_. _Eccentric_ is a higher and more respectful word than _odd_ or _queer_. _Erratic_ signifies wandering, a stronger and more censorious term than _eccentric_. _Queer_ is transverse or oblique, aside from the common in a way that is _comical_ or perhaps slightly _ridiculous_. _Quaint_ denotes that which is pleasingly _odd_ and fanciful, often with something of the antique; as, the _quaint_ architecture of medieval towns. That which is _funny_ is calculated to provoke laughter; that which is _droll_ is more quietly amusing. That which is _grotesque_ in the material sense is irregular or misshapen in form or outline or ill-proportioned so as to be somewhat _ridiculous_; the French _bizarre_ is practically equivalent to _grotesque_.

Antonyms:

common, familiar, normal, regular, customary, natural, ordinary, usual.

* * * * *

QUICKEN.

Synonyms:

accelerate, drive on, hasten, promote, advance, expedite, hurry, speed, despatch, facilitate, make haste, urge, drive, further, press forward, urge on.

To _quicken_, in the sense here considered, is to increase speed, move or cause to move more rapidly, as through more space or with, a greater number of motions in the same time. To _accelerate_ is to increase the speed of action or of motion. A motion whose speed increases upon itself is said to be _accelerated_, as the motion of a falling body, which becomes swifter with every second of time. To _accelerate_ any work is to _hasten_ it toward a finish, commonly by _quickening_ all its operations in orderly unity toward the result. To _despatch_ is to do and be done with, to get a thing off one's hands. To _despatch_ an enemy is to kill him outright and quickly; to _despatch_ a messenger is to send him in haste; to _despatch_ a business is to bring it quickly to an end. _Despatch_ is commonly used of single items. To _promote_ a cause is in any way to bring it forward, _advance_ it in power, prominence, etc. To _speed_ is really to secure swiftness; to _hasten_ is to attempt it, whether successfully or unsuccessfully. _Hurry_ always indicates something of confusion. The _hurried_ man forgets dignity, appearance, comfort, courtesy, everything but speed; he may forget something vital to the matter in hand; yet, because reckless haste may attain the great object of speed, _hurry_ has come to be the colloquial and popular word for acting quickly. To _facilitate_ is to _quicken_ by making easy; to _expedite_ is to _quicken_ by removing hindrances. A good general will improve roads to _facilitate_ the movements of troops, _hasten_ supplies and perfect discipline to _promote_ the general efficiency of the force, _despatch_ details of business, _expedite_ all preparations, in order to _accelerate_ the advance and victory of his army.

Antonyms:

check, clog, delay, drag, hinder, impede, obstruct, retard.

* * * * *

QUOTE.

Synonyms:

cite, extract, plagiarize, repeat. excerpt, paraphrase, recite,

To _quote_ is to give an author's words, either exactly, as in direct quotation, or in substance, as in indirect quotation; to _cite_ is, etymologically, to call up a passage, as a witness is summoned. In _citing_ a passage its exact location by chapter, page, or otherwise, must be given, so that it can be promptly called into evidence; in _quoting_, the location may or may not be given, but the words or substance of the passage must be given. In _citing_, neither the author's words nor his thought may be given, but simply the reference to the location where they may be found. To _quote_, in the proper sense, is to give credit to the author whose words are employed. To _paraphrase_ is to state an author's thought more freely than in indirect quotation, keeping the substance of thought and the order of statement, but changing the language, and commonly interweaving more or less explanatory matter as if part of the original writing. One may _paraphrase_ a work with worthy motive for homiletic, devotional, or other purposes (as in the metrical versions of the Psalms), or he may _plagiarize_ atrociously in the form of _paraphrase_, appropriating all that is valuable in another's thought, with the hope of escaping detection by change of phrase. To _plagiarize_ is to _quote_ without credit, appropriating another's words or thought as one's own. To _recite_ or _repeat_ is usually to _quote_ orally, tho _recite_ is applied in legal phrase to a particular statement of facts which is not a quotation; a kindred use obtains in ordinary speech; as, to _recite_ one's misfortunes.

* * * * *

RACY.

Synonyms:

flavorous, lively, pungent, spicy, forcible, piquant, rich, spirited.

_Racy_ applies in the first instance to the pleasing flavor characteristic of certain wines, often attributed to the soil from which they come. _Pungent_ denotes something sharply irritating to the organs of taste or smell, as pepper, vinegar, ammonia; _piquant_ denotes a quality similar in kind to _pungent_ but less in degree, stimulating and agreeable; _pungent_ spices may be deftly compounded into a _piquant_ sauce. As applied to literary products, _racy_ refers to that which has a striking, vigorous, pleasing originality; _spicy_ to that which is stimulating to the mental taste, as spice is to the physical; _piquant_ and _pungent_ in their figurative use keep very close to their literal sense.

Antonyms:

cold, flat, insipid, stale, tasteless, dull, flavorless, prosy, stupid, vapid.

* * * * *

RADICAL.

Synonyms:

complete, ingrained, perfect, constitutional, innate, positive, entire, native, primitive, essential, natural, thorough, extreme, organic, thoroughgoing, fundamental, original, total.

The widely divergent senses in which the word _radical_ is used, by which it can be at some time interchanged with any word in the above list, are all formed upon the one primary sense of having to do with or proceeding from the root (L. _radix_); a _radical_ difference is one that springs from the root, and is thus _constitutional_, _essential_, _fundamental_, _organic_, _original_; a _radical_ change is one that does not stop at the surface, but reaches down to the very root, and is _entire_, _thorough_, _total_; since the majority find superficial treatment of any matter the easiest and most comfortable, _radical_ measures, which strike at the root of evil or need, are apt to be looked upon as _extreme_.

Antonyms:

conservative, incomplete, palliative, slight, tentative, inadequate, moderate, partial, superficial, trial.

* * * * *

RARE.

Synonyms:

curious, odd, scarce, unique, extraordinary, peculiar, singular, unparalleled, incomparable, precious, strange, unprecedented, infrequent, remarkable, uncommon, unusual.

_Unique_ is alone of its kind; _rare_ is _infrequent_ of its kind; great poems are _rare_; "Paradise Lost" is _unique_. To say of a thing that it is _rare_ is simply to affirm that it is now seldom found, whether previously common or not; as, a _rare_ old book; a _rare_ word; to call a thing _scarce_ implies that it was at some time more plenty, as when we say food or money is _scarce_. A particular fruit or coin may be _rare_; _scarce_ applies to demand and use, and almost always to concrete things; to speak of virtue, genius, or heroism as _scarce_ would be somewhat ludicrous. _Rare_ has the added sense of _precious_, which is sometimes, but not necessarily, blended with that above given; as, a _rare_ gem. _Extraordinary_, signifying greatly beyond the ordinary, is a neutral word, capable of a high and good sense or of an invidious, opprobrious, or contemptuous signification; as, _extraordinary_ genius; _extraordinary_ wickedness; an _extraordinary_ assumption of power; _extraordinary_ antics; an _extraordinary_ statement is incredible without overwhelming proof.

Antonyms:

See synonyms for GENERAL; NORMAL; USUAL.

* * * * *

REACH.

Synonyms:

arrive, attain, come to, enter, gain, get to, land.

To _reach_, in the sense here considered, is to _come to_ by motion or progress. _Attain_ is now oftenest used of abstract relations; as, to _attain_ success. When applied to concrete matters, it commonly signifies the overcoming of hindrance and difficulty; as, the storm-beaten ship at length _attained_ the harbor. _Come_ is the general word for moving to or toward the place where the speaker or writer is or supposes himself to be. To _reach_ is to _come to_ from a distance that is actually or relatively considerable; to stretch the journey, so to speak, across the distance, as, in its original meaning, one _reaches_ an object by stretching out the hand. To _gain_ is to _reach_ or _attain_ something eagerly sought; the wearied swimmer _reaches_ or _gains_ the shore. One _comes_ in from his garden; he _reaches_ home from a journey. To _arrive_ is to _come to_ a destination, to _reach_ a point intended or proposed. The European steamer _arrives_ in port, or _reaches_ the harbor; the dismantled wreck drifts ashore, or _comes to_ land. Compare ATTAIN.

Antonyms:

depart, go, go away, leave, set out, set sail, start, weigh anchor. embark,

* * * * *

REAL.

Synonyms:

actual, demonstrable, genuine, true, authentic, developed, positive, unquestionable, certain, essential, substantial, veritable.

_Real_ (L. _res_, a thing) signifies having existence, not merely in thought, but in fact, or being in fact according to appearance or claim; denoting the thing as distinguished from the name, or the existent as opposed to the non-existent. _Actual_ has respect to a thing accomplished by doing, _real_ to a thing as existing by whatever means or from whatever cause, _positive_ to that which is fixed or established, _developed_ to that which has reached completion by a natural process of unfolding. _Actual_ is in opposition to the supposed, conceived, or reported, and furnishes the proof of its existence in itself; _real_ is opposed to feigned or imaginary, and is capable of demonstration; _positive_, to the uncertain or doubtful; _developed_, to that which is undeveloped or incomplete. The _developed_ is susceptible of proof; the _positive_ precludes the necessity for proof. The present condition of a thing is its _actual_ condition; ills are _real_ that have a substantial reason; proofs are _positive_ when they give the mind certainty; a plant is _developed_ when it has reached its completed stage. _Real_ estate is land, together with trees, water, minerals, or other natural accompaniments, and any permanent structures that man has built upon it. Compare AUTHENTIC.

Antonyms:

conceived, feigned, illusory, supposed, unreal, fabulous, fictitious, imaginary, supposititious, untrue, fanciful, hypothetical, reported, theoretical, visionary.

* * * * *

REASON, _v._

Synonyms:

argue, debate, discuss, establish, question, contend, demonstrate, dispute, prove, wrangle. controvert,

To _reason_ is to examine by means of the reason, to prove by reasoning, or to influence or seek to influence others by reasoning or reasons. Persons may _contend_ either from mere ill will or self-interest, or from the highest motives; "That ye should earnestly _contend_ for the faith which was once delivered to the saints," _Jude_ 3. To _argue_ (L. _arguo_, show) is to make a matter clear by reasoning; to _discuss_ (L. _dis_, apart, and _quatio_, shake) is, etymologically, to shake it apart for examination and analysis. _Demonstrate_ strictly applies to mathematical or exact reasoning; _prove_ may be used in the same sense, but is often applied to reasoning upon matters of fact by what is called probable evidence, which can give only moral and not absolute or mathematical certainty. To _demonstrate_ is to force the mind to a conclusion by irresistible reasoning; to _prove_ is rather to _establish_ a fact by evidence; as, to _prove_ one innocent or guilty. That which has been either _demonstrated_ or _proved_ so as to secure general acceptance is said to be _established_. _Reason_ is a neutral word, not, like _argue_, _debate_, _discuss_, etc., naturally or necessarily implying contest. We _reason_ about a matter by bringing up all that reason can give us on any side. A _dispute_ may be personal, fractious, and petty; a _debate_ is formal and orderly; if otherwise, it becomes a mere _wrangle_.

Prepositions:

We reason _with_ a person _about_ a subject, _for_ or _against_ an opinion; we reason a person _into_ or _out of_ a course of action; or we may reason _down_ an opponent or opposition; one reasons _from_ a cause _to_ an effect.

* * * * *

REASON, _n._

Synonyms:

account, cause, end, motive, principle, aim, consideration, ground, object, purpose. argument, design,

While the _cause_ of any event, act, or fact, as commonly understood, is the power that makes it to be, the _reason_ of or for it is the explanation given by the human mind; but _reason_ is, in popular language, often used as equivalent to _cause_, especially in the sense of _final cause_. In the statement of any reasoning, the _argument_ may be an entire syllogism, or the premises considered together apart from the conclusion, or in logical strictness the middle term only by which the particular conclusion is connected with the general statement. But when the _reasoning_ is not in strict logical form, the middle term following the conclusion is called the _reason_; thus in the statement "All tyrants deserve death; Cæsar was a tyrant; Therefore Cæsar deserved death," "Cæsar was a tyrant" would in the strictest sense be called the _argument_; but if we say "Cæsar deserved death because he was a tyrant," the latter clause would be termed the _reason_. Compare CAUSE; REASON, _v._; MIND; REASONING.

Prepositions:

The reason _of_ a thing that is to be explained; the reason _for_ a thing that is to be done.

* * * * *

REASONING.

Synonyms:

argument, argumentation, debate, ratiocination.

_Argumentation_ and _debate_, in the ordinary use of the words, suppose two parties alleging reasons for and against a proposition; the same idea appears figuratively when we speak of a _debate_ or an _argument_ with oneself, or of a _debate_ between reason and conscience. _Reasoning_ may be the act of one alone, as it is simply the orderly setting forth of reasons, whether for the instruction of inquirers, the confuting of opponents, or the clear establishment of truth for oneself. _Reasoning_ may be either deductive or inductive. _Argument_ or _argumentation_ was formerly used of deductive _reasoning_ only. With the rise of the inductive philosophy these words have come to be applied to inductive processes also; but while _reasoning_ may be informal or even (as far as tracing its processes is concerned) unconscious, _argument_ and _argumentation_ strictly imply logical form. _Reasoning_, as denoting a process, is a broader term than _reason_ or _argument_; many _arguments_ or _reasons_ may be included in a single chain of _reasoning_.

* * * * *

REBELLIOUS.

Synonyms:

contumacious, mutinous, uncontrollable, disobedient, refractory, ungovernable, insubordinate, seditious, unmanageable. intractable,

_Rebellious_ signifies being in a state of rebellion (see REBELLION under REVOLUTION), and is even extended to inanimate things that resist control or adaptation to human use. _Ungovernable_ applies to that which successfully defies authority and power; _unmanageable_ to that which resists the utmost exercise of skill or of skill and power combined; _rebellious_, to that which is defiant of authority, whether successfully or unsuccessfully; _seditious_, to that which partakes of or tends to excite a _rebellious_ spirit, _seditious_ suggesting more of covert plan, scheming, or conspiracy, _rebellious_ more of overt act or open violence. While the _unmanageable_ or _ungovernable_ defies control, the _rebellious_ or _seditious_ may be forced to submission; as, the man has an _ungovernable_ temper; the horses became _unmanageable_; he tamed his _rebellious_ spirit. _Insubordinate_ applies to the disposition to resist and resent control as such; _mutinous_, to open defiance of authority, especially in the army, navy, or merchant marine. A _contumacious_ act or spirit is contemptuous as well as defiant. Compare OBSTINATE; REVOLUTION.

Antonyms:

compliant, docile, manageable, subservient, controllable, dutiful, obedient, tractable, deferential, gentle, submissive, yielding.

Prepositions:

Rebellious _to_ or _against_ lawful authority.

* * * * *

RECORD.

Synonyms:

account, enrolment, instrument, register, archive, entry, inventory, roll, catalogue, enumeration, memorandum, schedule, chronicle, history, memorial, scroll. document, inscription, muniment,

A _memorial_ is any object, whether a writing, a monument, or other permanent thing that is designed or adapted to keep something in remembrance. _Record_ is a word of wide signification, applying to any writing, mark, or trace that serves as a _memorial_ giving enduring attestation of an event or fact; an extended _account_, _chronicle_, or _history_ is a _record_; so, too, may be a brief _inventory_ or _memorandum_; the _inscription_ on a tombstone is a _record_ of the dead; the striæ on a rock-surface are the _record_ of a glacier's passage. A _register_ is a formal or official written _record_, especially a series of entries made for preservation or reference; as, a _register_ of births and deaths. _Archives_, in the sense here considered, are _documents_ or _records_, often legal _records_, preserved in a public or official depository; the word _archives_ is also applied to the place where such _documents_ are regularly deposited and preserved. _Muniments_ (L. _munio_, fortify) are _records_ that enable one to defend his title. Compare HISTORY; STORY.

* * * * *

RECOVER.

Synonyms:

be cured _or_ healed, heal, recuperate, restore, be restored, reanimate, regain, resume, cure, recruit, repossess, retrieve.

The transitive use of _recover_ in the sense of _cure_, _heal_, etc., as in _2 Kings_ v, 6, "That thou mayest _recover_ him of his leprosy," is now practically obsolete. The chief transitive use of _recover_ is in the sense to obtain again after losing, _regain_, _repossess_, etc.; as, to _recover_ stolen goods; to _recover_ health. The intransitive sense, _be cured_, _be restored_, etc., is very common; as, to _recover_ from sickness, terror, or misfortune.

Antonyms:

die, fail, grow worse, relapse, sink.

Prepositions:

_From_; rarely _of_; (_Law_) to recover judgment _against_, to recover damages _of_ or _from_ a person.

* * * * *

REFINEMENT.

Synonyms:

civilization, cultivation, culture, elegance, politeness.

_Civilization_ applies to nations, denoting the sum of those civil, social, economic, and political attainments by which a community is removed from barbarism; a people may be civilized while still far from _refinement_ or _culture_, but _civilization_ is susceptible of various degrees and of continued progress. _Refinement_ applies either to nations or individuals, denoting the removal of what is coarse and rude, and a corresponding attainment of what is delicate, elegant, and beautiful. _Cultivation_, denoting primarily the process of cultivating the soil or growing crops, then the improved condition of either which is the result, is applied in similar sense to the human mind and character, but in this usage is now largely superseded by the term _culture_, which denotes a high development of the best qualities of man's mental and spiritual nature, with especial reference to the esthetic faculties and to graces of speech and manner, regarded as the expression of a refined nature. _Culture_ in the fullest sense denotes that degree of _refinement_ and development which results from continued _cultivation_ through successive generations; a man's faculties may be brought to a high degree of _cultivation_ in some specialty, while he himself remains uncultured even to the extent of coarseness and rudeness. Compare HUMANE; POLITE.

Antonyms:

barbarism, brutality, coarseness, rudeness, savagery, boorishness, clownishness, grossness, rusticity, vulgarity.

* * * * *

REFUTE.

Synonyms:

confound, confute, disprove, overthrow, repel.

To _refute_ and to _confute_ are to answer so as to admit of no reply. To _refute_ a statement is to demonstrate its falsity by argument or countervailing proof; _confute_ is substantially the same in meaning, tho differing in usage. _Refute_ applies either to arguments and opinions or to accusations; _confute_ is not applied to accusations and charges, but to arguments or opinions. _Refute_ is not now applied to persons, but _confute_ is in good use in this application; a person is _confuted_ when his arguments are _refuted_.

* * * * *

RELIABLE.

Synonyms:

trustworthy, trusty.

The word _reliable_ has been sharply challenged, but seems to have established its place in the language. The objection to its use on the ground that the suffix _-able_ can not properly be added to an intransitive verb is answered by the citation of such words as "available," "conversable," "laughable," and the like, while, in the matter of usage, _reliable_ has the authority of Coleridge, Martineau, Mill, Irving, Newman, Gladstone, and others of the foremost of recent English writers. The objection to the application of _reliable_ to persons is not sustained by the use of the verb "rely," which is applied to persons in the authorized version of the Scriptures, in the writings of Shakespeare and Bacon, and in the usage of good speakers and writers. _Trusty_ and _trustworthy_ refer to inherent qualities of a high order, _trustworthy_ being especially applied to persons, and denoting moral integrity and truthfulness; we speak of a _trusty_ sword, a _trusty_ servant; we say the man is thoroughly _trustworthy_. _Reliable_ is inferior in meaning, denoting merely the possession of such qualities as are needed for safe reliance; as, a _reliable_ pledge; _reliable_ information. A man is said to be _reliable_ with reference not only to moral qualities, but to judgment, knowledge, skill, habit, or perhaps pecuniary ability; a thoroughly _trustworthy_ person might not be _reliable_ as a witness on account of unconscious sympathy, or as a security by reason of insufficient means. A _reliable_ messenger is one who may be depended on to do his errand correctly and promptly; a _trusty_ or _trustworthy_ messenger is one who may be admitted to knowledge of the views and purposes of those who employ him, and who will be faithful beyond the mere letter of his commission. We can speak of a railroad-train as _reliable_ when it can be depended on to arrive on time; but to speak of a _reliable_ friend would be cold, and to speak of a warrior girding on his _reliable_ sword would be ludicrous.

* * * * *

RELIGION.

Synonyms:

devotion, godliness, morality, piety, theology, faith, holiness, pietism, righteousness, worship.

_Piety_ is primarily filial duty, as of children to parents, and hence, in its highest sense, a loving obedience and service to God as the Heavenly Father; _pietism_ often denotes a mystical, sometimes an affected _piety_; _religion_ is the reverent acknowledgment both in heart and in act of a divine being. _Religion_, in the fullest and highest sense, includes all the other words of this group. _Worship_ may be external and formal, or it may be the adoring reverence of the human spirit for the divine, seeking outward expression. _Devotion_, which in its fullest sense is self-consecration, is often used to denote an act of _worship_, especially prayer or adoration; as, he is engaged in his _devotions_. _Morality_ is the system and practise of duty as required by the moral law, consisting chiefly in outward acts, and thus may be observed without spiritual rectitude of heart; _morality_ is of necessity included in all true _religion_, which involves both outward act and spiritual service. _Godliness_ (primarily godlikeness) is a character and spirit like that of God. _Holiness_ is the highest, sinless perfection of any spirit, whether divine or human, tho often used for purity or for consecration. _Theology_ is the science of _religion_, or the study and scientific statement of all that the human mind can know of God. _Faith_, strictly the belief and trust which the soul exercises toward God, is often used as a comprehensive word for a whole system of _religion_ considered as the object of _faith_; as, the Christian _faith_; the Mohammedan _faith_.

Antonyms:

atheism, godlessness, irreligion, sacrilege, ungodliness, blasphemy, impiety, profanity, unbelief, wickedness.

* * * * *

RELUCTANT.

Synonyms:

averse, disinclined, loath, slow, backward, indisposed, opposed, unwilling.

_Reluctant_ (L. _re_, back, and _lucto_, strive, struggle) signifies struggling against what one is urged or impelled to do, or is actually doing; _averse_ (L. _a_, from, and _verto_, turn) signifies turned away as with dislike or repugnance; _loath_ (AS. _lath_, evil, hateful) signifies having a repugnance, disgust, or loathing for, tho the adjective _loath_ is not so strong as the verb _loathe_. A dunce is always _averse_ to study; a good student is _disinclined_ to it when a fine morning tempts him out; he is _indisposed_ to it in some hour of weariness. A man may be _slow_ or _backward_ in entering upon that to which he is by no means _averse_. A man is _loath_ to believe evil of his friend, _reluctant_ to speak of it, absolutely _unwilling_ to use it to his injury. A legislator may be _opposed_ to a certain measure, while not _averse_ to what it aims to accomplish. Compare ANTIPATHY.

Antonyms:

desirous, disposed, eager, favorable, inclined, willing.

* * * * *

REMARK.

Synonyms:

annotation, comment, note, observation, utterance.

A _remark_ is a saying or brief statement, oral or written, commonly made without much premeditation; a _comment_ is an explanatory or critical _remark_, as upon some passage in a literary work or some act or speech in common life. A _note_ is something to call attention, hence a brief written statement; in correspondence, a _note_ is briefer than a letter. A _note_ upon some passage in a book is briefer and less elaborate than a _comment_. _Annotations_ are especially brief _notes_, commonly marginal, and closely following the text. _Comments_, _observations_, or _remarks_ may be oral or written, _comments_ being oftenest written, and _remarks_ oftenest oral. An _observation_ is properly the result of fixed attention and reflection; a _remark_ may be the suggestion of the instant. _Remarks_ are more informal than a speech.

* * * * *

REND.

Synonyms:

break, cleave, mangle, rive, sever, sunder, burst, lacerate, rip, rupture, slit, tear.

_Rend_ and _tear_ are applied to the separating of textile substances into parts by force violently applied (_rend_ also to frangible substances), _tear_ being the milder, _rend_ the stronger word. _Rive_ is a wood-workers' word for parting wood in the way of the grain without a clean cut. To _lacerate_ is to _tear_ roughly the flesh or animal tissue, as by the teeth of a wild beast; a _lacerated_ wound is distinguished from a wound made by a clean cut or incision. _Mangle_ is a stronger word than _lacerate_; _lacerate_ is more superficial, _mangle_ more complete. To _burst_ or _rupture_ is to _tear_ or _rend_ by force from within, _burst_ denoting the greater violence; as, to _burst_ a gun; to _rupture_ a blood-vessel; a steam-boiler may be _ruptured_ when its substance is made to divide by internal pressure without explosion. To _rip_, as usually applied to garments or other articles made by sewing or stitching, is to divide along the line of a seam by cutting or breaking the stitches; the other senses bear some resemblance or analogy to this; as, to _rip_ open a wound. Compare BREAK.

Antonyms:

heal, mend, reunite, secure, sew, solder, stitch, unite, weld. join,

* * * * *

RENOUNCE.

Synonyms:

abandon, disavow, disown, recant, repudiate, abjure, discard, forswear, refuse, retract, deny, disclaim, recall, reject, revoke.

_Abjure_, _discard_, _forswear_, _recall_, _recant_, _renounce_, _retract_, and _revoke_, like _abandon_, imply some previous connection. _Renounce_ (L. _re_, back, and _nuntio_, bear a message) is to declare against and give up formally and definitively; as, to _renounce_ the pomps and vanities of the world. _Recant_ (L. _re_, back, and _canto_, sing) is to take back or _deny_ formally and publicly, as a belief that one has held or professed. _Retract_ (L. _re_, back, and _traho_, draw) is to take back something that one has said as not true or as what one is not ready to maintain; as, to _retract_ a charge or accusation; one _recants_ what was especially his own, he _retracts_ what was directed against another. _Repudiate_ (L. _re_, back, or away, and _pudeo_, feel shame) is primarily to _renounce_ as shameful, hence to divorce, as a wife; thus in general to put away with emphatic and determined repulsion; as, to _repudiate_ a debt. To _deny_ is to affirm to be not true or not binding; as, to _deny_ a statement or a relationship; or to refuse to grant as something requested; as, his mother could not _deny_ him what he desired. To _discard_ is to cast away as useless or worthless; thus, one _discards_ a worn garment; a coquette _discards_ a lover. _Revoke_ (L. _re_, back, and _voco_, call), etymologically the exact equivalent of the English _recall_, is to take back something given or granted; as, to _revoke_ a command, a will, or a grant; _recall_ may be used in the exact sense of _revoke_, but is often applied to persons, as _revoke_ is not; we _recall_ a messenger and _revoke_ the order with which he was charged. _Abjure_ (L. _ab_, away, and _juro_, swear) is etymologically the exact equivalent of the Saxon _forswear_, signifying to put away formally and under oath, as an error, heresy, or evil practise, or a condemned and detested person. A man _abjures_ his religion, _recants_ his belief, _abjures_ or _renounces_ his allegiance, _repudiates_ another's claim, _renounces_ his own, _retracts_ a false statement. A person may _deny_, _disavow_, _disclaim_, _disown_ what has been truly or falsely imputed to him or supposed to be his. He may _deny_ his signature, _disavow_ the act of his agent, _disown_ his child; he may _repudiate_ a just claim or a base suggestion. A native of the United States can not _abjure_ or _renounce_ allegiance to the Queen of England, but will promptly _deny_ or _repudiate_ it. Compare ABANDON.

Antonyms:

acknowledge, assert, cherish, defend, maintain, proclaim, uphold, advocate, avow, claim, hold, own, retain, vindicate.

* * * * *

REPENTANCE.

Synonyms:

compunction, contriteness, regret, self-condemnation, contrition, penitence, remorse, sorrow.

_Regret_ is _sorrow_ for any painful or annoying matter. One is moved with _penitence_ for wrong-doing. To speak of _regret_ for a fault of our own marks it as slighter than one regarding which we should express _penitence_. _Repentance_ is _sorrow_ for sin with _self-condemnation_, and complete turning from the sin. _Penitence_ is transient, and may involve no change of character or conduct. There may be _sorrow_ without _repentance_, as for consequences only, but not _repentance_ without _sorrow_. _Compunction_ is a momentary sting of conscience, in view either of a past or of a contemplated act. _Contrition_ is a subduing _sorrow_ for sin, as against the divine holiness and love. _Remorse_ is, as its derivation indicates, a biting or gnawing back of guilt upon the heart, with no turning of heart from the sin, and no suggestion of divine forgiveness.

Antonyms:

approval, content, obduracy, self-complacency, comfort, hardness, obstinacy, self-congratulation, complacency, impenitence, self-approval, stubbornness.

Prepositions:

Repentance _of_ or _in_ heart, or _from_ the heart; repentance _for_ sins; _before_ or _toward_ God; _unto_ life.

* * * * *

REPORT.

Synonyms:

account, narrative, rehearsal, rumor, story, description, recital, relation, statement, tale. narration, record,

_Account_ carries the idea of a commercial summary. A _statement_ is definite, confined to essentials and properly to matters within the personal knowledge of the one who states them; as, an ante-mortem _statement_. A _narrative_ is a somewhat extended and embellished _account_ of events in order of time, ordinarily with a view to please or entertain. A _description_ gives especial scope to the pictorial element. A _report_ (L. _re_, back, and _porto_, bring), as its etymology implies, is something brought back, as by one sent to obtain information, and may be concise and formal or highly descriptive and dramatic. Compare ALLEGORY; HISTORY; RECORD.

* * * * *

REPROOF.

Synonyms:

admonition, chiding, disapproval, reprimand, animadversion, comment, objurgation, reproach, blame, condemnation, rebuke, reproval, censure, criticism, reflection, upbraiding. check, denunciation, reprehension,

_Blame_, _censure_, and _disapproval_ may either be felt or uttered; _comment_, _criticism_, _rebuke_, _reflection_, _reprehension_, and _reproof_ are always expressed. The same is true of _admonition_ and _animadversion_. _Comment_ and _criticism_ may be favorable as well as censorious; they imply no superiority or authority on the part of him who utters them; nor do _reflection_ or _reprehension_, which are simply turning the mind back upon what is disapproved. _Reprehension_ is supposed to be calm and just, and with good intent; it is therefore a serious matter, however mild, and is capable of great force, as expressed in the phrase severe _reprehension_. _Reflection_ is often from mere ill feeling, and is likely to be more personal and less impartial than _reprehension_; we often speak of unkind or unjust _reflections_. _Rebuke_, literally a stopping of the mouth, is administered to a forward or hasty person; _reproof_ is administered to one intentionally or deliberately wrong; both words imply authority in the reprover, and direct expression of _disapproval_ to the face of the person _rebuked_ or _reproved_. _Reprimand_ is official _censure_ formally administered by a superior to one under his command. _Animadversion_ is _censure_ of a high, authoritative, and somewhat formal kind. _Rebuke_ may be given at the outset, or in the midst of an

## action; _animadversion_, _reflection_, _reprehension_, _reproof_, always

follow the act; _admonition_ is anticipatory, and meant to be preventive. _Check_ is allied to _rebuke_, and given before or during

## action; _chiding_ is nearer to _reproof_, but with more of personal

bitterness and less of authority. Compare CONDEMN; REPROVE.

Antonyms:

applause, approval, encomium, eulogy, panegyric, praise. approbation, commendation,

* * * * *

REPROVE.

Synonyms:

admonish, condemn, reprimand, blame, expostulate with, reproach, censure, find fault with, take to task, chasten, rebuke, upbraid, check, remonstrate with, warn. chide, reprehend,

To _censure_ is to pronounce an adverse judgment that may or may not be expressed to the person _censured_; to _reprove_ is to _censure_ authoritatively, openly, and directly to the face of the person _reproved_; to _rebuke_ is to _reprove_ with sharpness, and often with abruptness, usually in the midst of some action or course of action deemed censurable; to _reprimand_ is to _reprove_ officially; to _blame_ is a familiar word signifying to pass _censure_ upon, make answerable, as for a fault; _blame_ and _censure_ apply either to persons or acts; _reprove_ and _rebuke_ are applied chiefly, and _reprimand_ exclusively to persons. To _reproach_ is to _censure_ openly and vehemently, and with intense personal feeling as of grief or anger; as, to _reproach_ one for ingratitude; _reproach_ knows no distinction of rank or character; a subject may _reproach_ a king or a criminal judge. To _expostulate_ or _remonstrate with_ is to mingle reasoning and appeal with _censure_ in the hope of winning one from his evil way, _expostulate_ being the gentler, _remonstrate_ the severer word. _Admonish_ is the mildest of _reproving_ words, and may even be used of giving a caution or warning where no wrong is implied, or of simply reminding of duty which might be forgotten. _Censure_, _rebuke_, and _reprove_ apply to wrong that has been done; _warn_ and _admonish_ refer to anticipated error or fault. When one is _admonished_ because of wrong already done, the view is still future, that he may not repeat or continue in the wrong. Compare CONDEMN; REPROOF.

Antonyms:

abet, approve, countenance, impel, instigate, applaud, cheer, encourage, incite, urge on.

* * * * *

REQUITE.

Synonyms:

avenge, punish, remunerate, revenge, compensate, quit, repay, reward, pay, reciprocate, retaliate, satisfy, pay off, recompense, return, settle with.

To _repay_ or to _retaliate_, to _punish_ or to _reward_, may be to make some return very inadequate to the benefit or injury received, or the right or wrong done; but to _requite_ (according to its etymology) is to make so full and adequate a _return_ as to _quit_ oneself of all obligation of favor or hostility, of punishment or _reward_. _Requite_ is often used in the more general sense of _recompense_ or _repay_, but always with the suggestion, at least, of the original idea of full equivalent; when one speaks of _requiting_ kindness with ingratitude, the expression gains force from the comparison of the actual with the proper and appropriate _return_. Compare PAY.

Antonyms:

absolve, excuse, forgive, overlook, pass over, acquit, forget, neglect, pardon, slight.

Preposition:

To requite injury _with_ injury is human, but not Christian.

* * * * *

REST.

Synonyms:

calm, pause, quietness, slumber, calmness, peace, quietude, stay, cessation, peacefulness, recreation, stillness, ease, quiescence, repose, stop, intermission, quiet, sleep, tranquillity.

_Ease_ denotes freedom from cause of disturbance, whether external or internal. _Quiet_ denotes freedom from agitation, or especially from annoying sounds. _Rest_ is a _cessation_ of activity especially of wearying or painful activity. _Recreation_ is some pleasing activity of certain organs or faculties that affords _rest_ to other parts of our nature that have become weary. _Repose_ is a laying down, primarily of the body, and figuratively a similar freedom from toil or strain of mind. _Repose_ is more complete than _rest_; a _pause_ is a momentary _cessation_ of activity; a black-smith finds a temporary _rest_ while the iron is heating, but he does not yield to _repose_; in a _pause_ of battle a soldier _rests_ on his arms; after the battle the victor _reposes_ on his laurels. _Sleep_ is the perfection of _repose_, the most complete _rest_; _slumber_ is a light and ordinarily pleasant form of _sleep_. In the figurative sense, _rest_ of mind, soul, conscience, is not mere _cessation_ of activity, but a pleasing, tranquil relief from all painful and wearying activity; _repose_ is even more deep, tranquil, and complete.

Antonyms:

agitation, disturbance, movement, stir, tumult, commotion, excitement, restlessness, strain, unrest, disquiet, motion, rush, toil, work.

* * * * *

RESTIVE.

Synonyms:

balky, impatient, rebellious, restless, fidgety, intractable, recalcitrant, skittish, fractious, mulish, refractory, stubborn, fretful, mutinous, resentful, unruly, frisky, obstinate, restiff, vicious.

_Balky_, _mulish_, _obstinate_, and _stubborn_ are synonyms of _restive_ only in an infrequent if not obsolete use; the supposed sense of "tending to rest," "standing stubbornly still," is scarcely supported by any examples, and those cited to support that meaning often fail to do so. The disposition to offer active resistance to control by any means whatever is what is commonly indicated by _restive_ in the best English speech and literature. Dryden speaks of "the pampered colt" as "_restiff_ to the rein;" but the rein is not used to propel a horse forward, but to hold him in, and it is against this that he is "_restiff_." A horse may be made _restless_ by flies or by martial music, but with no refractoriness; the _restive_ animal impatiently resists or struggles to break from control, as by bolting, flinging his rider, or otherwise. With this the metaphorical use of the word agrees, which is always in the sense of such terms as _impatient_, _intractable_, _rebellious_, and the like; a people _restive_ under despotism are not disposed to "rest" under it, but to resist it and fling it off.

Antonyms:

docile, manageable, passive, quiet, tractable, gentle, obedient, peaceable, submissive, yielding.

* * * * *

RESTRAIN.

Synonyms:

abridge, constrain, hold in, keep under, bridle, curb, keep, repress, check, hinder, keep back, restrict, circumscribe, hold, keep down, suppress, confine, hold back, keep in, withhold.

To _restrain_ is to _hold back_ from acting, proceeding, or advancing, either by physical or moral force. _Constrain_ is positive; _restrain_ is negative; one is _constrained_ to an action; he is _restrained_ from an action. _Constrain_ refers almost exclusively to moral force, _restrain_ frequently to physical force, as when we speak of putting one under restraint. To _restrain_ an action is to hold it partially or wholly in check, so that it is under pressure even while it acts; to _restrict_ an action is to fix a limit or boundary which it may not pass, but within which it is free. To _repress_, literally to press back, is to hold in check, and perhaps only temporarily, that which is still very active; it is a feebler word than _restrain_; to _suppress_ is finally and effectually to put down; _suppress_ is a much stronger word than _restrain_; as, to _suppress_ a rebellion. Compare ARREST; BIND; KEEP.

Antonyms:

aid, arouse, encourage, free, incite, release, animate, emancipate, excite, impel, let loose, set free.

* * * * *

RETIREMENT.

Synonyms:

loneliness, privacy, seclusion, solitude.

In _retirement_ one withdraws from association he has had with others; we speak of the _retirement_ of a public man to private life, tho he may still be much in company. In _seclusion_ one shuts himself away from the society of all except intimate friends or attendants; in _solitude_ no other person is present. While _seclusion_ is ordinarily voluntary, _solitude_ may be enforced; we speak of the _solitude_ rather than the _seclusion_ of a prisoner. As "private" denotes what concerns ourselves individually, _privacy_ denotes freedom from the presence or observation of those not concerned or whom we desire not to have concerned in our affairs; _privacy_ is more commonly temporary than _seclusion_; we speak of a moment's _privacy_. There may be _loneliness_ without _solitude_, as amid an unsympathizing crowd, and _solitude_ without _loneliness_, as when one is glad to be alone.

Antonyms:

association, companionship, company, converse, fellowship, society.

* * * * *

REVELATION.

Synonyms:

apocalypse, disclosure, manifestation.

_Revelation_ (L. _re_, back, and _velum_, veil), literally an unveiling, is the act or process of making known what was before secret or hidden, or what may still be future. _Apocalypse_ (Gr. _apo_, from, and _kalypto_, cover), literally an uncovering, comes into English as the name of the closing book of the Bible. The _Apocalypse_ unveils the future, as if to the very gaze of the seer; the whole gospel is a _disclosure_ of the mercy of God; the character of Christ is a _manifestation_ of the divine holiness and love; all Scripture is a _revelation_ of the divine will. Or we might say that nature is a _manifestation_ of the divine character and will, of which Scripture is the fuller and more express _revelation_.

Antonyms:

cloud, concealment, mystery, shrouding, cloudiness, hiding, obscuration, veiling.

* * * * *

REVENGE.

Synonyms:

avenging, retaliation, retribution, vengeance. requital,

_Revenge_ is the act of making return for an injury done to oneself by doing injury to another person. _Retaliation_ and _revenge_ are personal and often bitter. _Retaliation_ may be partial; _revenge_ is meant to be complete, and may be excessive. _Vengeance_, which once meant an indignant vindication of justice, now signifies the most furious and unsparing _revenge_. _Revenge_ emphasizes more the personal injury in return for which it is inflicted, _vengeance_ the ill desert of those upon whom it is inflicted. A _requital_ is strictly an even return, such as to quit one of obligation for what has been received, and even if poor or unworthy is given as complete and adequate. _Avenging_ and _retribution_ give a solemn sense of exact justice, _avenging_ being more personal in its infliction, whether by God or man, and _retribution_ the impersonal visitation of the doom of righteous law. Compare AVENGE; HATRED; REQUITE.

Antonyms:

compassion, forgiveness, mercy, pardon, pity, reconciliation. excuse, grace,

Prepositions:

To take revenge _upon_ the enemy, _for_ the injury.

* * * * *

REVOLUTION.

Synonyms:

anarchy, insurrection, revolt, confusion, lawlessness, riot, disintegration, mutiny, sedition, disorder, rebellion, tumult. insubordination,

The essential idea of _revolution_ is a change in the form of government or constitution, or a change of rulers, otherwise than as provided by the laws of succession, election, etc.; while such change is apt to involve armed hostilities, these make no necessary part of the _revolution_. The _revolution_ by which Dom Pedro was dethroned, and Brazil changed from an empire to a republic, was accomplished without a battle, and almost without a shot. _Anarchy_ refers to the condition of a state when human government is superseded or destroyed by factions or other causes. _Lawlessness_ is a temper of mind or condition of the community which may result in _anarchy_. _Confusion_, _disorder_, _riot_, and _tumult_ are incidental and temporary outbreaks of _lawlessness_, but may not be _anarchy_. _Insubordination_ is individual disobedience. _Sedition_ is the plotting, _rebellion_ the fighting, against the existing government, but always with the purpose of establishing some other government in its place. When _rebellion_ is successful it is called _revolution_; but there may be _revolution_ without _rebellion_; as, the English _Revolution_ of 1688. A _revolt_ is an uprising against existing authority without the comprehensive views of change in the form or administration of government that are involved in _revolution_. _Anarchy_, when more than temporary _disorder_, is a proposed _disintegration_ of society, in which it is imagined that social order might exist without government. Slaves make _insurrection_; soldiers or sailors break out in _mutiny_; subject provinces rise in _revolt_. Compare SOCIALISM.

Antonyms:

authority, domination, government, obedience, sovereignty, command, dominion, law, order, submission, control, empire, loyalty, rule, supremacy.

* * * * *

REVOLVE.

Synonyms:

roll, rotate, turn.

Any round body _rolls_ which continuously touches with successive portions of its surface successive portions of another surface; a wagon-wheel _rolls_ along the ground. To _rotate_ is said of a body that has a circular motion about its own center or axis; to _revolve_ is said of a body that moves in a curving path, as a circle or an ellipse, about a center outside of itself, so as to return periodically to the same relative position that it held at some previous time. A _revolving_ body may also either _rotate_ or _roll_ at the same time; the earth _revolves_ around the sun, and _rotates_ on its own axis; in popular usage, the earth is often said to _revolve_ about its own axis, or to have a daily "revolution," but _rotate_ and "rotation" are the more accurate terms. A cylinder over which an endless belt is drawn is said to _roll_ as regards the belt, tho it _rotates_ as regards its own axis. Any object that is in contact with or connected with a _rolling_ body is often said to _roll_; as, the car _rolls_ smoothly along the track. Objects whose motion approximates or suggests a rotary motion along a supporting surface are also said to _roll_; as, ocean waves _roll_ in upon the shore, or the ship _rolls_ in the trough of the sea. _Turn_ is a conversational and popular word often used vaguely for _rotate_ or _revolve_, or for any motion about a fixed point, especially for a motion less than a complete "rotation" or "revolution;" a man _turns_ his head or _turns_ on his heel; the gate _turns_ on its hinges.

Antonyms:

bind, chafe, grind, slide, slip, stand, stick.

* * * * *

RIDDLE, _n._

Synonyms:

conundrum, enigma, paradox, problem, puzzle.

_Conundrum_, a word of unknown origin, signifies some question or statement in which some hidden and fanciful resemblance is involved, the answer often depending upon a pun; an _enigma_ is a dark saying; a _paradox_ is a true statement that at first appears absurd or contradictory; a _problem_ is something thrown out for solution; _puzzle_ (from _oppose_) referred originally to the intricate arguments by which disputants opposed each other in the old philosophic schools. The _riddle_ is an ambiguous or paradoxical statement with a hidden meaning to be guessed by the mental acuteness of the one to whom it is proposed; the _riddle_ is not so petty as the _conundrum_, and may require much acuteness for its answer; a _problem_ may require simply study and scholarship, as a _problem_ in mathematics; a _puzzle_ may be in something other than verbal statement, as a dissected map or any perplexing mechanical contrivance. Both _enigma_ and _puzzle_ may be applied to any matter difficult of answer or solution, _enigma_ conveying an idea of greater dignity, _puzzle_ applying to something more commonplace and mechanical; there are many dark _enigmas_ in human life and in the course of providence; the location of a missing object is often a _puzzle_.

Antonyms:

answer, axiom, explanation, proposition, solution.

* * * * *

RIGHT, _n._

Synonyms:

claim, franchise, liberty, prerogative, exemption, immunity, license, privilege.

A _right_ is that which one may properly demand upon considerations of justice, morality, equity, or of natural or positive law. A _right_ may be either general or special, natural or artificial. "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" are the natural and inalienable _rights_ of all men; _rights_ of property, inheritance, etc., are individual and special, and often artificial, as the _right_ of inheritance by primogeniture. A _privilege_ is always special, exceptional, and artificial; it is something not enjoyed by all, or only to be enjoyed on certain special conditions, a peculiar benefit, favor, advantage, etc. A _privilege_ may be of doing or avoiding; in the latter case it is an _exemption_ or _immunity_; as, a _privilege_ of hunting or fishing; _exemption_ from military service; _immunity_ from arrest. A _franchise_ is a specific _right_ or _privilege_ granted by the government or established as such by governmental authority; as, the elective _franchise_; a railroad _franchise_. A _prerogative_ is an official _right_ or _privilege_, especially one inherent in the royal or sovereign power; in a wider sense it is an exclusive and peculiar _privilege_ which one possesses by reason of being what he is; as, reason is the _prerogative_ of man; kings and nobles have often claimed _prerogatives_ and _privileges_ opposed to the inherent _rights_ of the people. Compare DUTY; JUSTICE.

* * * * *

RISE.

Synonyms:

arise, ascend, emanate, flow, issue, proceed, spring.

To _rise_ is to move up or upward whether slowly or quickly, whether through the least or greatest distance; the waves _rise_; the mists _rise_; the river _rises_ after heavy rains; as said of persons, to _rise_ is to come to an erect position after kneeling, sitting, reclining, or lying down; as, to _rise_ from a sick-bed; my friend _rose_ as I entered; the guests _rose_ to depart; so a deliberative assembly or a committee is said to _rise_ when it breaks up a session; a sun or star _rises_ when to our apprehension it comes above the horizon and begins to go up the sky. To _ascend_ is to go far upward, and is often used in a stately sense; as, Christ _ascended_ to heaven. The shorter form _rise_ is now generally preferred to the longer form _arise_, except in poetic or elevated style. The sun _rises_ or _arises_; the river _springs_ at a bound from the foot of the glacier and _flows_ through the lands to the ocean. Smoke _issues_ from a chimney and _ascends_ toward the sky. Light and heat _emanate_ from the sun.

Antonyms:

decline, descend, drop, fall, go down, set, settle, sink.

Prepositions:

Rise _from_ slumber; rise _to_ duty; rise _at_ the summons; we rose _with_ the lark.

* * * * *

ROBBER.

Synonyms:

bandit, depredator, freebooter, pirate, brigand, despoiler, highwayman, plunderer, buccaneer, footpad, marauder, raider, burglar, forager, pillager, thief.

A _robber_ seeks to obtain the property of others by force or intimidation; a _thief_ by stealth and secrecy. In early English _thief_ was freely used in both senses, as in Shakespeare and the Authorized Version of the English Bible, which has "two _thieves_" (_Matt._ xxvii, 38), where the Revised Version more correctly substitutes "two _robbers_."

* * * * *

ROYAL.

Synonyms:

august, kingly, majestic, princely, kinglike, magnificent, munificent, regal.

_Royal_ denotes that which actually belongs or pertains to a monarch; the _royal_ residence is that which the king occupies, _royal_ raiment that which the king wears. _Regal_ denotes that which in outward state is appropriate for a king; a subject may assume _regal_ magnificence in residence, dress, and equipage. _Kingly_ denotes that which is worthy of a king in personal qualities, especially of character and conduct; as, a _kingly_ bearing; a _kingly_ resolve. _Princely_ is especially used of treasure, expenditure, gifts, etc., as _princely_ munificence, a _princely_ fortune, where _regal_ could not so well be used and _royal_ would change the sense. The distinctions between these words are not absolute, but the tendency of the best usage is as here suggested.

Antonyms:

beggarly, contemptible, mean, poor, servile, slavish, vile.

* * * * *

RUSTIC.

Synonyms:

agricultural, coarse, pastoral, uncouth, artless, countrified, plain, unpolished, awkward, country, rude, unsophisticated, boorish, hoidenish, rural, untaught, bucolic, inelegant, sylvan, verdant. clownish, outlandish,

_Rural_ and _rustic_ are alike derived from the Latin _rus_, country, and may be alike defined as pertaining to, characteristic of, or dwelling in the country; but in usage _rural_ refers especially to scenes or objects in the country, considered as the work of nature; _rustic_ refers to their effect upon man or to their condition as affected by human agency; as, a _rural_ scene; a _rustic_ party; a _rustic_ lass. We speak, however, of the _rural_ population, _rural_ simplicity, etc. _Rural_ has always a favorable sense; _rustic_ frequently an unfavorable one, as denoting a lack of culture and refinement; thus, _rustic_ politeness expresses that which is well-meant, but awkward; similar ideas are suggested by a _rustic_ feast, _rustic_ garb, etc. _Rustic_ is, however, often used of a studied simplicity, an artistic rudeness, which is pleasing and perhaps beautiful; as, a _rustic_ cottage; a _rustic_ chair. _Pastoral_ refers to the care of flocks, and to the shepherd's life with the pleasing associations suggested by the old poetic ideal of that life; as, _pastoral_ poetry. _Bucolic_ is kindred to _pastoral_, but is a less elevated term, and sometimes slightly contemptuous.

Antonyms:

accomplished, cultured, polished, refined, urbane, city-like, elegant, polite, urban, well-bred.

* * * * *

SACRAMENT.

Synonyms:

ceremony, eucharist, observance, rite, solemnity. communion, Lord's Supper, ordinance, service,

Any religious act, especially a public act, viewed as a means of serving God is called a _service_; the word commonly includes the entire series of exercises of a single occasion of public worship. A religious _service_ ordained as an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace is called a _sacrament_. _Ceremony_ is a form expressing reverence, or at least respect; we may speak of religious _ceremonies_, the _ceremonies_ of polite society, the _ceremonies_ of a coronation, an inauguration, etc. An _observance_ has more than a formal obligation, reaching or approaching a religious sacredness; a stated religious _observance_, viewed as established by authority, is called an _ordinance_; viewed as an established custom, it is a _rite_. The terms _sacrament_ and _ordinance_, in the religious sense, are often used interchangeably; the _ordinance_ derives its sacredness from the authority that ordained it, while the _sacrament_ possesses a sacredness due to something in itself, even when viewed simply as a representation or memorial. The Lord's Supper is the Scriptural name for the _observance_ commemorating the death of Christ; the word _communion_ is once applied to it (_1 Cor._ x, 16), but not as a distinctive name; at an early period, however, the name _communion_ was so applied, as denoting the communing of Christians with their Lord, or with one another. The term _eucharist_ describes the Lord's Supper as a thanksgiving _service_; it is also called by preeminence _the sacrament_, as the ratifying of a solemn vow of consecration to Christ.

* * * * *

SAGACIOUS.

Synonyms:

able, intelligent, perspicacious, sensible, acute, keen, quick of scent, sharp, apt, keen-sighted, quick-scented, sharp-witted, clear-sighted, keen-witted, rational, shrewd, discerning, judicious, sage, wise.

_Sagacious_ refers to a power of tracing the hidden or recondite by slight indications, as by instinct or intuition; it is not now applied to mere keenness of sense-perception. We do not call a hound _sagacious_ in following a clear trail; but if he loses the scent, as at the edge of a stream, and circles around till he strikes it again, his conduct is said to be _sagacious_. In human affairs _sagacious_ refers to a power of ready, far-reaching, and accurate inference from observed facts perhaps in themselves very slight, that seems like a special sense; or to a similar readiness to foresee the results of any action, especially upon human motives or conduct--a kind of prophetic common sense. _Sagacious_ is a broader and nobler word than _shrewd_, and not capable of the invidious sense which the latter word often bears; on the other hand, _sagacious_ is less lofty and comprehensive than _wise_ in its full sense, and more limited to matters of direct practical moment. Compare ASTUTE; WISDOM.

Antonyms:

absurd, futile, obtuse, silly, sottish, undiscerning, dull, ignorant, senseless, simple, stupid, unintelligent. foolish, irrational,

* * * * *

SALE.

Synonyms:

bargain, barter, change, deal, exchange, trade.

A _bargain_ is strictly an agreement or contract to buy and sell, tho the word is often used to denote the entire transaction and also as a designation for the thing sold or purchased. _Change_ and _exchange_ are words of wider signification, applying only incidentally to the transfer of property or value; a _change_ secures something different in any way or by any means; an _exchange_ secures something as an equivalent or return, tho not necessarily as payment for what is given. _Barter_ is the _exchange_ of one commodity for another, the word being used generally with reference to portable commodities. _Trade_ in the broad sense may apply to vast businesses (as the book-_trade_), but as denoting a single transaction is used chiefly in regard to things of moderate value, when it becomes nearly synonymous with _barter_. _Sale_ is commonly, and with increasing strictness, limited to the transfer of property for money, or for something estimated at a money value or considered as equivalent to so much money in hand or to be paid. A _deal_ in the political sense is a _bargain_, substitution, or transfer for the benefit of certain persons or parties against all others; as, the nomination was the result of a _deal_; in business it may have a similar meaning, but it frequently signifies simply a _sale_ or _exchange_, a dealing; as, a heavy _deal_ in stocks.

* * * * *

SAMPLE.

Synonyms:

case, exemplification, instance, example, illustration, specimen.

A _sample_ is a portion taken at random out of a quantity supposed to be homogeneous, so that the qualities found in the _sample_ may reasonably be expected to be found in the whole; as, a _sample_ of sugar; a _sample_ of cloth. A _specimen_ is one unit of a series, or a fragment of a mass, all of which is supposed to possess the same essential qualities; as, a _specimen_ of coinage, or of architecture, or a _specimen_ of quartz. No other unit or portion may be exactly like the _specimen_, while all the rest is supposed to be exactly like the _sample_. An _instance_ is a _sample_ or _specimen_ of action. Compare EXAMPLE.

Antonyms:

abnormality, aggregate, exception, monstrosity, total, whole.

* * * * *

SATISFY.

Synonyms:

cloy, fill, sate, suffice, content, glut, satiate, surfeit.

To _satisfy_ is to furnish just enough to meet physical, mental, or spiritual desire. To _sate_ or _satiate_ is to gratify desire so fully as for a time to extinguish it. To _cloy_ or _surfeit_ is to gratify to the point of revulsion or disgust. _Glut_ is a strong but somewhat coarse word applied to the utmost satisfaction of vehement appetites and passions; as, to _glut_ a vengeful spirit with slaughter; we speak of _glutting_ the market with a supply so excessive as to extinguish the demand. Much less than is needed to _satisfy_ may _suffice_ a frugal or abstemious person; less than a sufficiency may _content_ one of a patient and submissive spirit. Compare PAY; REQUITE.

Antonyms:

check, disappoint, restrain, starve, straiten, deny, refuse, restrict, stint, tantalize.

Prepositions:

Satisfy _with_ food, _with_ gifts, etc.; satisfy one (in the sense of make satisfaction) _for_ labors and sacrifices; satisfy oneself _by_ or _upon_ inquiry.

* * * * *

SCHOLAR.

Synonyms:

disciple, learner, pupil, savant, student.

The primary sense of a _scholar_ is one who is being schooled; thence the word passes to denote one who is apt in school work, and finally one who is thoroughly schooled, master of what the schools can teach, an erudite, accomplished person: when used without qualification, the word is generally understood in this latter sense; as, he is manifestly a _scholar_. _Pupil_ signifies one under the close personal supervision or instruction of a teacher or tutor. Those under instruction in schools below the academic grade are technically and officially termed _pupils_. The word _pupil_ is uniformly so used in the Reports of the Commissioner of Education of the United States, but popular American usage prefers _scholar_ in the original sense; as, teachers and _scholars_ enjoyed a holiday. Those under instruction in Sunday-schools are uniformly designated as Sunday-school _scholars_. _Student_ is applied to those in the higher grades or courses of study, as the academic, collegiate, scientific, etc. _Student_ suggests less proficiency than _scholar_ in the highest sense, the _student_ being one who is learning, the _scholar_ one who has learned. On the other hand, _student_ suggests less of personal supervision than _pupil_; thus, the college _student_ often becomes the private _pupil_ of some instructor in special studies. For _disciple_, etc., compare synonyms for ADHERENT.

Antonyms:

dunce, fool, idiot, idler, ignoramus, illiterate person.

* * * * *

SCIENCE.

Synonyms:

art, knowledge.

_Knowledge_ of a single fact, not known as related to any other, or of many facts not known as having any mutual relations or as comprehended under any general law, does not reach the meaning of _science_; _science_ is _knowledge_ reduced to law and embodied in system. The _knowledge_ of various countries gathered by an observant traveler may be a heterogeneous medley of facts, which gain real value only when coordinated and arranged by the man of _science_. _Art_ always relates to something to be done, _science_ to something to be known. Not only must _art_ be discriminated from _science_, but _art_ in the industrial or mechanical sense must be distinguished from _art_ in the esthetic sense; the former aims chiefly at utility, the latter at beauty. The mechanic _arts_ are the province of the artisan, the esthetic or fine _arts_ are the province of the artist; all the industrial _arts_, as of weaving or printing, arithmetic or navigation, are governed by exact rules. _Art_ in the highest esthetic sense, while it makes use of rules, transcends all rule; no rules can be given for the production of a painting like Raffael's "Transfiguration," a statue like the Apollo Belvedere, or a poem like the Iliad. _Science_ does not, like the mechanic _arts_, make production its direct aim, yet its possible productive application in the _arts_ is a constant stimulus to scientific investigation; the _science_, as in the case of chemistry or electricity, is urged on to higher development by the demands of the _art_, while the _art_ is perfected by the advance of the _science_. Creative _art_ seeking beauty for its own sake is closely akin to pure _science_ seeking _knowledge_ for its own sake. Compare KNOWLEDGE; LITERATURE.

* * * * *

SECURITY.

Synonyms:

bail, earnest, gage, pledge, surety.

The first four words agree in denoting something given or deposited as an assurance of something to be given, paid, or done. An _earnest_ is of the same kind as that to be given, a portion of it delivered in advance, as when part of the purchase-money is paid, according to the common expression, "to bind the bargain." A _pledge_ or _security_ may be wholly different in kind from that to be given or paid, and may greatly exceed it in value. _Security_ may be of real or personal property--anything of sufficient value to make the creditor secure; a _pledge_ is always of personal property or chattels. Every pawnshop contains unredeemed _pledges_; land, merchandise, bonds, etc., are frequently offered and accepted as _security_. A person may become _security_ or _surety_ for another's payment of a debt, appearance in court, etc.; in the latter case, he is said to become _bail_ for that person; the person accused gives _bail_ for himself. _Gage_ survives only as a literary word, chiefly in certain phrases; as, "the _gage_ of battle."

Prepositions:

Security _for_ the payment of a debt; security _to_ the state, _for_ the prisoner, _in_ the sum of a thousand dollars.

* * * * *

SELF-ABNEGATION.

Synonyms:

self-control, self-devotion, self-renunciation, self-denial, self-immolation, self-sacrifice.

_Self-control_ is holding oneself within due limits in pleasures and duties, as in all things else; _self-denial_, the giving up of pleasures for the sake of duty. _Self-renunciation_ surrenders conscious rights and claims; _self-abnegation_ forgets that there is anything to surrender. There have been devotees who practised very little _self-denial_ with very much _self-renunciation_. A mother will care for a sick child with complete _self-abnegation_, but without a thought of _self-denial_. _Self-devotion_ is heart-consecration of self to a person or cause with readiness for any needed sacrifice. _Self-sacrifice_ is the strongest and completest term of all, and contemplates the gift of self as actually made. We speak of the _self-sacrifice_ of Christ, where any other of the above terms would be feeble or inappropriate.

Antonyms:

self-gratification, selfishness, self-seeking, self-will. self-indulgence,

* * * * *

SEND.

Synonyms:

cast, despatch, emit, impel, propel, dart, discharge, fling, lance, sling, delegate, dismiss, forward, launch, throw, depute, drive, hurl, project, transmit.

To _send_ is to cause to go or pass from one place to another, and always in fact or thought away from the agent or agency that controls the act. _Send_ in its most common use involves personal agency without personal presence; according to the adage, "If you want your business done, go; if not, _send_;" one _sends_ a letter or a bullet, a messenger or a message. In all the derived uses this same idea controls; if one _sends_ a ball into his own heart, the action is away from the directing hand, and he is viewed as the passive recipient of his own act; it is with an approach to personification that we speak of the bow _sending_ the arrow, or the gun the shot. To _despatch_ is to _send_ hastily or very promptly, ordinarily with a destination in view; to _dismiss_ is to _send_ away from oneself without reference to a destination; as, to _dismiss_ a clerk, an application, or an annoying subject. To _discharge_ is to _send_ away so as to relieve a person or thing of a load; we _discharge_ a gun or _discharge_ the contents; as applied to persons, _discharge_ is a harsher term than _dismiss_. To _emit_ is to _send_ forth from within, with no reference to a destination; as, the sun _emits_ light and heat. _Transmit_, from the Latin, is a dignified term, often less vigorous than the Saxon _send_, but preferable at times in literary or scientific use; as, to _transmit_ the crown, or the feud, from generation to generation; to _transmit_ a charge of electricity. _Transmit_ fixes the attention more on the intervening agency, as _send_ does upon the points of departure and destination.

Antonyms:

bring, convey, give, hold, receive, carry, get, hand, keep, retain.

Prepositions:

To send _from_ the hand _to_ or _toward_ (rarely _at_) a mark; send _to_ a friend _by_ a messenger or _by_ mail; send a person _into_ banishment; send a shell _among_ the enemy.

* * * * *

SENSATION.

Synonyms:

emotion, feeling, perception, sense.

_Sensation_ is the mind's consciousness due to a bodily affection, as of heat or cold; _perception_ is the cognition of some external object which is the cause or occasion of the _sensation_; the _sensation_ of heat may be connected with the _perception_ of a fire. While _sensations_ are connected with the body, _emotions_, as joy, grief, etc., are wholly of the mind. "As the most of them [the _sensations_] are positively agreeable or the opposite, they are nearly akin to those _emotions_, as hope or terror, or those passions, as anger and envy, which are acknowledged by all to belong exclusively to the spirit, and to involve no relation whatever to matter or the bodily organism. Such _feelings_ are not infrequently styled _sensations_, though improperly." PORTER _Human Intellect_ § 112, p. 128. [S. '90.] _Feeling_ is a general term popularly denoting what is felt, whether through the body or by the mind alone, and includes both _sensation_ and _emotion_. A _sense_ is an organ or faculty of _sensation_ or of _perception_.

* * * * *

SENSIBILITY.

Synonyms:

feeling, impressibility, sensitiveness, susceptibility.

_Sensibility_ in the philosophical sense, denotes the capacity of emotion or feeling, as distinguished from the intellect and the will. (Compare synonyms for SENSATION.) In popular use _sensibility_ denotes sometimes capacity of feeling of any kind; as, _sensibility_ to heat or cold; sometimes, a peculiar readiness to be the subject of feeling, especially of the higher feelings; as, the _sensibility_ of the artist or the poet; a person of great or fine _sensibility_. _Sensitiveness_ denotes an especial delicacy of _sensibility_, ready to be excited by the slightest cause, as displayed, for instance, in the "sensitive-plant." _Susceptibility_ is rather a capacity to take up, receive, and, as it were, to contain feeling, so that a person of great _susceptibility_ is capable of being not only readily but deeply moved; _sensitiveness_ is more superficial, _susceptibility_ more pervading. Thus, in physics, the _sensitiveness_ of a magnetic needle is the ease with which it may be deflected, as by another magnet; its _susceptibility_ is the degree to which it can be magnetized by a given magnetic force or the amount of magnetism it will hold. So a person of great _sensitiveness_ is quickly and keenly affected by any external influence, as by music, pathos, or ridicule, while a person of great _susceptibility_ is not only touched, but moved to his inmost soul.

Antonyms:

coldness, hardness, insensibility, numbness, unconsciousness. deadness,

Prepositions:

The sensibility _of_ the organism _to_ atmospheric changes.

* * * * *

SEVERE.

Synonyms:

austere, inflexible, rigorous, uncompromising, hard, morose, stern, unmitigated, harsh, relentless, stiff, unrelenting, inexorable, rigid, strict, unyielding.

That is _severe_ which is devoid of all softness, mildness, tenderness, indulgence or levity, or (in literature and art) devoid of unnecessary ornament, amplification, or embellishment of any kind; as, a _severe_ style; as said of anything painful, _severe_ signifies such as heavily taxes endurance or resisting power; as, a _severe_ pain, fever, or winter. _Rigid_ signifies primarily _stiff_, resisting any effort to change its shape; a corpse is said to be _rigid_ in death; hence, in metaphorical sense, a _rigid_ person or character is one that resists all efforts to change the will or course of conduct; a _rigid_ rule or statement is one that admits of no deviation. _Rigorous_ is nearly akin to _rigid_, but is a stronger word, having reference to action or active qualities, as _rigid_ does to state or character; a _rigid_ rule may be _rigorously_ enforced. _Strict_ (L. _stringo_, bind) signifies bound or stretched tight, tense, strenuously exact. _Stern_ unites harshness and authority with strictness or severity; _stern_, as said even of inanimate objects, suggests something authoritative or forbidding. _Austere_ signifies severely simple or temperate, _strict_ in self-restraint or discipline, and similarly _unrelenting_ toward others. We speak of _austere_ morality, _rigid_ rules, _rigorous_ discipline, _stern_ commands, _severe_ punishment, _harsh_ speech or a _harsh_ voice, _hard_ requirements, _strict_ injunctions, and _strict_ obedience. _Strict_ discipline holds one exactly and unflinchingly to the rule; _rigorous_ discipline punishes severely any infraction of it. The _austere_ character is seldom lovely, but it is always strong and may be grand, commanding, and estimable.

Antonyms:

affable, easy, gentle, lenient, pliable, sweet, tractable, bland, genial, indulgent, mild, soft, tender, yielding.

* * * * *

SHAKE.

Synonyms:

agitate, jar, quake, shiver, totter, brandish, joggle, quaver, shudder, tremble, flap, jolt, quiver, sway, vibrate, fluctuate, jounce, reel, swing, wave, flutter, oscillate, rock, thrill, waver.

A thing is _shaken_ which is subjected to short and abruptly checked movements, as forward and backward, up and down, from side to side, etc. A tree is "_shaken_ with a mighty wind;" a man slowly _shakes_ his head. A thing _rocks_ that is sustained from below; it _swings_ if suspended from above, as a pendulum, or pivoted at the side, as a crane or a bridge-draw; to _oscillate_ is to _swing_ with a smooth and regular returning motion; a _vibrating_ motion may be tremulous or _jarring_. The pendulum of a clock may be said to _swing_, _vibrate_, or _oscillate_; a steel bridge _vibrates_ under the passage of a heavy train; the term _vibrate_ is also applied to molecular movements. _Jolting_ is a lifting from and letting down suddenly upon an unyielding surface; as, a carriage _jolts_ over a rough road. A _jarring_ motion is abruptly and very rapidly repeated through an exceedingly limited space; the _jolting_ of the carriage _jars_ the windows. _Rattling_ refers directly to the sound produced by _shaking_. To _joggle_ is to _shake_ slightly; as, a passing touch _joggles_ the desk on which one is writing. A thing _trembles_ that _shakes_ perceptibly and with an appearance of uncertainty and instability, as a person under the influence of fear; a thing _shivers_ when all its particles are stirred with a slight but pervading tremulous motion, as a human body under the influence of cold; _shuddering_ is a more pronounced movement of a similar kind, in human beings often the effect of emotional or moral recoil; hence, the word is applied by extension to such feelings even when they have no such outward manifestation; as, one says, "I _shudder_ at the thought." To _quiver_ is to have slight and often spasmodic contractile motions, as the flesh under the surgeon's knife. _Thrill_ is applied to a pervasive movement felt rather than seen; as, the nerves _thrill_ with delight; _quiver_ is similarly used, but suggests somewhat more of outward manifestation. To _agitate_ in its literal use is nearly the same as to _shake_, tho we speak of the sea as _agitated_ when we could not say it is _shaken_; the Latin _agitate_ is preferred in scientific or technical use to the Saxon _shake_, and especially as applied to the action of mechanical contrivances; in the metaphorical use _agitate_ is more transitory and superficial, _shake_ more fundamental and enduring; a person's feelings are _agitated_ by distressing news; his courage, his faith, his credit, or his testimony is _shaken_. _Sway_ applies to the movement of a body suspended from above or not firmly sustained from below, and the motion of which is less pronounced than _swinging_, smoother than _vibrating_, and not necessarily constant as _oscillating_; as, the _swaying_ of a reed in the wind. _Sway_ used transitively especially applies to motions of grace or dignity; _brandish_ denotes a threatening or hostile motion; a monarch _sways_ the scepter; the ruffian _brandishes_ a club. To _reel_ or _totter_ always implies liability to fall; _reeling_ is more violent than _swaying_, _tottering_ more irregular; a drunken man _reels_; we speak of the _tottering_ step of age or infancy. An extended mass which seems to lack solidity or cohesion is said to _quake_; as, a _quaking_ bog. _Quaver_ is applied almost exclusively to tremulous sounds of the human voice. _Flap_, _flutter_, and _fluctuate_ refer to wave-like movements, _flap_ generally to such as produce a sharp sound; a cock _flaps_ his wings; _flutter_ applies to a less pronounced and more irregular motion; a captive bird or a feeble pulse _flutters_. Compare FLUCTUATE.

* * * * *

SHELTER.

Synonyms:

cover, guard, protect, shield, defend, harbor, screen, ward.

Anything is _covered_ over which something is completely extended; a vessel is _covered_ with a lid; the head is _covered_ with a hat. That which _covers_ may also _defend_ or _protect_; thus, troops interposed between some portion of their own army and the enemy are often called a _covering_ party. To _shelter_ is to _cover_ so as to _protect_ from injury or annoyance; as, the roof _shelters_ from the storm; woods _shelter_ from the heat. To _defend_ (L. _defendere_, to strike away) implies the actual, _protect_ (L. _protegere_, to cover before) implies the possible use of force or resisting power; _guard_ implies sustained vigilance with readiness for conflict; we _defend_ a person or thing against actual attack; we _guard_ or _protect_ against possible assault or injury. A powerful person may _protect_ one who is weak by simply declaring himself his friend; he _defends_ him by some form of active championship. An inanimate object may _protect_, as a garment from cold; _defend_ is used but rarely, and by somewhat violent metaphor, in such connection. _Protect_ is more complete than _guard_ or _defend_; an object may be faithfully _guarded_ or bravely _defended_ in vain, but that which is _protected_ is secure. To _shield_ is to interpose something over or before that which is assailed, so as to save from harm, and has a comparatively passive sense; one may _guard_ another by standing armed at his side, _defend_ him by fighting for him, or _shield_ him from a missile or a blow by interposing his own person. _Harbor_ is generally used in an unfavorable sense; confederates or sympathizers _harbor_ a criminal; a person _harbors_ evil thoughts or designs. See CHERISH. Compare synonyms for HIDE; DEFENSE.

Antonyms:

betray, expel, expose, give up, refuse, reject, surrender. cast out,

Prepositions:

Shelter _under_ a roof _from_ the storm; _in_ the fortress, _behind_ or _within_ the walls, _from_ attack.

* * * * *

SIGN.

Synonyms:

emblem, mark, presage, symbol, token, indication, note, prognostic, symptom, type. manifestation, omen, signal,

A _sign_ (L. _signum_) is any distinctive _mark_ by which a thing may be recognized or its presence known, and may be intentional or accidental, natural or artificial, suggestive, descriptive, or wholly arbitrary; thus, a blush may be a _sign_ of shame; the footprint of an animal is a _sign_ that it has passed; the _sign_ of a business house now usually declares what is done or kept within, but formerly might be an object having no connection with the business, as "the _sign_ of the trout;" the letters of the alphabet are _signs_ of certain sounds. While a _sign_ may be involuntary, and even unconscious, a _signal_ is always voluntary, and is usually concerted; a ship may show _signs_ of distress to the casual observer, but _signals_ of distress are a distinct appeal for aid. A _symptom_ is a vital phenomenon resulting from a diseased condition; in medical language a _sign_ is an _indication_ of any physical condition, whether morbid or healthy; thus, a hot skin and rapid pulse are _symptoms_ of pneumonia; dulness of some portion of the lungs under percussion is one of the physical _signs_. Compare AUGUR; CHARACTERISTIC; EMBLEM.

* * * * *

SIN.

Synonyms:

crime, fault, misdeed, vice, criminality, guilt, offense, viciousness, delinquency, ill-doing, transgression, wickedness, depravity, immorality, ungodliness, wrong, evil, iniquity, unrighteousness, wrong-doing.

_Sin_ is any lack of holiness, any defect of moral purity and truth, whether in heart or life, whether of commission or omission. "All _unrighteousness_ is _sin_," _1 John_ v, 17. _Transgression_, as its etymology indicates, is the stepping over a specific enactment, whether of God or man, ordinarily by overt act, but in the broadest sense, in volition or desire. _Sin_ may be either act or state; _transgression_ is always an act, mental or physical. _Crime_ is often used for a flagrant violation of right, but in the technical sense denotes specific violation of human law. _Guilt_ is desert of and exposure to punishment because of _sin_. _Depravity_ denotes not any action, but a perverted moral condition from which any act of _sin_ may proceed. _Sin_ in the generic sense, as denoting a state of heart, is synonymous with _depravity_; in the specific sense, as in the expression a _sin_, the term may be synonymous with _transgression_, _crime_, _offense_, _misdeed_, etc., or may denote some moral activity that could not be characterized by terms so positive. _Immorality_ denotes outward violation of the moral law. _Sin_ is thus the broadest word, and _immorality_ next in scope; all _crimes_, properly so called, and all _immoralities_, are _sins_; but there may be _sin_, as ingratitude, which is neither _crime_, _transgression_, nor _immorality_; and there may be _immorality_ which is not _crime_, as falsehood. Compare CRIMINAL.

Antonyms:

blamelessness, goodness, integrity, rectitude, sinlessness, excellence, holiness, morality, right, uprightness, godliness, innocence, purity, righteousness, virtue.

Compare synonyms for VIRTUE.

* * * * *

SING.

Synonyms:

carol, chant, chirp, chirrup, hum, warble.

To _sing_ is primarily and ordinarily to utter a succession of articulate musical sounds with the human voice. The word has come to include any succession of musical sounds; we say the bird or the rivulet _sings_; we speak of "the _singing_ quality" of an instrument, and by still wider extension of meaning we say the teakettle or the cricket _sings_. To _chant_ is to _sing_ in solemn and somewhat uniform cadence; _chant_ is ordinarily applied to non-metrical religious compositions. To _carol_ is to _sing_ joyously, and to _warble_ (kindred with _whirl_) is to _sing_ with trills or quavers, usually also with the idea of joy. _Carol_ and _warble_ are especially applied to the _singing_ of birds. To _chirp_ is to utter a brief musical sound, perhaps often repeated in the same key, as by certain small birds, insects, etc. To _chirrup_ is to utter a somewhat similar sound; the word is often used of a brief, sharp sound uttered as a signal to animate or rouse a horse or other animal. To _hum_ is to utter murmuring sounds with somewhat monotonous musical cadence, usually with closed lips; we speak also of the _hum_ of machinery, etc.

* * * * *

SKEPTIC.

Synonyms:

agnostic, deist, doubter, infidel, unbeliever. atheist, disbeliever, freethinker,

The _skeptic_ doubts divine revelation; the _disbeliever_ and the _unbeliever_ reject it, the _disbeliever_ with more of intellectual dissent, the _unbeliever_ (in the common acceptation) with indifference or with opposition of heart as well as of intellect. _Infidel_ is an opprobrious term that might once almost have been said to be geographical in its range. The Crusaders called all Mohammedans _infidels_, and were so called by them in return; the word is commonly applied to any decided opponent of an accepted religion. The _atheist_ denies that there is a God; the _deist_ admits the existence of God, but denies that the Christian Scriptures are a revelation from him; the _agnostic_ denies either that we do know or that we can know whether there is a God.

Antonyms:

believer, Christian.

* * * * *

SKETCH.

Synonyms:

brief, draft, outline, plan, design, drawing, picture, skeleton.

A _sketch_ is a rough, suggestive presentation of anything, whether graphic or literary, commonly intended to be preliminary to a more complete or extended treatment. An _outline_ gives only the bounding or determining lines of a figure or a scene; a _sketch_ may give not only lines, but shading and color, but is hasty and incomplete. The lines of a _sketch_ are seldom so full and continuous as those of an _outline_, being, like the shading or color, little more than indications or suggestions according to which a finished _picture_ may be made; the artist's first representation of a sunset, the hues of which change so rapidly, must of necessity be a _sketch_. _Draft_ and _plan_ apply especially to mechanical drawing, of which _outline_, _sketch_, and _drawing_ are also used; a _plan_ is strictly a view from above, as of a building or machine, giving the lines of a horizontal section, originally at the level of the ground, now in a wider sense at any height; as, a _plan_ of the cellar; a _plan_ of the attic. A mechanical _drawing_ is always understood to be in full detail; a _draft_ is an incomplete or unfinished _drawing_; a _design_ is such a preliminary _sketch_ as indicates the object to be accomplished or the result to be attained, and is understood to be original. One may make a _drawing_ of any well-known mechanism, or a _drawing_ from another man's _design_; but if he says, "The _design_ is mine," he claims it as his own invention or composition. In written composition an _outline_ gives simply the main divisions, and in the case of a sermon is often called a _skeleton_; a somewhat fuller suggestion of illustration, treatment, and style is given in a _sketch_. A lawyer's _brief_ is a succinct statement of the main facts involved in a case, and of the main heads of his argument on points of law, with reference to authorities cited; the _brief_ has none of the vagueness of a _sketch_, being sufficiently exact and complete to form, on occasion, the basis for the decision of the court without oral argument, when the case is said to be "submitted on _brief_." Compare DESIGN.

* * * * *

SKILFUL.

Synonyms:

accomplished, apt, dexterous, happy, proficient, adept, clever, expert, ingenious, skilled, adroit, deft, handy, practised, trained.

_Skilful_ signifies possessing and using readily practical knowledge and ability, having alert and well-trained faculties with reference to a given work. One is _adept_ in that for which he has a natural gift improved by practise; he is _expert_ in that of which training, experience, and study have given him a thorough mastery; he is _dexterous_ in that which he can do effectively, with or without training, especially in work of the hand or bodily activities. In the case of the noun, "an expert" denotes one who is "experienced" in the fullest sense, a master of his branch of knowledge. A _skilled_ workman is one who has thoroughly learned his trade, though he may be naturally quite dull; a _skilful_ workman has some natural brightness, ability, and power of adaptation, in addition to his acquired knowledge and dexterity. Compare CLEVER; DEXTERITY; POWER.

Antonyms:

awkward, clumsy, inexpert, shiftless, unskilled, untrained. bungling, helpless, maladroit, unhandy, untaught,

Prepositions:

Skilful _at_ or _in_ a work, _with_ a pen or tool of any kind.

* * * * *

SLANDER.

Synonyms:

asperse, decry, disparage, revile, backbite, defame, libel, traduce, calumniate, depreciate, malign, vilify.

To _slander_ a person is to utter a false and injurious report concerning him; to _defame_ is specifically and directly to attack one's reputation; to _defame_ by spoken words is to _slander_, by written words, to _libel_. To _asperse_ is, as it were, to bespatter with injurious charges; to _malign_ is to circulate studied and malicious attacks upon character; to _traduce_ is to exhibit one's real or assumed traits in an odious light; to _revile_ or _vilify_ is to attack with vile abuse. To _disparage_ is to represent one's admitted good traits or acts as less praiseworthy than they would naturally be thought to be, as for instance, by ascribing a man's benevolence to a desire for popularity or display. To _libel_ or _slander_ is to make an assault upon character and repute that comes within the scope of law; the _slander_ is uttered, the _libel_ written, printed, or pictured. To _backbite_ is to speak something secretly to one's injury; to _calumniate_ is to invent as well as utter the injurious charge. One may "abuse," "assail," or _vilify_ another to his face; he _asperses_, _calumniates_, _slanders_, or _traduces_ him behind his back.

Antonyms:

defend, eulogize, extol, laud, praise, vindicate.

* * * * *

SLANG.

Synonyms:

cant, colloquialism, vulgarism, vulgarity.

A _colloquialism_ is an expression not coarse or low, and perhaps not incorrect, but below the literary grade; educated persons are apt to allow themselves some _colloquialisms_ in familiar conversation, which they would avoid in writing or public speaking. _Slang_, in the primary sense, denotes expressions that are either coarse and rude in themselves or chiefly current among the coarser and ruder part of the community; there are also many expressions current in special senses in certain communities that may be characterized as _slang_; as, college _slang_; club _slang_; racing _slang_. In the evolution of language many words originally _slang_ are adopted by good writers and speakers, and ultimately take their place as accepted English. A _vulgarism_ is an expression decidedly incorrect, and the use of which is a mark of ignorance or low breeding. _Cant_, as used in this connection, denotes the barbarous jargon used as a secret language by thieves, tramps, etc. Compare DICTION; LANGUAGE.

* * * * *

SLOW.

Synonyms:

dawdling, dilatory, gradual, lingering, slack, delaying, drowsy, inactive, moderate, sluggish, deliberate, dull, inert, procrastinating, tardy.

_Slow_ signifies moving through a relatively short distance, or with a relatively small number of motions in a given time; _slow_ also applies to that which is a relatively long while in beginning or accomplishing something; a watch or a clock is said to be _slow_ when its indications are behind those of the standard time. _Tardy_ is applied to that which is behind the proper or desired time, especially in doing a work or arriving at a place. _Deliberate_ and _dilatory_ are used of persons, tho the latter may be used also of things, as of a stream; a person is _deliberate_ who takes a noticeably long time to consider and decide before acting or who acts or speaks as if he were deliberating at every point; a person is _dilatory_ who lays aside, or puts off as long as possible, necessary or required action; both words may be applied either to undertaking or to doing. _Gradual_ (L. _gradus_, a step) signifies advancing by steps, and refers to _slow_ but regular and sure progression. _Slack_ refers to action that seems to indicate a lack of tension, as of muscle or of will, _sluggish_ to action that seems as if reluctant to advance.

Antonyms:

See synonyms for NIMBLE.

* * * * *

SNEER.

Synonyms:

fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, taunt.

A _sneer_ may be simply a contemptuous facial contortion, or it may be some brief satirical utterance that throws a contemptuous side-light on what it attacks without attempting to prove or disprove; a depreciatory implication may be given in a _sneer_ such as could only be answered by elaborate argument or proof, which would seem to give the attack undue importance:

Who can refute a _sneer_?

PALEY _Moral Philosophy_ bk. v, ch. ix.

A _fling_ is careless and commonly pettish; a _taunt_ is intentionally insulting and provoking; the _sneer_ is supercilious; the _taunt_ is defiant. The _jeer_ and _gibe_ are uttered; the _gibe_ is bitter, and often sly or covert; the _jeer_ is rude and open. A _scoff_ may be in act or word, and is commonly directed against that which claims honor, reverence, or worship. Compare BANTER.

Preposition:

Only an essentially vicious mind is capable of a sneer _at_ virtue.

* * * * *

SOCIALISM.

Synonyms:

collectivism, communism, fabianism.

_Socialism_, as defined by its advocates, is a theory of civil polity that aims to secure the reconstruction of society, increase of wealth, and a more equal distribution of the products of labor through the public collective ownership of land and capital (as distinguished from property), and the public collective management of all industries. Its aim is extended industrial cooperation; _socialism_ is a purely economic term, applying to landownership and productive capital. Many socialists call themselves _collectivists_, and their system _collectivism_. _Communism_ would divide all things, including the profits of individual labor, among members of the community; many of its advocates would abolish marriage and the family relation. _Anarchism_ is properly an antonym of _socialism_, as it would destroy, by violence if necessary, all existing government and social order, leaving the future to determine what, if anything, should be raised upon their ruins.

* * * * *

SOUND.

Synonyms:

noise, note, tone.

_Sound_ is the sensation produced through the organs of hearing or the physical cause of this sensation. _Sound_ is the most comprehensive word of this group, applying to anything that is audible. _Tone_ is _sound_ considered as having some musical quality or as expressive of some feeling; _noise_ is _sound_ considered without reference to musical quality or as distinctly unmusical or discordant. Thus, in the most general sense _noise_ and _sound_ scarcely differ, and we say almost indifferently, "I heard a _sound_," or "I heard a _noise_." We speak of a fine, musical, or pleasing _sound_, but never thus of a _noise_. In music, _tone_ may denote either a musical _sound_ or the interval between two such _sounds_, but in the most careful usage the latter is now distinguished as the "interval," leaving _tone_ to stand only for the _sound_. _Note_ in music strictly denotes the character representing a _sound_, but in loose popular usage it denotes the _sound_ also, and becomes practically equivalent to _tone_. Aside from its musical use, _tone_ is chiefly applied to that quality of the human voice by which feeling is expressed; as, he spoke in a cheery _tone_; the word is similarly applied to the voices of birds and other animals, and sometimes to inanimate objects. As used of a musical instrument, _tone_ denotes the general quality of its sounds collectively considered.

* * * * *

SPEAK.

Synonyms:

announce, converse, discourse, say, articulate, declaim, enunciate, talk, chat, declare, express, tell, chatter, deliver, pronounce, utter.

To _utter_ is to give forth as an audible sound, articulate or not. To _talk_ is to _utter_ a succession of connected words, ordinarily with the expectation of being listened to. To _speak_ is to give articulate utterance even to a single word; the officer _speaks_ the word of command, but does not _talk_ it. To _speak_ is also to _utter_ words with the ordinary intonation, as distinguished from singing. To _chat_ is ordinarily to _utter_ in a familiar, conversational way; to _chatter_ is to _talk_ in an empty, ceaseless way like a magpie.

Prepositions:

Speak _to_ (address) a person; speak _with_ a person (converse with him); speak _of_ or _about_ a thing (make it the subject of remark); speak _on_ or _upon_ a subject; in parliamentary language, speak _to_ the question.

* * * * *

SPEECH.

Synonyms:

address, dissertation, oration, speaking, discourse, harangue, oratory, talk, disquisition, language, sermon, utterance.

_Speech_ is the general word for _utterance_ of thought in _language_. A _speech_ may be the delivering of one's sentiments in the simplest way; an _oration_ is an elaborate and prepared _speech_; a _harangue_ is a vehement appeal to passion, or a _speech_ that has something disputatious and combative in it. A _discourse_ is a set _speech_ on a definite subject, intended to convey instruction. Compare CONVERSATION; DICTION; LANGUAGE.

Antonyms:

hush, silence, speechlessness, stillness, taciturnity.

* * * * *

SPONTANEOUS.

Synonyms:

automatic, impulsive, involuntary, voluntary, free, instinctive, unbidden, willing.

That is _spontaneous_ which is freely done, with no external compulsion and, in human actions, without special premeditation or distinct determination of the will; that is _voluntary_ which is freely done with distinct act of will; that is _involuntary_ which is independent of the will, and perhaps in opposition to it; a _willing_ act is not only in accordance with will, but with desire. Thus _voluntary_ and _involuntary_, which are antonyms of each other, are both partial synonyms of _spontaneous_. We speak of _spontaneous_ generation, _spontaneous_ combustion, _spontaneous_ sympathy, an _involuntary_ start, an _unbidden_ tear, _voluntary_ agreement, _willing_ submission. A babe's smile in answer to that of its mother is _spontaneous_; the smile of a pouting child wheedled into good humor is _involuntary_. In physiology the action of the heart and lungs is called _involuntary_; the growth of the hair and nails is _spontaneous_; the action of swallowing is _voluntary_ up to a certain point, beyond which it becomes _involuntary_ or _automatic_. In the fullest sense of that which is not only without the will but distinctly in opposition to it, or compulsory, _involuntary_ becomes an antonym, not only of _voluntary_ but of _spontaneous_; as, _involuntary_ servitude. A _spontaneous_ outburst of applause is of necessity an act of volition, but so completely dependent on sympathetic impulse that it would seem frigid to call it _voluntary_, while to call it _involuntary_ would imply some previous purpose or inclination not to applaud.

* * * * *

SPY.

Synonyms:

detective, emissary, scout.

The _scout_ and the _spy_ are both employed to obtain information of the numbers, movements, etc., of an enemy. The _scout_ lurks on the outskirts of the hostile army with such concealment as the case admits of, but without disguise; a _spy_ enters in disguise within the enemy's lines. A _scout_, if captured, has the rights of a prisoner of war; a _spy_ is held to have forfeited all rights, and is liable, in case of capture, to capital punishment. An _emissary_ is rather political than military; sent rather to secretly influence opponents than to bring information concerning them; so far as he does the latter, he is not only an _emissary_, but a _spy_.

* * * * *

STAIN.

Synonyms:

blot, discolor, dishonor, soil, sully, tinge, color, disgrace, dye, spot, tarnish, tint.

To _color_ is to impart a color desired or undesired, temporary or permanent, or, in the intransitive use, to assume a color in any way; as, he _colored_ with shame and vexation. To _dye_ is to impart a color intentionally and with a view to permanence, and especially so as to pervade the substance or fiber of that to which it is applied. To _stain_ is primarily to _discolor_, to impart a color undesired and perhaps unintended, and which may or may not be permanent. Thus, a character "_dyed_ in the wool" is one that has received some early, permanent, and pervading influence; a character _stained_ with crime or guilt is debased and perverted. _Stain_ is, however, used of giving an intended and perhaps pleasing color to wood, glass, etc., by an application of coloring-matter which enters the substance a little below the surface, in distinction from painting, in which coloring-matter is spread upon the surface; _dyeing_ is generally said of wool, yarn, cloth, or similar materials which are dipped into the _coloring_ liquid. Figuratively, a standard or a garment may be _dyed_ with blood in honorable warfare; an assassin's weapon is _stained_ with the blood of his victim. To _tinge_ is to _color_ slightly, and may also be used of giving a slight flavor, or a slight admixture of one ingredient or quality with another that is more pronounced.

* * * * *

STATE.

Synonyms:

affirm, aver, declare, predicate, set forth, allege, avouch, depose, pronounce, specify, assert, avow, express, propound, swear, asseverate, certify, inform, protest, tell, assure, claim, maintain, say, testify.

To _state_ (L. _sto_, stand) is to _set forth_ explicitly, formally, or

## particularly in speech or writing. _Assert_ (L. _ad_, to, and _sero_,

bind) is strongly personal, signifying to _state_ boldly and positively what the one making the statement has not attempted and may not attempt to prove. _Affirm_ has less of egotism than _assert_ (as seen in the word _self-assertion_), coming nearer to _aver_. It has more solemnity than _declare_, and more composure and dignity than _asseverate_, which is to _assert_ excitedly. In legal usage, _affirm_ has a general agreement with _depose_ and _testify_; it differs from _swear_ in not invoking the name of God. To _assure_ is to _state_ with such authority and confidence as the speaker feels ought to make the hearer sure. _Certify_ is more formal, and applies rather to written documents or legal processes. _Assure_, _certify_, _inform_, apply to the person; _affirm_, etc., to the thing. _Assert_ is combative; _assure_ is conciliatory. I _assert_ my right to cross the river; I _assure_ my friend it is perfectly safe. To _aver_ is to _state_ positively what is within one's own knowledge or matter of deep conviction. One may _assert_ himself, or _assert_ his right to what he is willing to contend for; or he may _assert_ in discussion what he is ready to maintain by argument or evidence. To _assert_ without proof is always to lay oneself open to the suspicion of having no proof to offer, and seems to arrogate too much to one's personal authority, and hence in such cases both the verb _assert_ and its noun _assertion_ have an unfavorable sense; we say a mere _assertion_, a bare _assertion_, his unsupported _assertion_; he _asserted_ his innocence has less force than he _affirmed_ or _maintained_ his innocence. _Affirm_, _state_, and _tell_ have not the controversial sense of _assert_, but are simply declarative. To _vindicate_ is to defend successfully what is assailed. Almost every criminal will _assert_ his innocence; the honest man will seldom lack means to _vindicate_ his integrity.

Antonyms:

contradict, controvert, disprove, gainsay, refute, retract, contravene, deny, dispute, oppose, repudiate, waive.

* * * * *

STEEP.

Synonyms:

abrupt, high, precipitous, sharp, sheer.

_High_ is used of simple elevation; _steep_ is said only of an incline where the vertical measurement is sufficiently great in proportion to the horizontal to make it difficult of ascent. _Steep_ is relative; an ascent of 100 feet to the mile on a railway is a _steep_ grade; a rise of 500 feet to the mile makes a _steep_ wagon-road; a roof is _steep_ when it makes with the horizontal line an angle of more than 45°. A _high_ mountain may be climbed by a winding road nowhere _steep_, while a little hill may be accessible only by a _steep_ path. A _sharp_ ascent or descent is one that makes a sudden, decided angle with the plane from which it starts; a _sheer_ ascent or descent is perpendicular, or nearly so; _precipitous_ applies to that which is of the nature of a precipice, and is used especially of a descent; _abrupt_ is as if broken sharply off, and applies to either acclivity or declivity. Compare HIGH.

Antonyms:

easy, flat, gentle, gradual, horizontal, level, low, slight.

* * * * *

STORM.

Synonyms:

agitation, disturbance, tempest.

A _storm_ is properly a _disturbance_ of the atmosphere, with or without rain, snow, hail, or thunder and lightning. Thus we have rain-_storm_, snow-_storm_, etc., and by extension, magnetic _storm_. A _tempest_ is a _storm_ of extreme violence, always attended with some precipitation, as of rain, from the atmosphere. In the moral and figurative use, _storm_ and _tempest_ are not closely discriminated, except that _tempest_ commonly implies greater intensity. We speak of _agitation_ of feeling, _disturbance_ of mind, a _storm_ of passion, a _tempest_ of rage.

Antonyms:

calm, fair weather, hush, peace, serenity, stillness, tranquillity.

* * * * *

STORY.

Synonyms:

account, legend, narrative, recital, relation, anecdote, myth, novel, record, tale. incident, narration,

A _story_ is the telling of some series of connected incidents or events, whether real or fictitious, in prose or verse, orally or in writing; or the series of incidents or events thus related may be termed a _story_. In children's talk, a _story_ is a common euphemism for a falsehood. _Tale_ is nearly synonymous with _story_, but is somewhat archaic; it is used for an imaginative, legendary, or fictitious _recital_, especially if of ancient date; as, a fairy _tale_; also, for an idle or malicious report; as, do not tell _tales_; "where there is no _tale_-bearer, the strife ceaseth." _Prov._ xxvi, 20. An _anecdote_ tells briefly some _incident_, assumed to be fact. If it passes close limits of brevity, it ceases to be an _anecdote_, and becomes a _narrative_ or _narration_. A traditional or mythical _story_ of ancient times is a _legend_. A history is often somewhat poetically called a _story_; as, the _story_ of the American civil war. Compare ALLEGORY; FICTION; HISTORY.

Antonyms:

annals, biography, chronicle, history, memoir.

* * * * *

STUPIDITY.

Synonyms:

apathy, insensibility, slowness, stupefaction, dulness, obtuseness, sluggishness, stupor.

_Stupidity_ is sometimes loosely used for temporary _dulness_ or partial _stupor_, but chiefly for innate and chronic _dulness_ and _sluggishness_ of mental action, _obtuseness_ of apprehension, etc. _Apathy_ may be temporary, and be dispelled by appeal to the feelings or by the presentation of an adequate motive, but _stupidity_ is inveterate and commonly incurable. Compare APATHY; IDIOCY; STUPOR.

Antonyms:

acuteness, brilliancy, keenness, sagacity, alertness, cleverness, quickness, sense, animation, intelligence, readiness, sensibility.

* * * * *

STUPOR.

Synonyms:

apathy, fainting, stupefaction, syncope, asphyxia, insensibility, swoon, torpor, coma, lethargy, swooning, unconsciousness.

_Stupor_ is a condition of the body in which the action of the senses and faculties is suspended or greatly dulled--weakness or loss of sensibility. The _apathy_ of disease is a mental affection, a state of morbid indifference; _lethargy_ is a morbid tendency to heavy and continued sleep, from which the patient may perhaps be momentarily aroused. _Coma_ is a deep, abnormal sleep, from which the patient can not be aroused, or is aroused only with difficulty, a state of profound _insensibility_, perhaps with full pulse and deep, stertorous breathing, and is due to brain-oppression. _Syncope_ or _swooning_ is a sudden loss of sensation and of power of motion, with suspension of pulse and of respiration, and is due to failure of heart-action, as from sudden nervous shock or intense mental emotion. _Insensibility_ is a general term denoting loss of feeling from any cause, as from cold, intoxication, or injury. _Stupor_ is especially profound and confirmed _insensibility_, properly comatose. _Asphyxia_ is a special form of _syncope_ resulting from partial or total suspension of respiration, as in strangulation, drowning, or inhalation of noxious gases.

* * * * *

SUBJECTIVE.

Synonym:

objective.

_Subjective_ and _objective_ are synonyms in but one point of view, being, for the most part, strictly antonyms. _Subjective_ signifies relating to the subject of mental states, that is, to the person who experiences them; _objective_ signifies relating to the object of mental states, that is, to something outside the perceiving mind; in brief phrase it may be said that _subjective_ relates to something within the mind, _objective_ to something without. A mountain, as a mass of a certain size, contour, color, etc., is an _objective_ fact; the impression our mind receives, the mental picture it forms of the mountain, is _subjective_. But this _subjective_ impression may become itself the object of thought (called "subject-object"), as when we compare our mental picture of the mountain with our idea of a plain or river. The direct experiences of the soul, as joy, grief, hope, fear, are purely _subjective_; the outward causes of these experiences, as prosperity, bereavement, disappointment, are _objective_. That which has independent existence or authority apart from our experience or thought is said to have _objective_ existence or authority; thus we speak of the _objective_ authority of the moral law. Different individuals may receive different _subjective_ impressions from the same _objective_ fact, that which to one is a cause of hope being to another a cause of fear, etc. The style of a writer is called _objective_ when it derives its materials mainly from or reaches out toward external objects; it is called _subjective_ when it derives its materials mainly from or constantly tends to revert to the personal experience of the author. Compare INHERENT.

* * * * *

SUBSIDY.

Synonyms:

aid, bounty, indemnity, reward, support, allowance, gift, pension, subvention, tribute. bonus, grant, premium,

A _subsidy_ is pecuniary aid directly granted by government to an individual or commercial enterprise, or money furnished by one nation to another to aid it in carrying on war against a common enemy. A nation grants a _subsidy_ to an ally, pays a _tribute_ to a conqueror. An _indemnity_ is in the nature of things limited and temporary, while a _tribute_ might be exacted indefinitely. A nation may also grant a _subsidy_ to its own citizens as a means of promoting the public welfare; as, a _subsidy_ to a steamship company. The somewhat rare term _subvention_ is especially applied to a _grant_ of governmental aid to a literary or artistic enterprise. Governmental _aid_ to a commercial or industrial enterprise other than a transportation company is more frequently called a _bounty_ than a _subsidy_; as, the sugar _bounty_. The word _bounty_ may be applied to almost any regular or stipulated _allowance_ by a government to a citizen or citizens; as, a _bounty_ for enlisting in the army; a _bounty_ for killing wolves. A _bounty_ is offered for something to be done; a _pension_ is granted for something that has been done.

* * * * *

SUBVERT.

Synonyms:

destroy, overthrow, ruin, supplant, extinguish, overturn, supersede, suppress.

To _subvert_ is to overthrow from or as from the very foundation; utterly destroy; bring to ruin. The word is now generally figurative, as of moral or political ruin. To _supersede_ implies the putting of something that is wisely or unwisely preferred in the place of that which is removed; to _subvert_ does not imply substitution. To _supplant_ is more often personal, signifying to take the place of another, usually by underhanded means; one is _superseded_ by authority, _supplanted_ by a rival. Compare ABOLISH.

Antonyms:

conserve, keep, perpetuate, preserve, sustain, uphold.

* * * * *

SUCCEED.

Synonyms:

achieve, attain, flourish, prevail, prosper, thrive, win.

A person _succeeds_ when he accomplishes what he attempts, or _attains_ a desired object or result; an enterprise or undertaking _succeeds_ that has a prosperous result. To _win_ implies that some one loses, but one may _succeed_ where no one fails. A solitary swimmer _succeeds_ in reaching the shore; if we say he _wins_ the shore we contrast him with himself as a possible loser. Many students may _succeed_ in study; a few _win_ the special prizes, for which all compete. Compare FOLLOW.

Antonyms:

be defeated, come short, fail, fall short, lose, miss, miscarry.

* * * * *

SUGGESTION.

Synonyms:

hint, implication, innuendo, insinuation, intimation.

A _suggestion_ (L. _sub_, under, and _gero_, bring) brings something before the mind less directly than by formal or explicit statement, as by a partial statement, an incidental allusion, an illustration, a question, or the like. _Suggestion_ is often used of an unobtrusive statement of one's views or wishes to another, leaving consideration and any consequent action entirely to his judgment, and is hence, in many cases, the most respectful way in which one can convey his views to a superior or a stranger. A _suggestion_ may be given unintentionally, and even unconsciously, as when we say an author has "a _suggestive_ style." An _intimation_ is a _suggestion_ in brief utterance, or sometimes by significant act, gesture, or token, of one's meaning or wishes; in the latter case it is often the act of a superior; as, God in his providence gives us _intimations_ of his will. A _hint_ is still more limited in expression, and is always covert, but frequently with good intent; as, to give one a _hint_ of danger or of opportunity. _Insinuation_ and _innuendo_ are used in the bad sense; an _insinuation_ is a covert or

## partly veiled injurious utterance, sometimes to the very person

attacked; an _innuendo_ is commonly secret as well as sly, as if pointing one out by a significant nod (L. _in_, in, to, and _nuo_, nod).

* * * * *

SUPERNATURAL.

Synonyms:

miraculous, preternatural, superhuman.

The _supernatural_ (_super_, above) is above or superior to the recognized powers of nature; the _preternatural_ (_preter_, beyond) is aside from or beyond the recognized results or operations of natural law, often in the sense of inauspicious; as, a _preternatural_ gloom. _Miraculous_ is more emphatic and specific than _supernatural_, as referring to the direct personal intervention of divine power. Some hold that a miracle, as the raising of the dead, is a direct suspension and even violation of natural laws by the fiat of the Creator, and hence is, in the strictest sense, _supernatural_; others hold that the miracle is simply the calling forth of a power residing in the laws of nature, but not within their ordinary operation, and dependent on a distinct act of God, so that the _miraculous_ might be termed "extranatural," rather than _supernatural_. All that is beyond human power is _superhuman_; as, prophecy gives evidence of _superhuman_ knowledge; the word is sometimes applied to remarkable manifestations of human power, surpassing all that is ordinary.

Antonyms:

common, commonplace, everyday, natural, ordinary, usual.

* * * * *

SUPPORT.

Synonyms:

bear, cherish, keep, maintain, sustain, carry, hold up, keep up, prop, uphold.

_Support_ and _sustain_ alike signify to _hold up_ or _keep up_, to prevent from falling or sinking; but _sustain_ has a special sense of continuous exertion or of great strength continuously exerted, as when we speak of _sustained_ endeavor or a _sustained_ note; a flower is _supported_ by the stem or a temple-roof by arches; the foundations of a great building _sustain_ an enormous pressure; to _sustain_ life implies a greater exigency and need than to _support_ life; to say one is _sustained_ under affliction is to say more both of the severity of the trial and the completeness of the _upholding_ than if we say he is _supported_. To _bear_ is the most general word, denoting all _holding up_ or _keeping up_ of any object, whether in rest or motion; in the derived senses it refers to something that is a tax upon strength or endurance; as, to _bear_ a strain; to _bear_ pain or grief. To _maintain_ is to _keep_ in a state or condition, especially in an excellent and desirable condition; as, to _maintain_ health or reputation; to _maintain_ one's position; to _maintain_ a cause or proposition is to hold it against opposition or difficulty. To _support_ may be partial, to _maintain_ is complete; _maintain_ is a word of more dignity than _support_; a man _supports_ his family; a state _maintains_ an army or navy. To _prop_ is always partial, signifying to add _support_ to something that is insecure. Compare ABET; ENDURE; KEEP.

Antonyms:

abandon, break down, demolish, destroy, let go, throw down, betray, cast down, desert, drop, overthrow, wreck.

Prepositions:

The roof is supported _by_, _on_, or _upon_ pillars; the family was supported _on_ or _upon_ a pittance, or _by_ charity.

* * * * *

SUPPOSE.

Synonyms:

conjecture, deem, guess, imagine, surmise, think.

To _suppose_ is temporarily to assume a thing as true, either with the expectation of finding it so or for the purpose of ascertaining what would follow if it were so. To _suppose_ is also to think a thing to be true while aware or conceding that the belief does not rest upon any sure ground, and may not accord with fact; or yet again, to _suppose_ is to imply as true or involved as a necessary inference; as, design _supposes_ the existence of a designer. To _conjecture_ is to put together the nearest available materials for a provisional opinion, always with some expectation of finding the facts to be as _conjectured_. To _imagine_ is to form a mental image of something as existing, tho its actual existence may be unknown, or even impossible. To _think_, in this application, is to hold as the result of thought what is admitted not to be matter of exact or certain knowledge; as, I do not know, but I _think_ this to be the fact: a more conclusive statement than would be made by the use of _conjecture_ or _suppose_. Compare DOUBT; HYPOTHESIS.

Antonyms:

ascertain, be sure, conclude, discover, know, prove.

* * * * *

SURRENDER.

Synonyms:

abandon, cede, give over, relinquish, alienate, give, give up, sacrifice, capitulate, give oneself up, let go, yield.

To _surrender_ is to _give up_ upon compulsion, as to an enemy in war, hence to _give up_ to any person, passion, influence, or power. To _yield_ is to give place or give way under pressure, and hence under compulsion. _Yield_ implies more softness or concession than _surrender_; the most determined men may _surrender_ to overwhelming force; when one _yields_, his spirit is at least somewhat subdued. A monarch or a state _cedes_ territory perhaps for a consideration; _surrenders_ an army, a navy, or a fortified place to a conqueror; a military commander _abandons_ an untenable position or unavailable stores. We _sacrifice_ something precious through error, friendship, or duty, _yield_ to convincing reasons, a stronger will, winsome persuasion, or superior force. Compare ABANDON.

* * * * *

SYNONYMOUS.

Synonyms:

alike, equivalent, like, similar, correspondent, identical, same, synonymic. corresponding, interchangeable,

_Synonymous_ (Gr. _syn_, together, and _onyma_, name) strictly signifies being _interchangeable_ names for the same thing, or being one of two or more _interchangeable_ names for the same thing; to say that two words are _synonymous_ is strictly to say they are _alike_, _equivalent_, _identical_, or the _same_ in meaning; but the use of _synonymous_ in this strict sense is somewhat rare, and rather with reference to statements than to words.

To say that we are morally developed is _synonymous_ with saying that we have reaped what some one has suffered for us.

H. W. BEECHER _Royal Truths_ p. 294. [T. & F. '66.]

In the strictest sense, _synonymous_ words scarcely exist; rarely, if ever, are any two words in any language _equivalent_ or _identical_ in meaning; where a difference in meaning can not easily be shown, a difference in usage commonly exists, so that the words are not _interchangeable_. By _synonymous_ words (or _synonyms_) we usually understand words that coincide or nearly coincide in some part of their meaning, and may hence within certain limits be used interchangeably, while outside of those limits they may differ very greatly in meaning and use. It is the office of a work on synonyms to point out these correspondences and differences, that language may have the flexibility that comes from freedom of selection within the common limits, with the perspicuity and precision that result from exact choice of the fittest words to express each shade of meaning outside of the common limits. To consider _synonymous_ words _identical_ is fatal to accuracy; to forget that they are _similar_, to some extent _equivalent_, and sometimes _interchangeable_, is destructive of freedom and variety.

* * * * *

SYSTEM.

Synonyms:

manner, method, mode, order, regularity, rule.

_Order_ in this connection denotes the fact or result of proper arrangement according to the due relation or sequence of the matters arranged; as, these papers are in _order_; in alphabetical _order_. _Method_ denotes a process, a general or established way of doing or proceeding in anything; _rule_, an authoritative requirement or an established course of things; _system_, not merely a law of action or procedure, but a comprehensive plan in which all the parts are related to each other and to the whole; as, a _system_ of theology; a railroad _system_; the digestive _system_; _manner_ refers to the external qualities of actions, and to those often as settled and characteristic; we speak of a _system_ of taxation, a _method_ of collecting taxes, the _rules_ by which assessments are made; or we say, as a _rule_ the payments are heaviest at a certain time of year; a just tax may be made odious by the _manner_ of its collection. _Regularity_ applies to the even disposition of objects or uniform recurrence of acts in a series. There may be _regularity_ without _order_, as in the recurrence of paroxysms of disease or insanity; there may be _order_ without _regularity_, as in the arrangement of furniture in a room, where the objects are placed at varying distances. _Order_ commonly implies the design of an intelligent agent or the appearance or suggestion of such design; _regularity_ applies to an actual uniform disposition or recurrence with no suggestion of purpose, and as applied to human affairs is less intelligent and more mechanical than _order_. The most perfect _order_ is often secured with least _regularity_, as in a fine essay or oration. The same may be said of _system_. There is a _regularity_ of dividing a treatise into topics, paragraphs, and sentences, that is destructive of true rhetorical _system_. Compare HABIT; HYPOTHESIS.

Antonyms:

chaos, derangement, disarrangement, disorder, irregularity. confusion,

* * * * *

TACITURN.

Synonyms:

close, mute, reticent, speechless, dumb, reserved, silent, uncommunicative.

_Dumb_, _mute_, _silent_ and _speechless_ refer to fact or state; _taciturn_ refers to habit and disposition. The talkative person may be stricken _dumb_ with surprise or terror; the obstinate may remain _mute_; one may be _silent_ through preoccupation of mind or of set purpose; but the _taciturn_ person is averse to the utterance of thought or feeling and to communication with others, either from natural disposition or for the occasion. One who is _silent_ does not speak at all; one who is _taciturn_ speaks when compelled, but in a grudging way that repels further approach. _Reserved_ suggests more of method and intention than _taciturn_, applying often to some special time or topic; one who is communicative regarding all else may be _reserved_ about his business. _Reserved_ is thus closely equivalent to _uncommunicative_, but is a somewhat stronger word, often suggesting pride or haughtiness, as when we say one is _reserved_ toward inferiors. Compare PRIDE.

Antonyms:

communicative, free, garrulous, loquacious, talkative, unreserved.

* * * * *

TASTEFUL.

Synonyms:

artistic, delicate, esthetic, fastidious, nice, chaste, delicious, esthetical, fine, tasty. dainty, elegant, exquisite,

_Elegant_ (L. _elegans_, select) refers to that assemblage of qualities which makes anything choice to persons of culture and refinement; it refers to the lighter, finer elements of beauty in form or motion, especially denoting that which exhibits faultless taste and perfection of finish. That which is _elegant_ is made so not merely by nature, but by art and culture; a woodland dell may be beautiful or picturesque, but would not ordinarily be termed _elegant_. _Tasteful_ refers to that in which the element of taste is more prominent, standing, as it were, more by itself, while in _elegant_ it is blended as part of the whole. _Tasty_ is an inferior word, used colloquially in a similar sense. _Chaste_ (primarily _pure_), denotes in literature and art that which is true to the higher and finer feelings and free from all excess or meretricious ornament. _Dainty_ and _delicate_ refer to the lighter and finer elements of taste and beauty, _dainty_ tending in personal use to an excessive scrupulousness which is more fully expressed by _fastidious_. _Nice_ and _delicate_ both refer to exact adaptation to some standard; the bar of a balance can be said to be nicely or delicately poised; as regards matters of taste and beauty, _delicate_ is a higher and more discriminating word than _nice_, and is always used in a favorable sense; a _delicate_ distinction is one worth observing; a _nice_ distinction may be so, or may be overstrained and unduly subtle; _fine_ in such use, is closely similar to _delicate_ and _nice_, but (tho capable of an unfavorable sense) has commonly a suggestion of positive excellence or admirableness; a _fine_ touch does something; _fine_ perceptions are to some purpose; _delicate_ is capable of the single unfavorable sense of frail or fragile; as, a _delicate_ constitution. _Esthetic_ or _esthetical_ refers to beauty or the appreciation of the beautiful, especially from the philosophic point of view. _Exquisite_ denotes the utmost perfection of the _elegant_ in minute details; we speak of an _elegant_ garment, an _exquisite_ lace. _Exquisite_ is also applied to intense keenness of any feeling; as, _exquisite_ delight; _exquisite_ pain. See BEAUTIFUL; DELICIOUS; FINE.

Antonyms:

clumsy, displeasing, grotesque, inartistic, rough, coarse, distasteful, harsh, inharmonious, rude, deformed, fulsome, hideous, meretricious, rugged, disgusting, gaudy, horrid, offensive, tawdry.

* * * * *

TEACH.

Synonyms:

discipline, give instruction, inform, nurture, drill, give lessons, initiate, school, educate, inculcate, instill, train, enlighten, indoctrinate, instruct, tutor.

To _teach_ is simply to communicate knowledge; to _instruct_ (originally, to build in or into, put in order) is to impart knowledge with special method and completeness; _instruct_ has also an authoritative sense nearly equivalent to command. To _educate_ is to draw out or develop harmoniously the mental powers, and, in the fullest sense, the moral powers as well. To _train_ is to direct to a certain result powers already existing. _Train_ is used in preference to _educate_ when the reference is to the inferior animals or to the physical powers of man; as, to _train_ a horse; to _train_ the hand or eye. To _discipline_ is to bring into habitual and complete subjection to authority; _discipline_ is a severe word, and is often used as a euphemism for _punish_; to be thoroughly effective in war, soldiers must be _disciplined_ as well as _trained_. To _nurture_ is to furnish the care and sustenance necessary for physical, mental, and moral growth; _nurture_ is a more tender and homelike word than _educate_. Compare EDUCATION.

* * * * *

TEMERITY.

Synonyms:

audacity, heedlessness, presumption, foolhardiness, over-confidence, rashness, hardihood, precipitancy, recklessness, hastiness, precipitation, venturesomeness.

_Rashness_ applies to the actual rushing into danger without counting the cost; _temerity_ denotes the needless exposure of oneself to peril which is or might be clearly seen to be such. _Rashness_ is used chiefly of bodily acts, _temerity_ often of mental or social matters; there may be a noble _rashness_, but _temerity_ is always used in a bad sense. We say it is amazing that one should have had the _temerity_ to make a statement which could be readily proved a falsehood, or to make an unworthy proposal to one sure to resent it; in such use _temerity_ is often closely allied to _hardihood_, _audacity_, or _presumption_. _Venturesomeness_ dallies on the edge of danger and experiments with it; _foolhardiness_ rushes in for want of sense, _heedlessness_ for want of attention, _rashness_ for want of reflection, _recklessness_ from disregard of consequences. _Audacity_, in the sense here considered, denotes a dashing and somewhat reckless courage, in defiance of conventionalities, or of other men's opinions, or of what would be deemed probable consequences; as, the _audacity_ of a successful financier. Compare EFFRONTERY.

Antonyms:

care, circumspection, cowardice, hesitation, timidity, wariness. caution,

* * * * *

TERM.

Synonyms:

article, denomination, member, phrase, condition, expression, name, word.

_Term_ in its figurative uses always retains something of its literal sense of a boundary or limit. The _articles_ of a contract or other instrument are simply the portions into which it is divided for convenience; the _terms_ are the essential statements on which its validity depends--as it were, the landmarks of its meaning or power; a _condition_ is a contingent _term_ which may become fixed upon the happening of some contemplated event. In logic a _term_ is one of the essential members of a proposition, the boundary of statement in some one direction. Thus, in general use _term_ is more restricted than _word_, _expression_, or _phrase_; a _term_ is a _word_ that limits meaning to a fixed point of statement or to a special class of subjects, as when we speak of the definition of _terms_, that is of the key-_words_ in any discussion; or we say, that is a legal or scientific _term_. Compare BOUNDARY; DICTION.

* * * * *

TERSE.

Synonyms:

brief, concise, neat, short, compact, condensed, pithy, succinct. compendious, laconic, sententious,

Anything _short_ or _brief_ is of relatively small extent. That which is _concise_ (L. _con-_, with, together, and _cædo_, cut) is trimmed down, and that which is _condensed_ (L. _con-_, with, together, and _densus_, thick) is, as it were, pressed together, so as to include as much as possible within a small space. That which is _compendious_ (L. _com-_, together, and _pendo_, weigh) gathers the substance of a matter into a few words, weighty and effective. The _succinct_ (L. _succinctus_, from _sub-_, under, and _cingo_, gird; girded from below) has an alert effectiveness as if girded for action. The _summary_ is compacted to the utmost, often to the point of abruptness; as, we speak of a _summary_ statement or a _summary_ dismissal. That which is _terse_ (L. _tersus_, from _tergo_, rub off) has an elegant and finished completeness within the smallest possible compass, as if rubbed or polished down to the utmost. A _sententious_ style is one abounding in sentences that are singly striking or memorable, apart from the context; the word may be used invidiously of that which is pretentiously oracular. A _pithy_ utterance gives the gist of a matter effectively, whether in rude or elegant style.

Antonyms:

diffuse, lengthy, long, prolix, tedious, verbose, wordy.

* * * * *

TESTIMONY.

Synonyms:

affidavit, attestation, deposition, proof, affirmation, certification, evidence, witness.

_Testimony_, in legal as well as in common use, signifies the statements of witnesses. _Deposition_ and _affidavit_ denote _testimony_ reduced to writing; the _deposition_ differs from the _affidavit_ in that the latter is voluntary and without cross-examination, while the former is made under interrogatories and subject to cross-examination. _Evidence_ is a broader term, including the _testimony_ of witnesses and all facts of every kind that tend to prove a thing true; we have the _testimony_ of a traveler that a fugitive passed this way; his footprints in the sand are additional _evidence_ of the fact. Compare DEMONSTRATION; OATH.

* * * * *

THEREFORE.

Synonyms:

accordingly, consequently, then, whence, because, hence, thence, wherefore.

_Therefore_, signifying for that (or this) reason, is the most precise and formal word for expressing the direct conclusion of a chain of reasoning; _then_ carries a similar but slighter sense of inference, which it gives incidentally rather than formally; as, "All men are mortal; Cæsar is a man; _therefore_ Cæsar is mortal;" or, "The contract is awarded; _then_ there is no more to be said." _Consequently_ denotes a direct result, but more frequently of a practical than a theoretic kind; as, "Important matters demand my attention; _consequently_ I shall not sail to-day." _Consequently_ is rarely used in the formal conclusions of logic or mathematics, but marks rather the freer and looser style of rhetorical argument. _Accordingly_ denotes correspondence, which may or may not be consequence; it is often used in narration; as, "The soldiers were eager and confident; _accordingly_ they sprang forward at the word of command." _Thence_ is a word of more sweeping inference than _therefore_, applying not merely to a single set of premises, but often to all that has gone before, including the reasonable inferences that have not been formally stated. _Wherefore_ is the correlative of _therefore_, and _whence_ of _hence_ or _thence_, appending the inference or conclusion to the previous statement without a break. Compare synonyms for BECAUSE.

* * * * *

THRONG.

Synonyms:

concourse, crowd, host, jam, mass, multitude, press.

A _crowd_ is a company of persons filling to excess the space they occupy and pressing inconveniently upon one another; the total number in a _crowd_ may be great or small. _Throng_ is a word of vastness and dignity, always implying that the persons are numerous as well as pressed or pressing closely together; there may be a dense _crowd_ in a small room, but there can not be a _throng_. _Host_ and _multitude_ both imply vast numbers, but a _multitude_ may be diffused over a great space so as to be nowhere a _crowd_; _host_ is a military term, and properly denotes an assembly too orderly for crowding. _Concourse_ signifies a spontaneous gathering of many persons moved by a common impulse, and has a suggestion of stateliness not found in the word _crowd_, while suggesting less massing and pressure than is indicated by the word _throng_.

* * * * *

TIME.

Synonyms:

age, duration, epoch, period, sequence, term, date, eon, era, season, succession, while.

_Sequence_ and _succession_ apply to events viewed as following one another; _time_ and _duration_ denote something conceived of as enduring while events take place and acts are done. According to the necessary conditions of human thought, events are contained in _time_ as objects are in space, _time_ existing before the event, measuring it as it passes, and still existing when the event is past. _Duration_ and _succession_ are more general words than _time_; we can speak of infinite or eternal _duration_ or _succession_, but _time_ is commonly contrasted with eternity. _Time_ is measured or measurable _duration_.

* * * * *

TIP.

Synonyms:

cant, dip, incline, list, slope, careen, heel over, lean, slant, tilt.

To _tilt_ or _tip_ is to throw out of a horizontal position by raising one side or end or lowering the other; the words are closely similar, but _tilt_ suggests more of fluctuation or instability. _Slant_ and _slope_ are said of things somewhat fixed or permanent in a position out of the horizontal or perpendicular; the roof _slants_, the hill _slopes_. _Incline_ is a more formal word for _tip_, and also for _slant_ or _slope_. To _cant_ is to set slantingly; in many cases _tip_ and _cant_ might be interchanged, but _tip_ is more temporary, often momentary; one _tips_ a pail so that the water flows over the edge; a mechanic _cants_ a table by making or setting one side higher than the other. A vessel _careens_ in the wind; _lists_, usually, from shifting of cargo, from water in the hold, etc. _Careening_ is always toward one side or the other; _listing_ may be forward or astern as well. To _heel over_ is the same as to _careen_, and must be distinguished from "keel over," which is to capsize.

* * * * *

TIRE.

Synonyms:

exhaust, fatigue, harass, jade, wear out, weary. fag,

To _tire_ is to reduce strength in any degree by exertion; one may be _tired_ just enough to make rest pleasant, or even unconsciously _tired_, becoming aware of the fact only when he ceases the exertion; or, on the other hand, he may be, according to the common phrase, "too _tired_ to stir;" but for this extreme condition the stronger words are commonly used. One who is _fatigued_ suffers from a conscious and painful lack of strength as the result of some overtaxing; an invalid may be _fatigued_ with very slight exertion; when one is _wearied_, the painful lack of strength is the result of long-continued demand or strain; one is _exhausted_ when the strain has been so severe and continuous as utterly to consume the strength, so that further exertion is for the time impossible. One is _fagged_ by drudgery; he is _jaded_ by incessant repetition of the same act until it becomes increasingly difficult or well-nigh impossible; as, a horse is _jaded_ by a long and unbroken journey.

Antonyms:

invigorate, refresh, relax, relieve, repose, rest, restore. recreate,

* * * * *

TOOL.

Synonyms:

apparatus, implement, machine, utensil, appliance, instrument, mechanism, weapon.

A _tool_ is something that is both contrived and used for extending the force of an intelligent agent to something that is to be operated upon. Those things by which pacific and industrial operations are performed are alone properly called _tools_, those designed for warlike purposes being designated _weapons_. An _instrument_ is anything through which power is applied and a result produced; in general usage, the word is of considerably wider meaning than _tool_; as, a piano is a musical _instrument_. _Instrument_ is the word usually applied to _tools_ used in scientific pursuits; as, we speak of a surgeon's or an optician's _instruments_. An _implement_ is a mechanical agency considered with reference to some specific purpose to which it is adapted; as, an agricultural _implement_; _implements_ of war. _Implement_ is a less technical and artificial term than _tool_. The paw of a tiger might be termed a terrible _implement_, but not a _tool_. A _utensil_ is that which may be used for some special purpose; the word is especially applied to articles used for domestic or agricultural purposes; as, kitchen _utensils_; farming _utensils_. An _appliance_ is that which is or may be applied to the accomplishment of a result, either independently or as subordinate to something more extensive or important; every mechanical _tool_ is an _appliance_, but not every _appliance_ is a _tool_; the traces of a harness are _appliances_ for traction, but they are not _tools_. _Mechanism_ is a word of wide meaning, denoting any combination of mechanical devices for united

## action. A _machine_ in the most general sense is any mechanical

_instrument_ for the conversion of motion; in this sense a lever is a _machine_; but in more commonly accepted usage a _machine_ is distinguished from a _tool_ by its complexity, and by the combination and coordination of powers and movements for the production of a result. A chisel by itself is a _tool_; when it is set so as to be operated by a crank and pitman, the entire _mechanism_ is called a _machine_; as, a mortising-_machine_. An _apparatus_ may be a _machine_, but the word is commonly used for a collection of distinct articles to be used in connection or combination for a certain purpose--a mechanical equipment; as, the _apparatus_ of a gymnasium; especially, for a collection of _appliances_ for some scientific purpose; as, a chemical or surgical _apparatus_; an _apparatus_ may include many _tools_, _instruments_, or _implements_. _Implement_ is for the most part and _utensil_ is altogether restricted to the literal sense; _instrument_, _machine_, and _tool_ have figurative use, _instrument_ being used largely in a good, _tool_ always in a bad sense; _machine_ inclines to the unfavorable sense, as implying that human agents are made mechanically subservient to some controlling will; as, an _instrument_ of Providence; the _tool_ of a tyrant; a political _machine_.

* * * * *

TOPIC.

Synonyms:

division, issue, motion, proposition, subject, head, matter, point, question, theme.

A _topic_ (Gr. _topos_, place) is a _head_ of discourse. Since a _topic_ for discussion is often stated in the form of a _question_, _question_ has come to be extensively used to denote a debatable _topic_, especially of a practical nature--an _issue_; as, the labor _question_; the temperance _question_. In deliberative assemblies a _proposition_ presented or moved for acceptance is called a _motion_, and such a _motion_ or other matter for consideration is known as the _question_, since it is or may be stated in interrogative form to be answered by each member with a vote of "aye" or "no;" a member is required to speak to the _question_; the chairman puts the _question_. In speaking or writing the general _subject_ or _theme_ may be termed the _topic_, tho it is more usual to apply the latter term to the subordinate _divisions_, _points_, or _heads_ of discourse; as, to enlarge on this _topic_ would carry me too far from my _subject_; a pleasant drive will suggest many _topics_ for conversation.

* * * * *

TRACE.

Synonyms:

footmark, impression, remains, token, trail, footprint, mark, remnant, track, vestige. footstep, memorial, sign,

A _memorial_ is that which is intended or fitted to bring to remembrance something that has passed away; it may be vast and stately. On the other hand, a slight _token_ of regard may be a cherished _memorial_ of a friend; either a concrete object or an observance may be a _memorial_. A _vestige_ is always slight compared with that whose existence it recalls; as, scattered mounds containing implements, weapons, etc., are _vestiges_ of a former civilization. A _vestige_ is always a part of that which has passed away; a _trace_ may be merely the _mark_ made by something that has been present or passed by, and that is still existing, or some slight evidence of its presence or of the effect it has produced; as, _traces_ of game were observed by the hunter. Compare CHARACTERISTIC.

* * * * *

TRANSACT.

Synonyms:

accomplish, carry on, do, perform, act, conduct, negotiate, treat.

There are many acts that one may _do_, _accomplish_, or _perform_ unaided; what he _transacts_ is by means of or in association with others; one may _do_ a duty, _perform_ a vow, _accomplish_ a task, but he _transacts_ business, since that always involves the agency of others. To _negotiate_ and to _treat_ are likewise collective acts, but both these words lay stress upon deliberation with adjustment of mutual claims and interests; _transact_, while it may depend upon previous deliberation, states execution only. Notes, bills of exchange, loans, and treaties are said to be _negotiated_, the word so used covering not merely the preliminary consideration, but the final settlement. _Negotiate_ has more reference to execution than _treat_; nations may _treat_ of peace without result, but when a treaty is _negotiated_, peace is secured; the citizens of the two nations are then free to _transact_ business with one another. Compare DO.

* * * * *

TRANSACTION.

Synonyms:

act, action, affair, business, deed, doing, proceeding.

One's _acts_ or _deeds_ may be exclusively his own; his _transactions_ involve the agency or participation of others. A _transaction_ is something completed; a _proceeding_ is or is viewed as something in progress; but since _transaction_ is often used to include the steps leading to the conclusion, while _proceedings_ may result in _action_, the dividing line between the two words becomes sometimes quite faint, tho _transaction_ often emphasizes the fact of something done, or brought to a conclusion. Both _transactions_ and _proceedings_ are used of the records of a deliberative body, especially when published; strictly used, the two are distinguished; as, the Philosophical _Transactions_ of the Royal Society of London give in full the papers read; the _Proceedings_ of the American Philological Association give in full the _business_ done, with mere abstracts of or extracts from the papers read. Compare ACT; BUSINESS.

* * * * *

TRANSCENDENTAL.

Synonyms:

a priori, intuitive, original, primordial, transcendent.

_Intuitive_ truths are those which are in the mind independently of all experience, not being derived from experience nor limited by it, as that the whole is greater than a part, or that things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another. All _intuitive_ truths or beliefs are _transcendental_. But _transcendental_ is a wider term than _intuitive_, including all within the limits of thought that is not derived from experience, as the ideas of space and time. "Being is _transcendental_.... As being can not be included under any genus, but transcends them all, so the properties or affections of being have also been called _transcendental_." K.-F. _Vocab. Philos._ p. 530. "_Transcendent_ he [Kant] employed to denote what is wholly beyond experience, being neither given as an a posteriori nor _a priori_ element of cognition--what therefore transcends every category of thought." K.-F. _Vocab. Philos._ p. 531. _Transcendental_ has been applied in the language of the Emersonian school to the soul's supposed _intuitive_ knowledge of things divine and human, so far as they are capable of being known to man. Compare MYSTERIOUS.

* * * * *

TRANSIENT.

Synonyms:

brief, fleeting, fugitive, short, ephemeral, flitting, momentary, temporary, evanescent, flying, passing, transitory.

_Transient_ and _transitory_ are both derived from the same original source (L. _trans_, over, and _eo_, go), denoting that which quickly passes or is passing away, but there is between them a fine shade of difference. A thing is _transient_ which in fact is not lasting; a thing is _transitory_ which by its very nature must soon pass away; a thing is _temporary_ (L. _tempus_, time) which is intended to last or be made use of but a little while; as, a _transient_ joy; this _transitory_ life; a _temporary_ chairman. _Ephemeral_ (Gr. _epi_, on, and _hemera_, day) literally lasting but for a day, often marks more strongly than _transient_ exceeding brevity of duration; it agrees with _transitory_ in denoting that its object is destined to pass away, but is stronger, as denoting not only its certain but its speedy extinction; thus that which is _ephemeral_ is looked upon as at once slight and perishable, and the word carries often a suggestion of contempt; man's life is _transitory_, a butterfly's existence is _ephemeral_; with no solid qualities or worthy achievements a pretender may sometimes gain an _ephemeral_ popularity. That which is _fleeting_ is viewed as in the act of passing swiftly by, and that which is _fugitive_ (L. _fugio_, flee) as eluding attempts to detain it; that which is _evanescent_ (L. _evanesco_, from _e_, out, and _vanus_, empty, vain) as in the act of vanishing even while we gaze, as the hues of the sunset.

Antonyms:

abiding, eternal, immortal, lasting, perpetual, undying, enduring, everlasting, imperishable, permanent, persistent, unfading.

* * * * *

UNION.

Synonyms:

coalition, conjunction, juncture, unification, combination, junction, oneness, unity.

_Unity_ is _oneness_, the state of being one, especially of that which never has been divided or of that which can not be conceived of as resolved into parts; as, the _unity_ of God or the _unity_ of the human soul. _Union_ is a bringing together of things that have been distinct, so that they combine or coalesce to form a new whole, or the state or condition of things thus brought together; in a _union_ the separate individuality of the things united is never lost sight of; we speak of the _union_ of the parts of a fractured bone or of the _union_ of hearts in marriage. But _unity_ can be said of that which is manifestly or even conspicuously made up of parts, when a single purpose or ideal is so subserved by all that their possible separateness is lost sight of; as, we speak of the _unity_ of the human body, or of the _unity_ of the church. Compare ALLIANCE; ASSOCIATION; ATTACHMENT; HARMONY; MARRIAGE.

Antonyms:

analysis, disconnection, disunion, divorce, separation, contrariety, disjunction, division, schism, severance. decomposition, dissociation,

* * * * *

USUAL.

Synonyms:

accustomed, everyday, general, ordinary, public, common, familiar, habitual, prevailing, regular, customary, frequent, normal, prevalent, wonted.

_Usual_ (L. _usus_, use, habit, wont) signifies such as regularly or often recurs in the ordinary course of events, or is habitually repeated in the life of the same person. _Ordinary_ (L. _ordo_, order) signifies according to an established order, hence of _everyday_ occurrence. In strictness, _common_ and _general_ apply to the greater number of individuals in a class; but both words are in good use as applying to the greater number of instances in a series, so that it is possible to speak of one person's _common_ practise or _general_ custom, tho _ordinary_ or _usual_ would in such case be preferable. Compare GENERAL; NORMAL.

Antonyms:

exceptional, infrequent, rare, strange, unparalleled, extraordinary, out-of-the-way, singular, uncommon, unusual.

* * * * *

UTILITY.

Synonyms:

advantage, expediency, serviceableness, avail, profit, use, benefit, service, usefulness.

_Utility_ (L. _utilis_, useful) signifies primarily the quality of being useful, but is somewhat more abstract and philosophical than _usefulness_ or _use_, and is often employed to denote adaptation to produce a valuable result, while _usefulness_ denotes the actual production of such result. We contrast beauty and _utility_. We say of an invention, its _utility_ is questionable, or, on the other hand, its _usefulness_ has been proved by ample trial, or I have found it of _use_; still, _utility_ and _usefulness_ are frequently interchanged. _Expediency_ (L. _ex_, out, and _pes_, foot; literally, the getting the foot out) refers primarily to escape from or avoidance of some difficulty or trouble; either _expediency_ or _utility_ may be used to signify _profit_ or _advantage_ considered apart from right as the ground of moral obligation, or of actions that have a moral character, _expediency_ denoting immediate _advantage_ on a contracted view, and especially with reference to avoiding danger, difficulty, or loss, while _utility_ may be so broadened as to cover all existence through all time, as in the utilitarian theory of morals. _Policy_ is often used in a kindred sense, more positive than _expediency_ but narrower than _utility_, as in the proverb, "Honesty is the best _policy_." Compare PROFIT.

Antonyms:

disadvantage, futility, inadequacy, inutility, uselessness, folly, impolicy, inexpediency, unprofitableness, worthlessness.

* * * * *

VACANT.

Synonyms:

blank, leisure, unfilled, untenanted, void, empty, unemployed, unoccupied, vacuous, waste.

That is _empty_ which contains nothing; that is _vacant_ which is without that which has filled or might be expected to fill it; _vacant_ has extensive reference to rights or possibilities of occupancy. A _vacant_ room may not be _empty_, and an _empty_ house may not be _vacant_. _Vacant_, as derived from the Latin, is applied to things of some dignity; _empty_, from the Saxon, is preferred in speaking of slight, common, or homely matters, tho it may be applied with special force to the highest; we speak of _empty_ space, a _vacant_ lot, an _empty_ dish, an _empty_ sleeve, a _vacant_ mind, an _empty_ heart, an _empty_ boast, a _vacant_ office, a _vacant_ or _leisure_ hour. _Void_ and _devoid_ are rarely used in the literal sense, but for the most part confined to abstract relations, _devoid_ being followed by _of_, and having with that addition the effect of a prepositional phrase; as, the article is _devoid of_ sense; the contract is _void_ for want of consideration. _Waste_, in this connection, applies to that which is made so by devastation or ruin, or gives an impression of desolation, especially as combined with vastness, probably from association of the words _waste_ and vast: _waste_ is applied also to uncultivated or unproductive land, if of considerable extent; we speak of a _waste_ track or region, but not of a _waste_ city lot. _Vacuous_ refers to the condition of being _empty_ or _vacant_, regarded as continuous or characteristic.

Antonyms:

brimful, busy, filled, inhabited, overflowing, brimmed, crammed, full, jammed, packed, brimming, crowded, gorged, occupied, replete.

* * * * *

VAIN.

Synonyms:

abortive, futile, shadowy, unsatisfying, baseless, idle, trifling, unserviceable, bootless, inconstant, trivial, unsubstantial, deceitful, ineffectual, unavailing, useless, delusive, nugatory, unimportant, vapid, empty, null, unprofitable, visionary, fruitless, profitless, unreal, worthless.

_Vain_ (L. _vanus_, empty) keeps the etymological idea through all changes of meaning; a _vain_ endeavor is _empty_ of result, or of adequate power to produce a result, a _vain_ pretension is _empty_ or destitute of support, a _vain_ person has a conceit that is _empty_ or destitute of adequate cause or reason. That which is _bootless_, _fruitless_, or _profitless_ fails to accomplish any valuable result; that which is _abortive_, _ineffectual_, or _unavailing_ fails to accomplish a result that it was, or was supposed to be, adapted to accomplish. That which is _useless_, _futile_, or _vain_ is inherently incapable of accomplishing a specified result. _Useless_, in the widest sense, signifies not of use for any valuable purpose, and is thus closely similar to _valueless_ and _worthless_. _Fruitless_ is more final than _ineffectual_, as applying to the sum or harvest of endeavor. That which is _useless_ lacks actual fitness for a purpose; that which is _vain_ lacks imaginable fitness. Compare VACANT; OSTENTATION; PRIDE.

Antonyms:

adequate, effective, powerful, solid, useful, advantageous, efficient, profitable, sound, valid, beneficial, expedient, real, substantial, valuable, competent, potent, serviceable, sufficient, worthy.

Compare synonyms for UTILITY.

* * * * *

VENAL.

Synonyms:

hireling, mercenary, purchasable, salable.

_Venal_ (L. _venalis_, from _venum_, sale) signifies ready to sell one's influence, vote, or efforts for money or other consideration; _mercenary_ (L. _mercenarius_, from _merces_, pay, reward) signifies influenced chiefly or only by desire for gain or reward; thus, etymologically, the _mercenary_ can be hired, while the _venal_ are openly or actually for sale; _hireling_ (AS. _hyrling_, from _hyr_) signifies serving for hire or pay, or having the spirit or character of one who works or of that which is done directly for hire or pay. _Mercenary_ has especial application to character or disposition; as, a _mercenary_ spirit; _mercenary_ motives--_i. e._, a spirit or motives to which money is the chief consideration or the moving principle. The _hireling_, the _mercenary_, and the _venal_ are alike in making principle, conscience, and honor of less account than gold or sordid considerations; but the _mercenary_ and _venal_ may be simply open to the bargain and sale which the _hireling_ has already consummated; a clergyman may be _mercenary_ in making place and pay of undue importance while not _venal_ enough to forsake his own communion for another for any reward that could be offered him. The _mercenary_ may retain much show of independence; _hireling_ service sacrifices self-respect as well as principle; a public officer who makes his office tributary to private speculation in which he is interested is _mercenary_; if he receives a stipulated recompense for administering his office at the behest of some leader, faction, corporation, or the like, he is both _hireling_ and _venal_; if he gives essential advantages for pay, without subjecting himself to any direct domination, his course is _venal_, but not _hireling_. Compare PAY; VENIAL.

Antonyms:

disinterested, honest, incorruptible, public-spirited, generous, honorable, patriotic, unpurchasable.

* * * * *

VENERATE.

Synonyms:

adore, honor, respect, revere, reverence.

In the highest sense, to _revere_ or _reverence_ is to hold in mingled love and honor with something of sacred fear, as for that which while lovely is sublimely exalted and brings upon us by contrast a sense of our unworthiness or inferiority; to _revere_ is a wholly spiritual act; to _reverence_ is often, tho not necessarily, to give outward expression to the reverential feeling; we _revere_ or _reverence_ the divine majesty. _Revere_ is a stronger word than _reverence_ or _venerate_. To _venerate_ is to hold in exalted honor without fear, and is applied to objects less removed from ourselves than those we _revere_, being said especially of aged persons, of places or objects having sacred associations, and of abstractions; we _venerate_ an aged pastor, the dust of heroes or martyrs, lofty virtue or self-sacrifice, or some great cause, as that of civil or religious liberty; we do not _venerate_ God, but _revere_ or _reverence_ him. We _adore_ with a humble yet free outflowing of soul. Compare VENERATION.

Antonyms:

contemn, detest, dishonor, scoff at, slight, despise, disdain, disregard, scorn, spurn.

* * * * *

VENERATION.

Synonyms:

adoration, awe, dread, reverence.

_Awe_ is inspired by that in which there is sublimity or majesty so overwhelming as to awaken a feeling akin to fear; in _awe_, considered by itself, there is no element of esteem or affection, tho the sense of vastness, power, or grandeur in the object is always present. _Dread_ is a shrinking apprehension or expectation of possible harm awakened by any one of many objects or causes, from that which is overwhelmingly vast and mighty to that which is productive of momentary physical pain; in its higher uses _dread_ approaches the meaning of _awe_, but with more of chilliness and cowering, and without that subjection of soul to the grandeur and worthiness of the object that is involved in _awe_. _Awe_ is preoccupied with the object that inspires it; _dread_ with apprehension of personal consequences. _Reverence_ and _veneration_ are less overwhelming than _awe_ or _dread_, and suggest something of esteem, affection, and personal nearness. We may feel _awe_ of that which we can not _reverence_, as a grandly terrible ocean storm; _awe_ of the divine presence is more distant and less trustful than _reverence_. _Veneration_ is commonly applied to things which are not subjects of _awe_. _Adoration_, in its full sense, is loftier than _veneration_, less restrained and awed than _reverence_, and with more of the spirit of direct, active, and joyful worship. Compare ESTEEM; VENERATE.

Antonyms:

contempt, disdain, dishonor, disregard, scorn.

* * * * *

VENIAL.

Synonyms:

excusable, pardonable, slight, trivial.

_Venial_ (L. _venia_, pardon) signifies capable of being pardoned, and, in common use, capable of being readily pardoned, easily overlooked. Aside from its technical ecclesiastical use, _venial_ is always understood as marking some fault comparatively _slight_ or _trivial_. A _venial_ offense is one readily overlooked; a _pardonable_ offense requires more serious consideration, but on deliberation is found to be susceptible of pardon. _Excusable_ is scarcely applied to offenses, but to matters open to doubt or criticism rather than direct censure; so used, it often falls little short of justifiable; as, I think, under those circumstances, his action was _excusable_. Protestants do not recognize the distinction between _venial_ and mortal sins. _Venial_ must not be confounded with the very different word VENAL. Compare VENAL.

Antonyms:

inexcusable, inexpiable, mortal, unpardonable, unjustifiable.

* * * * *

VERACITY.

Synonyms:

candor, honesty, reality, truthfulness, frankness, ingenuousness, truth, verity.

_Truth_ is primarily and _verity_ is always a quality of thought or speech, especially of speech, as in exact conformity to fact. _Veracity_ is properly a quality of a person, the habit of speaking and the disposition to speak the _truth_; a habitual liar may on some occasions speak the _truth_, but that does not constitute him a man of _veracity_; on the other hand, a person of undoubted _veracity_ may state (through ignorance or misinformation) what is not the _truth_. _Truthfulness_ is a quality that may inhere either in a person or in his statements or beliefs. _Candor_, _frankness_, _honesty_, and _ingenuousness_ are allied with _veracity_, and _verity_ with _truth_, while _truthfulness_ may accord with either. _Truth_ in a secondary sense may be applied to intellectual action or moral character, in the former case becoming a close synonym of _veracity_; as, I know him to be a man of _truth_.

Antonyms:

deceit, duplicity, falsehood, fiction, lie, deception, error, falseness, guile, mendacity, delusion, fabrication, falsity, imposture, untruth.

Compare synonyms for DECEPTION.

* * * * *

VERBAL.

Synonyms:

literal, oral, vocal.

_Oral_ (L. _os_, the mouth) signifies uttered through the mouth or (in common phrase) by word of mouth; _verbal_ (L. _verbum_, a word) signifies of, pertaining to, or connected with words, especially with words as distinguished from the ideas they convey; _vocal_ (L. _vox_, the voice) signifies of or pertaining to the voice, uttered or modulated by the voice, and especially uttered with or sounding with full, resonant voice; _literal_ (L. _litera_, a letter) signifies consisting of or expressed by letters, or according to the letter, in the broader sense of the exact meaning or requirement of the words used; what is called "the letter of the law" is its _literal_ meaning without going behind what is expressed by the letters on the page. Thus _oral_ applies to that which is given by spoken words in distinction from that which is written or printed; as, _oral_ tradition; an _oral_ examination. By this rule we should in strictness speak of an _oral_ contract or an _oral_ message, but _verbal_ contract and _verbal_ message, as indicating that which is by spoken rather than by written words, have become so fixed in the language that they can probably never be changed; this usage is also in line with other idioms of the language; as, "I give you my _word_," "a true man's _word_ is as good as his bond," "by _word_ of mouth," etc. A _verbal_ translation may be _oral_ or written, so that it is word for word; a _literal_ translation follows the construction and idiom of the original as well as the words; a _literal_ translation is more than one that is merely _verbal_; both _verbal_ and _literal_ are opposed to _free_. In the same sense, of attending to words only, we speak of _verbal_ criticism, a _verbal_ change. _Vocal_ has primary reference to the human voice; as, _vocal_ sounds, _vocal_ music; _vocal_ may be applied within certain limits to inarticulate sounds given forth by other animals than man; as, the woods were _vocal_ with the songs of birds; _oral_ is never so applied, but is limited to articulate utterance regarded as having a definite meaning; as, an _oral_ statement.

* * * * *

VICTORY.

Synonyms:

achievement, conquest, success, triumph. advantage, mastery, supremacy,

_Victory_ is the state resulting from the overcoming of an opponent or opponents in any contest, or from the overcoming of difficulties, obstacles, evils, etc., considered as opponents or enemies. In the latter sense any hard-won _achievement_, _advantage_, or _success_ may be termed a _victory_. In _conquest_ and _mastery_ there is implied a permanence of state that is not implied in _victory_. _Triumph_, originally denoting the public rejoicing in honor of a _victory_, has come to signify also a peculiarly exultant, complete, and glorious _victory_. Compare CONQUER.

Antonyms:

defeat, disappointment, failure, miscarriage, retreat, destruction, disaster, frustration, overthrow, rout.

* * * * *

VIGILANT.

Synonyms:

alert, cautious, on the lookout, wary, awake, circumspect, sleepless, watchful, careful, on the alert, wakeful, wide-awake.

_Vigilant_ implies more sustained activity and more intelligent volition than _alert_; one may be habitually _alert_ by reason of native quickness of perception and thought, or one may be momentarily _alert_ under some excitement or expectancy; one who is _vigilant_ is so with thoughtful purpose. One is _vigilant_ against danger or harm; he may be _alert_ or _watchful_ for good as well as against evil; he is _wary_ in view of suspected stratagem, trickery, or treachery. A person may be _wakeful_ because of some merely physical excitement or excitability, as through insomnia; yet he may be utterly careless and negligent in his wakefulness, the reverse of _watchful_; a person who is truly _watchful_ must keep himself _wakeful_ while on watch, in which case _wakeful_ has something of mental quality. _Watchful_, from the Saxon, and _vigilant_, from the Latin, are almost exact equivalents; but _vigilant_ has somewhat more of sharp definiteness and somewhat more suggestion of volition; one may be habitually _watchful_; one is _vigilant_ of set purpose and for direct cause, as in the presence of an enemy. Compare ALERT.

Antonyms:

careless, heedless, inconsiderate, oblivious, drowsy, inattentive, neglectful, thoughtless, dull, incautious, negligent, unwary.

* * * * *

VIRTUE.

Synonyms:

chastity, honesty, probity, truth, duty, honor, purity, uprightness, excellence, integrity, rectitude, virtuousness, faithfulness, justice, righteousness, worth, goodness, morality, rightness, worthiness.

_Virtue_ (L. _virtus_, primarily manly strength or courage, from _vir_, a man, a hero) is, in its full sense, _goodness_ that is victorious through trial, perhaps through temptation and conflict. _Goodness_, the being morally good, may be much less than _virtue_, as lacking the strength that comes from trial and conflict, or it may be very much more than _virtue_, as rising sublimely above the possibility of temptation and conflict--the infantile as contrasted with the divine _goodness_. _Virtue_ is distinctively human; we do not predicate it of God. _Morality_ is conformity to the moral law in action, whether in matters concerning ourselves or others, whether with or without right principle. _Honesty_ and _probity_ are used especially of one's relations to his fellow men, _probity_ being to _honesty_ much what _virtue_ in some respects is to _goodness_; _probity_ is _honesty_ tried and proved, especially in those things that are beyond the reach of legal requirement; above the commercial sense, _honesty_ may be applied to the highest truthfulness of the soul to and with itself and its Maker. _Integrity_, in the full sense, is moral wholeness without a flaw; when used, as it often is, of contracts and dealings, it has reference to inherent character and principle, and denotes much more than superficial or conventional _honesty_. _Honor_ is a lofty _honesty_ that scorns fraud or wrong as base and unworthy of itself. _Honor_ rises far above thought of the motto that "_honesty_ is the best policy." _Purity_ is freedom from all admixture, especially of that which debases; it is _chastity_ both of heart and life, but of the life because from the heart. _Duty_, the rendering of what is due to any person or in any relation, is, in this connection, the fulfilment of moral obligation. _Rectitude_ and _righteousness_ denote conformity to the standard of right, whether in heart or act; _righteousness_ is used especially in the religious sense. _Uprightness_ refers especially to conduct. _Virtuousness_ is a quality of the soul or of action; in the latter sense it is the essence of virtuous action. Compare INNOCENT; JUSTICE; RELIGION.

Antonyms:

evil, vice, viciousness, wickedness, wrong.

Compare synonyms for SIN.

* * * * *

WANDER.

Synonyms:

deviate, diverge, go astray, range, rove, swerve, digress, err, ramble, roam, stray, veer.

To _wander_ (AS. _windan_, wind) is to move in an indefinite or indeterminate way which may or may not be a departure from a prescribed way; to _deviate_ (L. _de_, from, and _via_, a way) is to turn from a prescribed or right way, physically, mentally, or morally, usually in an unfavorable sense; to _diverge_ (L. _di_, apart, and _vergo_, incline, tend) is to turn from a course previously followed or that something else follows, and has no unfavorable implication; to _digress_ (L. _di_, apart, aside, and _gradior_, step) is used only with reference to speaking or writing; to _err_ is used of intellectual or moral action, and of the moral with primary reference to the intellectual, an error being viewed as in some degree due to ignorance. _Range_, _roam_, and _rove_ imply the traversing of considerable, often of vast, distances of land or sea; _range_ commonly implies a purpose; as, cattle _range_ for food; a hunting-dog _ranges_ a field for game. _Roam_ and _rove_ are often purposeless, and always without definite aim. To _swerve_ or _veer_ is to turn suddenly from a prescribed or previous course, and often but momentarily; _veer_ is more capricious and repetitious; the horse _swerves_ at the flash of a sword; the wind _veers_; the ship _veers_ with the wind. To _stray_ is to go in a somewhat purposeless way aside from the regular path or usual limits or abode, usually with unfavorable implication; cattle _stray_ from their pastures; an author _strays_ from his subject; one _strays_ from the path of virtue. _Stray_ is in most uses a lighter word than _wander_. _Ramble_, in its literal use, is always a word of pleasant suggestion, but in its figurative use always somewhat contemptuous; as, _rambling_ talk.

* * * * *

WAY.

Synonyms:

alley, course, lane, path, route, avenue, driveway, pass, pathway, street, bridle-path, highroad, passage, road, thoroughfare, channel, highway, passageway, roadway, track.

Wherever there is room for one object to pass another there is a _way_. A _road_ (originally a ride_way_) is a prepared _way_ for traveling with horses or vehicles, always the latter unless the contrary is expressly stated; a _way_ suitable to be traversed only by foot-passengers or by animals is called a _path_, _bridle-path_, or _track_; as, the _roads_ in that country are mere _bridle-paths_. A _road_ may be private; a _highway_ or _highroad_ is public, _highway_ being a specific name for a _road_ legally set apart for the use of the public forever; a _highway_ may be over water as well as over land. A _route_ is a line of travel, and may be over many _roads_. A _street_ is in some center of habitation, as a city, town, or village; when it passes between rows of dwellings the country _road_ becomes the village _street_. An _avenue_ is a long, broad, and imposing or principal street. _Track_ is a word of wide signification; we speak of a goat-_track_ on a mountain-side, a railroad-_track_, a race-_track_, the _track_ of a comet; on a traveled _road_ the line worn by regular passing of hoofs and wheels in either direction is called the _track_. A _passage_ is between any two objects or lines of enclosure, a _pass_ commonly between mountains. A _driveway_ is within enclosed grounds, as of a private residence. A _channel_ is a water_way_. A _thoroughfare_ is a _way_ through; a _road_ or _street_ temporarily or permanently closed at any point ceases for such time to be a _thoroughfare_. Compare AIR; DIRECTION.

* * * * *

WISDOM.

Synonyms:

attainment, insight, prudence, depth, judgment, reason, discernment, judiciousness, reasonableness, discretion, knowledge, sagacity, enlightenment, learning, sense, erudition, prescience, skill, foresight, profundity, understanding. information,

_Enlightenment_, _erudition_, _information_, _knowledge_, _learning_, and _skill_ are acquired, as by study or practise. _Insight_, _judgment_, _profundity_ or _depth_, _reason_, _sagacity_, _sense_, and _understanding_ are native qualities of mind, tho capable of increase by cultivation. The other qualities are on the border-line. _Wisdom_ has been defined as "the right use of _knowledge_," or "the use of the most important means for attaining the best ends," _wisdom_ thus presupposing _knowledge_ for its very existence and exercise. _Wisdom_ is mental power acting upon the materials that fullest _knowledge_ gives in the most effective way. There may be what is termed "practical _wisdom_" that looks only to material results; but in its full sense, _wisdom_ implies the highest and noblest exercise of all the faculties of the moral nature as well as of the intellect. _Prudence_ is a lower and more negative form of the same virtue, respecting outward and practical matters, and largely with a view of avoiding loss and injury; _wisdom_ transcends _prudence_, so that while the part of _prudence_ is ordinarily also that of _wisdom_, cases arise, as in the exigencies of business or of war, when the highest _wisdom_ is in the disregard of the maxims of _prudence_. _Judgment_, the power of forming decisions, especially correct decisions, is broader and more positive than _prudence_, leading one to do, as readily as to refrain from doing; but _judgment_ is more limited in range and less exalted in character than _wisdom_; to say of one that he displayed good _judgment_ is much less than to say that he manifested _wisdom_. _Skill_ is far inferior to _wisdom_, consisting largely in the practical application of acquired _knowledge_, power, and habitual processes, or in the ingenious contrivance that makes such application possible. In the making of something perfectly useless there may be great _skill_, but no _wisdom_. Compare ACUMEN; ASTUTE; KNOWLEDGE; MIND; PRUDENCE; SAGACIOUS; SKILFUL.

Antonyms:

absurdity, folly, imbecility, miscalculation, senselessness, error, foolishness, imprudence, misjudgment, silliness, fatuity, idiocy, indiscretion, nonsense, stupidity.

Compare synonyms for ABSURD; IDIOCY.

* * * * *

WIT.

Synonyms:

banter, fun, joke, waggery, burlesque, humor, playfulness, waggishness, drollery, jest, pleasantry, witticism. facetiousness, jocularity, raillery,

_Wit_ is the quick perception of unusual or commonly unperceived analogies or relations between things apparently unrelated, and has been said to depend upon a union of surprise and pleasure; it depends certainly on the production of a diverting, entertaining, or merrymaking surprise. The analogies with which _wit_ plays are often superficial or artificial; _humor_ deals with real analogies of an amusing or entertaining kind, or with traits of character that are seen to have a comical side as soon as brought to view. _Wit_ is keen, sudden, brief, and sometimes severe; _humor_ is deep, thoughtful, sustained, and always kindly. _Pleasantry_ is lighter and less vivid than _wit_. _Fun_ denotes the merry results produced by _wit_ and _humor_, or by any fortuitous occasion of mirth, and is pronounced and often hilarious.

Antonyms:

dulness, seriousness, sobriety, solemnity, stolidity, stupidity. gravity,

* * * * *

WORK.

Synonyms:

achievement, doing, labor, product,

## action, drudgery, occupation, production,

business, employment, performance, toil. deed, exertion.

_Work_ is the generic term for any continuous application of energy toward an end; _work_ may be hard or easy. _Labor_ is hard and wearying _work_; _toil_ is straining and exhausting _work_. _Work_ is also used for any result of working, physical or mental, and has special senses, as in mechanics, which _labor_ and _toil_ do not share. _Drudgery_ is plodding, irksome, and often menial _work_. Compare ACT; BUSINESS.

Antonyms:

ease, leisure, recreation, relaxation, repose, rest, vacation. idleness,

* * * * *

YET.

Synonyms:

besides, further, hitherto, now, still, thus far.

_Yet_ and _still_ have many closely related senses, and, with verbs of past time, are often interchangeable; we may say "while he was _yet_ a child," or "while he was _still_ a child." _Yet_, like _still_, often applies to past action or state extending to and including the present time, especially when joined with _as_; we can say "he is feeble _as yet_," or "he is _still_ feeble," with scarcely appreciable difference of meaning, except that the former statement implies somewhat more of expectation than the latter. _Yet_ with a negative applies to completed

## action, often replacing a positive statement with _still_; "he is not

gone _yet_" is nearly the same as "he is here _still_." _Yet_ has a reference to the future which _still_ does not share; "we may be successful _yet_" implies that success may begin at some future time; "we may be successful _still_" implies that we may continue to enjoy in the future such success as we are winning now.

* * * * *

YOUTHFUL.

Synonyms:

adolescent, callow, childlike, immature, puerile, boyish, childish, girlish, juvenile, young.

_Boyish_, _childish_, and _girlish_ are used in a good sense of those to whom they properly belong, but in a bad sense of those from whom more maturity is to be expected; _childish_ eagerness or glee is pleasing in a child, but unbecoming in a man; _puerile_ in modern use is distinctly contemptuous. _Juvenile_ and _youthful_ are commonly used in a favorable and kindly sense in their application to those still _young_; _youthful_ in the sense of having the characteristics of youth, hence fresh, vigorous, light-hearted, buoyant, may have a favorable import as applied to any age, as when we say the old man still retains his _youthful_ ardor, vigor, or hopefulness; _juvenile_ in such use would belittle the statement. _Young_ is distinctively applied to those in the early stage of life or not arrived at maturity. Compare NEW.

Antonyms:

Compare synonyms for OLD.

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER.

The following exercises have been prepared expressly and solely to accompany the preceding text in which the distinctions of synonyms have been carefully pointed out. It is not expected, intended, or desired that the questions should be answered or the blanks in the examples supplied offhand. In such study nothing can be worse than guesswork. Hence, leading questions have been avoided, and the order of synonyms given in Part I . has frequently been departed from or reversed in Part II .

To secure the study of