CHAPTER VI

. CONCERNING THE SENSITIVE FACULTY OF MATTER.

We have spoken of two essential attributes of matter, upon which depend the greater number of its properties, namely extension and moving force. We have now but to prove a third attribute: I mean the faculty of feeling which the philosophers of all centuries have found in this same substance. I say all philosophers, although I am not ignorant of all the efforts which the Cartesians have made, in vain, to rob matter of this faculty. But in order to avoid insurmountable difficulties, they have flung themselves into a labyrinth from which they have thought to escape by this absurd system "that animals are pure machines."{89}

An opinion so absurd has never gained admittance among philosophers, except as the play of wit or as a philosophical pastime. For this reason we shall not stop to refute it. Experience gives us no less proof of the faculty of feeling in animals than of feeling in men....

There comes up another difficulty which more nearly concerns our vanity: namely, the impossibility of our conceiving this property as a dependence or attribute of matter. Let it not be forgotten that this substance reveals to us only ineffable characters. Do we understand better how extension is derived from its essence, how it can be moved by a primitive force whose action is exerted without contact, and a thousand other miracles so hidden from the gaze of the most penetrating eyes, that (to paraphrase the idea of an illustrious modern writer) they reveal only the curtain which conceals them?

But might not one suppose as some have supposed, that the feeling which is observed in animated bodies, might belong to a being distinct from the matter of these bodies, to a substance of a different nature united to them? Does the light of reason allow us in good faith to admit such conjectures? We know in bodies only matter, and we observe the faculty of feeling only in bodies: on what foundation then can we erect an ideal being, disowned by all our knowledge?

However, we must admit, with the same frankness, that we are ignorant whether matter has in itself the faculty of feeling, or only the power of acquiring it by those modifications or forms to which matter is susceptible; for it is true that this faculty of feeling appears only in organic bodies.

This is then another new faculty which might exist only potentially in matter, like all the others which have been mentioned; and this was the hypothesis of the ancients, whose philosophy, full of insight and penetration, deserves to be raised above the ruins of the philosophy of the moderns. It is in vain that the latter disdain the sources too remote from them. Ancient philosophy will always hold its own among those who are worthy to judge it, because it forms (at least in relation to the subject of which I am treating) a system that is solid and well articulated like the body, whereas all these scattered members of modern philosophy form no system.

APPENDIX.

OUTLINES AND NOTES.

BY GERTRUDE CARMAN BUSSEY.

LA METTRIE'S RELATION TO HIS PREDECESSORS AND TO HIS SUCCESSORS.

I. The Historical Relation of La Mettrie to René Descartes (1596-1650).

The most direct source of La Mettrie's work, if the physiological aspect of his system is set aside, is found in the philosophy of Descartes. In fact it sometimes seems as if La Mettrie's materialism grew out of his insistence on the contradictory character of the dualistic system of Descartes. He criticises Descartes's statement that the body and soul are absolutely independent, and takes great pains to show the dependence of the soul on the body. Yet though La Mettrie's system may be opposed to that of Descartes [17] from one point of view, from another point of view it seems to be a direct consequence of it. La Mettrie himself recognizes this relationship and feels that his doctrine that man is a machine, is a natural inference from Descartes's teaching that animals are mere machines. [18] Moreover La Mettrie carries on Descartes's conception of the body as a machine, and many of his detailed discussions of the machinery of the body seem to have been drawn from Descartes.

It should be noted that La Mettrie did justice to Descartes, and realized how much all philosophers owed to him. He insisted moreover that Descartes's errors were due to his failure to follow his own method. [19] Yet La Mettrie's method was different from that of Descartes, for La Mettrie was an empiricist [20] without rationalistic leaning. As regards doctrine: La Mettrie differed from Descartes in his opinion of matter. Since he disbelieved in any spiritual reality, he gave matter the attributes of motion and thought, while Descartes insisted that the one attribute of matter is extension. [21] It was a natural consequence of La Mettrie's disbelief in spiritual substance that he could throw doubt on the existence of God. [22] On the other hand the belief in God was one of the foundations of Descartes's system. La Mettrie tried to show that Descartes's belief in a soul and in God was merely designed to hide his true thought from the priests, and to save himself from persecution. [23]

IIa. The Likeness of La Mettrie to the English Materialists, Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and John Toland (1670-1721).

The influence of Descartes upon La Mettrie cannot be questioned but it is more difficult to estimate the influence upon him of materialistic philosophers. Hobbes published "The Leviathan" in 1651 and "De Corpore" in 1655. Thus he wrote about a century before La Mettrie, and since the eighteenth century was one in which the influence of England upon France was very great, it is easy to suppose that La Mettrie had read Hobbes. If so, he must have gained many ideas from him. The extent of this influence is, however, unknown, for La Mettrie rarely if ever quotes from Hobbes, or attributes any of his doctrines to Hobbes.

In the first place, both Hobbes and La Mettrie are thoroughgoing materialists. They both believe that body is the only reality, and that anything spiritual is unimaginable. [24] Furthermore their conceptions of matter are very similar. According to La Mettrie, matter contains the faculty of sensation and the power of motion as well as the quality of extension. [25] This same conception of matter is held by Hobbes, for he specifically attributes extension and motion to matter, and then reduces sensation to a kind of internal motion. [26] Thus sensation also may be an attribute of matter. Moreover Hobbes and La Mettrie are in agreement on many smaller points, and La Mettrie elaborates much that is suggested in Hobbes. They both believe that the passions are dependent on bodily conditions. [27] They agree in the belief that all the differences in men are due to differences in the constitution and organization of their bodies. [28] They both discuss the nature and importance of language. [29]

Hobbes differs from La Mettrie in holding that we can be sure that God exists as the cause of this world. [30] However even though he thinks that it is possible to know that God exists, he does not believe that we can know his nature.

La Mettrie's system may be regarded as the application of a system like that of Hobbes to the special problem of the relation of soul and body in man; for if there is nothing in the universe but matter and motion, it inevitably follows that man is merely a very complicated machine.

There is great similarity also between the doctrine of La Mettrie and that of Toland. It is interesting to note the points of resemblance and of difference. Toland's "Letters to Serena," which contain much of his philosophical teaching, were published in 1704. There is a possibility therefore that La Mettrie read them and gained some suggestions from them.

The point most emphasized in Toland's teaching [31] is that motion is an attribute of matter. He argues for this belief on the ground that matter must be essentially active in order to undergo change, [32] and that the conception of the inertness of matter is based on the conception of absolute rest, and that this absolute rest is nowhere to be found. [33] Since motion is essential to matter, there is no need, Toland believes, to account for the beginning of motion. Those who have regarded matter as inert have had to find some efficient cause for motion, and to do this, they have held that all nature is animated. But this pretended animation is utterly useless, since matter is itself endowed with motion. [34] The likeness to La Mettrie is evident. La Mettrie likewise opposes the doctrine of the animation of matter, and the belief in any external cause of motion. [35] Yet he feels the need of postulating some beginning of motion, [36] and although he uses the conception so freely, he does not agree with Toland that the nature of motion is known. He believes that it is impossible to know the nature of motion, [37] while Toland believes that the nature of motion is self-evident. [38]

Another point of contrast between Toland and La Mettrie is in their doctrines of God. Toland believes that God, "a pure spirit or immaterial being," is necessary for his system, [39] while La Mettrie questions God's existence and insists that immateriality and spirituality are fine words that no one understands.

It must be admitted, in truth, that La Mettrie and Toland have different interests and different points of view. Toland is concerned to discover the essential nature of matter, while La Mettrie's problem is to find the specific relation of body and mind. On this relation, he builds his whole system.

b. The Relation of La Mettrie to an English Sensationalist: John Locke (1632-1704).

Locke's "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" was published in 1690, and La Mettrie, like most cultured Frenchmen of the Enlightenment, was influenced by his teaching. The main agreement between Locke and La Mettrie is in their doctrine that all ideas are derived from sensation. Both vigorously oppose the belief in innate ideas, [40] teaching that even our most complex and our most abstract ideas are gained through sensation. But La Mettrie does not follow Locke in analyzing these ideas and in concluding that many sensible qualities of objects--such as colors, sounds, etc.--have no existence outside the mind. [41] He rejects Locke's doctrine of spiritual substances, [42] and opposes Locke's theistic teaching, laying stress, on the other hand, upon Locke's admission of the possibility that "thinking being may also be material." [43]

IIIa. The Likeness, probable but unacknowledged, to La Mettrie, of the French Sensationalists, Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) and Claude Adrien Helvetius (1715-1771).

Condillac's "Traité des sensations" was published about ten years after La Mettrie's "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," and therefore it is probable that Condillac had read this work, and gained some ideas from it. Yet Condillac never mentions La Mettrie's name nor cites his doctrines. This omission may be accounted for by the fact that the works of La Mettrie had been so condemned that later philosophers wished to conceal the similarity of their doctrines to his. Whether the sensationalists were influenced by his teachings or not, there is such a profound likeness in their teachings, that La Mettrie may well be regarded as one of the first French sensationalists as well as one of the leading French materialists of the time.

Condillac and La Mettrie agree that experience is the source of all knowledge. As Lange suggests, [44] La Mettrie's development of reason from the imagination may have suggested to Condillac the way to develop all the faculties from the soul. La Mettrie asserts that reason is but the sensitive soul contemplating its ideas, and that imagination plays all the rôles of the soul, while Condillac elaborates the same idea, and shows in great detail how all the faculties of the soul are but modifications of sensation. [45]

Both La Mettrie and Condillac believe that there is no gulf between man and the lower animals; but this leads to a point of disagreement between the two philosophers, for Condillac absolutely denies that animals can be mere machines, [46] and we must suppose that he would the more ardently oppose the teaching that man is merely a complicated machine! Condillac finally, unlike La Mettrie, believes in the existence of God. A final point of contrast also concerns the theology of the two writers. La Mettrie insists that we can not be sure that there is any purpose in the world, while Condillac affirms that we can discern intelligence and design throughout the universe. [47]

Like La Mettrie and Condillac, Helvetius teaches that all the faculties of the mind can be reduced to sensation. [48] Unlike La Mettrie, he specifically distinguishes the mind from the soul, and describes the mind as a later developed product of the soul or faculty of sensation. [49] This idea may have been suggested by La Mettrie's statement that reason is a modification of sensation. Helvetius, however, unlike La Mettrie, does not clearly decide that sensation is but a result of bodily conditions, and he admits that sensation may be a modification of a spiritual substance. [50] Moreover, he claims that climate and food have no effect on the mind, and that the superiority of the understanding is not dependent on the strength of the body and its organs. [51]

La Mettrie and Helvetius resemble each other in ethical doctrine. Both make pleasure and pain the ruling motives of man's conduct. They claim that all the emotions are merely modifications of corporeal pleasure and pain, and that therefore the only principle of action in man is the desire for pleasure and the fear of pain. [52]

b. The Likeness to La Mettrie of the French Materialist, Baron Paul Heinrich Dietrich von Holbach (1723-1789).

As Condillac and Helvetius emphasize the sensationalism taught by La Mettrie, so Holbach's book is a reiteration and elaboration of the materialism set forth in La Mettrie's works. The teaching of Holbach is so like that of La Mettrie, that the similarity can hardly be a coincidence.

La Mettrie regards experience as the only teacher. Holbach dwells on this same idea, and insists that experience is our only source of knowledge in all matters. [53] Holbach likewise teaches that man is a purely material being. He disbelieves in any spiritual reality whatsoever, and makes matter the only substance in the world. He lays stress, also, on one thought which is a natural consequence of La Mettrie's teaching. La Mettrie has limited the action of the will and has insisted that the will is dependent on bodily conditions. Holbach goes further and declares repeatedly that all freedom is a delusion, and that man is controlled in every action by rigid necessity. [54] This teaching seems to be the natural outcome of the belief that man is a machine.

Holbach's atheistic theology is more extreme than his predecessor's, for La Mettrie admits that God may exist, while Holbach vigorously opposes the possibility. Moreover Holbach holds the opinion, barely suggested by La Mettrie, that an atheistic doctrine would ameliorate the condition of mankind. [55] He insists that the idea of God has hindered the progress of reason and interfered with natural law. Holbach is indeed the only one of the philosophers here discussed, who frankly adopts a fatalistic and atheistic doctrine of the universe. In these respects, his teaching is the culmination of French materialism.

OUTLINE OF LA METTRIE'S METAPHYSICAL DOCTRINE.

PAGES [56]

I. Insistence on the Empirical Standpoint 16f.; 88f.; 72, 142

II. Arguments in Favor of Materialism:

a. The "Soul" is Affected, 1. By Disease 18f.; 90f. 2. By Sleep 19f.; 91f. 3. By Drugs 20; 92 4. By Food 21f.; 93ff. 5. By Age and Sex 23f.; 95f. 6. By Temperature and Climate 24f.; 96ff. b. There is No Sharp Distinction Between Men and Animals (Machines) 28f., 100ff.; 41ff., 113ff.; 75f., 142f. c. Bodily Movements are Due to the "Motive Power" of the Body 51ff., 129ff.

III. Conception of Matter.

a. Matter is Extended 154f. b. Matter Has the Power of Motion 70, 140; 156ff. c. Matter Has the Faculty of Feeling 159ff.

IV. Conception of Man:

a. Man is a Machine 17, 89; 21, 93; 56, 128; 69, 140f.; 73, 143; 80, 148 b. All Man's Faculties Reduce to Sense and Imagination 35ff., 107ff. c. Man is Like Animals in Being Capable of Education 38, 110 d. Man is Ignorant of His Destiny 79, 147

V. Theological Doctrine:

a. The Existence of God is Unproved and Practically Unimportant 50, 122 b. The Argument from Design is Ineffective Against the Hypothesis of Mechanical Causality 51ff., 124ff. c. Atheism Makes for Happiness 55, 126f.

NOTES. [57]

NOTE ON FREDERICK THE GREAT'S EULOGY.

This translation is made from the third volume, pp. 159 ff. of "OEuvres de Fréderic II., Roi de Prusse, Publiées du vivant de l'Auteur," Berlin, 1789.

La Mettrie was received at the court of Frederick the Great, when he had been driven from Holland on account of the heretical teaching of "L'Homme Machine," The "Eloge" was read by Darget, the secretary of the king, at a public meeting of the Academy of Berlin, to which, at the initiative of Frederick, La Mettrie had been admitted.

The careful reader will not fail to note that Frederick's arithmetic is at fault, and that La Mettrie died at the age of forty-one, not forty-three, years.

At a few points, perhaps, the Eloge demands elucidation. Coutances, like Caen, is a Norman town. St. Malo lies, just over the border, in Brittany. La Mettrie's military service was with the French in the Silesian wars against Maria Theresa. The battle of Dettingen was fought in Bavaria and was won by the Austrians through the aid given by George II of England to Maria Theresa. The battle of Fontenoy in the Netherlands was the only victory of the French in this war.

Other accounts of the life of La Mettrie are:

J. Assézat, Introduction to "L'Homme Machine," Paris, 1865.

F. A. Lange, "History of Materialism."

Ph. Damiron, "Histoire de la philosophie du dix-huitième siècle," Paris, 1858.

N. Quépat, "La philosophie matérialiste au XVIIIe siècle. Essai sur La Mettrie, sa vie, et ses oeuvres." Paris, 1873.

NOTES ON MAN A MACHINE.

1. "Matter may well be endowed with the faculty of thought." Although La Mettrie attempts to "avoid this reef," by refraining from the use of these words, yet he asserts throughout his work that sensations, consciousness, and the soul itself are modifications of matter and motion.

The possibility of matter being endowed with the faculty of thought, is denied by Elie Luzac, the publisher of "L'homme machine," in his work "L'homme plus que machine." In this work he tries to disprove the conclusions of "L'homme machine." He says: "We have therefore proved by the idea of the inert state of matter, by that of motion, by that of relations, by that of activity, by that of extension, that matter can not be possessed of the faculty of thinking".... "To be brief, I say, that if, by a material substance, we understand that matter which falls under the cognizance of our senses, and which is endowed with the qualities we have mentioned, the soul can not be material: so that it must be immaterial, and, for the same reason, God could not have given the faculty of thinking to matter, since He can not perform contradictions." [58]

2. "How can we define a being whose nature is absolutely unknown to us?" La Mettrie uses this as an argument against the belief in a soul, and yet he later admits that the "nature of motion is as unknown to us as the nature of matter." It is difficult then to see why there is more reason to doubt the existence of spirit, than to doubt the existence of matter. Locke makes this point very well. "It is for want of reflection that we are apt to think that our senses show us nothing but material things. Every act of sensation, when duly considered, gives us an equal view of both parts of nature, the corporeal and spiritual." [59]... "If this notion of immaterial spirit may have, perhaps, some difficulties in it not easy to be explained, we have therefore no more reason to deny or doubt the existence of such spirits, than we have to deny or doubt the existence of body because the notion of body is cumbered with some difficulties, very hard and perhaps impossible to be explained or understood by us." [60]

3. "Author of the 'Spectacle de la nature.'" Noel Antoine Pluche (1688-1761) was a Jansenist author. He was Director of the College of Laon, but was deprived of his position on account of his refusal to adhere to the bull "Unigenitus." Rollin then recommended him to Gasville, intendant of Normandy, who entrusted him with his son's education. He finally settled in Paris. His principal works are: "Spectacle de la nature," (Paris, 1739); "Mécanique des langues et l'art de les enseigner," (Paris, 1751); "Harmonie des Psaumes et de l'Evangile," (Paris, 1764); "Concorde de la géographie des différents ages," (Paris, 1765). [61]

La Mettrie describes Pluche in the "Essais sur l'esprit et les beaux esprits" thus: "Without wit, without taste, he is Rollin's pedant. A superficial man, he had need of the work of M. Réaumur, of whom he is only a stale and tiresome imitator in the flat little sayings scattered in his dialogues. It was with the works of Rollin as with the 'Spectacle de la Nature,' one made the fortune of the other: Gaçon praised Person, Person praised Gaçon, and the public praised them both." [62]

This quotation from La Mettrie occurs in Assézat's edition of La Mettrie's "L'homme machine," which was published as the second volume of the series "Singularités physiologiques" (1865). Assézat was a French publisher and writer. He was at one time Secretary of the Anthropological Society, and collaborated with other writers in the publication of "La Revue Nationale," "La Revue de Paris," and "La Pensée nouvelle." His notes to "L'Homme Machine" show great knowledge concerning physiological subjects. He intended to publish a complete edition of Diderot's works, but overwork on this undermined his health, so that he was unable to complete it. [63]

4. Torricelli was a physicist and mathematician who lived from 1608 to 1647. He was a disciple of Galileo, and acted as his amanuensis for three months before Galileo's death. He was then nominated as grand-ducal mathematician and professor of mathematics in the Florentine Academy. In 1643, he made his most famous discovery. He found that the height to which a liquid will rise in a closed tube, depends on the specific gravity of the liquid, and concludes from this that the column of liquid is sustained by atmospheric pressure. This discovery did away with the obscure idea of a fuga vacui, and laid bare the principle on which mercurial barometers are constructed. For a long time the mercurial thermometer was called the "Torricellian tube," and the vacuum which the barometer includes is still known as a "Torricellian vacuum." [64]

5. "Only the physicians have a right to speak on this subject." Luzac says: "'Tis true that if the materiality of the soul was proved, the knowledge of her would be an object of natural philosophy, and we might with some appearance of reason reject all arguments to the contrary which are not drawn from that science. But if the soul is not material, the investigation of its nature does not belong to natural philosophy, but to those who search into the nature of its faculties, and are called metaphysicians." [65]

6. "Man is ... a machine." This is the first clear statement of this theory, which as the title of the work indicates, is the central doctrine of this work. Descartes had strongly denied the possibility of conceiving man as a machine. "We may easily conceive a machine to be so constructed that it emits vocables, and even that it emits some correspondent to the action upon it of external objects which cause a change in its organs,... but not that it should emit them variously so as appositely to reply to what is said in its presence, as men of the lowest grade of intellect can do." [66]

7. "Let us then take in our hands the staff of experience." La Mettrie repeatedly emphasizes the belief that knowledge must come from experience. Moreover he confines this experience to sense experience, and concludes "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme" with these words: "No senses, no ideas. The fewer senses there are: the fewer ideas. No sensations experienced, no ideas. These principles are the necessary consequence of all the observations and experiences that constitute the unassailable foundation of this work."

This doctrine is opposed to the teaching of Descartes, who insists that "neither our imagination nor our senses can give us assurance of anything unless our understanding intervene." [67] Moreover Descartes believes that the senses are fallacious, and that the ideal method for philosophy is a method corresponding to that of mathematics. [68] Condillac and Holbach agree with La Mettrie's opinion. Thus, Condillac teaches that man is nothing more than what he has become by the use of his senses. [69] And Holbach says: "As soon as we take leave of experience, we fall into the chasm where our imagination leads us astray." [70]

8. "Galen (Galenus) Claudius, 130 to circa 210 A. D. An eminent Greek physician and philosopher. Born at Pergamus, Mysia, he studied both the Platonic and Peripatetic systems of philosophy. Satyrus instructed him in anatomy. He traveled extensively while young to perfect his education. About 165 A. D. he moved to Rome, and became very celebrated as a surgeon and practising physician, attending the family of Marcus Aurelius. He returned to Pergamus, but probably visited Rome three or four times afterwards. He wrote in philosophy, logic, and medicine. Many, probably most, of his works are lost. He was the one medical authority for thirteen centuries, and his services to logic and to philosophy were also great." [71]

9. The author of "L'histoire de l'âme" is La Mettrie himself.

10. Hippocrates is often termed the "father of medicine." He was born in Cos in 460 B. C. He studied medicine under his father, Heraclides, and Herodicus of Selymbria; and philosophy under Gorgias and Democritus. He was the first to separate medicine from religion and from philosophy. He insisted that diseases must be treated by the physician, as if they were governed by purely natural laws. The Greeks had such respect for dead bodies that Hippocrates could not have dissected a human body, and consequently his knowledge of its structure was limited, but he seems to have been an acute and skilful observer of conditions in the living body. He wrote several works on medicine, and in one of them showed the first principles on which the public health must be based. The details of his life are hidden by tradition, but it is certain that he was regarded with great respect and veneration by the Greeks. [72]

11. "The different combinations of these humors...." Compare this with Descartes's statement that the difference in men comes from the difference in the construction and position of the brain, which causes a difference in the action of the animal spirits. [73]

12. "This drug intoxicates, like wine, coffee, etc., each in its own measure, and according to the dose." Descartes also speaks of the effect of wine. "The vapors of wine, entering the blood quickly, go from the heart to the brain, where they are converted into spirits, which being stronger and more abundant than usual are capable of moving the body in several strange fashions." [74]

13. The quotation from Pope is from the "Moral Essays," published 1731 to 1735, Epistle I, 1, 69.

14. Jan Baptista Van Helmont (1578-1644) was a Flemish physician and chemist. He is noted for having demonstrated the necessity of the balance in chemistry, and for having been among the first to use the word "gas." His works were published as "Ortus Medicinae," 1648. [75]

15. The author of "Lettres sur la physiognomie" was Jacques Pernety or Pernetti. He was born at Chazelle-sur-Lyon, was for some years canon at Lyons, and died there in 1777. [76]

16. Boerhaave. See Note 78.

17. Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698-1759) was a French mathematician, astronomer and philosopher. He supported the Newtonian theory against the Cartesians. In 1740 he became president of the Academy of Berlin. He was the head of the expedition which was sent by Louis XV to measure a degree of longitude in Lapland. Voltaire satirized Maupertuis in the "Diatribe du Docteur Akakia." [77]

18. Luzac sums up the preceding facts by saying: "Here are a great many facts, but what is it they prove? only that the faculties of the soul arise, grow, and acquire strength in proportion as the body does; so that these same faculties are weakened in the same proportion as the body is.... But from all these circumstances it does not follow that the faculty of thinking is an attribute of matter, and that all depends on the manner in which our machine is made, that the faculties of the soul arise from a principle of animal life, from an innate heat or force, from an irritability of the finest parts of the body, from a subtil ethereal matter diffused through it, or in a word, from all these things taken together." [78]

19. "The diverse states of the soul are therefore always correlative with those of the body." This view is in diametrical opposition to the teaching of Descartes, who says: "The soul is of a nature wholly independent of the body." [79] Yet Descartes also states that there is an intimate connection between the two. "The Reasonable Soul ... could by no means be educed from the power of matter ... it must be expressly created; and it is not sufficient that it be lodged in the human body, exactly like a pilot in a ship, unless perhaps to move its members, but ... it is necessary for it to be joined and united more closely to the body, in order to have sensations and appetites similar to ours, and thus constitute a real man." [79]

Holbach later emphasizes this close connection between body and soul, which is so insisted upon by La Mettrie. "If freed from our prejudices we wish to see our soul, or the moving principle which acts in us, we shall remain convinced that it is part of our body, that it can not be distinguished from the body except by an abstraction, that it is but the body itself considered relatively to some of the functions or faculties to which its nature and particular organization make it susceptible. We shall see that this soul is forced to undergo the same changes as the body, that it grows and develops with the body.... Finally we can not help recognizing that at some periods it shows evident signs of weakness, sickness, and death." [80]

20. "Peyronie (François Gigot de la), a French surgeon, born in Montpellier, the fifteenth of January, 1678, died the twenty-fifth of April, 1747. He was surgeon of the hospital of Saint-Eloi de Montpellier and instructor of anatomy to the Faculty; then, in 1704, served in the army. In 1717 he became reversioner of the position of first surgeon to Louis XV; in 1731, steward of the Queen's palace; in 1735, a doctor of the King; in 1736, first surgeon of the King, and chief of the surgeons of the kingdom. The greatest merit of La Peyronie is for having founded the Academy of Surgery in Paris, and for having gained special protection for surgery and surgeons in France. He wrote little." [81]

21. "Willis, Thomas (1621-1675), English physician, was born at Great Bedwin, Wiltshire, on 27th January, 1621. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford; and when that city was garrisoned for the king he bore arms for the Royalists. He took the degree of bachelor of medicine in 1646, and after the surrender of the garrison applied himself to the practice of his profession. In 1660, shortly after the Restoration, he became Sedleian professor of natural philosophy in place of Dr. Joshua Cross, who was ejected, and the same year he took the degree of doctor of physic.... He was one of the first members of the Royal Society, and was elected an honorary fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1664. In 1666, ... he removed to Westminster, on the invitation of Dr. Sheldon, Archbishop of Canterbury.... He died at St. Martin's on 11th November, 1675, and was buried in Westminster Abbey." [82]

22. "Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de. Born at Rouen, France, February 11, 1657; died at Paris, January 9, 1757. A French advocate, philosopher, poet, and miscellaneous writer. He was the nephew (through his mother) of Corneille, and was 'one of the last of the Précieux, or rather the inventor of a new combination of literature and gallantry which at first exposed him to not a little satire' (Saintsbury). He wrote 'Poésies pastorales' (1688), 'Dialogues des morts' (1683), 'Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes' (1686), 'Histoire des oracles' (1687), 'Eloges des académiciens' (delivered 1690-1740)." [83]

23. "In a word, would it be absolutely impossible to teach the ape a language? I do not think so." Compare with this Haeckel's statement of the relation between man's speech and that of apes. "It is of especial interest that the speech of apes seems on physiological comparison to be a stage in the formation of articulate human speech. Among living apes there is an Indian species which is musical; the hylobates syndactylus sings a full octave in perfectly pure harmonious half-tones. No impartial philologist can hesitate any longer to admit that our elaborate rational language has been slowly and gradually developed out of the imperfect speech of our Pliocene simian ancestors." [84]

24. Johann Conrad Amman was born at Schaffhausen, in Switzerland, in 1669. After his graduation at Basle, he practised medicine at Amsterdam. He devoted most of his attention to the instruction of deaf mutes. He taught them by attracting their attention to the motion of his lips, tongue, and larynx, while he was speaking, and by persuading them to imitate these motions. In this way, they finally learned to articulate syllables and words, and to talk. In his works "Surdus Loquens," and "Dissertatio de Loquela," he explained the mechanism of speech, and made public his method of instruction. From all accounts it seems that his success with the deaf mutes was remarkable. He died about 1730. [85]

25. "... the great analogy between ape and man...." Compare Haeckel: "Thus comparative anatomy proves to the satisfaction of every unprejudiced and critical student the significant fact that the body of man and that of the anthropoid ape are not only peculiarly similar, but they are practically one and the same in every important respect." [86]

26. Sir William Temple was born in London in 1628. He attended the Puritan College of Emmanuel, Cambridge, but left without taking his degree. After an extensive tour on the continent, he settled in Ireland in 1655. His political career began with the accession of Charles II in 1660. He is particularly noted for concluding "The Triple Alliance" between England, the United Netherlands, and Sweden, and for his part in bringing about the marriage of William and Mary, which completed the alliance of England and the Netherlands. Temple was not as successful in political work at home as abroad, for he was too honest to care to be concerned in the intrigues in English affairs, at that time. He retired from politics and died at Moor Park in 1699.

Temple wrote several works on political subjects. His "Memoirs" were begun in 1682; the first part was destroyed before it was published, the second part was published without his consent, and the third part was published by Swift after Temple's death. His fame rests more on his diplomatic work than on his writings. [87]

27. "Trembley (Abraham) a Swiss naturalist, born in Geneva, the third of September, 1700, died in Geneva, the twelfth of May, 1784. He was educated in his native city, and in the Hague, where he became tutor of the son of an English resident, and later the tutor of the young duke of Richmond, with whom he traveled in Germany and Italy. In 1760, he obtained the position of librarian at Geneva, and gained a seat in the council of the 'Two Hundred.' His admirable works on the fresh-water snake procured for him his election as member of the Royal Society of London, and as correspondent of the Academy of Sciences in Paris. From 1775 to 1782 he published several works on natural religion, and articles on natural history in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1742-57. His most important work is 'Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire d'un genre de polype d'eau douce' (Leyden, 1744; Paris, 2 volumes)." [88]

28. "What was man before the invention of words and the knowledge of language? An animal." Compare this with the statement of Hobbes: "The most noble and profitable invention of all others was that of Speech, consisting of names or appellations, and their connexion, ... without which there had been amongst men neither commonwealth, nor society, nor contract, nor peace, no more than amongst lions, bears, and wolves." [89]

29. Fontenelle. See note 22.

30. "All the faculties of the soul can be correctly reduced to pure imagination." Compare with this La Mettrie's statement in "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme": "The more one studies all the intellectual faculties, the more convinced one remains, that they are all included in the faculty of sensation, upon which they all depend so essentially that without it the soul could never perform any of its functions." [90] This resembles Condillac's doctrine of sensation: "Judgment, reflexion, desires, passions, etc., are nothing but sensation itself which is transformed in diverse ways." [91] Helvetius also says: "All the operations of the mind are reducible to sensation." [92]

31. "See to what one is brought by the abuse of language, and by the use of those fine words (spirituality, immateriality, etc.)." Compare Hobbes, "Though men may put together words of contradictory signification, as spirit and incorporeal; yet they can never have the imagination of anything answering to them." [93]

32. "Man's preëminent advantage is his organism." Luzac says: "This no more proves that organization is the chief merit of man, than that the form of a musical instrument constitutes the chief merit of the musician. In proportion to the goodness of the instrument, the musician charms by his art, and the case is the same with the soul. In proportion to the soundness of the body, the soul is in better condition to exert her faculties." [94]

33. "Such is, I think, the generation of intelligence." Luzac argues against this statement thus: "But if thought and all the faculties of the soul depended only on the organization as some pretend, how could the imagination draw a long chain of consequences from the objects it has embraced?" [95]

34. Pyrrhonism is "the doctrine of Pyrrho of Elis which has been transmitted chiefly by his disciple Timon. More generally, radical Scepticism in general." [96]

35. Pierre Bayle was born at Carlat in 1647. Although the child of Protestant parents, he was converted by the Jesuits. After his reconversion to Protestantism, he was driven out of France, and took refuge first in Geneva, and then in Holland. In 1675 he became professor of philosophy at the Protestant College of Sedan, and in 1681 professor of philosophy and history at Rotterdam. In 1693 he was forced to resign from his position on account of his religious views.

Bayle was one of the leading French sceptics of the time. He was a Cartesian, but questioned both the certainty of one's own existence, and the knowledge derived from it. He declared that religion is contrary to the human reason, but that this fact does not necessarily destroy faith. He distinguished religion not only from science, but also from morality, and vigorously opposed those who considered a certain religion necessary for morality. He did not openly attack Christianity, yet all that he wrote awakened doubt, and his work exerted an extensive influence for scepticism.

His principal work is the "Dictionnaire historique et critique," published 1695-1697, and containing a vast amount of knowledge, expressed in a piquant and popular style. This fact made the book widely read both by scholars and by superficial readers.

36. Arnobius the Elder was born at Sicca Venerea in Numidia, in the latter part of the third century A. D. He was at first an opponent of Christianity, but was afterwards converted, and wrote "Adversus Gentes" as an apology for Christianity. In this work, he tries to answer the complaints made against Christians on the ground that the disasters of the time were due to their impiety; vindicates the divinity of Christ; and discusses the nature of the human soul. He concludes that the soul is not immortal, for he believes that the belief in the immortality of the soul would have a deteriorating influence on morality. For translation of his work compare Vol. XIX of the "Ante-Nicene Christian Library." [97]

37. "There exists no soul or sensitive substance without remorse." Condillac had said: "There is something in animals besides motion. They are not pure machines: they feel." [98] La Mettrie also attributed remorse to animals, but believed that they are none the less machines. Luzac said in comment: "What renders these systems completely ridiculous, is, that the persons who pronounce men machines, give them properties which belie their assertion. If beings are but machines, why do they grant a natural law, an internal sense, a kind of dread? These are ideas which can not be excited by objects which operate on our senses." [99]

38. "Nature has created us solely to be happy." This is a statement of the doctrine, which La Mettrie develops in his principal ethical work "Discours sur le Bonheur." He teaches that happiness rests upon bodily pleasure and pain. In "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," La Mettrie states that all the passions can be developed from two fundamental passions, of which they are but modifications, love and hatred, or desire and aversion. [100] Like La Mettrie, Helvetius makes corporeal pleasure and pain the ruling motives for man's conduct. Thus he writes: "Pleasure and pain are and always will be the only principles of action in man." [101]... "Remorse is nothing more than a foresight of bodily pain to which some crime has exposed us." [102] He definitely makes happiness the end of human action. "The end of man is self-preservation and the attainment of a happy existence.... Man, to find happiness, should save up his pleasures, and refuse all those which might change into pains.... The passions always have happiness as an object: they are legitimate and natural, and can not be called good or bad except on account of their influence on human beings. To lead men to virtue, we must show them the advantages of virtuous actions." [103] Holbach, finally, goes further than La Mettrie or Helvetius, and makes purely mechanical impulses the motives of man's action. "The passions are ways of being or modifications of the internal organs, attracted or repulsed by objects, and are consequently subject in their own way to the physical laws of attraction and repulsion." [104]

39. "Ixions of Christianity." Ixion, for his treachery, stricken with madness, was cast into Erebus, where he was continually scourged while bound to a fiery wheel, and forced to cry: "Benefactors should be honored."

40. "Who can be sure that the reason for man's existence is not simply the fact that he exists?" Luzac opposes this by saying: "If the reason of man's existence was in man himself, this existence would be a necessary consequence of his own nature; so that his own nature would contain the cause or reason of his existence. Now since his own nature would imply the cause of his existence, it would also imply his existence itself, so that man could no more be considered as non-existent than a circle can be considered without radii or a picture without features or proportions.... If the existence of man was in man himself, he would then be an invariable being." [105]

41. "Fénelon (François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon), born at Château de Fénelon, Dordogne, France, August 6, 1651, died at Cambrai, France, January 7, 1715. A celebrated French prelate, orator, and author. He became preceptor of the sons of the dauphin in 1689, and was appointed archbishop of Cambrai in 1695. His works include 'Les aventures de Télémaque' (1699), 'Dialogues des morts' (1712), 'Traité de l'éducation des filles' (1688), 'Explication des maximes des saints' (1697), etc. His collected works were edited by Leclère (38 vols., 1827-1830)." [106]

42. "Nieuwentyt (Bernard), a Dutch mathematician, born in West-Graftdijk the tenth of August 1654, died at Purmerend the thirtieth of May, 1718. An unrelenting Cartesian, he combated the infinitesimal calculus, and wrote a polemic against Leibnitz, concerning this subject. He wrote a theological dissertation translated into French under the title "L'existence de Dieu démontrée par les merveilles de la nature" (Paris, 1725)." [107]

43. "Abadie, James (Jacques), born at Nay, Basse-Pyrénées, probably in 1654; died at London, September 25, 1725. A noted French Protestant theologian. He went to Berlin about 1680 as minister of the French church there, and thence to England and Ireland; was for a time minister of the French church in the Savoy; and settled in Ireland as dean of Killaloe in 1699. His chief work is the 'Traité de la vérité de la religion chrétienne' (1684), with its continuation 'Traité de la divinité de nôtre Seigneur Jesus-Christ' (1689)." [108]

44. "Derham (William), English theologian and scholar, born in Stoughton, near Worcester, in 1657, died at Upminster in 1735. Pastor of Upminster in the county of Essex, he could peacefully devote himself to his taste for mechanics and natural history. Besides making studies of watch-making, and of fish, birds, and insects, published in part in the Transactions of the Royal Society, he wrote several works on religious philosophy. The most important, which was popular for a long time and was translated into French (1726), has as title 'Physico-Theology, or the Demonstration of the Existence and the Attributes of God, by the Works of His Creation' (1713). He wrote as complement, in 1714, his 'Astro-Theology, or the Demonstration of the Existence and Attributes of God by the Observation of the Heavens.'" [109]

45. Rais, or Cardinal de Retz (1614-1679), was a French politician and author. From his childhood he was intended for the church. He took an active part in the movement against Cardinal Mazarin, and later became cardinal, but lost his popularity, and was imprisoned at Vincennes. After escaping from there he returned to France and settled in Lorraine, where he wrote his 'Mémoires,' which tell of the court life of his time. [110]

46. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) was a renowned Italian anatomist and physiologist. He held the position of lecturer on medicine at Bologna in 1656, a few months later became professor at Pisa, was made professor at Bologna in 1660, went from there to Messina, though he later returned to Bologna. In 1691 he became physician to Pope Innocent XII. Malpighi is often known as the founder of microscopic anatomy. He was the first to see the marvelous spectacle of the circulation of the blood on the surface of a frog's lung. He discovered the vesicular structure of the human lung, the structure of the secreting glands, and the mucous character of the lower stratum of the epidermis. He was the first to undertake the finer anatomy of the brain, and he accurately described the distribution of grey matter, and of the fibre tracts in the cord. His works are: "De pulmonibus" (Bologna, 1661), "Epistolae anatomicae narc. Malpighi et Car. Fracassati" (Amsterdam, 1662), "De Viscerum Structura" (London, 1669), "Anatome Plantarum" (London, 1672), "De Structura Glandularum conglobatarum" (London, 1689). [111]

47. Deism is a system of thought which arose in the latter part of the seventeenth century. Its most important representatives in England were Toland, Collins, Chubb, Shaftsbury, and Tindal. They insisted on freedom of thought and speech, and claimed that reason is superior to any authority. They denied the necessity of any supernatural revelation, and were consequently vigorously opposed by the church. Partly because of this opposition by the church, many of them argued against Christianity, and tried to show that an observance of moral laws is the only religion necessary for man. They taught that happiness is man's chief end, and that, since man is a social being, his happiness can best be gained by mutual helpfulness. Although they declared that nature is the work of a perfect being, they had a mechanical conception of the relation of God to the world, and did not, like later theists, find evidence of God's presence in all the works of nature. [112]

48. "Vanini, Lucilio, self-styled Julius Cæsar. Born at Taurisano, kingdom of Naples, about 1585; burned at the stake at Toulouse, France, February 19, 1619. An Italian free thinker, condemned to death as an atheist and magician. He studied at Rome and Padua, became a priest, traveled in Germany and the Netherlands, and began teaching at Lyons, but was obliged to flee to England, where he was arrested. After his release he returned to Lyons, and about 1617 settled at Toulouse. Here he was arrested for his opinions, condemned, and on the same day executed. His chief works are: 'Amphitheatrum aeternae Providentiae' (1615), 'De admirandis naturae reginae deaeque mortalium arcanis' (1616)." [113]

49. Desbarreaux (Jacques Vallée). A French writer, born at Paris in 1602, who died at Chalon-sur-Saône the ninth of May, 1673. He wrote a celebrated sonnet on penitence, but was rather an unbeliever and sceptic than a penitent. Guy Patin, hearing of his death, said: "He infected poor young people by his licence. His conversation was very dangerous and destructive to the public." [114]

50. Boindin (Nicolas), French scholar and author, born the twenty-ninth of May 1676 at Paris, where he died the thirtieth of November 1751. He was in the army for a while, but retired on account of ill health. He then gave himself up to literature, and wrote several plays. In 1706 he was elected Royal censor and associate of the Academy of Inscriptions. His liberty, or, as it was then called, license of mind, shut the doors of the French Academy to him, and would have caused his expulsion from the Academy of Inscriptions if he had not been so old. He died without retracting his opinions. [115]

51. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) was one of the leaders of the intellectual movement of the eighteenth century. He was at first influenced by Shaftsbury, and was enthusiastic in his support of natural religion. In his "Pensées philosophiques" (1746) he tries to show that the discoveries of natural science are the strongest proofs for the existence of God. The wonders of animal life are enough to destroy atheism for ever. Yet, while he opposes atheism, he also opposes vigorously the intolerance and bigotry of the church. He claims that many of the attributes ascribed to God are contrary to the very idea of a just and loving God.

Later, Diderot was influenced by La Mettrie and by Holbach, and became an advocate of materialism which he set forth in "Le rêve d'Alembert" and in the passages contributed to the "Système de la nature." Diderot was the editor of the "Encyclopédie." [116]

52. Trembley. See note 27.

53. "Nothing which happens, could have failed to happen." An enunciation of the doctrine so insisted upon by Holbach. "The whole universe ... shows us only an immense and uninterrupted chain of cause and effect." [117]... "Necessity which regulates all the movements of the physical world, controls also those of the moral world." [118]

54. "All these evidences of a creator, repeated thousands ... of times ... are self-evident only to the anti-Pyrrhonians." La Mettrie holds an opinion contrary not only to that of Descartes and Locke, but also to that of Toland, Hobbes, and Condillac. Descartes, for instance, says: "Thus I very clearly see that the certitude and truth of all science depends on the knowledge alone of the true God." [119] Hobbes asserts: "For he that from any effect he seeth come to pass should reason to the next and immediate cause thereof, and from thence to the cause of that cause, ... shall at last come to this, that there must be, as even the heathen philosophers confessed, one first mover, that is a first and an eternal cause of all things, which is that which men mean by the name of God." [120] Toland's words are: "All the jumbling of atoms, all the Chances you can suppose for it, could not bring the Parts of the Universe into their present Order, nor continue them in the same, nor cause the Organization of a Flower or a Fly.... The Infinity of Matter ... excludes ... an extended corporeal God, but not a pure Spirit or immaterial Being." [121] Condillac writes: "A first cause, independent, unique, infinite, eternal, omnipotent, immutable, intelligent, free, and whose providence extends over all things: that is the most perfect notion of God that we can form in this life." [122] Locke declares: "From what has been said it is plain to me we have a more certain knowledge of the existence of a God than of anything our senses have not immediately discovered to us. Nay I presume I may say, that we more certainly know that there is a God, than that there is anything else without us." [123]

55. "Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus). Born at Rome, probably about 96 B.C., died October 15, 55 B.C. A celebrated Roman philosophical poet. He was the author of 'De rerum natura,' a didactic and philosophical poem in six books, treating of physics, of psychology, and (briefly) of ethics from the Epicurean point of view. He committed suicide probably in a fit of insanity. According to a popular but doubtless erroneous tradition, his madness was due to a love-philter administered to him by his wife." [124]

56. "Lamy (Bernard) was born in Mans in the year 1640. He studied first in the college of this city. He later went to Paris, and at Saumar studied philosophy under Charles de la Fontenelle, and theology under André Martin and Jean Leporc. He was at length called to teach philosophy in the city of Angers. He wrote a great many books on theological subjects. His philosophical works are: 'L'art de parler' (1675), 'Traité de méchanique, de l'équilibre, des solides et des liqueurs' (1679), 'Traité de la grandeur en général' (1680), 'Entretiens sur les sciences' (1684), 'Eléments de géométrie,' (1685)." [125]

57. "The eye sees only because it is formed and placed as it is." La Mettrie doubts whether there is any purpose in the world. Condillac, on the other hand, teaches that purpose and intelligence are shown forth in the universe. "Can we see the order of the parts of the universe, the subordination among them, and notice how so many different things compose such a permanent whole, and remain convinced that the cause of the universe is a principle without any knowledge of its effects, which without purpose, without intelligence, relates each being to

## particular ends, subordinated to a general end?" [126]

58. "Non nostrum inter vos tantas componere lites." Vergil, Eclogue III, line 108.

59. "The universe will never be happy unless it is atheistic." Although La Mettrie calls this a "strange opinion" it is clear that he secretly sympathizes with it. Holbach affirms this doctrine very emphatically. "Experience teaches us that sacred opinions were the real source of the evils of human beings. Ignorance of natural causes created gods for them. Imposture made these gods terrible. This idea hindered the progress of reason." [127] "An atheist ... is a man who destroys chimeras harmful to the human race, in order to lead men back to nature, to experience, and to reason, which has no need of recourse to ideal powers, to explain the operations of nature." [128]

60. "The soul is therefore but an empty word." Contrast this with Descartes's statement: "And certainly the idea I have of the human mind ... is incomparably more distinct than the idea of any corporeal object." [129] Compare this doctrine, also, with Holbach's assertion: "Those who have distinguished the soul from the body seem to have only distinguished their brains from themselves. Truly the brain is the common center, where all the nerves spread in all parts of the human body, terminate and join together.... The more experience we have, the more we are convinced that the word 'spirit' has no meaning even to those who have invented it, and can be of no use either in the physical or in the moral world." [130]

61. William Cowper (1666-1709) was an English anatomist. He was drawn into a controversy with Bidloo, the Dutch physician, by publishing under his own name Bidloo's work on the anatomy of human bodies. His principal works are: "Myotamia reformata" (London, 1694) and "Glandularum descriptio" (1702). [131]

62. William Harvey (1578-1657), an English physician and physiologist, is renowned for his discovery of the circulation of the blood. He was educated at Canterbury and Cambridge, and took his doctor's degree at Cambridge in 1602. During his life he held the position of Lumleian lecturer at the College of Physicians, and of physician extraordinary to James I. His principal works are: "Exercitatio de motu cordis et sanguinis" (1628), and "Exercitationes de generatione animalium" (1651). [132]

63. Francis Bacon (1551-1626) was one of the first to revolt against scholasticism and to introduce a new method into science and philosophy. He claimed that to know reality, and consequently to gain new power over reality, man must stop studying conceptions, and study matter itself. Yet he did not himself know how to gain a more accurate knowledge of nature, so that he could not put into practice the method which he himself advocated. His works are full of scholastic conceptions, though many of the implications of his system are materialistic. Lange claims, [133] indeed, that if Bacon had been more consistent and daring, he would have reached strictly materialistic conclusions. The account of the motion of the heart of the dead convict is found in "Sylva Sylvarum." [134] This book, published in 1627, a year after Bacon's death, contains the account of Bacon's experiments, and of his theories in matters of physiology, physics, chemistry, medicine, and psychology.

64. Robert Boyle, one of the greatest natural philosophers of his age, studied at Eton for three years, and then became the private pupil of the rector of Stalbridge. He traveled through France, Switzerland, and Italy, and while at Florence, studied the work of Galileo. He decided to devote his life to scientific work, and in 1645 became a member of a society of scientific men, which later grew into the Royal Society of London. His principal work was the improvement of the air-pump, and by that the discovery of the laws governing the pressure and volume of gases.

Boyle was also deeply interested in theology. He gave liberally for the work of spreading Christianity in India and America, and by his will endowed the "Boyle Lectures" to demonstrate the Christian religion against atheists, theists, pagans, Jews, and Mohammedans. [135]

65. Nicolas Sténon was born at Copenhagen, 1631, and died at Schwerin in 1687. He studied at Leyden and Paris, and then settled in Florence, where he became the physician of the grand duke. In 1672 he became professor of anatomy at Florence, but three years later he gave up this position and entered the church. In 1677 he was made Bishop of Heliopolis and went to Hanover, then to Munster, and finally to Schwerin. His principal work is the "Discours sur l'anatomie du cerveau" (Paris, 1669). [136]

66. La Mettrie's account of involuntary movements is much like that of Descartes. Descartes says: "If any one quickly passes his hand before our eyes as if to strike us, we shut our eyes, because the machinery of our body is so composed that the movement of this hand towards our eyes excites another movement in the brain, which controls the animal spirits in the muscles that close the eyelids." [137]

67. "The brain has its muscles for thinking, as the legs have muscles for walking." Neither Condillac nor Helvetius go so far. Helvetius explicitly states that it is an open question whether sensation is due to a material or to a spiritual substance. [138]

68. Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608-1670) was the head of the so-called iatro-mathematical sect. He tried to apply mathematics to medicine in the same way in which it had been applied to the physical sciences. He was wise enough to restrict the application of his system to the motion of the muscles, but his followers tried to extend its application and were led into many absurd conjectures. Borelli was at first professor of mathematics at Pisa, and later professor of medicine at Florence. He was connected with the revolt of Messina and was obliged to leave Florence. He retired to Rome, where he was under the protection of Christina, Queen of Sweden, and remained there until his death in 1679. [139]

69. "For one order that the will gives, it bows a hundred times to the yoke." Descartes, on the other hand, teaches that the soul has direct control over its voluntary actions and thoughts, and indirect control over its passions. [140] La Mettrie goes further than to limit the extent of the will, and questions whether it is ever free: "The sensations which affect us decide the soul either to will or not to will, to love or to hate these sensations according to the pleasure or the pain which they cause in us. This state of the soul thus determined by its sensations is called the will." [141] Holbach insists on this point and contends that all freedom is a delusion: "[Man's] birth depends on causes entirely outside of his power; it is without his permission that he enters this system where he has a place; and without his consent that, from the moment of his birth to the day of his death, he is continually modified by causes that influence his machine in spite of his will, modify his being, and alter his conduct. Is not the least reflexion enough to prove that the solids and fluids of which the body is composed, and that the hidden mechanism that he considers independent of external causes, are perpetually under the influence of these causes, and could not act without them? Does he not see that his temperament does not depend on himself, that his passions are the necessary consequences of his temperament, that his will and his actions are determined by these same passions, and by ideas that he has not given to himself?... In a word, everything should convince man that during every moment of his life, he is but a passive instrument in the hands of necessity." [142]

70. The theory of animal spirits, held by Galen and elaborated by Descartes, is that the nerves are hollow tubes containing a volatile liquid, the animal spirits. The animal spirits were supposed to circulate from the periphery to the brain and back again, and to perform by their action all the functions of the nerves.

71. Berkeley uses the fact that the color of objects varies, as one argument for his idealistic conclusion. [143]

72. It is hard to tell what Pythagoras himself taught, but it is certain that he taught the kinship of animals and men, and upon this kinship his rule for the abstinence from flesh was probably based. Among the writings of the later Pythagoreans we find strange rules for diet which are plainly genuine taboos. For example they are commanded "to abstain from beans, not to break bread, not to eat from a whole loaf, not to eat the heart, etc." [144]

73. Plato forbade the use of wine in his ideal republic. [145]

74. "Nature's first care, when the chyle enters the blood, is to excite in it a kind of fever." Thus, warmth is the first necessity for the body. Compare with this, Descartes's statement: "There is a continual warmth in our heart, ... this fire is the bodily principle of all the movements of our members." [146] This is one of the many instances in which La Mettrie's account of the mechanism of the body is similar to that of Descartes.

75. "Stahl (George Ernst), born at Ansbach, Bavaria, October 21, 1660; died at Berlin, May 14, 1734. A noted German chemist, physician of the King of Prussia from 1716. His works include: 'Theoria medica vera' (1707), 'Experimenta et observationes chemicae' (1731), etc." [147]

76. Philip Hecquet (1661-1737) was a celebrated French physician. He studied at Rheims, and in 1688 became the physician of the nuns of Port Royal des Champs. He returned to Paris in 1693 and took his doctor's degree in 1697. He was twice dean of the faculty of Paris. In 1727 he became the physician of the religious Carmelites of the suburb of Saint Jacques, and remained their physician for thirty-two years. [148]

77. The quotation: "All men may not go to Corinth," is translated from Horace, Ep. 1, 19, 36. "Non cuivis homini contigit adire Corinthum."

78. Hermann Boerhaave was born at Voorhout near Leyden, on December 31, 1668. His father, who belonged to the clerical profession, destined his son for the same calling and so gave him a liberal education. At the University of Leyden, he studied under Gronovius, Ryckius and Frigland. At the death of his father, Boerhaave was left without any provision and supported himself by teaching mathematics. Vandenberg, the burgomaster of Leyden, advised him to study medicine, and he decided to devote himself to this profession. In 1693 he received his degree and began to practice medicine. In 1701 he was made "Lecturer on the Institutes of Medicine" at the University of Leyden. Thirteen years later he was appointed Rector of the University, and the same year became Professor of Practical Medicine there. He introduced into the university the system of clinical instruction. Boerhaave's merit was widely recognized, and his fame attracted many medical students from all Europe to the University of Leyden. Among these was La Mettrie whose whole philosophy was profoundly influenced by the teaching of Boerhaave. In 1728 Boerhaave was elected into the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, and two years later he was made a member of the Royal Society of London. In 1731 his health compelled him to resign the Rectorship at Leyden. At this time he delivered an oration, "De Honore, Medici Servitute." He died after a long illness on April 23, 1738. The city of Leyden erected a monument to him in the Church of St. Peter, and inscribed on it: "Salutifero Boerhaavii genio Sacrum."

Boerhaave was a careful and brilliant student, an inspiring teacher, and a skilful practitioner. There are remarkable accounts of his skill in discovering symptoms, and in diagnosing diseases. His chief works are: "Institutiones Medicae" (Leyden, 1708); "Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis Morbis" (Leyden, 1709), "Libellus de Materia Medica et Remediorum Formulis" (Leyden, 1719), "Institutiones et Experimentae Chemicae" (Paris, 1724). [149]

79. Willis. (See Note 21.)

80. Claude Perrault (1613-1688) was a French physician and architect. He received his degree of doctor of medicine at Paris and practised medicine there. In 1673 he became a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences. Although he never abandoned his work in mathematics, in the natural sciences, and in medicine, he is more noted as an architect than as a physician or scientist. He was the architect of one of the colonnades of the Louvre, and of the Observatory. [150]

81. "Matter is self-moved." In "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme" La Mettrie claims that motion is one of the essential properties of matter. See "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," Chap. V.

82. "The nature of motion is as unknown to us as that of matter." Unlike La Mettrie, Toland holds that it is possible to know the nature of matter, and declares that motion and matter can not be defined, because their nature is self-evident. [151] Holbach, resembling La Mettrie, teaches that it is futile to seek to know the ultimate nature of matter, or the cause for its existence. "Thus if any one shall ask whence matter came, we shall say that it has always existed. If any one ask, whence came movement in matter, we shall answer that for this same reason matter must have moved from eternity, since motion is a necessary consequence of its existence, its essence, and of its primitive properties, such as extent, weight, impenetrability, shape, etc.... The existence of matter is a fact; the existence of motion is another fact." [152]

83. Huyghens (Christian) was born at The Hague, 1629, and died there in 1695. He was a Dutch physicist, mathematician, and astronomer. He is celebrated for the invention of the pendulum clock which could measure the movements of the planets, for the improvement of the telescope, and for the development of the wave-theory of light. His principal work is "Horologium Oscillatorium" (1673). [153]

84. Julien Leroy (1686-1759) was a celebrated French watchmaker. He excelled in the construction of pendulums and of large clocks. Some have attributed the construction of the first horizontal clock to him, but this is doubtful. Among many other inventions and improvements of clocks, he invented the compensating pendulum which bears his name. [154]

85. Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782) was a French mechanist. From his childhood he was always interested in mechanical contrivances. In 1738 he presented to the French Academy his remarkable flute player. Soon after, he made a duck which could swim, eat, and digest, and an asp which could hiss and dart on Cleopatra's breast. He later held the position of inspector of the manufacture of silk. In 1748 he was admitted to the Academy of Sciences. His machines were left to the Queen, but she gave them to the Academy, and in the disturbances which followed the pieces were scattered and lost. Vaucanson published: "Mécanisme d'un flûteur automate" (Paris, 1738). [155]

86. "[Descartes] understood animal nature; he was the first to prove completely that animals are pure machines." Contrast this with La Mettrie's former reference in "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme" to "this absurd system 'that animals are pure machines.' Such a laughable opinion," he adds, "has never gained admittance among philosophers.... Experience does not prove the faculty of feeling any less in animals than in men." [156] It is evident that La Mettrie's opposition to this 'absurd system' was based upon his insistence on the similarity of men and animals. In "L'homme machine" he argues from the same premiss, that animals are machines, that men are like animals, and that therefore men also are machines.

NOTES ON THE EXTRACTS FROM "L'HISTOIRE NATURELLE DE L'AME."

87. Matter, according to La Mettrie, is endowed with extensity, the power of movement, and the faculty of sensation. As La Mettrie says, this conception was not held by Descartes, who thought that the essential attribute of matter is extension. "The nature of body consists not in weight, hardness, color, and the like but in extension alone--in its being a substance extended in length, breadth and height." [157] Hobbes's conception of matter is very similar to that of La Mettrie. He specifically attributes motion to matter: "Motion and magnitude are the most common accidents of all bodies." [158] He does not name sensation as an attribute of matter, but he reduces sensation to motion. "Sense is some internal motion in the sentient." [159] Since motion is one of the attributes of matter, and since matter is the only reality in the universe, sensation must be attributed to matter.

88. La Mettrie always insists that matter has the power of moving itself, and resents any attempt to show that the motion is due to an outside agent. In this opinion he is in agreement with Toland. Toland says that those who have regarded matter as inert have had to find some efficient cause for motion; and to do this, they have held that all nature is animated. This pretended animation, however, is utterly useless, since matter is itself endowed with motion.

89. "This absurd system ... that animals are pure machines." (See Note 86.)

WORKS CONSULTED AND CITED IN THE NOTES.

(An asterisk indicates the edition to which reference is made.)

JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE.

1745 "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme." The Hague. (This work appears as "Traité de l'âme" in La Mettrie's collected works.) 1748 "L'homme machine." Leyden. "L'homme machine par La Mettrie, avec une introduction et des notes." J. Assézat. Paris, 1865. 1751 "OEuvres philosophiques." London (Berlin). 1764 * "OEuvres philosophiques de Monsieur de la Mettrie," Amsterdam. Besides "L'homme machine" and "Traité de l'âme," the "OEuvres philosophiques" contain the following (dates of first publication added in parentheses):

"Abrégé des systèmes." "L'homme plante" (1748). "Les animaux plus que machines" (1750). "L'Anti-Sénèque" (1748). "L'art de jouir" (1751). "Système d'Epicure."

ELIE LUZAC.

1748 "L'homme plus que machine." London (Leyden). * "Man More than a Machine," translated from the French of Elie Luzac, and printed with the translation of "Man a Machine" for G. Smith, 1750.

RENÉ DESCARTES.

1637 "Essais philosophiques," including "Discours de la méthode." * "The Discourse on Method," translated by John Veitch. Open Court Publishing Co., 1903. 1641 "Meditationes de prima philosophia." 1644 "Principia philosophiae." * "The Meditations and Selections from the Principles of Philosophy," translated by John Veitch. Open Court Publishing Co., 1905. 1650 "Les passions de l'âme." * "OEuvres de Descartes," Vol. IV. Edited by Victor Cousin, Paris, 1824.

JOHN TOLAND.

1704 * "Letters to Serena." London. Printed for Bernard Lintot.

THOMAS HOBBES.

1650 "Human Nature or the Fundamental Elements of Policie." London. 1651 "Leviathan; Or the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical & Civil." London. 1655 "Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Prima: De Corpore." London. * English Works edited by Sir William Molesworth, 1839-45. Volume III. Leviathan. Volume IV. Human Nature.

JOHN LOCKE.

1690 "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding." London. * Edition of Books II and IV (with omissions) preceded by the English version of Le Clerc's "Eloge historique de feu Mr. Locke," ed. M. W. Calkins. Open Court Publishing Co., 1905.

ETIENNE BONNOT DE CONDILLAC.

1754 "Traité des sensations." Paris and London. 1755 "Traité des animaux." Paris and London. * "OEuvres complètes," 23 vols. Edited by Guillaume Arnoux and Mousnier. Paris, 1798. Vol. III. "Traité des sensations." "Traité des animaux."

BARON P. H. D. VON HOLBACH.

1770 "Système de la nature," par M. Mirabaud [really Von Holbach]. * Nouvelle edition avec des notes et des corrections par Diderot. Paris, 1821.

C. A. HELVETIUS.

1758 "De l'esprit." Paris. * "De l'esprit, or Essays on the mind and its several faculties," translated from the French by William Mulford. London, 1810. 1772 "De l'homme, de ses facultés, et de son éducation." 2 vols. London. * "A Treatise on Man; His Intellectual Faculties and His Education," translated from the French, with notes, by W. Hooper, M. D., 1810.

FREDERICK THE GREAT.

* "OEuvres de Frederic II., Roi de Prusse, publiées du vivant de l'auteur." Berlin, 1789: "Eloge de Julien Offray de la Mettrie," Vol. III, pp. 159 ff.

FRANCIS BACON.

* "Sylva Sylvarum, sive Historia Naturalis," transcripta a J. Grutero Lug. Batavor. 1648.

F. A. LANGE.

* "History of Materialism," translated by Ernest Chester Thomas, Boston, 1877.

W. WINDELBAND.

* "History of Philosophy," translated by J. H. Tufts, New York, 1898.

A. W. BENN.

* "History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Century." London, 1906. "La Grande Encyclopédie. Inventaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Arts, par une Société de Savants et de Gens de Lettres." Paris, 1885-1903. "The Encyclopaedia Britannica. A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature." Ninth Edition. "The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia." New York. "Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology," edited by J. M. Baldwin. London and New York, 1901.

NOTES

[1] Il péche evidemment par une pétition de principe.

[2] L'histoire des animaux et des hommes prouve l'empire de la semence des pères sur l'esprit et le corps des enfants.

[3] L'auteur de l'Histoire naturelle de l'âme etc.

[4] L'auteur de l'Hist. de l'âme.

[5] Il y a encore aujourd'hui des peuples, qui, faute d'un plus grand nombre de signes, ne peuvent compter que jusqu'à 20.

[6] Dans un cercle, ou à table, il lui fallait toujours un rempart de chaises, ou quelqu'un dans son voisinage du côté gauche, pour l'empêcher de voir des abîmes épouvantables dans lesquels il craignait quelquefois de tomber, quelque connaissance qu'il eut de ces illusions. Quel effrayant effet de l'imagination, ou d'une singulière circulation dans un lobe du cerveau! Grand homme d'un côté, il était à moitié fou de l'autre. La folie et la sagesse avaient chacun leur département, ou leur lobe, séparé par la faux. De quel côté tenait-il si fort à Mrs. de Port-Royal? J'ai lu ce fait dans un extrait du traité du vertige de Mr. de la Mettrie.

[7] Au moins par les vaisseaux. Est-il sûr qu'il n'y en a point par les nerfs?

[8] Haller dans les Transact. Philosoph.

[9] Boerhaave, Inst. Med. et tant d'autres.

[10] He evidently errs by begging the question.

[11] The history of animals and of men proves how the mind and the body of children are dominated by their inheritance from their fathers.

[12] The author of "The Natural History of the Soul."

[13] The author of "The History of the Soul."

[14] There are peoples, even to-day, who, through lack of a greater number of signs, can count only to 20.

[15] In a company, or at table, he always required a rampart of chairs or else some one close to him at the left, to prevent his seeing horrible abysses into which (in spite of his understanding these illusions) he sometimes feared that he might fall. What a frightful result of imagination, or of the peculiar circulation in a lobe of the brain! Great man on one side of his nature, on the other he was half-mad. Madness and wisdom, each had its compartment, or its lobe, the two separated by a fissure. Which was the side by which he was so strongly attached to Messieurs of Port Royal? (I have read this in an extract from the treatise on vertigo by M. de la Mettrie.)

[16] Haller in the Transact. Philosoph.

[17] "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," chapters XI, VIII.

[18] "Man a Machine," p. 142. Cf. La Mettrie's commentary on Descartes's teaching in "Abrégé des systèmes philosophiques," OEuvres, Tome 2.

[19] "Abrégé des systèmes, Descartes," p. 6, OEuvres Philosophiques, Tome 2.

[20] "Man a Machine," page 89. Cf. "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme" (or "Traité de l'âme"), OEuvres, 1746, p. 229.

[21] Descartes, "Principles," Part II, Prop. 4.

[22] "Man a Machine," pp. 122-126.

[23] Ibid., p. 142.

[24] Hobbes, "Leviathan," Part III, Chap. 34; Part I, Chap. XII, Open Court Edition, p. 169.

[25] "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," Chapters III, V, and VI.

[26] "Leviathan," Part I, Chap. I. Cf. "Concerning Body," Part IV, Chap. XXV, 2.

[27] "Man a Machine," pp. 90-91.

[28] "Leviathan," Part I, Chap. VI, Molesworth Ed., p. 40. Cf. "Man a Machine," p. 90.

[29] Ibid., Part I, Chap. IV. Cf. "Man a Machine," p. 103.

[30] Ibid., Part I, Chap. XII.

[31] "Letters to Serena," V, p. 168.

[32] Ibid., p. 196.

[33] Ibid., p. 203.

[34] Ibid., p. 199.

[35] "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," Chap. V, p. 94.

[36] "Man a Machine," p. 139.

[37] "Man a Machine," p. 140.

[38] "Letters to Serena," V, p. 227.

[39] Ibid., V, p. 234.

[40] John Locke, "Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Book I,

## Book II, Chap. I.

[41] Locke, "Essay," Book II, Chap. 8.

[42] Ibid., Book II, Chap. 23.

[43] Ibid., Book IV, Chap. 10. For La Mettrie's summary of Locke, cf. his "Abrégé des systèmes," OEuvres, Tome 2.

[44] F. A. Lange, "History of Materialism," Vol. II, Chap. II.

[45] "Traité des sensations," Part I.

[46] "Traité des animaux," Chap. I, p. 454.

[47] "Traité des animaux," Chap. VI, p. 577 ff.

[48] "Treatise on Man," Sect. II, Chap. I, p. 96.

[49] Ibid., Sect. II, Chap. II, p. 108.

[50] "Essays on the Mind," Essay II, Chap. I, p. 35.

[51] "Treatise on Man," Chap. XII, p. 161.

[52] Ibid., Chap. IX, p. 146; Chap. VII, p. 129.

[53] "Système de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. I, p. 6.

[54] "Système de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. VI, p. 94.

[55] Ibid., Vol. II, Chap. XVI, p. 451, and Chap. XXVI, p. 485. Cf. "Man a Machine," pp. 125-126.

[56] The references are to pages of this book.

[57] Page-references are to the editions cited on pp. 205-207, except references to "Man a Machine" which are to this translation. The translated or original title of a French book is cited according as the editor has made use of translation or of French text.

[58] "Man More than a Machine," pp. 10, 12. For statement of the editions to which these Notes make reference, see pp. 205-207.

[59] Locke's "Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Book II. Chap. XXIII, § 15.

[60] Ibid., § 31.

[61] Condensed and translated from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 26.

[62] Translated from a note of Assézat in "L'homme machine."

[63] Condensed and translated from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 4.

[64] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., Vol. XXIII. All references are to this edition.

[65] "Man More than a Machine," p. 5.

[66] "Discourse on Method," Part. V.

[67] "Discourse on Method," Part IV.

[68] "Meditations," II.

[69] "Traité des sensations," Part IV, Chap. IX, § 5.

[70] "Système de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. I.

[71] Quoted from Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, Vol. I.

[72] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XI.

[73] "Les passions de l'âme," Part I, Art. XV, and Art. XXXIX.

[74] Ibid., Part I, Art. XV.

[75] Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX.

[76] Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 26.

[77] Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX.

[78] "Man More than a Machine," p. 23.

[79] "Discourse on Method," V, last paragraph.

[80] "Système de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. VII.

[81] Translated from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 26.

[82] Quoted from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XXIV.

[83] Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX.

[84] E. Haeckel, "The Riddle of the Universe," Chap. III.

[85] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. I.

[86] "The Riddle of the Universe," Chap. II.

[87] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XXIII.

[88] Translated from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 31.

[89] "Leviathan," Part I, Chap. IV.

[90] "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," Chap. XIV. p. 199.

[91] "Traité des sensations," p. 50. Cf. ibid., Chap. XII (2).

[92] "Treatise on Man," Sect. II, Chap. I, p. 4. Cf. "Essays on Mind," Essay I, Chap. I, p. 7.

[93] "Leviathan," Part I, Chap. XII.

[94] "Man More than a Machine," p. 25.

[95] Ibid., p. 26.

[96] Quoted from Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, Vol. II.

[97] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. II.

[98] "Traité des animaux," Chap. I, p. 454.

[99] "Man More than a Machine," p. 65.

[100] "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," Chap. X, § XII.

[101] "Treatise on Man," Chap. X.

[102] Ibid., Chap. VII.

[103] "Le vrai sens du système de la nature," Chap. IX.

[104] Ibid., Vol. I, Chap. VIII, p. 140.

[105] "Man More than a Machine," pp. 71 and 72.

[106] Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX.

[107] Translated from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 24.

[108] Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX.

[109] Translated from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 14.

[110] Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. X.

[111] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XV.

[112] Cf. A. W. Benn, "History of English Rationalism," Vol. I, Chap. III.

[113] Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. X.

[114] Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 14.

[115] Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 7.

[116] Condensed from F. A. Lange, "History of Materialism," Vol. II, Chap. I, and from W. Windelband, "History of Philosophy," Part V, Chap. I.

[117] "Système de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. I, p. 12.

[118] Ibid., Vol. II, Chap. XI. Cf. Vol. I, Chap. VII.

[119] "Meditations," III and V.

[120] "Leviathan," Part I, Chap. XII.

[121] "Letters to Serena," V, p. 235.

[122] "Traité des animaux," Chap. VI, p. 585.

[123] "Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Book IV, Chap. X.

[124] Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX.

[125] Translated and condensed from the Dictionnaire des Sciences philosophiques, Vol. III, Paris, 1847.

[126] "Traité des animaux," Chap. VI.

[127] "Système de la nature," Vol. II, Chap. XVI, p. 451.

[128] Ibid., Chap. XXVI, p. 485. Cf. Luzac's criticism in "Man More than a Machine," p. 94.

[129] "Meditations," IV.

[130] "Système de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. VII, pp. 121-122.

[131] Condensed and translated from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 13.

[132] Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX.

[133] F. A. Lange, "History of Materialism," Vol. I, Sec. II, Chap. III.

[134] "Sylva Sylvarum sive Historia Naturalis Latio Transcripta a J. Gruteo." Lug. Batavos, 1648. Cf. Bk. IV, Experiment 400.

[135] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. IV.

[136] Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 30.

[137] "Les passions de l'âme," Part I, Art. 13.

[138] "Essays on the Mind," Essay I, Chap. I, pp. 4ff.

[139] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. IV.

[140] "Les passions de l'âme," Part I, Art. 41.

[141] "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," Chap. XII, p. 164. Cf. Chap. XII, p. 167.

[142] "Système de la nature," Vol. I, Chap. VI, pp. 89ff.

[143] "Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous," I, Open Court edition; pp. 27, 28, 29. Cf. "Principles of Human Knowledge," par. 10, 15.

[144] Quoted from J. Burnet, "Early Greek Philosophy," Chap. II.

[145] Republic, III, 403.

[146] "Les passions de l'âme," Part I, Art. VIII.

[147] Quoted from the Century Dictionary, Vol. X.

[148] Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 19.

[149] Condensed from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. III.

[150] Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 26.

[151] "Letters to Serena," V.

[152] "Système de la nature," Vol. II, Chap. II, p. 32.

[153] Condensed from the Century Dictionary, Vol. IX.

[154] Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 22.

[155] Translated and condensed from La Grande Encyclopédie, Vol. 31.

[156] "L'histoire naturelle de l'âme," Chap. VI.

[157] "Principles of Metaphysics," Part II, Prop. 4.

[158] "De Corpore," Part III, Chap. XV.

[159] Ibid., Part IV, Chap. XXV, (2).

End of Project Gutenberg's Man a Machine, by Julien Offray De la Mettrie