Part 4

Do you think people who live in hot countries need the same kind of clothing as those who live in cold countries?

What kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold countries? Would such clothes be comfortable in hot countries?

There is a plant that yields no food, drink, or clothing, yet it is used in nearly every country in the world. Can you tell its name?

Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco.

Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax plants?

Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for supper without a sugar bowl?

[Illustration: "SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT."]

The sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from sugar-cane. The sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like Indian corn when growing. It is called the sugar-cane because it is filled with the sweet juice that is made into the sugar.

When the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mill. Here they pass between great rollers which press out the juice. The liquid is then boiled until it turns to sugar.

Much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree. In the early spring the sap begins to rise. A hole is bored in the tree and a tube inserted, through which the sap passes to a bucket or other vessel placed to receive it. The sap is boiled in large kettles and becomes syrup. More boiling turns the syrup into sugar.

_Write_ what you have learned of _cotton_ and _linen_.

LESSON XXXIII.

FOREST TREES.

In your walks what things please you the most? Is it not the trees? Trees are very useful to us, and we ought to be very grateful for them.

Name some trees along the streets and in the parks. Are they useful to us, especially on a hot day? Why? Then what kind of trees do we call them? (Shade.) Which of these are the first to put on their green dresses in the spring? Which are the brightest in autumn?

Name some trees that grow in the woods.

[Illustration: A SHADY STREET.]

Name a tree whose wood is dark. A tree whose wood is light. A tree whose wood is hard. A tree whose wood is soft.

Name some trees that are valued for the color and hardness, or the beautiful grain, of their wood.

What kind of wood are the desks made of? The teacher's table?

What kinds of wood are used in making chairs? tables? pianos? windows? floors?

If we wish to make a carriage, omnibus, cart, or wagon, which wood should we use? Why?

From which trees do we get lumber for building?

Can you name a wood which is very hard and tough, and is used in building ships?

What do we call many trees together, like these?

What is Arbor Day? Why need we plant trees?

What do we plant when we plant the tree? We plant the houses for you and me. We plant the rafters, the shingles, the floors, We plant the studding, the laths, the doors, The beams and siding, all parts that be-- We plant the house when we plant the tree.

What do we plant when we plant the tree? A thousand things that we daily see.

We plant tie spire that out-towers the crag, We plant the staff for our country's flag, We plant the shade, from the hot sun free-- We plant all these when we plant the tree.

There are trees much larger than any we find growing here. I am sure you must have heard of the great trees of California. Some of them are one hundred feet around, and nearly four hundred feet high,--twice as high as a very tall steeple. In one of these trees, if hollowed out, a large family might live.

[Illustration: GREAT TREES OF CALIFORNIA.]

In your rambles in the woods, notice and examine the trees which you see. Learn to know the trees so that you can call them by their proper names.

Draw and paint some of the objects noticed; as grains, vegetables, trees, etc. You will enjoy this very much, and it will help you to see these things better.

LESSON XXXIV.

FLOWERS

[Illustration: FLOWERS]

A flower is a weak and tiny thing; but there are many flowers, and by helping together they cover the earth with beauty and fill the air with sweetness. They seem to have been made to give us pleasure.

It will be easy and useful to learn something about the flowers that grow where you live. How many flowers can you mention by name? Which do you know at sight? Where would you go to find them?

Would you find them all growing in the same place? Which can live only in wet places? Which thrive best where there is but little moisture?

If we take a walk in the fields in the early spring, which flowers shall we be likely to see? Which later? What color are they? Which are fragrant? Which most beautiful? Which would you like for your flower vase? Which would you like to plant and care for in a box of earth or a garden-bed?

Can you find and name the parts of a plant--root, stem, leaves, bud, flower? Learn the uses of each part.

Here are some pretty verses on "Spring and the Flowers." Perhaps you will commit them to memory.

In the snowing and the blowing, In the cruel sleet, Little flowers begin their growing Far beneath our feet.

Softly taps the Spring and cheerly: "Darlings, are you there?" Till they answer, "We are nearly, Nearly ready, dear.

"Where is Winter with his snowing? Tell us, Spring," they say. Then she answers, "He is going, Going on his way.

"Poor old Winter does not love you, But his time is past; Soon my birds shall sing above you-- Set you free at last."

LESSON XXXV.

WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW.

Plants do not grow in winter. Can you tell why? Plants do not grow in hot places called deserts. Can yon think of any reason for this?

What two things are necessary to make plants grow? At what time of the year can they get these?

If a country has a great deal of heat and rain; what can we be sure of about its trees and grass and flowers?

There are places that have rain enough, but very little heat. How do you suppose the trees grow there?

You may get information about plants and things by seeing for yourself, by asking others, and by reading books.

[Illustration: "IF A COUNTRY HAS A GREAT DEAL OF HEAT AND RAIN."]

_Write the names_:

Of some grains that we use for food.

Of some vegetables that we use for food.

Of two plants from which clothing is made.

Of woods used in making furniture.

Of woods used in building our houses.

LESSON XXXVI.

SUMMER RAIN.

Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain! Let not the silver lily pine, The drooping lily pine in vain, To feel that dewy touch of thine, To drink thy freshness once again, Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!

In heat the landscape quivering lies, The cattle pant beneath the tree; Through parching air and purple skies The earth looks up, in vain, for thee; For thee--for thee it looks in vain, Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!

Come thou, and brim the meadow streams, And soften all the hills with mist,

Oh, falling dew! From burning dreams By thee shall herb and flower be kissed; And earth shall bless thee yet again, Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!

LESSON XXXVII.

THE PARTS OF ANIMALS.

Animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are domestic animals; others are wild.

[Illustration: TIGER'S FEET.]

What animals are found where you live?

Which are domestic? Which wild?

Which of these animals feed upon grass? grains? fruits? flesh?

You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases. What use does the cat make of its claws?

How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its prey?

[Illustration: DUCK'S FOOT.]

[Illustration: HEN'S FOOT.]

Compare a duck's bill with an owl's. What use does the duck make of its broad flat bill? The owl, of its sharp hooked bill?

How do the bills of the hen and the duck differ? Would a bill fitted for pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill?

[Illustration: SEIZING CLAW.]

Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot? For what does each use its feet?

Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes?

What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet only used? Could a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen?

You see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it leads.

LESSON XXXVIII.

THE COVERING OF ANIMALS.

Name two animals covered with fur.

Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers.

What do we call the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is hair to animals?

What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it to them?

The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps them from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered? Why?

Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what would result?

What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see that each animal has that covering which suits its habits best.

LESSON XXXIX.

USES OF ANIMALS.

What domestic animals are used for food?

What wild animals are used for food?

[Illustration: "WHAT DOMESTIC ANIMALS ARE USED FOR FOOD?"]

From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton? veal?

What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes?

From what animal do we get wool? How is wool taken from the sheep? What articles of dress are made of wool?

[Illustration: "FROM WHAT ANIMAL DO WE GET WOOL?"]

Name the animals whose skins are used to make leather. How is leather prepared? Did you ever see a tannery? What do they do there?

From what animals do we get furs?

What is silk?

[Illustration: THE SILKWORM AND MOTH.]

Silk is made by little worms called silkworms. When the worm is fully grown, it spins round itself a small ball of silk, called a cocoon. If this cocoon were left to itself, the worm would change to a moth, and the moth would eat its way out of this little house. But this, of course, would cut the little threads and spoil the silk. As soon, therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is put into hot water to kill the worm. In this way the silk is saved.

Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh used? What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with the skin? What other uses has the cow?

What animal shows the most affection for his master?

Mention some kinds of dogs.

You may have seen a dog called the St. Bernard. He is large, with long curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is dangerous, the St. Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who use their dogs, as we use horses, to draw their sledges?

Which is the most useful animal to man?

Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson.

_Write the names:_

Of animals useful for food.

Of animals which work for man.

Of animals useful to us for clothing.

Of birds and fowls used for food.

LESSON XL.

THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS.

What does it mean when the bluebird comes And builds its nest, singing sweet and clear? When violets peep among blades of grass?-- These are the signs that spring is here.

What does it mean when berries are ripe? When butterflies flit, and honeybees hum? When cattle stand under the shady trees?-- These are the signs that summer has come.

What does it mean when the crickets chirp, And away to the south the robins steer? When apples are falling, and leaves grow brown?-- These are the signs that autumn is here

What does it mean when days are short? When leaves are gone, and brooks are dumb When fields are white with drifted snow?-- These are the signs that winter has come.

LESSON XLI.

THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.

The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These we must find and dig out.

The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--all come out of the earth.

But these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the earth.

From salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables. From oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us light. Diamonds which sparkle so beautifully, and the stone we use in building, are also taken from the earth.

Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, and salt are called minerals.

The opening dug in the earth from which minerals, except stone, are taken; is called a _mine_.

One of the most useful of minerals is _coal_. Did you ever stop to think how much hard work coal does for us? It grinds our wheat, it weaves our cloth, it carries us by sea and by land over the earth. Hardly any labor can be done without coal.

[Illustration: OIL WELLS.]

You have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame and smoke. That is called soft or bituminous coal. That hard, clean-looking coal, which burns with little blaze, yet gives out such great heat, is anthracite coal.

Coal has many uses. Mention all you can think of. From which kind is gas obtained, hard or soft coal?

What is coal? Some day you will be able to understand how coal was made, and how it got deep down in the earth.

What article used with food is found in mines? Does all _salt_ come out of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in mines?

There are salt mines where men, women, and children live all their lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galleries, with tall pillars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt. When lighted up with torches, they glitter as if studded with precious stones. It is like a fairy palace.

Some minerals are called metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, and mercury are metals.

Iron is the most useful of all metals. Did you ever think what we should do without this hard, strong metal? The following lines tell some of the uses of iron:

[Illustration: IRON MINE.]

Iron vessels cross the ocean. Iron engines give them motion; Iron pipe our gas delivers, Iron bridges span our rivers, Iron horses draw our loads, Iron rails compose our roads; Iron houses, iron walls, Iron cannon, iron balls, Iron lightning rods on spires, Iron telegraphic wires, Iron hammers, nails, and screws, Iron everything we use.

Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other tools are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel. Mention some of them.

Which is the most valuable of all metals? Is all the gold made into money? Is money made of pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament made of gold. Articles of use. Are gold watches, chains, and rings usually made of pure gold? Why? What do you call the man who makes these articles?

[Illustration: CASTING IRON FROM THE ORE.]

Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals. What does "lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usually made of pure silver? Why?

Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west. Sometimes they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found in rocks, and the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken out.

[Illustration: "SOMETIMES MEN WASH DOWN THE HILLS."]

Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to get at the silver or gold among the rocks.

Gold and silver are called the _precious metals_ because they do not rust, and on account of their scarcity.

Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall be light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into melted tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like tin itself.

A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is called tin-plate. It is of this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A tin cup is really made of iron.

Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes.

Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Small shot is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid motion, from the top of a high tower. The drops fall into a vessel of water below. They are next polished and made black, and then are ready for sale.

You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is made of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a kind of coal.

Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust. Cooking vessels are often made of copper.

Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin. Brass is made by mixing copper and zinc together.

Mention some articles made of brass.

Write five lines about tin.

Write five or more lines about coal.

Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead.

LESSON XLII.

MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.

[Illustration: A GRANITE QUARRY.]

We have seen that there are many kinds of metals. There are also many kinds of stone. Those which are strong and do not crumble by exposure are useful for building. The place from which stones are taken for building is called a _quarry._

The more common stones are granite, sandstone; limestone, marble, and slate.

We will first examine a piece of _granite._

How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface when polished!

Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for sidewalk curbings. Are houses ever built of granite? Can you think of other uses of granite?

Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily shaped. It is hard enough to give strength. It is enduring. What does "enduring" mean?

This is a piece of _sandstone_, made of little grains of sand. It will crumble more easily than granite. What does "crumble" mean? Brownstone, used in building, is a kind of sandstone.

And this is the common gray _limestone_ of which lime used in building is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is called a lime-kiln. Did you ever see one? Can you tell how the lime is made?

Here are three pieces of _marble_. This piece is pure white. This is colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in your mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many colored spots--mottled it may be called.

Marble is beautiful when polished.

[Illustration: A MARBLE QUARRY.]

In what different ways have you seen marble used? What parts of furniture are sometimes marble? Why is it suitable for this? Is marble ever used for building houses? Do you think it would be good for that purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of all building stones? Why?

Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all building stones.

_Chalk_ is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a building stone? Is chalk harder or softer than other stone?

You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not get along well in school without _slate_. Slate is easily split into thin plates, and has a smooth, firm surface.

Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part of a house is sometimes slate? Think of other uses. Why is it useful for these purposes?

We must not forget _brick_ in our talks about things that come out of the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals and stone are found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a part of the ground.

Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of bricks? What is the man called who builds houses of bricks?

Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from sand; which is also a part of the ground.

In laying brick or stone, the mason uses _mortar_. Mortar is made chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the ground.

If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of all you see, and on your return to school tell what you have learned.

LESSON XLIII.

HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING

[Illustration: "DID YOU EVER HEAR OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN SNOW HOUSES?"]

Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not come from the earth?

Do all people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in? What is a tent?

[Illustration: WIGWAMS.]

A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in snow houses?

[Illustration: HOUSES BUILT OF BAMBOO.]

In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane that grows in warm countries.

What building is now going up in this place? Tell the use of stone, brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house. Where and how are they obtained?

[Illustration: "WHO LIVE IN HUTS?"]

We could not live without food. We must also have clothes to wear and houses to live in. Besides these, we need schools, books, and churches, which make us wiser and better. Now, if you think a little, you can name many other things which we need to make our homes beautiful. To supply us with all of these things, men must do many different kinds of work.

Where does the food we eat come from?

We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and beans are seeds of plants. Almost all our bread is made from wheat. Beets, turnips, and radishes are roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are the leaves of plants.

[Illustration: "OUR BREAD IS MADE FROM WHEAT."]

Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on plants. All these we use for food.

Plants also supply us with material for clothing. Some clothes are made from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes are made from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats are made from straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants.

Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and clothing, do not grow of themselves.

The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of while growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many people at work raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This occupation we call _agriculture_ or _farming;_ the people we call farmers.

Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat comes from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter and cheese.