Part I

. Birds and mammals. U.S. Bur. Biol. Surv., N. Am. Fauna 46:1-128.

Sealy, S. G. 1973. Breeding biology of the horned puffin on St. Lawrence Island, Bering Sea, with zoogeographical notes on the North Pacific puffins. Pac. Sci. 27:99-119.

Sealy, S. G., F. H. Fay, J. Bédard, and M. D. F. Udvardy. 1971. New records and zoogeographical notes on the birds of St. Lawrence Island, Bering Sea. Condor 73(3):322-336.

Selkregg, L. L., ed. [1975]. Alaska regional profiles: Arctic region. Univ. Alaska, Arct. Environ. Inf. Data Cent., Anchorage. 218 pp.

Shepherd, P. E. K. 1960. Production and abundance of the black brant in Alaska. Alaska Dep. Fish Game, Game Div. Pittman-Robertson Proj. Rep. 2(8):58-77.

Swarth, H. S. 1934. Birds on Nunivak Island, Alaska. Pac. Coast Avifauna 22. 64 pp.

Swartz, L. G. 1966. Sea-cliff birds. Pages 611-678 _in_ N. J. Wilimovsky and J. N. Wolfe, eds. Environment of the Cape Thompson region, Alaska. U.S. AEC, Div. Tech. Inf., Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

Thompson, C. F. 1967. Notes on the birds of the Northeast Cape of St. Lawrence Island and of the Punuk Islands, Alaska. Condor 69(4):411-419.

Thompson, M. C., J. Q. Hines, and F. S. L. Williamson. 1966. Discovery of the downy young of Kittlitz's murrelet. Auk 83(3):349-351.

Tuck, L. 1960. The murres. Can. Wildl. Serv. Ser. 1. 260 pp.

Turner, L. M. 1886. Contributions to the natural history of Alaska. U.S. Army, Signal Serv. Arct. Ser. Publ. 2. 226 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1972. Nunivak National Wildlife Refuge wilderness study report. Agency, Anchorage, Alaska. 200 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Planning Group. 1973_a_. Proposed Alaska Coastal Refuges, Alaska. Agency Draft Environ. Statement 73-94. 247 pp. + appendixes.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Planning Group. 1973_b_. Proposed Togiak National Wildlife Refuge. Agency Draft Environ. Statement 73-100. 183 pp. + appendixes.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Planning Group. 1973_c_. Proposed Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. Agency Draft Environ. Statement 73-101. 205 pp. + appendixes.

U.S. National Park Service, Alaska Planning Group. 1973. Proposed Chukchi-Imuruk National Wildlands, Alaska. Agency Draft Environ. Statement 73-84. 306 pp. + appendixes.

Watson, G. E., and G. J. Divoky. 1975. Marine birds in the Beaufort Sea. Pages 681-695 _in_ J. C. Reed and J. E. Sater, eds. The coast and shelf of the Beaufort Sea. Arctic Institute of North America, Washington, D.C.

Williamson, F. S. L. 1957. Ecological distribution of birds in the Napaskiak area of the Kuskokwim River delta, Alaska. Condor 59(5):317-338.

Williamson, F. S. L., M. C. Thompson, and J. Q. Hines. 1966. Avifaunal investigations. Pages 437-480 _in_ N. J. Wilimovsky and J. N. Wolfe, eds. Environment of the Cape Thompson region, Alaska. U.S. AEC, Div. Tech. Inf., Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 1250 pp.

FOOTNOTES:

[2] Present address: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 500 NE Multnomah Street, Portland, Oregon 97232.

Breeding Distribution and Status of Marine Birds in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska

by Palmer C. Sekora[3]

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Kailua, Hawaii

G. Vernon Byrd[4]

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Adak, Alaska

and

Daniel D. Gibson

_University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska_

Abstract

Seabird population estimates are generally lacking for the 1,800-km-long Aleutian Islands. Only the locations of the larger colonies are known, and for these there are only imprecise estimates of colony sizes and often even of species composition. Changes in the status of several species and populations resulting from geologic and marine actions and from human intrusions are evident. Accounts are given for 25 species of marine birds breeding in these islands.

The 1,800-km-long chain of islands known as the Aleutians provides nesting habitat for various species of marine birds, including three species of Procellariiformes and three of cormorants (_Phalacrocorax_ spp.), one species of gull _(Larus glaucescens)_, both kittiwake species (_Rissa_ spp.), two species of terns (_Sterna_ spp.), and at least 13 species of alcids.

Seabird population estimates of known accuracy are lacking for this isolated area. Locations of larger colonies of breeding seabirds are known, however, and sufficient data are available to place colonies in broad size ranges. Published information on the breeding biology of marine birds is also lacking from the Aleutians, but some studies are under way. The distribution of nesting marine birds away from the nesting cliffs is totally unknown.

Introduced predators, primarily arctic foxes _(Alopex lagopus)_, are now found on nearly every island. Breeding marine bird populations have suffered drastic reductions as a result. They have probably also changed because of natural habitat modifications caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tidal waves, and marine erosion.

The purpose of this paper is to summarize the known present distribution and status of breeding marine birds in the Aleutian Islands.

Description of the Aleutian Islands

The Aleutian Islands form an arc that separates the Bering Sea and the north Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1). The island chain extends from the tip of the Alaska Peninsula to within 483 km of the Commander Islands of Siberia. The chain contains more than 200 islands--the peaks of a submarine volcanic mountain range. Volcanic activity and earthquakes occur regularly.

Weather is characterized by perpetual overcast, dense summer fog, high-velocity winds, and mild temperatures with low annual and diurnal variations. The sea is ice-free year-round except in extremely cold winters, when the arctic ice pack may reach the extreme northern islands.

The Aleutians are treeless except for a few introduced, stunted spruces. Woody shrubs are restricted to the most northern islands on each end of the Chain. Mosses, lichens, club mosses, and heaths are common ground-cover plants, and taller grasses, sedges, and umbellifers constitute the overstory. Hulten (1960) provided a list of terrestrial plants found in the Aleutians. Amundsen and Clebsch (1971) discussed terrestrial plant ecology at Amchitka, central Aleutians. The marine plant communities around the islands are fairly diverse. Lebednik et al. (1971) described marine algal communities at Amchitka.

The easternmost Aleutian island, Unimak, has a mammalian fauna like that of the Alaska Peninsula, including brown bear _(Ursus arctos)_, caribou _(Rangifer tarandus)_, wolf _(Canis lupus)_, and wolverine _(Gulo gulo)_. West of Unimak, red foxes _(Vulpes fulva)_ occurred historically as far as Umnak, and arctic foxes were apparently on Attu when the Russians came in 1741 (Murie 1959). Except for man and dog, no land mammals occurred between Umnak and Aggatu islands. Arctic foxes, introduced before 1930 for fur farming, still roam almost every island. Norway rats _(Rattus norvegicus)_ were introduced on many islands when ships were wrecked or as a result of military activities during World War II.

Sea otters _(Enhydra lutris)_ have repopulated most of the Aleutians after being nearly extirpated by 1900. Rookeries of Steller's sea lion _(Eumetopias jubata)_ are scattered throughout the Aleutians during summer, and numerous harbor seals _(Phoca vitulina)_ haul out on beaches and offshore rocks.

All five species of Pacific salmon (_Oncorhynchus_ spp.) occur near the islands, and at least four of them (all but _O. tshawytscha_) spawn in Aleutian streams. Dolly Varden _(Salvelinus malma)_ and three-spine sticklebacks _(Gasterosteus aculeatus)_ are found nearly everywhere there is fresh water. The marine environment provides habitat used by at least 77 species of fish (Isakson et al. 1971). O'Clair and Chew (1971) furnished a recent reference to littoral macrofauna at Amchitka.

About 200 species of birds have been recorded in the Aleutians (Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, unpublished data). Many of these are windblown stragglers from both North America and Asia; only 59 species breed on the islands. Although seabirds make up less than half (26 species or 44%) of the breeding birds, they may compose more than 90% of the breeding avian biomass.

Ornithological Investigations in the Aleutians

Published ornithological information from the Aleutian Islands is relatively scarce. G. W. Steller, naturalist on Vitus Bering's 1741 expedition to Alaska, was the first person to record ornithological information in the islands (Stejneger 1936). More than a century passed before W. H. Dall (1873, 1874) published the next papers dealing with birds in the Aleutians. In 1878, the U.S. Army Signal Corps sent L. M. Turner to the Aleutians to set up weather stations at several locations. Turner kept notes on birds at various locations in the Aleutians and published two papers (1885, 1886) on his observations. Turner's data (1886) provided the first report based on extended and widespread observations in the area. E. W. Nelson, who replaced Turner, also provided data on birds (Nelson 1887).

In 1906, A. C. Bent came to the Aleutians specifically to look for birds, and he and Alexander Wetmore recorded birds throughout the island chain (Bent 1912). A. H. Clark (1910) provided a valuable record of his observations in the Near Islands. All these workers recorded birds in several locations, but none provided data on more than a very few seabird colonies.

[Illustration: =Fig. 1.= The Aleutian Islands.]

O. J. Murie, U.S. Biological Survey, made the most complete survey of the Aleutians (Murie 1959). He specifically recorded seabird colonies, spending parts of four summers in the area. Murie visited every large Aleutian island and most small ones. He recorded nearly every major colony of cliff-nesting or talus-nesting seabirds known in the Aleutians, but seldom gave sizes of colonies, and separate colonies on a particular island were often not differentiated.

World War II brought several ornithologists to the Aleutians. Cahn (1947), Sutton and Wilson (1946), Taber (1946), and Wilson (1948) provided accounts of birds observed at specific locations. After the war, Fish and Wildlife Service personnel--including I. N. Gabrielson (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959), K. W. Kenyon (Kenyon 1961), and R. D. Jones (Refuge Narrative Reports 1949-1970)--recorded observations of breeding seabirds at several locations in the Aleutians. Investigations associated with Atomic Energy Commission nuclear testing at Amchitka Island provided the first ecological study of avifauna of an Aleutian island (White et al. 1977). Byrd et al. (1974) provided a list of birds at Adak.

In 1971, the Near Islands were surveyed by U.S. Fish and Wildlife personnel in a Cape Cod dory. In 1972, the Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge obtained a vessel, the _Aleutian Tern_, which allowed visits to all parts of the island chain. That year, nearly every large island as far west as Buldir was visited, and seabird colonies were mapped. Every island has been visited at least once since 1972.

Methods

In estimating the current status of seabirds in the Aleutians, all available data were considered. Most of the information used, however, is from surveys conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1970-75, unpublished data). Because these surveys only incidentally included Unimak, Akun, Akutan, Unalaska, and Umnak islands, data for these areas are almost totally lacking. Data for Bogoslof, Adak, Amchitka, Buldir, Agattu, Nizki, Alaid, and Attu are most accurate because fairly intensive investigations have been conducted there since 1970.

The available data are of unknown accuracy. The method used by most investigators who have surveyed areas in the Aleutians for seabird colonies has been to circle islands in a ship or small boat; when a colony was encountered, they simply estimated the number of birds they saw at the time. The accuracy of the estimates is affected by weather, distance from the colony, density of birds, ability and experience of the observer, and other variables. Estimates of kittiwakes and cormorants should be the most accurate, since nests were actually counted. Murres (_Uria_ spp.) are readily visible on the cliffs, but the percentage of breeders on the cliffs at a particular time of day during a particular part of the breeding season is not known. Auklet numbers are perhaps hardest to estimate, since swirling "clouds" of birds are encountered.

Even when the estimates of birds seen are assumed to be accurate, data interpretation is complex. Lack of information on diurnal rhythms adds difficulty to data interpretation. Counts of burrow-nesting birds (e.g., puffins) have been inaccurately interpreted because of the lack of understanding of their nesting ecology. Gulls (_Larus_ spp.), terns, and jaegers (_Stercorarius_ spp.) are not well known since shore parties have seldom investigated island interiors. Nocturnal species (e.g., ancient murrelet, _Synthliboramphus antiquus_, and storm-petrels, _Oceanodroma_ spp.) are perhaps the least known. Since only crude estimates of colony sizes are available, broad limits are used in this paper to describe known colonies.

Status and Distribution of Breeding Seabirds

Even from the sparse literature available, it is apparent that some seabird populations are now drastically different from those in the Aleutians around 1900. Changes in nesting habitat due to volcanic eruptions, tidal waves, marine erosion, and earthquakes have occurred for centuries, and colonial nesting bird populations have fluctuated accordingly. In addition, native Aleuts used marine birds and their eggs for food and their skins for clothing, but the Aleuts were so diminished in numbers by 1900 that they have had little recent effect on the bird populations.

From about 1900 to 1936, arctic foxes were introduced to most of the Aleutians for fur farming. The foxes lived on birds in summer, and some species (e.g., Aleutian Canada geese, _Branta canadensis leucopareia_) were wiped out wherever foxes were introduced. Ground-nesting and some burrow-nesting seabirds were also drastically reduced or extirpated on many islands.

During World War II the thousands of troops in the Aleutians brought dogs and cats to some of the islands as pets, and many of the animals were set free when the men departed. The military also accidentally introduced Norway rats to some of the islands. Their role in seabird population reductions is unknown.

Figures 2-15 (pages 40-46) present data on the distribution of populations of birds that have survived the foxes and other introduced predators. An annotated list of seabirds breeding in the Aleutians follows.

_Annotated List of Species_

Northern fulmar _(Fulmarus glacialis)_

Northern fulmars breed on only three islands: Buldir (200 pairs), Gareloi (1,500 pairs), and Chagulak (more than 100,000 pairs). Fulmars were apparently much more widespread formerly (Murie 1959; Turner 1886). Introduced foxes were probably involved in the decline.

Fork-tailed Storm-petrel and Leach's Storm-petrel (_Oceanodroma furcata_ and _O. leucorhoa_)

The distribution of storm-petrels is poorly known due to their nocturnal behavior near the nesting colonies. The presence of birds has generally been noted by finding them aboard ships anchored near islands after darkness. Population estimates are not available for any colonies, so symbols used in Fig. 3 indicate probable numbers of breeding birds. In few cases have active burrows or crevices been discovered. Storm-petrels were formerly much more common. Murie (1959) and John L. Trapp (personal communication) found large numbers of storm-petrel remains in fox dens. Most present breeding colonies are probably confined to offshore islets and fox-free islands.

Double-crested Cormorant, Pelagic Cormorant, and Red-faced Cormorant (_Phalacrocorax auritus_, _P. pelagicus_, and _P. urile_)

Double-crested cormorants breed as far west as the Islands of Four Mountains. The colonies vary in size from a few to 25 pairs. Pelagic and red-faced cormorants nest from Amak to Attu on nearly every island. Relative abundance of the two in mixed colonies varies between areas as well as from year to year. Red-faced cormorants tend to nest in colonies mixed with kittiwakes and murres, but pure colonies also occur. Pelagic cormorants occupy isolated, small colonies, but they also nest with kittiwakes and murres and are often found with red-faced cormorants. By far the densest concentration of cormorants occurs in the Near Islands, especially at Attu, where an estimated 77,000 birds were seen in 1970. In the Aleutians as a whole, red-faced cormorants outnumber pelagic cormorants, and double-crested cormorants make up only a very small percentage of the breeding population.

Parasitic Jaeger _(Stercorarius parasiticus)_

The distribution of jaegers is poorly known because investigators have spent little time ashore on most islands. Murie (1959) found jaegers on a number of islands, and most of the data in Fig. 5 are his. Population estimates are available only for Amchitka (25 pairs; White et al. 1977) and Buldir (30-40 pairs; G. V. Byrd, unpublished data).

Glaucous-winged Gull _(Larus glaucescens)_

Glaucous-winged gulls no longer nest on islands where foxes occur except where islands in lakes are available. Most colonies are on offshore rocks or islets and range in size from a few pairs to over 200 pairs, and occasionally more. They are found throughout the Aleutians, but the largest known colonies are at Bogoslof (500 pairs) and Buldir (250 pairs).

Black-legged Kittiwake and Red-legged Kittiwake (_Rissa tridactyla_ and _R. brevirostris_)

Black-legged kittiwakes breed locally in every major island group, usually mixed with murres and cormorants. The large colonies contain over 25,000 birds, but colonies of less than 50 pairs also occur. Red-legged kittiwakes breed only on Buldir and Bogoslof. They are remnants of a previously more widespread population.

Arctic Tern and Aleutian Tern (_Sterna paradisaea_ and _S. aleutica_)

Terns breed locally in each island group. Both species occur at Attu, Amchitka, Adak, and Umnak, but only arctic terns are found at Nizki. Factors limiting distribution are unknown. Colonies vary in size from less than 10 pairs to 100 pairs.

Common Murre and Thick-billed Murre (_Uria aalge_ and _U. lomvia_)

Like kittiwakes, murres are abundant locally. A pure colony of either species is almost unknown, although one species often makes up more than 90% of a colony. Common murres may have been reduced by foxes, since they tend to use sites with less slope than those used by thick-billed murres. At Bogoslof and the Baby islands, the birds use inland, gently sloping areas because there are no foxes. The presence of the lichen _(Caloplaca spp.)_, which according to Tuck (1960) is indicative of bird roosts, on several extensive cliff areas suggests that either murres or kittiwakes, or both, formerly used areas they do not use now.

Pigeon Guillemot _(Cepphus columba)_

This species has been noted near almost every island that has been visited. Nesting under beach boulders and driftwood, the birds only occasionally are found in large concentrations (near Great Sitkin more than 4,000 birds were seen in 1971). Murie et al. (1937) summed up the distribution of pigeon guillemot accurately: "Each island has its meager quota of these birds, nesting unobtrusively among the rocks but never assembled in any really large groups." Estimates of populations may be extremely inaccurate because the diurnal rhythm of the pigeon guillemot is unknown.

Marbled Murrelet and Kittlitz's Murrelet (_Brachyramphus marmoratus_ and _B. brevirostris_)

Nests of neither species have been located in the Aleutians, but nesting of both is suspected at Adak, Unalaska, and Unimak, where specimens of Kittlitz's with brood patches or eggs in the oviduct have been collected in nearshore waters. Courtship has been recorded in marbled murrelets (Byrd et al. 1974).

Ancient Murrelet _(Synthliboramphus antiquus)_

The distribution of this species is very poorly known, since it is nocturnal near nesting colonies. Murie (1959) wrote, "This is one of the species that undoubtedly has greatly declined in recent years, as a result of increase of the blue-fox industry." The leading of downy young to sea by the adults is a very noisy process and foxes could easily take large numbers. Also, these murrelets nest in fairly shallow burrows which foxes could dig out easily. Birds were recorded near islands in every group during surveys from 1972 to 1975, but workers seldom went ashore to determine if they were nesting. In Fig. 12, the only basis for designating most of the areas marked as colonies is the presence of birds during breeding season (15 May-1 July).

Cassin's Auklet _(Ptychoramphus aleuticus)_

This is another species that was more common before the fox was introduced. Cassin's auklet now seems to occur only locally, but these nocturnal birds are probably often overlooked. They are known only from Buldir, Umnak, and the vicinity of Oglodak.

Parakeet Auklet _(Cyclorrhynchus psittacula)_

This auklet, which nests under beach boulders, in burrows, and in rock crevices, seems to use a greater variety of breeding sites than do the other auklets. The largest known colony is at Chagulak, where an estimated 10,000 were seen in 1972. Smaller colonies are found as far west as Buldir.

Crested Auklet, Least Auklet, and Whiskered Auklet (_Aethia cristatella_, _A. pusilla_, and _A. pygmaea_)

_Aethia_ nest primarily in rock crevices of talus slides. Such habitat occurs locally in each major island group except the Near Islands. Least auklets outnumber crested auklets in the Aleutians, and whiskered auklets are far less common than either. Estimates of populations are probably grossly inaccurate because of the difficulty both in estimating the number of birds in the milling flocks observed and in interpreting the estimates after they are obtained.

Horned Puffin and Tufted Puffin (_Fratercula corniculata_ and _Lunda cirrhata_)

Horned puffins favor rock crevices in talus slides and cliff faces for nesting, whereas tufted puffins are primarily burrow nesters. The historical distribution of the two species was probably based on availability of nesting sites, so tufted puffins were more widespread and numerous. However, in areas where extensive talus slopes are available, horned puffins reached high densities. Predation by introduced foxes may have altered the distribution of tufted puffins, which now nest primarily on fox-free islets just offshore from the larger islands where foxes occur. The distribution of horned puffins may not have been altered significantly, since they are relatively free from fox predation in their rock crevices.

Recommendations

A complete survey of the Aleutian Islands has not been done. This should be done, by methods that will provide accurate population estimates. Life history information is needed on almost all species, and data should be gathered on selected populations to determine trends. Information on winter distribution should also be compiled. The effects of introduced predators should be evaluated quantitatively, and if control measures are needed, effective, humane methods should be devised and implemented.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the following Fish and Wildlife Service personnel who helped collect previously unpublished data used in this paper: E. P. Bailey, C. S. Craighead, C. P. Dau, M. H. Dick, G. J. Divoky, R. Martin, J. L. Trapp, G. W. Watson, and C. M. White. Most of the data were collected from the deck of the Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge research vessel _Aleutian Tern_. Captain George Putney is acknowledged for his peerless seamanship and constant encouragement; he also contributed observations of birds.

The maps were adapted from a master supplied by Elaine Rhode, Public Affairs Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage; she also suggested the use of squares to display data. C. M. White graciously made his in-press manuscript available. W. B. Emison, R. J. Gordon, and J. L. Trapp kindly made their field notes available, and Trapp helped compile data. Most of the funds for the surveys in 1971-75 were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

References

Amundsen, C. C., and E. E. C. Clebsch. 1971. Dynamics of the terrestrial ecosystem vegetation of Amchitka Island, Alaska. Bioscience 21:619-623.

Bent, A. C. 1912. Notes on birds observed during a brief visit to the Aleutian Islands and Bering Sea in 1911. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 56(2):1-29.

Byrd, G. V., D. D. Gibson, and D. L. Johnson. 1974. The birds of Adak Island, Alaska. Condor 76:288-300.

Cahn, A. R. 1947. Notes on the birds of the Dutch Harbor area of the Aleutian Islands. Condor 49:78-82.

Clark, A. H. 1910. The birds collected and observed during the cruise of the United States Fisheries steamer "Albatross" in the north Pacific Ocean and in the Bering, Okhotsk, Japan, and Eastern seas from April to December 1906. Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 38:25-74.

Dall, W. H. 1873. Notes on the avifauna of the Aleutian Islands, from Unalaska eastward. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 5:25-35.

Dall, W. H. 1874. Notes on the avifauna of the Aleutian Islands, especially those west of Unalaska. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 5:270-281.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln. 1959. The birds of Alaska. The Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Penn., and Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C. 922 pp.

Hulten, E. 1960. Flora of the Aleutian Islands. J. Kramer, Weinham/Bergstr., Sweden. 376 pp.

Isakson, J. S., C. A. Sinensted, and R. L. Burgner. 1971. Fish communities and food chains in the Amchitka area. Bioscience 21:666-670.

Jones, R. D. 1949-1970. Annual refuge narrative reports, Aleutian Islands N.W.R. Cold Bay, Alaska. (Unpublished administrative report.)

Kenyon, K. W. 1961. Birds of Amchitka Island, Alaska. Auk 78:305-326.

Lebednik, P. A., F. C. Weinmann, and R. E. Norris. 1971. Spatial and seasonal distributions of marine algal communities at Amchitka Island, Alaska. Bioscience 21:656-660.

Murie, O. J. 1959. Fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., N. Am. Fauna 61. 364 pp.

Nelson, E. W. 1887. Report upon natural history collections made in Alaska between the years 1877 and 1881. U.S. Army, Signal Serv. Arct. Ser. Publ. 3. 337 pp.

O'Clair, C. E., and K. K. Chew. 1971. Transect studies of littoral macrofauna, Amchitka Island, Alaska. Bioscience 21:661-664.

Stejneger, L. 1936. George Wilhelm Steller--the pioneer of Alaska natural history. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 623 pp.

Sutton, G. M., and R. S. Wilson. 1946. Notes on the winter birds of Attu. Condor 48:83-91.

Taber, R. D. 1946. The winter birds of Adak, Alaska. Condor 48:272-277.

Tuck, L. M. 1960. The murres. Ottawa. Canadian Wildlife Series 1. 260 pp.

Turner, L. M. 1885. Notes on the birds of the Near Islands, Alaska. Auk 2:154-159.

Turner, L. M. 1886. Contributions to the natural history of Alaska. U.S. Army, Signal Serv. Arct. Ser. Publ. 2. 226 pp.

White, C. M., F. S. L. Williamson, and W. B. Emison. 1977. Avifaunal investigations. Pages 227-260 _in_ M. L. Merritt and R. G. Fuller, eds. Environments of Amchitka Island, Alaska. U.S. Energy Research and Development Association, Oak Ridge, Tenn. 682 pp.

Wilson, R. S. 1948. The summer bird life of Attu. Condor 50:124-129.

[Illustration: Fig. 2. Breeding distribution of northern fulmar.]

[Illustration: Fig. 3. Breeding distribution of storm-petrels.]

[Illustration: Fig. 4. Breeding distribution of cormorants.]

[Illustration: Fig. 5. Breeding distribution of parasitic jaeger.]

[Illustration: Fig. 6. Breeding distribution of glaucous-winged gull.]

[Illustration: Fig. 7. Breeding distribution of kittiwakes.]

[Illustration: Fig. 8. Breeding distribution of terns.]

[Illustration: Fig. 9. Breeding distribution of murres.]

[Illustration: Fig. 10. Breeding distribution of pigeon guillemot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 11. Breeding distribution of marbled and Kittlitz's murrelet.]

[Illustration: Fig. 12. Breeding distribution of ancient murrelet.]

[Illustration: Fig. 13. Breeding distribution of auklets.]

[Illustration: Fig. 14. Breeding distribution of horned puffin.]

[Illustration: Fig. 15. Breeding distribution of tufted puffin.]

FOOTNOTES:

[3] Present address: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, William L. Finley National Wildlife Refuge, Route 2, Box 208, Corvallis, Oregon 97330.

[4] Present address: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Kilauea, Hawaii.

The Historical Status of Nesting Seabirds of the Northern and Western Gulf of Alaska

by

LeRoy W. Sowl

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1011 East Tudor Road Anchorage, Alaska 99507

Abstract

The history of ornithological field work in the Gulf of Alaska dates back to 20 July 1741 and Bering's discovery of Alaska. In spite of this long history, the record is fragmentary and often seemingly contradictory. The coming of the tanker terminal at Valdez and the pending development of oil and gas resources on the outer continental shelf threaten massive change for seabirds in the Gulf of Alaska. Often overlooked, however, is the fact that man has already effected a change in status for many of these birds. In this paper I examine the scanty, general record from the exploratory period, roughly 1741 to 1935, and the somewhat more comprehensive record of the reconnaissance period, 1936-74, and attempt to develop a basis for better understanding of the change in seabird status that has already taken place. This paper should be treated as a verbal model which can be improved as our knowledge of seabirds in the Gulf of Alaska is expanded.

From the perspective of history, 1970 should prove to have been a momentous year for Alaska and its seabirds. Two events, the construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline and the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) merged head on in 1970 with the decision that Section 2c of NEPA applied to the proposed pipeline. The systematic appraisal of potential environmental impacts required by Section 2c quickly exposed the inadequacy of the existing data base in many areas. With respect to seabirds in the Gulf of Alaska, it was apparent that there had never been any effort to develop a synthesis of the information accumulated over 230 years. The data gaps which were uncovered were appalling.

While the Trans-Alaska Pipeline impact statement had provided shock therapy, it was not the only influential event on the horizon. Two local disturbances had already preceded the pipeline. These were Project Chariot at Cape Thompson and the Amchitka Island test program. Now in quick succession the Wilderness Act and native land claims added new urgency to the need for solid resource information. More recently, the outer continental shelf minerals leasing program has made the quick development of base-line information even more essential.

All of the new activity in Alaska's coastal waters has the potential to affect seabirds in one way or another. We must remember, however, that man's activities have been affecting seabirds for a long time. We cannot accurately assess the effect of a tanker terminal at Valdez or offshore oil activity without first developing some understanding of the current status of seabirds in the context of the historical record.

Seabird work in Alaska can be divided roughly into three periods. The first is the early historical or exploratory period; it extended from Georg Steller's 1741 visit to Kayak Island to 1935. This was literally a period of exploration and the collection of information was dependent upon interest and opportunity. The second is the reconnaissance period; during this period investigators were dispatched to a particular area to gather general information for management application. This period begins with Murie's extensive investigations of the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands; I see it extending from 1936 to 1975. In 1975 the need for data became so acute that it was necessary to enter the third period, one of intensive data gathering. Knowing where the big seabird colonies were located and knowing their general species composition was no longer adequate. The current intensive data-gathering effort in the waters over oil and gas leasing areas is a partial response to the recognition of this inadequacy.

In this paper I draw some tentative conclusions relative to the status of the 26 species of primary seabirds (Fisher and Lockley 1954) breeding in, or which may have bred in, the northern and western Gulf of Alaska area. This area extends from Cape Fairweather, 59°N 138°W, westerly along the coast to Ikatan Bay, 55°N 163°W, at the end of the Alaska Peninsula. These bird species tend to be colonial, but not exclusively so. Two birds which are primary seabirds, the mew gull _(Larus canus)_ and Bonaparte's gull _(L. philadelphia)_, have not been included because they tend to be more riverine than marine in habit. Several marine ducks have been excluded because they are secondary seabirds.

Information from the early exploratory period is summarized under the next section. The more detailed information from the reconnaissance period is discussed in the species accounts.

Summary of the Historical Record

The history of ornithological field work in the Gulf of Alaska goes back 235 years to 20 July 1741. On that day Bering's surgeon/naturalist, Georg W. Steller, spent a scant 10 h ashore on Kayak Island. He collected a single bird. This bird, later named for Steller, reminded him of a plate of the blue jay by Make Catesby, the colonial-era predecessor of Audubon, in Volume 1 of the _Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands_ (Stejneger's annotated translation of Steller's journal in Golder 1925). Collection of the bird confirmed for Steller that the first Russian Expedition had reached America.

Steller was an accomplished naturalist, but his overbearing and superior manner had apparently sorely irritated Bering and his officers long before the expedition reached Kayak Island. The seamen made little effort to go ashore anywhere in Alaska and Steller was blocked from doing so as well. In addition to Kayak Island, he was able to go ashore only on Nagai Island, first with a water party on 30 August and again the next day. He noted that "all sorts of waterbirds in abundance were seen." These included two kinds of cormorants, auks, ducks, gulls, divers, pigeon guillemots _(Cepphus columba)_, tufted puffins _(Lunda cirrhata)_, and horned puffins _(Fratercula corniculata)_.

Stejneger's comment on the identity of the cormorants is interesting because, based on his experience, he assumed them to be pelagic and double-crested cormorants (_Phalacrocorax pelagicus_ and _P. auritus_). He gave no thought to red-faced cormorants _(P. urile)_ which are now common there.

Steller noted on 6 September off Bird Island in the Shumagin Islands, that "when we were out to sea about half a mile we were especially astonished at the untold numbers of seabirds which we saw on the northern side of the island." These birds were listed as cormorants, auks, horned puffins, fulmars _(Fulmarus glacialis)_, pigeon guillemots, black oystercatchers _(Haematopus backmani)_, and a pied diver which Stejneger assumed was an ancient murrelet _(Synthliboramphus antiquus)_.

On 15 September when Bering's vessel, the _St. Peter_, was south of Amukta Pass, Steller recorded observing "river gulls." The observation is not as interesting as Stejneger's comment (Golder 1925) concerning it. Stejneger stated that no true river gulls lived in the Aleutians and these must, therefore, have been another small gull with red feet. He thought they must have been the red-legged kittiwake _(Rissa brevirostris)_, which "inhabits the Aleutian Islands from Bering Island to Sannak."

Thirty-seven years after Bering's voyage, Captain James Cook sailed into the Gulf of Alaska, arriving off Kayak Island on 11 May 1778. Cook was not accompanied by an able naturalist. His surgeon, William Anderson, did have some experience gained on earlier voyages in preparing skins and taking notes, but he had contracted tuberculosis and became so ill that even his notes ceased after 8 June, while the expedition was in Cook Inlet.

Cook was under orders to keep a careful record of everything he saw. One of the results was that he had birds collected even though he had no naturalist to do the work. Several birds were collected in Prince William Sound while Cook's vessels were at anchor in Port Etches. These included two marbled murrelets (_Brachyramphus marmoratus_--type specimens), a black oystercatcher, a surfbird _(Aphriza virgata)_, a surf scoter _(Melanitta perspicillata)_, and a red-breasted merganser (_Mergus serrator_--type specimen), along with several forest birds (Stresemann 1949).

The watch journals of Cook and his officers provide some additional information. Captain Charles Clerke (Beaglehole 1974) remarked in his log on the passage out of Prince William Sound through Montague Strait on 20 May that "it had almost become tautology to mention whales and seals and innumerable sea fowl that so confoundingly kept their distance."

Between the Trinity Islands and Chirikof Island on 18 June, Cook's men collected a single tufted puffin. Later Cook passed close to the Semidi Islands and the Shumagin Islands and directly through the Sandman Reefs. Beaglehole's version of this part of the voyage makes no mention of seabirds.

There is a gap of 87 years during which there is almost no hint of published material bearing on the status of seabirds in the Gulf of Alaska. In 1865 the Russo-American Telegraph Expedition touched this area. Dall and Bannister (1869) provide us with a few scraps garnered during that expedition, primarily by Bischoff. The glaucous-winged gull _(Larus glaucescens)_ was described as the most common species from California northward. Bischoff's collections at Kodiak indicate that the horned and tufted puffins were collected with ease. He was able also to collect an Aleutian tern (_Sterna aleutica_--type specimen) along with an egg.

Dall (1873) noted in 1872 that the black-legged kittiwake _(Rissa tridactyla)_ was common at Round Island and Delarof Harbor, Unga Island, in the Shumagins. The inference is that it was more common at these two places than elsewhere. The Arctic tern _(Sterna paradisaea)_ was abundant in the Shumagin Islands and particularly at Range Island in Popoff Strait. Dall expressed the opinion that the horned puffin was very abundant in the Shumagins and appeared to fill the niche of the tufted puffin, which he did not see there. The only other bird which he thought to be very common was the pigeon guillemot. He did not note the common murre _(Uria aalge)_ at all.

In 1908 the second of three Alexander Expeditions conducted field work in the Prince William Sound area. From Dixon (1908) and Grinnell (1910) we can derive some basis for assessing status in a very general way. The most common seabird noted was the marbled murrelet. Glaucous-winged gulls and black-legged kittiwakes were common; the glaucous-winged gull was the more common. Horned puffins were judged to be slightly more common than tufted puffins by both authors. The northern end of Montague Strait appears to have been the center of abundance for puffins. Dixon noted that on 16 July 1908 there were swarms of puffins in the channel along Green Island. Pigeon guillemots were common along the rocky coasts. Parakeet auklets _(Cyclorrhyncus psittacula)_, common murres, and ancient murrelets were noted only in very small numbers.

After the Alexander Expeditions there was another doldrum in which little was done. During this lull in activity, a note by Townsend (1913) appeared which compared the numbers of crested auklets _(Aethia cristatella)_ at Yukon Harbor, Big Koniuji Island, to the least auklets _(A. pusilla)_ of St. George Island, stating that the crested auklets were more numerous. He sailed into the Yukon Harbor anchorage on the evening of 1 August and observed that crested auklets "were present in myriads. The surface of the water was covered with them, and the air was filled with them."

The formal record available to researchers is very shallow for this exploratory period. With a few exceptions it was compiled by non-scientists, primarily explorers and egg and skin collectors.

Current Status

_Setting the Stage_

This paper should be viewed as a conceptual model. While I attempted to be as objective as possible, subjectivity was unavoidable. Many of the tentative conclusions are based on very little data. Each improvement will make it a better management tool. Because of the space limitations, it is not possible to go into a detailed tracking of my reasoning for each species. In an attempt to overcome this handicap, I am including some examples of the sorts of reasoning that went into the process.

In 1973 I led a Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) reconnaissance survey team that was delineating seabird colonies along the Alaska Peninsula. In the Shumagin Islands we entered or crossed Koniuji Strait twice (on 11 and 12 June) without even suspecting the presence of a horned puffin colony. A third passage through the strait (13 June) was not so uneventful. The water and the air were filled with horned puffins. This led to the discovery that the 430-m mountain on the southeastern corner of Big Koniuji was also covered with horned puffins, clear to its top. The minimum estimate of the birds that were visible was 140,000. Even this number of birds would make this the largest horned puffin colony ever discovered. David Spencer (personal communication) had noted similar swarms of horned puffins in this strait in 1956 while flying sea otter surveys in the area. In 1975 a field camp was established at Yukon Harbor, with study of this colony as one of the prime objectives of the investigators. As far as these investigators could tell no such large colony existed there, even though the nesting habitat was still there, unaltered. This sort of event, one of the banes and vagaries of estimating seabird numbers, is not rare.

In 1973, when FWS personnel delineated the colony on the southwestern end of Bird Island in the Shumagins, there were estimated to be 43,000 kittiwakes, 24,000 murres, and 6,000 cormorants present; no tufted puffins were seen about the colony. The last time (in 1970) one of the observers, Edgar Bailey, had visited the colony with Robert Jones, there was an extremely large colony of tufted puffins which Jones (E. Bailey, personal communication) estimated at more than 1 million birds. We made a particular effort to visit Jude Island, between the Shumagin Islands and the Pavlof Islands, because David Spencer (personal communication) had reported once having seen the air over the island filled with an extremely large number of tufted puffins. However, there were no puffins at this colony either.

Let us examine the facts in context. On 8 June we had visited High Island where we had attempted to collect puffin eggs for pesticide analysis, but had been able to find only one egg. Also, there were only 6,000 tufted puffins where George Putney, master/engineer of the _Aleutian Tern_, had seen much larger numbers in 1972. These two facts could easily be related to explain the current situation because it was still early in the breeding season. The horned puffin observations in Koniuji Strait (11-13 June) were in keeping with this conclusion also--an indication that these birds had not yet settled down to a full breeding effort. The erratic comings and goings of common puffins _(Fratercula arctica)_ early in the season have been well documented (Lockley 1962). It is an easy step to extend this reasoning to the absence of birds at Bird Island on 11 June, even though fresh signs of the characteristic evidence of tufted puffin occupancy were missing. Jude Island provides a different clue, however. There were 3,000 pigeon guillemots, an unheard-of concentration, apparently occupying abandoned tufted puffin burrows on 15 June. Also, on 7 June we had made a very interesting observation that had no special significance at the time: murres on Spitz Island were occupying little parapets created by mashing down the mouths of puffin burrows which filled the slope above the cliff portion of their colony.

After looking at all of the observations cited above, I conclude that tufted puffins were greatly reduced in numbers on these sites in 1973 and that they had been absent from the burrows used by the murres and pigeon guillemots for more than the current breeding season. What causes these sorts of changes? I do not know.

One reason for year-to-year change may be local movements of colonies. Black-legged kittiwakes nest at several places in lower Orca Inlet, Prince William Sound. Counts made at these sites in 1972 and 1974 yielded almost identical totals but the numbers of birds varied between individual sites. This may be an indication that all of these sites are part of one large composite colony and that, at least in this colony and for this species, the birds shift at will.

The best record of population flux involving two species has been summarized by Peterson and Fisher (1955). In 1872 and 1873 the murres observed on Walrus Island in the Pribilofs were almost entirely common murres. In 1890 common and thick-billed murres _(Uria lomvia)_ were evenly matched in number. By 1901 the colony was almost exclusively dominated by thick-billed murres. In 1911 and 1914 the few thick-billed murres present were almost lost among the then dominant common murres. In 1940 thick-billed murres dominated again. When Peterson and Fisher visited the island in 1953, the situation was again reversed and common murres had almost completely replaced the thick-billed murres. These changes are even more impressive because of the number of birds involved, between 1 and 2 million in 1953. There are more tenuous indications that somewhat the same thing may occur between two other congener pairs, the pelagic and red-faced cormorants and the black-legged and red-legged kittiwakes. The causative factor, or factors, is not readily apparent. One possibility is long-term climatic fluctuation.

Dement'ev and Gladkov (1966) provide an example of abrupt and massive change. Before 1876, the pelagic cormorant abounded on the Commander Islands. During the winter of 1876-77, the birds were decimated by an unknown epizootic disease. By spring only a few individuals remained alive. The record shows that by 1882 they were already becoming common again. Red-faced cormorants were apparently not reduced in number because Dement'ev and Gladkov (1966) state that they were common in "the second half of the last century and the beginning of this." Did they flourish only while the pelagic cormorants were reduced in number?

Bowles (1908) gives another indication of naturally induced population impact. He noted large numbers of dead seabirds on Washington beaches and the ocean "rather plentifully dotted with sick birds ..." He examined some birds and found "many hundreds" of tapeworms in every bird. His conclusion was that their intestines were so solidly packed with tapeworms that starvation was "an absolute certainty."

Some apparent disruptions are long term. In the Gulf of Alaska there is a hiatus in the distributions of a number of small seabirds that are

## active around their colonies only at night. Repeatedly, the northern

Gulf of Alaska shows up as an area of reduced population, as a boundary between subspecies, or as a limit to a range. This same area has a noticeable lack of total darkness during a substantial portion of the breeding season.

The nocturnal habit no doubt evolved because it was advantageous to concentrate on the breeding grounds only under the cover of darkness, when diurnal predators were at a great disadvantage. Cody (1973) states that Cassin's auklet _(Ptychoramphus aleuticus)_, which is strictly nocturnal around its colonies, avoids these colonies on brightly moonlit nights. He sees this as an apparent response to gull predation. At higher latitudes the small alcids have overcome this disadvantage by swamping predators through their sheer numbers. In the Gulf of Alaska I suspect that few of the small seabirds, except possibly the fork-tailed storm-petrel _(Oceanodroma furcata)_, have ever achieved great enough numbers to offset the impact of extended daylight.

Past disruptions of seabird populations are both natural and man-induced; however, the documentary record is much too fragmentary to allow us to fully appreciate what has occurred or what the long-term effect has been. To give some perspective to the problems associated with assessing change and attempting to understand it, some of the indicators of natural and unnatural change and flux in seabird populations are reviewed here.

The flux in bird numbers can be related to the time of day, season of the year, and atmospheric conditions on a short-term basis. This sort of flux or apparent flux can easily be explained. The underlying cause of some of the longer term flux is not so easily arrived at. Murie (1959), Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959), and Sowl and Bartonek (1974) have noted some of the man-induced changes. These are also explored to some extent in the species accounts as they are found to apply.

I sometimes refer to a colony size class when discussing the existing data rather than to an actual population estimate. The size classes used are defined as follows:

Class I--less than 100 birds Class II--100-1,000 Class III--1,000-10,000 Class IV--10,000-100,000 Class V--100,000-1,000,000 Class VI--more than 1,000,000

The _Dictionary of Alaska Place Names_ (Orth 1967) is the reference for those who wish to locate some of the less obvious sites. The _Coast Pilot, No. 9_ (U.S. Department of Commerce 1964) is another useful reference.

_Species Accounts_

Northern Fulmar _(Fulmarus glacialis)_

Petrels of a number of species can be found in the Gulf of Alaska, some of them in great numbers. Only the northern fulmar breeds there.

The fulmar is common in the offshore waters of the northern Gulf of Alaska throughout most of the year (Isleib and Kessel 1973). Most authors, including Clark (1911), one of the earlier ones, who commented on the distribution of fulmars farther out in the Gulf, have considered them to be abundant. Nichols (1927) raised one of the few voices of apparent dissent; he noted that in 1926 he encountered the largest number of fulmars (about 800) on 11 July in Shelikof Strait after he had left the Gulf. During the summer, fulmars are very common seaward of Montague Island, particularly to the northeast of Patton Bay and in the approaches to Montague Strait. Data derived from FWS surveys in July and August 1972 showed an estimated 10,000 fulmars in a stretch of waters 19 km wide along the east side of Montague Island (Isleib and Kessel 1973).

Over the Portlock Banks and in Stevenson Entrance, fulmars sometimes concentrate in very large numbers, either by themselves or in company with sooty shearwaters _(Puffinus griseus)_. In August 1973, FWS observers crossing Perenosa Bay saw large numbers of tube-nosed birds moving northeastward across the Bay. Although these appeared to be predominantly shearwaters, there were also many fulmars. There was a general movement of birds through Shuyak Strait from Shelikof Strait into the Gulf of Alaska. It was not determined whether the fulmars were moving with the shearwaters or on a regular feeding flight. Fulmars are often found close to Afognak Island in the area between Sea Lion Rocks and Sea Otter Island. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) reported seeing swarms of fulmars in Marmot Strait and around the small islands on the north side of Afognak in early August. Murie (1959) noted fulmars in Shelikof Strait and again around the Shumagin Islands. There is nothing in this record to indicate any change in their distribution at sea recently.

The Semidi Islands support the Gulf of Alaska's largest fulmar breeding population, a Class V colony (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife 1973). Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) considered it to be one of the four largest colonies in Alaska.

Gabrielson (1940) was told by Captain Sellevold of the marine vessel _Brown Bear_ that he thought the birds nested on Sea Otter Island in Perenosa Bay. Gabrielson also learned that they probably nested on Sea Lion Rock at the head of Marmot Strait. In August 1973 I observed fulmars in close proximity to Sea Lion Rock. More recently, small numbers of apparently breeding fulmars have been found in the Barren Islands (L. W. Sowl, personal observation and Edgar Bailey, unpublished FWS report, Anchorage, Alaska). Although no other colonies are known or suspected, the evidence suggests the possible existence of some.

Peterson and Fisher (1955), on noting dark fulmars between St. Paul and St. George when only the light morph was present on any of the colonies in the Pribilofs, expressed no surprise. They offered the opinion that a round trip of 960 km to one of the dark morph colonies in the Aleutians just might be within the operating range of a fulmar on a 4-day vacation from nest-tending duties. Using this as a general yardstick, it appears that the rich foraging grounds over the Portlock Banks might also be within the range of breeding fulmars from the Semidis. The trip up Shelikof Strait and on to Portlock Bank by way of Shuyak Strait is only slightly longer than the one from Chagulak to St. Paul. The feeding grounds off Montague Island would require a 1,600-km round trip from the colonies in the Semidi Islands. Birds from the Barren Islands and any colonies around Shuyak Island could easily reach the Montague Island grounds, but why would they cross the Portlock Banks to do so?

Fulmar colonies may be found in the Chiswell Islands. It is also a possibility that the existence of colonies on islands along the north coast of Afognak Island will be verified and that others will be found in the vicinity of Shuyak Island. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) expressed the opinion that there is almost certainly a colony on Sutwik Island. If there is one, however, I did not see it on one quick trip around the island in 1973.

Gabrielson (1940) expressed surprise at the size of the Semidi Island breeding colony. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) considered 1911 to be the first time breeding fulmars were found in the Shumagins. They apparently based this on two eggs collected there that year and documented in a plate in Bent (1964). Other than Gabrielson's opinion, there is nothing to indicate a major change in fulmar status during this century. If there has been a change in status, it has probably been in the direction of increasing populations.

Fork-tailed Storm-petrel _(Oceanodroma furcata)_

The fork-tailed storm-petrel probably breeds throughout the Gulf of Alaska. It is abundant at sea during the summer in most offshore waters. Murie (1959) described it as the dominant petrel in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific.

In view of its wide distribution and apparent abundance very little is known about the fork-tailed storm-petrel's breeding colonies. Friedmann (1935) recorded specimens and eggs from Kodiak dating back to 1843. Murie (1959) noted them as nesting on Sanak Island and stated that they almost certainly nested in the Shumagins and on other islands along the Alaska Peninsula. David Roseneau (Isleib and Kessel 1973) found this storm-petrel "breeding by the 10,000's" on East Amatuli Island in the Barren Islands in June 1965. This was subsequently verified in 1974 by Edgar P. Bailey (unpublished report, FWS, Anchorage, Alaska).

On 2 July 1972, responding to a tip by James W. Brooks (personal communication), M. E. Isleib and I anchored at Fish Island in the Wooded Islands. We did not locate any storm-petrel burrows, but a steady flow of storm-petrels passed over the boat throughout the darkest part of the night. Surveys conducted at about that time provided an estimate of 19,000 fork-tailed storm-petrels in Prince William Sound, primarily in or close to Montague Strait, and in coastal waters on the east side of the Sound's outer islands. In this area Isleib (personal communication) has noted a general movement of fork-tailed storm-petrels westward around Montague Island and into Prince William Sound through Montague Strait each morning and a corresponding countermovement each evening. I conclude that in 1972 there was a Class IV colony in the Wooded Islands, numbering between 19,000 and 38,000 birds. Additional colonies will be discovered in a similar manner as more systematic searches are made.

No colonies were discovered during the 1973 reconnaissance survey of the islands south of Alaska Peninsula. Working primarily inshore, FWS investigators encountered very few storm-petrels during the day. On the night of 14 June, the FWS vessel, _Aleutian Tern_, responded to a Mayday call and was either in transit or participating in rescue operations from 2245 to 0420 h on the morning of 15 June. During this period numerous fork-tailed storm-petrels were encountered,

## particularly off Cape Wedge on Nagai Island. After we anchored in Eagle

Harbor on Nagai, more storm-petrels were heard about the vessel.

At about this same date, National Marine Fisheries Service enforcement officers flying fisheries patrols observed storm-petrels in abundance south of the Shumagin Islands (James Branson, personal communication). These observations support the belief that there are probably substantial undiscovered colonies in the Shumagin Islands.

Fork-tailed storm-petrels are abundant summer residents in the northern Gulf of Alaska and the estimate by Isleib and Kessel (1973) is that populations using the waters off the North Gulf Coast probably number in the millions. Certainly the same estimate is valid for the rest of the Gulf area west of the Chugach Islands.

The status of these birds relative to their historical abundance cannot be derived from the existing information. There is strong suspicion that the introduction of fox on many of the islands in the area during the early part of this century probably caused a reduction in their numbers. Murie (1959) said that experience taught him that wings left from fox kills or remains of storm-petrels in fox droppings could be accepted as evidence of the presence of a colony. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) reported that E. P. Walker visited the Wooded Islands in 1922 searching for a storm-petrel colony that had been reported to exist there in 1918. He could not find it even though he searched diligently. This apparent disappearance was attributed to the introduction of fox.

There is another factor to consider, however. The limited number of specimens now available from the Gulf of Alaska indicates that separate subspecies occupy the eastern and western Gulf of Alaska. The accepted boundary is somewhere in the vicinity of Prince William Sound. This is an indication that there has been a hiatus in this area of rather long duration. I have speculated that this sort of break may be in some way related to the length of day and a period during the summer when there is little darkness to cover activities near the colony. Thoresen (1964) and Cody (1973) have both reported that western gulls _(Larus occidentalis)_ assemble in Cassin's auklet colonies on moonlit nights to prey on arriving adults. It is likely that other nocturnal species would provoke the same sort of hunting tactic. A light-related predation factor implies that the predators rely on sight. Avian predators are indicated.

Leach's Storm-petrel _(Oceanodroma leucorhoa)_

Even less well understood than the breeding distribution of the fork-tailed storm-petrel is that of Leach's storm-petrel.

Bendire (1895) quotes notes from Chase Littlejohn, who found Leach's storm-petrel to be an abundant breeder on unspecified small islands near Sanak in 1894. It greatly outnumbered the fork-tailed storm-petrel. On his visit in 1937 Murie (1959) learned that all of the large colonies of seabirds that had once existed there were gone. He attributed this to overfishing and associated perturbation and to the introduction of fox. No systematic assessment of seabirds on Sanak has been attempted since Littlejohn's time.

No Leach's storm-petrel colonies have been encountered during reconnaissance surveys of the Gulf of Alaska. Small numbers have been reported from time to time and while it is very much less abundant than the fork-tailed storm-petrel, I expect that it will be found in small numbers at various places in the Gulf of Alaska when it becomes possible to make more thorough searches. It may occur in remote areas like the smaller islands scattered throughout the Sandman Reefs--possibly even in large numbers. On the basis of the Sanak record, we must assume that this storm-petrel has been greatly reduced in numbers, at least in the western portion of the Gulf.

Double-crested Cormorant _(Phalacrocorax auritus)_

The white-crested cormorant, the race of the double-crested cormorant residing in the Gulf of Alaska, is principally an inhabitant of the marine environment. This cormorant is a common, but apparently patchily distributed, resident throughout the northern and western Gulf of Alaska.

Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) thought that it nested only from Kodiak Island westward into the Aleutians. However, it probably breeds from Yakutat Bay westward. Isleib and Kessel (1973) estimated the abundance of the double-crested cormorant along the North Gulf Coast as several thousands, about one-tenth as common as the pelagic cormorant. It is the third most abundant of the four cormorant species nesting in the area. It occurs as scattered inclusions in many colonies throughout the area, and at least in the Shumagin Islands, even occurs in some colonies by itself.

There are no data on which to base an estimate of any change in status. It probably is not much affected by many of the naturally occurring perturbations.

Brandt's Cormorant _(Phalacrocorax penicillatus)_

On 22 July 1972, 13 Brandt's cormorants (4 sitting on nests) were found at Seal Rocks in Hinchinbrook Entrance, Prince William Sound (Isleib and Kessel 1973). Two years later I positively identified two individuals in breeding plumage among a mixed group of cormorants in the Chiswell Islands west of Seward. Are these recent range extensions? Possibly, but I propose an alternative explanation.

Palmer (1962) showed the distribution of this cormorant as breeding north to Puget Sound and as a straggler north to Forrester Island, Alaska. This viewpoint is shared by the American Ornithologists' Union (1957), which regards the bird as casual as far north as Forrester Island, where this species was collected by Willet (1918).

Let us look at the other record, the one that is not supported by specimens. Bent (1964) thought of Brandt's cormorant as a breeding resident of Forrester Island. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) admonished bird observers to be on the lookout for this particular cormorant in the vicinity of Ketchikan and Prince of Wales Island. Brandt's cormorant also appears on the bird list for the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge as an accidental visitor.

Early observers like Bent were explorers. They carefully examined and made notes on all the birds they saw because there was always a chance of a new discovery. It is also very probable that Bent paid particular attention to the cormorants when he was at a place like Forrester Island. He would have undoubtedly been very interested in trying to confirm the presence of the now extinct Palla's cormorant _(P. perspiculatus)_, as he must have been aware of Schlegel's (1862-64) list of the birds in the Dresden Museum since Willet (1914) had recently referred to it. The staffs for the Kodiak and Aleutian Islands National Wildlife refuges have included some very careful observers, such as Frank Beals. These men would have noticed the difference if a new bird such as Brandt's cormorant was seen, verified the sighting visually, and then noted it in their field diaries. They would not have bothered to develop the type of proof needed for an undisputable record, but the bird would have appeared in the refuge bird list (as it does).

The outside coasts of the Alexander Archipelago, Kenai Peninsula, and the Islands of the Kodiak Archipelago impose some logistical requirements which discourage all but the most determined birders. Not many have been able to reach more than very limited segments of the entire coast. Given the vast distances involved, few of the FWS vessels passing through the area have had the time to thoroughly examine any cormorant colonies or roosts bird by bird. Even for those who pause, the ever present swells and the constant chop of the summer westerlies make positive identification difficult.

It is possible that Brandt's cormorant has been in the area in small numbers for a long time, either regularly or intermittently. It could have escaped observation because of the conditions described above. This species may be there as a relict, as a pioneer, or only because surplus birds are being pushed into marginal habitat by population pressures on their main range to the south.

Pelagic Cormorant _(Phalacrocorax pelagicus)_

The pelagic cormorant is the most abundant of the four cormorants residing in the Gulf of Alaska. It is found throughout coastal Alaska south of the Bering Strait and even in some colonies in the southern Chukchi Sea.

Cormorants have a certain invisibility which is brought about by their universal presence. This blindness appears to have affected everyone, even the earliest observers.

The earliest accounts provide a composite picture of the distribution and abundance of the pelagic cormorant which is very similar to that encountered today. In southeastern Alaska, beginning at the eastern edge of the area under discussion, the pelagic cormorant was pictured as the sole resident cormorant. However, we know from Willet's collection of a Brandt's cormorant at Forrester Island that this might not be quite true. From Yakutat Bay westward into the Aleutians this species coexisted with the double-crested cormorant. In the Western Aleutians there is some disagreement, but in general it appears to have been accepted that the red-faced cormorant occurred there along with pelagic and possibly double-crested cormorants. In the Bering Sea this species coexisted with the red-faced cormorant.

A number of recent authors (Gabrielson 1940, 1944; Murie 1959; and others) have considered the pelagic cormorant to be the most widely distributed and abundant of the four species found in Alaska. Since the modern picture fits, in a general way at least, it would be easy to conclude that the species enjoys an unchanged status. There is just a faint suggestion that this may not be true.

Dement'ev and Gladkov (1966) refer to a great die-off of pelagic cormorants referred to earlier, in the Commander Islands. Stejneger (1885) enlarges on this disaster. It is true that Stejneger visited these islands a relatively short time after the die-off, but he reported that even though the pelagic cormorants were increasing, "people having seen their former multitude think that there is no comparison between the past and the present." Murie (1959) thought that the pelagic cormorant, while numerous, was outnumbered by the red-faced cormorant in the Aleutians. More recently there has been the rapid eastward expansion of the red-faced cormorant. Although it is not possible to determine what the real status of the pelagic cormorant is relative to its past status, I conclude that during this century its status relative to that of the red-faced cormorant has declined.

Red-faced Cormorant _(Phalacrocorax urile)_

The red-faced cormorant, in spite of superficial similarities to the pelagic cormorant, just does not look the same to an experienced observer. However, it would have been possible for inexperienced observers in the days before modern optics to overlook the differences. The problem was further compounded by the "invisibility" of the ubiquitous cormorants referred to earlier. Apparent absences or blank spots in their range may not have been real.

Dement'ev and Gladkov (1966), reporting on the Russian record, stated that the red-faced cormorant was common in the Commander Islands during the last part of the 19th century and into the early part of the 20th. Older authors had also reported it from Kamchatka and the Kurile Islands. Now, according to Dement'ev and Gladkov, it is an uncommon breeder on Mednyi Island in the Commander Islands and occurs only as an autumn visitor to some of the southern Kurile Islands.

Turner (1885) reported that the double-crested cormorant was abundant in the Near Islands and that the pelagic cormorant was common, but makes no reference to the red-faced cormorant. One specimen of the latter in the Leningrad Academy of Science was taken at Attu on 16 September 1844 (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959), which indicates that they were probably present during the period reported on by Turner and, therefore, relatively uncommon. Clark (1911) identified red-faced cormorants only a few times and in the Aleutians only once, near Agattu. Dall (1874) noted two red-faced cormorants collected at Amchitka but he (Dall 1873) apparently did not see any east of Unalaska.

Nelson (1887) apparently found red-faced cormorants breeding on the Siberian and Alaskan mainlands at either side of Bering Strait, but Bailey (1948) searched for some sign of their presence and found none. Nelson (1887) also reported the red-faced cormorant from St. Matthew and St. Lawrence islands in the northern Bering Sea and from St. Michael and Nelson Island on the Alaskan coast. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) pointed out that it has not been found breeding north of the Pribilofs since then. Friedmann (1934) provides support for Nelson by reporting red-faced cormorant bones from archeological sites on St. Lawrence. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) cited two red-faced cormorants in the Leningrad Academy of Science which were collected in the Pribilofs in 1843. Dall and Bannister (1869) reported them to be plentiful on St. George Island. Baird (1869) also noted their presence in the Pribilofs.

Bent (1964) makes no mention of seeing the red-faced cormorant in the Aleutians. He gives their breeding range as the Bering Sea region, the Pribilof Islands, and perhaps the western Aleutians, the Commander Islands, and the coast of Siberia north of North Cape. The American Ornithologists' Union (1931) gave their breeding range as the Pribilof Islands, the Commander Islands, and Siberia north to North Cape.

Murie (1959) found a colony of between 4,000 and 5,000 red-faced cormorants nesting on Amak Island in 1925. In 1936 he was surprised to find that the red-faced cormorant was the most abundant breeding cormorant in the Aleutian Islands. Pelagic cormorants still appeared to be most numerous, but there were large numbers of nonbreeding birds. In 1936 he located "a good sized colony" of red-faced cormorants at Unga in the Shumagin Islands. He found about 300 birds starting their nests on 16 May.

In August 1946 Gabrielson (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959) visited the colony at Delarof Harbor, Unga, where several thousand cormorants were observed. From a number of small samples he estimated that the red-faced cormorants outnumbered pelagic cormorants five to two. In 1973 I observed about 2,000 cormorants, mostly red-faced, in this colony. Gabrielson also located them at two other sites in the Shumagins and at Aghiyuk Island in the Semidi Islands.

Howell (1948) noted only double-crested cormorants at Double Island, Kodiak. Shortly after that the leaflet, _Birds of the Kodiak Island National Wildlife Refuge_ (first issued in 1955), listed red-faced cormorants as common summer residents. The red-faced cormorant was next found at Katchemak Bay about 1963. Isleib (Isleib and Kessel 1973) first noticed red-faced cormorants wintering in Prince William Sound in 1969. In July 1972 Isleib and Sowl had found a colony containing 75 nests at Point Elrington at the western approach to Prince William Sound. By 1974 Isleib and Haddock (unpublished data, FWS, Anchorage, Alaska) found them east of the Copper River Delta at Wingham Island.

The relatively rapid expansion of the range and apparent population size of the red-faced cormorant is remarkable. But has this been a real expansion into vast stretches of new territory? The record in the literature which I have summarized shows, I think, something else. We can demonstrate a historical range for the red-faced cormorant that extends on the Asiatic Coast from North Cape, Siberia, south to the Kurile Islands, the entire Aleutian Arc including the Commander Islands, all the Bering Sea islands north to Bering Strait, Norton Sound, Nelson Island, and the islands south of the Alaska Peninsula at least as far east as Kodiak Island. The recently occupied coast from Cook Inlet to the Copper River may represent a real range extension. The breeding range of this species at the present time does not include parts of its historical range west of the Commander Islands or north of the Pribilof Islands.

The fragmentary record appears to show a long-term perturbation in the range and populations of the red-faced cormorant that covers at least 100 years. I believe that we are probably seeing a recovery of lost range and a return to something resembling a former distribution and abundance.

What caused the perturbation? I am not prepared to answer this question, but there are two occurrences which I find suggestive.

It is interesting to note (Dement'ev and Gladkov 1966) that on the Commander Islands the red-faced cormorant was most abundant during the first 50-odd years after the pelagic cormorants had been wiped out in the winter of 1876-77. Perhaps some clues are to be found in the interactions between these similar species.

It does not appear that the introduction of fox could have been a causative factor. The first observations of population expansion were noted almost concurrently with the heyday of the fox-farming industry. Because of its choice of nesting habitat (very steep cliffs), this cormorant would not have been affected by predators except for the one that went into a very rapid population decline at a time that would fit--the Aleut.

Jochelson (1968) and Hrdlicka (1945) summarized references to Aleut clothing in the diaries and reports of early Russian visitors to the Aleutian Islands. Evidently Aleut women sometimes wore a long, robe-like parka made of harbor seal _(Phoca vitulina)_ skins or, for women of high rank, parkas made of sea otter _(Enhydra lutra)_. The men in almost all reports were said to have worn bird-skin parkas; puffins and guillemots appear to have been preferred, but cormorants were sometimes used. It took about 40 puffin skins to fabricate a parka and a man evidently needed from one to three of these garments each year.

Sea otter populations were drastically reduced by Russian hunters. Rats were introduced to the Aleutians very early during the Russian period and must have had a substantial impact on populations of tufted puffins and guillemots. The introduction of fox would have had a further impact on burrow-nesting birds. Turner (1885) noted that Aleuts in the Near Islands kept the fox confined to Attu so that they could keep the fox away from the birds on Agattu. This is evidence of an Aleut recognition of serious competition. Could cormorants, particularly red-faced cormorants, have been preferred sources of fiber? Were Aleuts forced to rely more heavily on cormorant skins as puffin and guillemot numbers were reduced by rats and fox and sea otters by men?

Whatever the cause and effect, the status of red-faced cormorants now appears to be better in the Gulf of Alaska than for at least the last 100 years.

Glaucous-winged Gull _(Larus glaucescens)_

The glaucous-winged gull is apparently one of the more successful seabirds breeding in the Gulf of Alaska. While it is outnumbered (both locally and in total abundance) by the black-legged kittiwake, it is generally the most commonly seen and most uniformly distributed gull in the Gulf of Alaska. Murie (1959) called it the common breeding gull about the Alaska Peninsula. Cahalane (1943, 1944) considered it to be numerous to abundant around Kodiak and in the Shelikoff Strait area. Gabrielson (1944) reported that it could be seen in small numbers everywhere. Most recently, Isleib and Kessel (1973) reported it to be an abundant resident in the north Gulf Coast area. My own experience would confirm these observations.

This gull appears to use a wider variety of nesting sites than some others (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). Except where man's activities have created new food sources, there appears to be a close link between the location of glaucous-winged gull colonies and those of murres, kittiwakes, and cormorants. Swartz (1966) found that during the breeding season glaucous-winged gulls at Cape Thompson derived almost all of their food from murre eggs and chicks. I have noted small numbers of these gulls nesting, usually on turf near the tops of cliffs, in most colonies of favored prey species.

The glaucous-winged gull is the principal scavenger throughout much of coastal south-central Alaska. This has sometimes resulted in the development of large concentrations near canneries and, more recently, near dumps.

Two glaucous-winged gull concentrations stand out in the northern Gulf of Alaska. One of these is on Egg Island at the western end of the Copper River Delta. Patten (1976) estimated that this colony contained 10,000-12,000 gulls in 1975. At times it appears to spread onto nearby Hinchinbrook Island. M. E. Isleib (personal communication) has estimated its size as high as 25,000 gulls. The other large concentration is on the Susitna Flats across Cook Inlet from Anchorage. This colony, or colony cluster, may be larger than the one at Egg Island. There are no other known colonies even approaching these in size. Most colonies range between a few pairs and 2,000-3,000.

Glaucous-winged gulls do not appear to have had any great changes in population that can be detected from the literature. There have almost certainly been local fluctuations in the number of breeding birds as food supplies, such as canneries and dumps, have appeared or disappeared in an area. Long-term changes in salmon runs have undoubtedly had an impact as well. One other change, the reduced level of egging, has undoubtedly had an effect also. Along the Alaska Peninsula and in the Shumagin Islands, cannery workers of Filipino heritage and fishermen who have a strong Aleut heritage still harvest gull eggs for food. However, this activity is much reduced from what it must have been.

Herring Gull _(Larus argentatus)_

The herring gull is a resident of Upper Cook Inlet and is found up and down the coast from Prince William Sound to the Alaska Peninsula. Not too much was learned about it during the recent FWS reconnaissance. Williamson and Peyton (1963) reported the interbreeding of herring gulls and glaucous-winged gulls in this area. This interbreeding has resulted in a situation in which assignment of these gulls to one group or another in the field can be rather arbitrary. The result has most often been that field observers tend to lump them with glaucous-winged gulls unless their herring gull characteristics are obvious. Specimens collected by Williamson and Peyton (1963) indicate that herring gulls have the edge in numbers in Upper Cook Inlet.

Black-legged Kittiwake _(Rissa tridactyla)_

The black-legged kittiwake is the most abundant gull in the northern and western Gulf of Alaska. Colonies of this species can be found throughout the entire area, and range in size from a few pairs (Class I) to more than 100,000 birds (Class V). They may be found in essentially pure colonies, but are often found sharing colonies with murres.

The center of abundance for breeding black-legged kittiwakes in the Gulf of Alaska is in the Semidi Islands, where Palmer Sekora (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife 1973) estimated that there were 426,000 breeding kittiwakes in 1972. He located kittiwake colonies at eight sites, ranging in size from 1,000 to 109,000 nesting birds. The size of the average colonial site was 27,000 birds. Ten sites were Class IV in size and one was a solid Class V.

The easternmost known colony in the northern Gulf of Alaska is at Wingham Island. Up to 1973, 22 colonies had been located in Prince William Sound. The largest of these contained only 5,636 nests in 1972 (Isleib and Kessel 1973). Class IV or larger colonies are found at Cape Resurrection, the Barren Islands, Chisik Island, Boulder Bay and Cape Chiniak on Kodiak Island, and at Delarof Harbor and the Haystacks in the Shumagin Islands. It is interesting to note that Gabrielson (1940) considered Whale Island to be one of the largest known kittiwake colonies in Alaska. He stated that there were many thousands of pairs extending over a mile or more of cliff. He saw a second site which he did not visit but looked equally large. A photograph in an article by East (1943) also indicated the presence of a large colony. C. J. Lensink (personal communication) estimated that there were about 100,000 kittiwakes in the colony in 1956. When last visited by Vernon Berns (personal communication), this colony contained only 3,000 birds. It is also of interest that Gabrielson (1940, 1944) did not notice either the kittiwakes or the murres now breeding on Nord Island in the Barren Islands or the kittiwakes on East Amatuli Island.

Whale Island and possibly the colonies in the Barren Islands give evidence of local population fluctuations, but for the most