Chapter XV

.

[48] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Introduction, LXII.

[49] Spencer Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, 136, 293, 318.

[50] Introduction to Popular Religion and Folklore, 278, sqq.

[51] Frazer, Totemism, 58, sqq.

[52] II. Page 85.

[53] e.g., by Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, 89.

[54] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, II., 328, sqq.

[55] Origin of Civilization, 126.

[56] History of Human Marriage, 73.

[57] For a discussion on these early cases of supposed polyandry see Dr. J. Muir, Indian Antiquary, VI., 260, sqq.: E. Thomas, ibid., VI., 275: Rig Veda, I., 119, 5: Wilson, Essays, II., 340: Max Müller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, 44, sqq.: Westminster Review, 1868, page 412: Lang, Custom and Myth, II., 155.

[58] Jummoo, 250.

[59] Abode of Snow., 231. For Tibetan Polyandry generally see C. Horne, Indian Antiquary, V., 164: C. R. Stulpnagel, ibid., VII., 132, sqq.: Yule, Marco Polo, II., 33, 38, 40: Williams, Memo of Dehra Dûn, 175.

[60] Lassen, Ind. Alterthumsk., 2nd Edition, II., 454.

[61] Briggs, Translation, I., 183, sq.

[62] Ghulâm Bâsit: Dowson’s Elliot, History, VIII., 202.

[63] Kirkpatrick, Indian Antiquary, VII., 86, sq.

[64] Studies, 112, sqq.

[65] Rig Veda, X., 40, 2; and Muir’s remarks, Ancient Sanskrit Texts, V., 459.

[66] Institutes, IX., 59, 62; with Muir’s comment, Indian Antiquary, VI., 315.

[67] Bühler, Sacred Laws of the Aryans, Part I., 267, sq.

[68] Hindu Law, 61; and see Starcke, Primitive Family, 141, sqq.: Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 510, sqq.

[69] Census Report, North-Western Provinces, 1891, 249.

[70] The Panjâb returns show 145 widows to 1,000 women, 23 per cent. of women over 15 years of age are widows. This rises to 25 for Hindus and falls to 21 for Muhammadans. (Maclagan, Census Report, 226). Mr. O’Donnell (Bengal Census Report, 186) attributes much of the relative increase of Muhammadans in that Province to their toleration of widow marriage.

[71] The exact figures are:—

Not permitting widow marriage 9,713,087, or 24·05 per cent. Permitting widow marriage 30,667,081, or 75·95 per cent. ---------- ------ Total Hindus 40,380,168, or 100 per cent.

These figures are, however, subject to the correction that some even of the lower castes partially prohibit widow marriage, and this is represented by the Byâhut section, which appears in many of them. In the whole of the Behâr Provinces (Census Report, 200) the Musahars of the north-eastern area, with only 5·5 per cent. of widows amongst women between 15 and 40 years, are most addicted to widow marriage. The Thârus of Champâran, and the Dhobis, Lohârs and Dusâdhs of North-West Behâr, follow them very closely in this respect.

[72] Page 246.

[73] Of the Panjâb Mr. Maclagan remarks (Report, 255) that “the practice of child marriage among girls prevails mainly in the east of the Province. It is primarily a Hindu practice, and is found most strongly developed in the districts where Hinduism is the prevailing religion; and in the Province generally it is much more common among Hindus than among Musalmâns. But the early marriage of girls has now become a matter more of custom than of religion, and the Musalmâns in Hindu districts are nearly as much addicted to it as the Hindus, while among Hindus in Musalmân districts it is almost as rare as among the Musalmâns. In fact, the Muklâwa is very little in vogue among Hindus anywhere in the extreme south and west of the Province.” The Bihâr returns (Census Report, 199) show that “the age of Kâyasth and Brâhman girls before they find husbands to be much higher than that assigned by popular opinion. The Râjput girl marries, like the Bâbhan and the aboriginal Thâru, a little later than the Dusâdh. So do the Nuniya, Lohâr, Kurmi and Kahâr, but only on an average a month or two later. The Dhânuk girl marries earlier than females in any other large caste in this area, though a year later than girls of low caste in North-East Bihâr.”

[74] Mr. Ibbetson shows that the difficulty of marrying among the Khatris of the Panjab is due to the strong law of hypergamy or necessity of marrying a girl in a higher grade than her husband, which prevails among them as well as among Brâhmans and hill Râjputs (Report, 356). This probably explains the fact in these Provinces.

[75] Census Report, 255.

[76] Hindu Law, 77.

[77] Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, 462, sqq.

[78] Primitive Marriage, 138. Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, 102, sq.

[79] Institutes, III., 33.

[80] On this see Lang, Custom and Myth, 65, sqq.

[81] Weber, Indische Studien, 325, quoted by McLennan, Primitive Marriage, 34, sq.

[82] Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology, 223, sq.

[83] Ibid., 278, and see Forsyth, Highlands of Central India, 158: Rowney, Wild Tribes, 37, sq.

[84] Henderson, Folklore of the Northern Countries, 38: Introduction to Popular Religion and Folklore, 151.

[85] Dalton, loc. cit., 248, 319.

[86] History of Human Marriage, 321, sq.

[87] Ibid., 330, sqq.

[88] Totemism, 68.

[89] Researches into Early History, 285: and compare Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, 13: Wake, Serpent Worship, 169: Development of Marriage, 330.

[90] Manu, Institutes, III., 32.

[91] Dalton, loc. cit., 142.

[92] Westermarck, loc. cit., 390.

[93] Panjab Census Report, 355.

[94] Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, 78.

[95] Institutes, III., 15.

[96] Bühler, Sacred Laws of the Aryas, Part I., Intro. L.

[97] Mayne, Hindu Law, 117.

[98] Kinship in Arabia, 143, 154, 155, 159, 165.

[99] Based on enquiries in Parganas Dudhi and Agori of Mirzâpur.

[100] Ethnology, 322. Tribes and Castes of Bengal, I., 5.

[101] Central Provinces Gazetteer, 273 sq.

[102] Ethnology, 221. Tribes and Castes, I., 4.

[103] These are perhaps analogous to the Barar sub-division of the Urâons, which have the same totemistic respect for the bar tree. Dalton, Ethnology, 254.

[104] Dalton, loc. cit.

[105] For the position of the maternal uncle among the allied Gond tribes see Mânjhi, para. 14.

[106] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I., 4.

[107] “In Efate two kinds of people were allowed to pass unharmed into Hades: those belonging to a certain tribe call Namtaku (a sort of yam) and those who had printed or graven or branded on their bodies certain marks or figures tattooed.”

Somerville.—Notes on the Islands of the New Hebrides, Journal Anthropological Institute, XXIII., 10.

[108] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I., 4.

[109] Jungle life, 668.—For a more detailed account see Watt’s Dictionary of Economic Products, IV., 502., sqq.

[110] Panjab Ethnography, 330.

[111] Based on notes by the Deputy Inspector, Schools, Pilibhît, M. Mahâdeva Prasâd, Head Master, Zilâ School, Pilibhît.

[112] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, I., 5 sq.

[113] Risley, loc. cit. 6.

[114] Sheo Singh Rai versus Dakho, Indian Law Reports, Allahabad, I., 688.

[115] Settlement Report, 61.

[116] Loc. cit. 7.

[117] Risley, loc. cit. 8.

[118] Eastern India, II., 465.

[119] Based mainly on a note by Pandit Râmgharib Chaube.

[120] Tribes and Castes, I., 10.

[121] Panjab Census Report, 115.

[122] The Census in Bengal shows their numbers to be 3,877. The Jogi Aughars of the Panjab number only 436.

[123] Based on notes by Pandit Râmgharîb Chaube and Pandit Janardan Dat Joshi, Deputy Collector, Bareilly.

[124] Tribes and Castes, I., 11.

[125] Supplemental Glossary, s.v.

[126] Morâdâbâd Settlement Report, 8.

[127] Annals, I., 109.

[128] Oudh Gazetteer, II., 218.

[129] Journey through Oudh, II., 98.

[130] Largely based on notes collected through Mr. J. H. Monks, Deputy Collector, Aligarh.

[131] Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer, II., 565, 589, and 645.

[132] Buchanan, Eastern India, II., 572; Gorakhpur Gazetteer, 624.

[133] Ibbetson, Panjab Ethnography, Section 576.

[134] Papers on Mîna Dacoits and other Criminal Classes of India, I., sqq.

[135] Based on enquiries at Mirzapur, and notes by Pandit Baldeo Prasâda, Deputy Collector, Cawnpur, and the Deputy Inspector of Schools, Agra.

[136] Sir H. M. Elliot, Supplementary Glossary, s.v.

[137] Tribes and Castes, I., 282.

[138] Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer, II., 364.

[139] Wheeler, History of India, Vol. III., 283, sqq.

[140] Elliot, Chronicles of Unâo, 20; Râê Bareli Settlement Report, 15.

[141] Archæological Reports, II., 81.

[142] Brief View, 106.

[143] Census Report, 1865, Appendix 21.

[144] Buchanan, Eastern India, II., 467.

[145] Gazetteer, North-Western Provinces, I., 160.

[146] Settlement Report, 33.

[147] Growse, Mathura., 252.

[148] Introduction to the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, 290, sqq.

[149] Dalîp versus Ganpat, Indian Law Reports Alláhábád, VIII., 387.

[150] Papers 15, sq.

[151] Bihar Proverbs, 52.

[152] Principally based on notes by Munshi Atma Râm, Head Master, High School, Mathura.

[153] Dowson, Classical Dictionary, s.v., Saubhari.

[154] Mathura, 11.

[155] Ibid., 10, note.

[156] Mathura, 272.

[157] Page 32.

[158] Panjab Census Report, 166.

[159] Clans of Râê Bareli, 14, sq.

[160] Settlement Report, 9.

[161] Notes, 20, sq.

[162] Report, Census, North-West Provinces, 1891, page 237.

[163] Based almost entirely on notes by Bâbu Sânwal Dâs, Deputy Collector, Hardoi.

[164] Settlement Report, XXIV.

[165] Oudh Gazetteer, III., 301.

[166] Mainly based on a note by Pandit Râmgharîb Chaubê.

[167] Based on notes by Munshi Niyâz Ahmad, Head Master, High School, Fatehpur; also, see Report, Inspector-General, Police, N.-W. P., 1868, pp. 42, 46, 111; idem, 1869, p. 128; Gazetteer, N.-W. P., VIII, Part III., page 44; note of Mr. D. T. Roberts, Police Commission Report, 1890.

[168] Qânûn-i-Islâm, 197.

[169] Institutes, VIII, 161.

[170] Sultânpur Settlement Report, 137, sqq.

[171] Chronicles of Unâo, 69.

[172] Sir H. M. Elliot, Supplementary Glossary, s.v.

[173] Archæological Survey, I., 352, sq.

[174] II., 239, sq.

[175] Settlement Report, App. I., 2 A.

[176] Settlement Report, 59.

[177] Growse, Mathura, 12, 356.

[178] Asiatic Researches, XIII., 282.

[179] Report, Inspector-General, Police, N. W. P., 1869, page 121, sqq.

[180] People of India, III., 113.

[181] 3rd S. I., 467, sqq.; III., 186, sqq.

[182] Journey through Oudh, I., 112.

[183] Annals, I., 105, sqq.

[184] Archæological Reports, XXI., 103, sqq.

[185] Settlement Report, page 12.

[186] Highlands of Central India, page 278.

[187] Census Report, N.-W. P., 1865, I., App. B., 129.

[188] Principally based on enquiries made at Mirzapur: a few notes on the Oudh branch of the tribe have been contributed by Bâbu Sânwal Dâs, Deputy Collector, Hardoi.

[189] Hindu Tribes and Castes, I., 353.

[190] Hindu Tribes and Castes, I., 353.

[191] There is a tradition at Chunâr that Akbar garrisoned the fort with a body of Baheliyas under a Commander known as Hazâri. The descendant of the last Hazâri of Chunâr is now a runner in the Government Tahsîl.

[192] Panjâb Census Report, 122, sqq.

[193] Râja Lachhman Sinh, Bulandshahr Memo., 188.

[194] Mathura, 179, sq.

[195] These terms are Kanarese and mean “Southerners” and “Northerners,”—Oppert, Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsha, 613.

[196] Loc. cit., 181, sq.

[197] Chronicles of Unâo, 66, sq.

[198] Settlement Report, 213, 276, sq.

[199] Settlement Report, 20.

[200] Archæological Reports, V., 20.

[201] III., 221.

[202] Sleeman, Journey through Oudh, I., 264.

[203] Settlement Report, 12.

[204] Eastern India, II., 380, 460.

[205] Oldham, Memo., 65.

[206] Oudh Gazetteer, III., 227.

[207] Râê Bareli Settlement Report, 8.

[208] Supplementary Glossary, s.v.

[209] See Bais Râjput.

[210] See Bhuiya, para. 14.

[211] This account is based on a set of notes prepared by the Deputy Inspector of Schools, Dehra Dûn.

[212] Mainly from notes from Pandit Baldeo Prasâd, Deputy Collector, Cawnpur.

[213] Prepared from notes by Munshi Atma Râm, Head Master, High School, Mathura.

[214] Brahmanism and Hinduism, 185.

[215] For this campaign see Cunningham, Archæological Reports, II., 455, Gazetteer, N. W. P., I., 160.

[216] The connection between the Banâphars and Ahîrs is one of many instances which illustrate the mixed origin of many of the Râjput septs.

[217] Sultânpur Settlement Report, 154, sqq.

[218] Notes, 40.

[219] Supplemental Glossary, s.v.

[220] Loc. cit., 171, sq.

[221] Tribes and Castes, I., 144, sgq.

[222] Based on enquiries at Mirzapur and notes by Pandit Baldeo Prasâd, Deputy Collector, Cawnpur; Pandit Badri Nâth, Deputy Collector, Kheri; Mr. W. H. O’N. Segrave, District Superintendent, Police, Basti; and the Deputy Inspectors of Schools, Bareilly and Bijnor.

[223] Academy, 14th May, 1870.

[224] Quoted in the Berâr Gazetteer, 195, sqq.

[225] Dowson’s Elliot, V., 100. Brigg’s Ferishta, I., 579.

[226] Rambles, I., 129, Indian Antiquary, VIII., 219, sqq.

[227] Asiatic Studies, 89.

[228] Migratory Tribes of Central India, by E. Balfour: Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, N. S., Vol. XIII.

[229] Settlement Report, 19.

[230] Settlement Report, 10.

[231] Settlement Report, 41.

[232] Oudh Gazetteer, III., 6.

[233] Williams, Memo., 77, sqq.

[234] Settlement Report, 130.

[235] Mullaly, Notes, 28.

[236] Asiatic Studies, 165.

[237] Panjâb Ethnography, 299.

[238] Central India, II., 152, sqq.

[239] Bombay Gazetteer, XX., 203; XIX., 138.

[240] Panjâb Census Report, 311.

[241] But see Baidguâr.

[242] Buchanan, Eastern India, II., 353, 415; Report Inspector-General, Police, North-Western Provinces, 1868, page 34; 1871, page 47 (a); 1870, page 99 (b).

[243] Jungle Life, 516.

[244] Notes, 31, sq.

[245] Based on enquiries at Mirzapur, and notes received through Mr. W. Hoey, C.S., Gorakhpur, and Bâbu Sânwal Dâs, Deputy Collector, Hardoi.

[246] Tribes and Castes, I., 60.

[247] Travels, 166, sqq.

[248] Hindu Tribes, I., 296.

[249] Hindu Tribes and Castes, I., 330; and see Hoey, Monograph on Trades and Manufactures, 188.

[250] Sherring, Hindu Tribes and Castes, I., 330. Buchanan says that the Chaurâsis take their name from Tappa Chaurâs in Mirzapur, Eastern India, II., 470.

[251] Yule and Burnell, Hobson Jobson, 67.

[252] Ibid., 25.

[253] Quoted by Yule, Marco Polo, II., 311.

[254] Blochmann, Ain-i-Akbari, p. 75.

[255] For a good account of the system of cultivating the plant, see Buchanan, Eastern India, II., 864.

[256] Eastern India, II., 467.

[257] Tribes and Castes, I., 65.

[258] Oldham, Memo., I., 65.

[259] Râja Lachhman Sinh, Bulandshahr Memo., 165.

[260] Supplementary Glossary, s.v.; Aligarh Settlement Report, 22; Râja Lachhman Sinh, Bulandshahr Memo., 155, sqq.

[261] Settlement Report, 34, sqq.

[262] Morâdâbâd Settlement Report, 14.

[263] Based on enquiries made at Mirzapur, and notes by the Deputy Inspectors of Schools at Bareilly, Basti, Bijnor.

[264] Sir H. M. Elliot, Supplemental Glossary, s.v.

[265] Sherring, Hindu Tribes and Castes, I., 316.

[266] Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer, III., 279.

[267] Râja Lachhman Sinh, Bulandshahr Memo., 186.

[268] Prof. H. H. Wilson, Rig Veda, Intro., DLI.

[269] Hoey, Monograph on Trade and Manufactures, 68.

[270] Settlement Report, 79.

[271] Supplementary Glossary, s.v.

[272] Eastern India, II., 463.

[273] Elliot, Supplemental Glossary, s.v.

[274] Principally based on enquiries made at Mirzapur, and notes by Munshi Chhuttan Lâl, Deputy Collector, Unâo, and Munshi Âtma Râm, Head Master, High School, Mathura.

[275] Based chiefly on Notes by Mirza Ihfân Ali Beg, Deputy Collector, in charge of the tribe, and a report (date and author not given) entitled “Etymology (sic) of the Barwârs of Gonda and the Sanaurhiyas of Nâgpur.”

[276] Faizâbâd Settlement Report, 280, sq.

[277] Oldham, Memo., I., 61, sq.

[278] Settlement Report, 30.

[279] Based on enquiries made at Mirzapur, and a note by M. Karam Ahmad, Deputy Collector, Jhânsi.

[280] On this idea of hell see Bhuiyâr, 16.

[281] Based on enquiries at Mirzapur and a note by the Deputy Inspector of Schools, Bijnor.

[282] Sirsa Settlement Report, 123.

[283] Selections from the Records of Government, North-Western Provinces, I., 386; North Indian Notes and Queries, I., 66.

[284] North Indian Notes and Queries, I., 51.

[285] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, I., 78.

[286] Report, Inspector General of Police, N.-W. P., 1868, p. 13.

[287] Mullaly, Notes on Criminal Tribes, 10.

[288] Balfour, Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal, Vol. XIII.

[289] From a note by Pandit Râm Bakhsh Chaube of Gorakhpur.

[290] Tribes and Castes, I., 86.

[291] Panjâb Census Report, 196.

[292] Based on notes by M. Gopâl Prasâd, Naib Tahsildar, Phaphund, Etâwah District, and the Deputy Inspector of Schools, Farrukhâbâd.

[293] Memoirs, Anthropological Society of London, III., 122, sqq.

[294] Origin of Civilization, 126; Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 72, sqq.

[295] Oldham, Memo, 61, sq.

[296] Settlement Report, 30.

[297] Settlement Report, 4.

[298] Buchanan, Eastern India, II., 463.

[299] Supplementary Glossary, s.v.

[300] Maclagan, Punjab Census Report, 110.

[301] Settlement Report, 179, sqq.

[302] Census Report, 1865, I., Appendix 19; Râja Lachhman Singh, Memo., 158.

[303] Settlement Report, 305.

[304] Chiefly based on enquiries at Mirzapur and short notes from Munshi Bhagwati Dayâl Sinh, Tahsîldâr, Chhibramau, Farrukhâbâd, and Bâbu Chhote Lâl, Archæological Survey, Lucknow.

[305] Eastern India, II., 248.

[306] Based to a large extent on the account of the tribe in Benares by Mr. R. Greeven, C. S., contributed to the second volume of North Indian Notes and Queries, and subsequently reprinted under the title of “Knights of the Broom,” and a note by Munshi Fasih-ud-din Ahmad, Deputy Collector, Benares; enquiries at Mirzapur and notes by Bâbu Badrinâth, Deputy Collector, Kheri; Munshi Bâsdeo Sahây, Head Master, Zila School, Farrukhâbâd; Munshi Râdharaman, Deputy Collector, Jhânsi; Munshi Chhotê Lâl, Archæological Survey, Lucknow; and the Deputy Inspectors of Schools, Bareilly, Budâun, Pilibhît, Morâdâbâd.

[307] Rajendra Lâla Mitra, Memoirs, Anthropological Society of London, III., 125.

[308] Blochmann, Ain-i-Akbari, I., 417.

[309] Ibid., I., 139.

[310] Institutes, X., 12–29–30.

[311] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I., 183.

[312] The Chandâla is probably the Kandaloi of Ptolemy whom Dr. J. Wilson would identify with the Gonds or Gondhalis, still a wandering tribe of Maharashtra. Indian Caste, I., 57; and see Muir, Ancient Sanskrit Texts, I., 481.

[313] For some of these legends I am indebted to the 2nd Volume, Panjâb Notes and Queries.

[314] Clouston, Popular Tales and Fictions, I., 72.

[315] Panjâb Ethnography, paragraph 598.

[316] The most complete and authoritative version of the Kursi of Lâl Beg is that given by Mr. Greeven in “Knights of the Broom,” 41, sqq.

[317] Panjâb Notes and Queries, II., 1; Knights of the Broom, 50, sqq.

[318] Punjâb Census Report, 90.

[319] Balfour; Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, N. S. XIII.; Gunthorpe, Notes on Criminal Tribes, 46, sqq.; Rowney, Wild Tribes, 21.