Part 3

3. the detailed regulations of the conditions of apprenticeship and the care for the technical and moral education of apprentices;

4. the adjustment of disputes between guild members and their apprentices, as contemplated by the law of July 20, 1890, concerning industrial arbitration.”

The shops offer about the same lines of work as do the private concerns, aiming however to be more systematic and to cover a wider scope. It is asserted by some that the instruction gained in the shop is superficial, and not to be compared with that obtained from the traveling master-workmen. When the shop is connected with some enterprise or manufacturing interest, a master-workman has one apprentice only under his charge, for which he receives from the state some thirty-five dollars yearly, the boy being given board, lodging and proper training. The master must have attained the age of twenty-four years, and must fulfil certain technical qualifications. The instruction is practical in the highest degree and thus follows the lead of the trade schools in letter and spirit. The fees are mainly paid in by guild members, and those not members even, provided such reside in the district and are connected with the trade for which the school stands. Local and state aid is furnished. While the period of apprenticeship may extend over four years, three years is the usual term.

IV

ART TRADE SCHOOLS

The various types of institutions taken up under this head are of an intermediate grade, standing half way between the trade school on the one hand and the higher technical institutions upon the other. Indeed, they contain many elements in common with the lower group, their scope however being broader and more general or indirect, theoretical work finding a place in their curricula. Owing to a similarity in the instruction given, several classes of schools seem to demand a hearing under this section. We shall begin with the more general trade schools omitted from our previous study.

SCHOOLS FOR THE BUILDING TRADES

(Baugewerkschulen)

The schools for the building trades, of which there are a half hundred in the Empire, are very similar in character throughout. The Munich school, established in 1823, was the first of its kind. Their aim, as indicated in the title, is the giving of training in the trades connected with the various building operations. The majority of these schools offer a course two years in length. The age of admission is fourteen to sixteen years. It is a requisite under some boards, that applicants have had practical experience in the line to be followed, at least two half-years and in some cases two full years, before entrance to the school. They must have also a fair general knowledge of their own language, and of reading and writing as well. The candidate must be a graduate of the Volksschule or must subject himself to an examination. The fees in these schools vary from fifty to two hundred marks per year. These are day sessions only. The governing power is in some cases vested in the municipality, frequently in the State, and again in private enterprise.

While those who go out from these schools may, some of them at least, follow the trades as regular laborers, others again are qualified as master-workmen and leaders in their craft. Construction in wood, stone, iron and metals; laws of building; modes of heat, light and ventilation; plumbing; interior fittings; these and other occupations are taken up. The sessions of most schools extend over the winter months only, the students being actively engaged in their several trades during the summer season. These schools holding continuous sessions, are sparsely attended during the summer. When theoretical work is given, such subjects are included as bookkeeping, descriptive geometry, physics and mechanics, German, free-hand and mechanical drawing, design, principles of architecture. The practical programme comprehends a study of building materials and the procuring and working of the same; relative strengths and adaptability to purpose; models of construction; ornamentation; architecture and design; estimates; chemical properties of materials; supports, trusses, arches and the like. In the more advanced institutions, algebra, surveying, mechanics, study of machines and chemistry may be added to the theoretical list given, while the practical studies are more intensive, and of a somewhat higher order. Special departments for engineering, (Tiefbauabteilungen) preparing men to occupy positions as superintendents, managers of public works, construction directors, etc., are sustained in some instances.

Such schools are of an inferior engineering type, and deal with problems of advanced work as related to the construction of roads, water works and railroads; municipal engineering; bridge construction; electro-technics. The theoretical lines are similar to those pursued in other courses.

The schools to which we have just referred illustrate well the statement made in a previous connection, that the grade of instruction rather than the character of the subjects taught, determines the classification of schools into groups. Three classes of trade instruction have just been mentioned, and might well be styled lower, middle and upper schools for trade teaching. Another point of interest lies in the fact, that while we have been speaking of theoretical and practical subjects as forming the curricula of the schools for the building trades, the distinction should rather be drawn on the line of traditional book subjects and applied or laboratory practice. Practical work, per se, is not carried on in the school. Thus we have a close connection between theory and practice; more closely perhaps than is found to exist in other trades.

The following table shows the distribution of building trade schools throughout the Empire, the cities in which such schools are located being given.

Anhalt Zerbst

Baden Carlsruhe

Kaiserslautern Munich Bavaria Nuremburg Ratisbon Würzburg

Brunswick Holzminden Hamburg Hesse Lübeck

Neustadt Mecklenburg-Schwerin Sternberg

Mecklenburg-Strelitz Strelitz

Oldenburg Varel Aix-la-Chappelle Berlin Breslau Buxtehude Cassel Cologne Deutsch-Krone Eckernförde Erfurt Frankfort-on-the-Oder Prussia Görlitz Hildesheim Höxter Idstein Kattowitz Königsberg Magdeburg Münster Nienburg Posen Stettin

Reuss-Schleitz Gera

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Coburg

Weimar Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Stadt-Sulza

Chemnitz Dresden Grossenhain Saxony Leipzig Oschatz Plauen Rosswein Zittau

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Arnstadt

Wurttemberg Stuttgart

SCHOOLS FOR FOREMEN

(Werkmeisterschulen)

The Werkmeisterschulen or schools for foremen, are quite prominent in the scheme of secondary instruction. The courses given in these schools are of a general character, for the most part practical, and the institution, as the name implies, fits men to occupy positions as foremen and overseers. Machine construction is the chief industry for which these schools train. The first school of this character was opened in 1855 at Chemnitz, Saxony. There are at present twenty-one schools of this class in the Empire. Sixteen is the regular age of admission. Candidates must have an elementary education on presenting themselves. Two years is the average length of course, including both winter and summer terms. A requisite for admission also is practical experience in the trade, hence little other than theoretical instruction is given.

To the objection made by some, to extending the course over two years of residence and of including the elementary branches in the curriculum (such opposition favoring a reduction in time given to preparation) the answer comes that the school should give a well grounded education, such as will fit the participant for all the functions of his social and industrial life. Fifty to sixty marks is charged yearly for tuition fees. Certain of these schools have both evening and Sunday classes, the tuition being twenty marks yearly for week day evenings, eight to nine forty-five, and Sundays, eight to ten in the forenoon.

Table showing location of schools for foremen:

Anhalt Dessau Baden Mannheim Bavaria Four Mechanische Fachschulen

Hamburg Altona Cologne Dortmund Duisburg Elberfeld-Barmen

Prussia Gleiwitz Gorlitz Hanover Magdeburg Iserlohn Reimscheid

Chemnitz Saxony Mittweida Leipzig

The following data were compiled from tables appearing in the Report of the Commissioner of Labor of the United States, for 1902. The hours per week allowed each subject taught in the schools of machinery construction, at Duisburg and Dortmund, Prussia, are given.

| DUISBURG || DORTMUND +------------+------------++------------+------------ | FIRST YEAR | SECOND YEAR|| FIRST YEAR |SECOND YEAR +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ |First|Second|First|Second||First|Second|First|Second |Half |Half |Half |Half ||Half |Half |Half |Half -----------------------------+-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ German language and law | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 || 5 | 3 | 2 | -- Arithmetic | 4 | 1 | -- | -- || 5 | 2 | -- | -- Bookkeeping | -- | -- | -- | 2 || -- | -- | -- | 3 Descriptive Geometry | -- | 3 | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- Mathematics | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 || 7 | 6 | 5 | 2 Experimental Physics | -- | -- | -- | -- || 4 | 2 | -- | -- Physics and Electricity | 4 | 3 | 2 | 2 || -- | 4 | 3 | 3 Experimental Chemistry | 2 | -- | -- | -- || 2 | -- | -- | -- Penmanship | 2 | -- | -- | -- || 1 | -- | -- | -- Drawing | 12 | -- | -- | -- || 17 | -- | -- | -- Machine Drawing | -- | 6 | 8 | 8 || -- | 10 | 8 | 14 Projection | -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | 2 | -- | -- Mechanics | -- | 4 | 4 | 4 || -- | 5 | 5 | 2 Technology of mechanics, | | | | || | | | smelting and refining | -- | -- | 6 | 4 || -- | 2 | 6 | 4 Theory of machines | -- | 6 | -- | -- || -- | 6 | -- | -- Steam boilers and hoist | | | | || | | | machines | -- | -- | 6 | -- || -- | -- | 7 | -- Steam engines and hydraulics | | | | || | | | and small motors | -- | -- | -- | 6 || -- | -- | -- | 8 Heating | -- | 3 | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- Theory of building | | | | || | | | construction | -- | -- | 4 | -- || -- | -- | 2 | 2 Practice in the work shop for| | | | || | | | machinery construction | -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | 4 | 4 Estimated wages | -- | -- | -- | 6 || -- | -- | -- | -- First aid to the injured | -- | -- | 1 | -- || -- | 1 | -- | -- +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ Total | 36 | 36 | 37 | 36 || 41 | 43 | 42 | 42

The following table showing the occupations of one time students at three of the Prussian schools was compiled in April, 1898. This table may be found on page 883 of the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor of the United States.

Columns:

A Duisburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898 B Dortmund: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898 C Magdeburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1893 to April 10, 1898

-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+ OCCUPATION | A | B | C | -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+ Heads of establishments | 54 | 1 | 1 | Other officers of establishments | 237 | 107 | 11 | Machine builders and foremen | 39 | 18 | 1 | Wage-workers | 34 | 9 | | Owners of establishments or shops | 10 | 3 | | Draftsmen and technical experts in offices | 86 | 55 | 83 | Assistant Chemists | 3 | | | Students at other schools | 11 | 1 | 2 | Other than technical work | 4 | 1 | | Military service | 16 | 23 | | Deceased | 11 | | | Unknown | 26 | 21 | 5 | | --- | --- | --- | Total | 531 | 239 | 103 | -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+

SCHOOLS FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES

One of the most interesting groups of trade schools are those for the promotion of the textile industry in its various aspects, there existing at the present time no less than seventy-nine such institutions. The fourfold classification of these schools which follow, seems to be in accordance with the spirit of the work attempted.

First; the superior weaving school (Höhere Webschulen).

Second; the secondary weaving schools (Webschulen).

Third; the apprentice shops for weaving and knitting (Webereilehrwerkstätten).

Fourth; instruction by traveling or itinerant masters. (Wanderlehrer)

Not only does Germany rank high in the character of her textile schools, but instruction is exceedingly wide spread. Then again all lines of the industry are taken up, from the most elementary to the most technical processes known. It will thus be seen that men are trained for the lower as well as for the higher branches of the art. In the highest classes of institutions weaving is almost exclusively carried on. The general Government assumes the control of these schools notwithstanding that in the beginning, many such institutions were put on foot through the initiative of associations and guilds. In each of the several classes the work is both theoretical and practical. The age of admission is usually fourteen years and the course of two years duration.

The Webschulen train, not for specialists as do the schools just mentioned, but rather aim to turn out foremen and bosses. The apprenticeship shops come more closely in touch with the workmen of small means and those using hand machinery, while the Wanderlehrer schools are moveable. In the latter instance, the home becomes the school when the teacher is present; that is a competent instructor is employed to travel from place to place, visiting the small factories or home manufacturers, and giving such instruction as he deems wise and necessary. Much good work is still done in the rural homes of Germany, and through the means mentioned the standards are kept up.

The work of these textile schools is largely specialized, depending upon the the location of the school. In some localities wool, in others linen or cotton, or again in others silk will be given the chief attention. Both theory and practice have a place in the school instruction. Work in the various courses includes a study at first hand of the materials used, cost of production, relative values, various processes of manipulation, chemistry, drawing, designing, painting, lectures on fabrics, elements of weaving and machinery used, and original design and practical work.

The distribution of textile schools is shown in the following table.

----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+----------------------- | Superior Textile | | | Secondary Weaving | | | | | Primary Weaving | | | | | | | Weaving, Knitting and Trimming | | | | | | | | | Spinning, Weaving and Knitting STATE | | | | | | | | | | | Spinning and Weaving | | | | | | | | | | | | | Primary Knitting | | | | | | | ----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+----------------------- Alsace-Lorraine | | | | | | 1 | Bavaria | | 3 | | | | | Hesse | | 1 | | | | | Prussia | 8 | 8 | 22 | | | | Reuss-Greitz | | 1 | | | | | Reuss-Schleitz | | 1 | | | | | Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach | | | | | | | 1 Saxony | | | | 27 | | | Wurttemberg | | | | | 1 | | ----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------

The Prussian superior textile schools are located as follows:

Aix-la-Chappelle Bremen Berlin Crefeld Cottbus Mülheim-on-Rhine München-Gladbach Sorau

The Berlin textile schools may be taken as fairly representing the higher and more completely equipped institutions of this class. The age of admission is sixteen years, a secondary education being necessary to entrance. Several courses are offered as follows:

knitting, one year; weaving, one and one-half years; designing, two years; passementerie making, one year; dyeing, one year; embroidery, one-fourth year.

There are day, evening and Sunday classes. The accompanying table shows the subjects taught in each course and the number of hours given to each subject, reckoned on the basis of the entire length of course.

---------------------------+-------------------------------------------- | For manufacturers and | superintendents, 1½ yrs. | | | Designing, 2 yrs. | | | | | Knitting, 1 yr. | | | SUBJECTS | | | | Passementerie making, 1 yr. | | | | | | | | | Dyeing, 1 yr. ---------------------------+----+----+----+----+----------------------- Theory of weaving | 4 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 2 Design transfer | 13 | 9 | 3 | 8 | Materials | 1 | ½ | 1 | 1 | Hand and power looms | 3 | 2 | | | Motors | 1 | | | | Preparing apparatus | 1 | | | | Finishing apparatus | 1 | | | | Practical exercises | 8 | 6 | 18 | 12 | 33 Dyeing | 2 | | 2 | 2 | Analysis and production of | | | | | knitting goods | | | 4 | | Chemistry of fibers | | | | | 2 Chemistry and physics | | | | | 4 Drawing | 8 | 23 | 2 | 5 | Arithmetic and bookkeeping | 2 | | 3 | 3 | Jurisprudence | 2 | | 1 | 1 | Lecture | | | 2 | | ---------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----------------------

In many instances the weaving schools have in connection with them departments for dyeing and finishing. In such cases much attention is given to color blending and harmony and to chemistry as well.

GEWERBESCHULEN

Extended mention will not be made of the Gewerbeschulen, as the point of distinction between such schools and the Fachschulen was set forth under the last section. They partake of the character of trade schools, but are more general in their tendencies. While both theoretical and practical work are given, the former is not always applied theory, the Gewerbeschulen being based upon, what we in America speak of, as the educational side of trade instruction. These schools are attended by boys and men fourteen to twenty-four years of age,--individuals representing the various trades. The courses cover a period of three years. Both State and local moneys go to the support of these schools.

The Gewerbliche Fachschule of Cologne is somewhat distinctive. It instructs chiefly the sons of tradesmen and superior artisans. There are three departments in the school:

First--that of engineering and architectural drawing.

Second--modeling department.

Third--the department of decoration, housepainting, etc.

The session covers both winter and summer months, the winter term, as in other cases, being the better attended. Other typical Gewerbeschulen are located at Grenzhausen and at Reimscheid. Applicants for admission must have prepared in the Volksschule or elementary school. The programme comprises the German language, French, English, literature, plane and descriptive geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing, mechanics, machine construction. The preparation here obtained fits the participants to enter the higher schools, or to act as foremen and masters. These schools also lead up to the industrial schools of Bavaria, of which we shall now speak.

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS OF BAVARIA

(Industrieschulen)

The industrial schools of the Bavarian Kingdom stand out as a distinct class of educational institutions. Here, since 1872, there has been a clean cut system, presided over by a Minister of Education. While the quality and character of the work done are quite similar to that taken up in the secondary schools elsewhere, the institutions are in some respects more exactly defined and supervision and instruction in the schools of weaving, woodcarving, basketmaking, pottery, violin making, etc., is frequently superior to that in some other locality.

The age of admission is sixteen years, two years being the usual length of course; the education of the Real-Schule is a requisite, or failing this, an examination must be taken. In 1901-1902 the Munich schools had an enrollment of 241 students, distributed as follows: mechanical engineering 124; chemical engineering 27; architecture 62; commercial 28. The graduates are fitted to occupy positions of trust and prominence in the various industrial pursuits of the country and to enter the technical colleges.

The Industrieschulen of Bavaria are four in number, located at

Augsburg Kaiserslautern Munich Nuremberg

they having been established in 1868. Advanced courses are offered in mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, building construction, and commercial education. The school at Würzburg is of a somewhat superior order, although secondary in its tendencies, machinery construction and electro-technics being given attention.

In the mechanical engineering course the following subjects are studied:

elementary mathematics descriptive geometry calculus surveying physics German French English mechanics machine work machine construction mechanical drawing practical work.

In the chemistry course the curriculum is made up of

mathematics physics chemistry mineralogy German French English machine construction laboratory work.

The building construction course offers language, mechanical drawing and architecture.

V

HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

Technische Hochschulen

We have at this point in our study reached the schools of highest rank offering training of a technical character, called variously technical high schools, technical colleges, or polytechnics, the Technische Hochschulen. These schools are not high schools in the sense that the term would be applied to our American institutions, but are rather schools of collegiate grade, ranking in fact, as the title indicates in the university class. While not exactly comparable to our engineering schools, they approach more nearly these than they do any other of our American educational institutions.

Before the beginning of the century just closed it was apparent to some German minds more far seeing than the rest, that schools of a higher than secondary rank must be inaugurated to offer training in the sciences; give opportunity to show the application of science to the arts; and prepare young men to grapple with scientific industrial problems such as were constantly springing up. Should the university attempt such work? An effort was made looking toward this end. It was at once evident that here was not the place to begin. The university was an institution in and of itself. Its methods, curriculum and aim were fixed, owing to long established customs. It had a certain work to perform, its own peculiar function to fulfill, and traditional and classical tendency were too strong to be checked in their movement, or to allow a branch stream to flow in and thus add to or modify the existing content.

The war for industrial supremacy, between England and Germany

## particularly, was a prominent factor leading up to the establishment of

technical schools in the latter country. Germany saw the necessity for heroic action, and her people, anxious to improve from the standpoint of her industries at home not only, but that they might rival and surpass their neighbors across the “Silver Streak” readily took up the cry for advanced scientific training. This then was the object of the Technische Hochschulen:[2]

“They were intended to secure for science a foothold in the workshop, to assist with the light of reasoned theory the progress of arts and industry, till then fettered by many a prejudice and hindered through lack of knowledge; on the other hand, they sought to raise that part of the nation engaged in industry to such a love of culture as would secure to it its due measure of public respect.”

[Footnote 2: Note on the earlier History of the Technical High School in Germany by A. E. Twentyman in Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, Vol 9, page 468.]