CHAPTER XVI

ORIGIN, MIGRATIONS, AND HISTORY[386]

The manner in which America was originally peopled has been the cause of considerable speculation. For a long time it was generally believed, and there are some who still hold that belief, that this peopling occurred within comparatively recent times by way of Bering Strait, and that before that the continent was not inhabited. But peoples do not willingly migrate into frozen regions, and the Bering Strait and Alaska down to Dixon Entrance were not many centuries ago buried under a mantle of ice. I doubt if there were even Eskimo in Alaska five hundred years back. It is my belief that all the tribes of the North-west migrated there from the South and South-east, and not within recent geologic time from the Asiatic direction.

That the continent was entirely peopled by way of Bering Strait within the last thousand years, by migrations through a zone of ice, is improbable. To assume that a population came over and passed down to Mexico and Yucatan and even South America, carrying with them their arts, but not exercising them on this interminable journey, is ridiculous. No pottery has yet been found between the Yukon and the Humboldt, or even farther south, probably because the Eskimo learned what little they knew about it while in the St. Lawrence valley or the Atlantic region, and the tribes of the North-west coast never came into sufficiently close contact with potters to learn the art.[387] Furthermore, no authentic trace of any Old-World language thus far has been found on this continent, and the only Asiatic language now known to be allied to an American is that of a branch of the Eskimo family which crossed from this side within the last three hundred years. The Amerind languages change slowly. An immense period must have elapsed since their separation from the rest of the world. It is said that two Japanese vessels a year are wrecked on our California coast, and some have peopled the continent from this source; a more absurd theory than the other. The number of Japanese vessels that were afloat a thousand years ago was as nothing compared with those afloat to-day, and if only two per annum are wrecked on these shores to-day, the wrecks a thousand years ago did not add materially to the population.[388] It is possible, however, that a few persons may have reached either seaboard that way, and like Cabeza de Vaca, they may have wandered for years among the various tribes as teachers and medicine-men, giving rise to legends of “white and bearded strangers.” But in the early days vessels were frail and did not venture far from the coast, so that the chances of being driven to American shores without foundering were very slight. The Northmen made the voyage, however, and others may have done it. Yet the supposed visits of the Irish and Danes are hardly worthy of serious consideration, although it would be rash to deny the possibility of their having come. As for the Lost-Tribes-of-Israel theory, on which Kingsborough was wrecked, no archæologist of to-day would be willing to give it a second thought. A multitude of stock languages, differing from each other, yet forming a world-group by themselves, are found here. The people who speak them, from Panama to the Arctic, are in their habits, customs, and physical characteristics wonderfully homogeneous,[389] yet they appear to exhibit several types that have been moulded into a family resemblance by some strange circumstance. Toward Panama, some of them attained a considerable degree of progress, but these were not of one special stock but of diverse stocks. Farther north there was another group attaining to a less but a similar kind of progress, and they also were, and are, of diverse stocks. In the Mississippi valley are evidences of another similar culture group, probably also of diverse stocks because some of them were allied to, or were part of, the stocks found there when the whites came. The same general conditions prevailed farther east, and a centre of development was rapidly forming in New York when it was destroyed by our coming. One of the most widespread stocks, the Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan, is composite, containing within it tribes of the highest culture and tribes of the least culture, tribes that were peaceful and tribes that were warlike. It is evident then that _culture was no evidence of relationship_ or the reverse among the Amerind people. By some powerful influence and long association they had, whatever their origin, been moulded into one race. “Where had they come from?” “How did they come to be so much alike?” “Why did their highest development take place down by the Isthmus instead of by the Great Lakes or in the fertile valley of the Mississippi?” These are pertinent questions. Attempts have been made to answer them by importing different people from different parts of the world and their recent culture with them. But the more the Amerinds are studied, the more homogeneous do we find them and the more isolated from Old-World influences. Culture, as mentioned, was not confined to one stock; it permeated through unrelated stocks. The languages too are totally different from all others. Thus the more the matter is investigated, the more closely are we confined to the Western Hemisphere for the origin of the Amerind people, _as we know them_. Toward Panama, that is below the City of Mexico, a kind of civilisation was attained, and there we find was the densest population on the continent. Culture never develops in a game country with a sparse population, and there is, therefore, an intimate connection between a crowded population and “culture” or “civilisation.” It may be broadly asserted, I think, that _civilisation is crowding_; it is man’s effort at self-preservation. Where the game-supply is exhausted or insufficient and subsistence must be wholly or largely wrested from the soil, there will be found the culture centres, the hothouses of art and science, from which a filtration occurs into all the contiguous regions and peoples. On this continent the chief centre of culture was the narrowest part; the population was packed there as in the narrow end of a funnel, leaving the whole broad top thinly peopled. The question immediately arises: “Why was this so?” It is evident at a glance that there was some preponderating, irresistible influence which compelled the inhabitants to draw into these narrow, restricted regions, there to act and react one tribe on another, and this influence was constantly at work moulding them all. If the continent had been peopled within any comparatively recent time, it is not reasonable to suppose that the tribes would willingly have huddled together far down in the most limited area. It is also from this area apparently that all the arts have spread. The crowding and the culture development were coincident. What was the cause of it? If we can arrive at a satisfactory understanding of the cause, it seems to me that we have the solution of the whole matter. The explanation appears to be that the continent was peopled before the beginning of the glacial epoch, and the crowding into the narrow regions, and consequently the development of culture there, were due to the encroachment from the north of the great cold. Wright says: “Just before the beginning of the ice age, a temperate climate corresponding to latitude 35 on the Atlantic coast extended far up toward the north pole, permitting Greenland and Spitzbergen to be covered with trees and plants similar in most respects to those found at the present time in Virginia and North Carolina. Here indeed in close proximity to the north pole were then residing, in harmony and contentment, the ancestors of nearly all the plants and animals which are now found in the north temperate zone.” It is not unreasonable to suppose, then, that man was also here, though as yet the scientific evidence is perhaps not sufficient to prove it. If he circled the globe in the Northern regions at that time, and was also occupying Central portions, the cold drove all south and together with changes of land levels cut off the American division from the other world.[390] Migration legends are useless in determining the origin of the Amerinds, for they can only relate to the _comparatively recent changes_ of location before which, for a long period, the people drifted up and down and across the continent under the influences I have suggested. However man first originated, or where, he was doubtless distributed, like the flora and fauna, at some exceedingly remote period, over the whole world, by causes not now understood, but one of which was probably a greater continuity of land surfaces than exists to-day.[391] Some of the earlier-world people were possibly more advanced than we have been willing to concede, and there was, from a very early day, a differentiation of tribes. Some were making respectable weapons and tools of stone while others were using clubs. Too much stress has been placed upon the European classification of stone implements. It may exhibit conditions that existed in Europe, but it has nothing to do with a standard of measurement for the world. When Moses was leading his enlightened people, the European was a painted savage. The period of time in which man used stone implements is enormous; that in which he has used metal tools, comparatively insignificant. It stands to reason, therefore, that during this long use of stone, tribes attained to varying degrees of culture, and varying degrees of perfection in stone tools. There never could have been a single period of time when all tribes the world round made a certain quality of implements, then another period when they all made other quality of implements. Classification of tribes and races in a time-scale, or even in a culture scale, according to the kind of stone implements they used, is impossible. The Pai Ute and the Iroquois made equally good tools in the seventeenth century, while in other lands still inferior tribes were making implements about as good, and others were struggling on with poorer ones. At the time of the Aztec confederacy, their stone tools were not greatly superior to those of the Pai Ute. Therefore, it would seem that any resemblance between so-called American “paleolithic” implements and modern stone implements cannot be used as an argument to disprove the age of the former, nor that a polished stone implement found in a supposed ancient gravel is necessarily an indication of intrusion or that the gravel is not ancient. The implements thus far found in the California auriferous gravels have been similar to those found on the surface to-day, and this has been held by some to be a suspicious circumstance. It is not. Some tribes in California in those remote times were probably making stone implements quite as good as anything made to-day. Stone-working is not capable of high development. The range is limited. Some tribes compassed it early. Because also we do not find stone implements abundant in the North-American glacial drift proves nothing concerning man’s condition, presence or absence on the continent at that time. The population _was almost entirely below the glacial limit_, only a few inferior tribes skirting its southern fringe. We should, then, expect to find few northerly pre-glacial evidences,[392] as the main culture development took place south of the ice line, and tribes above this in pre-glacial times would be the most primitive.

[Illustration: TLINKIT SUMMER CAMP

From photograph by the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899 ]

[Illustration: ESKIMO SUMMER CAMP, PORT CLARENCE

From photograph by the Harriman Expedition, 1899 ]

[Illustration: WOODEN SNOW GOGGLES OF THE CENTRAL ESKIMO]

The material evidences concerning the antiquity of man in America are many, but few are entirely satisfactory. The Calaveras skull and other remains in the auriferous California gravels seem to place him here as early as the Tertiary, and this, says Holmes,[393] would make man older on this continent than anywhere else in the world according to present evidence. A rudely chipped arrow-head has also been found in another region under some elephant bones. A primitive hearth was discovered in well digging in an old beach of Lake Ontario which dates back to the glacial time. Many specimens of stone implements have been found throughout the land in deposits which appear to be of great age. There is always the question of modern introduction through burials, overturned trees, etc., but the number and varying positions seem to indicate that some of these tools have been found in their original places. I excavated a mound in southern Utah from the depths of which I brought out an exceedingly primitive grinding-stone, yet not a single stone implement of any other kind was found. The grinding-stone was twenty feet below the top of the mound and ten below the present general level of the surface. The mound was formed of many layers of earth interspersed with thin layers of charcoal and ashes. All around the site there were house ruins on the surface, but in the mound not a trace of a building stone was seen. I was told that in digging a well not far from this locality a small earthen jug of antique type was found about thirty feet below the present level. I did not see it nor even the man who found it, but the great abundance of such finds must indicate antiquity, for they could not all be fraudulent, nor all recent intrusions.

The cause of the glacial period has been much discussed. It seems to have been largely due to changes in land levels,[394] and to other causes not now understood. The people inhabiting the world before it may have been originally much alike in kind and colour with local variations, and the isolation produced by glacial conditions modified this colour and increased the variations, those finally left in hot lands becoming darker, medium temperatures producing brown, still cooler the reds and yellows, and the forests of Europe evolving a shade or shadow people, shrinking from the strong sun; the so-called white race. The glacial epoch is often spoken of as if the whole world were frozen solid, whereas in North America, from the Ohio and the Columbia to the Isthmus, the climate was doubtless about relatively the same as it is now from Davis Strait to the Potomac and from Yakutat Bay to northern California. The ice extended down about to the Ohio River in the East and on lowlands not below the Columbia in the West. The Western mountain tops must have been completely glaciated and all elevated regions were cold, the conditions prevailing resembling those now found in Southern Alaska. The Sierra Nevadas, receiving the warm, moist airs from the Pacific, must have been far more heavily glaciated than the Rockies, which received less moisture in consequence. The ice period is estimated to have endured from ten to twenty thousand years, with an interval of recession in it and subsequent advance. The people were driven southward, and those most favourably situated developed the most. The people most favourably situated were all _who were already in_, or could fight their way to, the temperate lowlands of southern Mexico and Central America, which were rendered somewhat more extensive by the recession of the sea, caused by the withdrawal of the immense quantities of water that were heaped up in ice thousands of feet in thickness.[395] This has been estimated to have lowered the waters of the ocean by from 600 to 1000 feet.[396] The lands thus laid bare were climatically inviting and probably were soon covered with vegetation. In South America the people were crowded northward, or held there by the cold coming from the south. It would be in the northern portions,

## particularly the lowlands, that we ought to find evidence of the

highest development, especially on the side receiving warm currents, and there is where we do find it. We apparently have then a northern and a southern limit to the ancient inhabitants of this hemisphere, within which climatic conditions during the period of great cold, and for some time thereafter, were most favourable to human development. This limit in the Northern continent is latitude 23 and in the Southern also 23. Within these lines the great precolumbian development took place, and the heart of this development on the Northern continent seems to have rested between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the present upper frontier of Honduras, chiefly on the lowlands, and probably also on lands now beneath the ocean.

[Illustration: PRINCIPAL KNOWN RUINS OF CENTRAL AMERICA

Prepared by M. H. Saville ]

[Illustration: NECKLACE OF DRIED HUMAN FINGERS OBTAINED ON BATTLEFIELD OF WOUNDED-KNEE BY CAPTAIN BOURKE]

[Illustration: PRINCIPAL KNOWN RUINS OF MEXICO

Prepared by M. H. Saville ]

In North America, south of latitude 23, then, most of the tribes of the continent were crowded by the great cold, and here they developed their chief characteristics, so that by the time the ice began its last recession they had become a homogeneous people, with the greatest advancement and the greatest similarities in the region where the population had been densest, with a diminishing scale outward, those tribes farthest from the culture centre varying most from the highest culture attained. The tribe on the extreme edge was, and is now, represented by the Eskimo.[397] The development and the distribution of the arts were in the same order, and here apparently is the explanation of the superior excellence of Central-American arts, and the seeming derivation of all the arts on the continent from this centre. Finally the recession of the ice caused renewed trouble. The melting of it and the return thereby of the locked-up waters to the ocean caused a submergence of lowlands that had been made habitable by their withdrawal. There were floods and floods. Tribes were overwhelmed or were driven to higher ground. There was a renewed shifting of populations over the whole continent. Those which had been held back toward the highlands and toward the ice, accustomed to the cool airs and to a particular food, readily followed the retrogression of the ice, impelled always by pressure of the tribes farther south. They were inured to cold. The most southerly tribes became inured somewhat to heat, and clung to their lands, impelled also to do this by the pressure of wilder tribes recoiling from contact with still other tribes. But heat being debilitating, and especially so to the Amerind constitution, the Yucatec peoples, who were those who had attained the highest development, gradually degenerated under its influence, and before the voyage of Columbus whole cities were depopulated. Some held their own for a longer period, but were already on the way to decline when the Spaniards appeared. In some cases their towns were occupied by an inferior tribe of perhaps the same stock, or an inferior tribe dwelt around them and, not knowing the origin of the architectural works, attempted to account for them by fairy tales like the legend of the _Dwarf’s House_, which Stephens learned. The people nearest the ice front are still represented by the Eskimo, and their next neighbours, as of yore, are the Athapascans, and Algonquins, and so on down in zones more or less distinct, but considerably deranged by subsequent migrations, to the builders of the Yucatec ruins. The Apaches and Navajos are usually said to have _come down_ from their kin in the North, but it is equally possible that they _remained behind_ in the high mountains while their kin pushed on.[398] The table-lands of Mexico, being high and temperate, formed a final refuge for many tribes, some of whom had profited by contact with the centre of development, and these roamed the plateau, one branch finally settling around the lake of Mexico, and there planting again the seeds of the lowland culture. Many tribes were early crowded into the California coast region, because the lowland climate there remained comparatively mild, and the supply of fish, seals, etc. was so great that they were not compelled to till the soil for subsistence (if indeed they were possessed of sufficient knowledge, or if the land were in condition to produce), as was the case farther south, where the population was denser and natural supplies insufficient. But the region was so inhospitable that only fragments of these tribes survived. They did not multiply.

[Illustration: PROBABLE ASPECT OF ALASKA SUMMER LANDSCAPE SOME 600 YEARS AGO

Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1899. Photographed by the author ]

The reason the Eastern continents produced many and diverse peoples is that the glacial period temperate zone, or warm zone, extended through many degrees of _longitude_, offering extensive areas of settlement to the races in that hemisphere, where they remained more or less isolated and independent, to advance in their own way and along their own lines; that is, on the Eastern continents there was ample _latitudinal_ land space, while on the Western there was a very limited latitudinal land space that retained a salubrious climate. This was the cause of North American race homogeneity.

The period of time that has elapsed since the so-called disappearance of the ice was formerly believed to be very great, but latterly views on this point have been much modified. Gilbert has declared, after a study of the Niagara gorge, that the time since the ice left that region is not more than seven thousand years, perhaps less. More recent investigations have tended to confirm his suggestion of fewer years. Immediately after the recession of glacial ice, as may be seen in Alaska to-day, erosion is extremely rapid. I have not space to discuss this point at length, but it is apparent that the rate of erosion is variable, and I doubt if more than five thousand years have passed since the ice left the vicinity of the Niagara gorge. As it still lingers in the North, far down on the Pacific side, it _is probably not more than a thousand years since its influence was powerful in affecting the climate of all the region southward_. The North is undoubtedly growing warmer. Some five hundred years ago Alaska was still covered with glacial ice. Five hundred years from now there will scarcely be a glacier to be found there, except in the highest mountains. “The next generation will find few of them with their fronts still in the sea,” says Henry Gannett.[399]

[Illustration: A PUEBLOAN WARRIOR OF NAMBÉ, NEW MEXICO, IN BATTLE ARRAY]

The most widely spread stocks are made up of those that were forced to occupy a middle position during the cold, like the Algonquins and Athapascans, who were invigorated by it. Other stocks, for reasons not understood, dwindled to mere handfuls of people, like the Karankawan, now extinct, the Adaizan, the Natchezan, the Uchean, the Zuñian, Keresan, and others. The oldest people of the Valley of Mexico mentioned are the Xicalancas, Olmecas, and the Toltecs. Brinton believed the latter never existed, but other authors, fully as distinguished, accept them as a _bona-fide_ tribe. They may have been kindred to the Nahuatls, coming from the crowded lowlands, as the waters rose and the heat increased, and occupying the cooler plateau. Their wilder relatives later became influenced by them and adopting their learning began the famous development in the Valley of Mexico. The period of evolution in the crowded region was very long. Tribes rose to power and declined.[400] Other tribes, profiting by their experience, took up some of their ways and progressed. Many of these tribes we have no reminiscence of.

Back of the Conquest of Mexico by Cortes, the thread of authentic history becomes most uncertain. It begins about the sixth century. Ixtlilxochitl, the native Mexican, has written a good deal, but it must be taken, oftentimes, with extreme caution. The history of the Amerind race is written mainly by their conquerors. It is a one-sided affair, and even so is not pleasant reading. Balzac says: “Historians are privileged liars, who lend their pen to popular beliefs.” Certainly the character of the Amerind and his doings have not often been too charitably drawn, while, on the other hand, our actions toward him, even as related by ourselves, are enough to make one sometimes doubt the benefits of civilisation. Morgan, speaking of the remnant of the Senecas, says: “To embitter their sense of desolation as a nation, the pre-emptive right to these last remnants of their ancient possessions is now held by a company of land speculators, the Ogden Land Company, who, to wrest away these few acres, have pursued and hunted them for the last fourteen years with a degree of wickedness hardly to be paralleled in the history of human avarice. Not only have every principle of honesty, every dictate of humanity, every Christian precept been violated by this company in their eager artifices to despoil the Senecas; but the darkest frauds, the basest bribery, and the most execrable intrigues which soulless avarice could suggest, have been practised in open day upon this defenceless and much injured people.”[401]

[Illustration: APACHE WOMAN CARRYING WATER IN A WICKER BOTTLE]

On one occasion in 1643, out of a spirit of revenge for a murder committed by an Indian who had been infuriated by whisky, but whose friends, according to Amerind custom, offered to pay a blood indemnity, Governor Kieft, heading a band of soldiers and freebooters from Dutch privateers, fell upon the unsuspecting Algonquins and slaughtered over a hundred of them. Little children were tossed into the river, and the parents who plunged to the rescue were prevented from landing by the soldiers, and child and parent both perished. In this incident began the Dutch and Indian War, which lasted two years. Can anyone condemn them for going to war after such treatment?

Acts of white brutality of this character could be quoted to fill a volume, but these are sufficient to indicate the manner of the European approach, except in the case of Penn. The more docile the Amerinds were, the more abuse they got. If they became self-supporting like the Navajos, the government gave them nothing; if they were murderous and deadly, like the Apaches, the government took care of them and fed them. Issuing rations is a proper thing, when we have destroyed the native means of subsistence, but the tribe that works and helps itself ought to be aided further toward civilisation in other ways. One of the most stubborn of the numerous Amerind wars was the Seminole in the Everglades of Florida. Our whole available force was engaged in this war, besides some fifty thousand militia and volunteers. Though there were probably not more than four hundred warriors, the cost of the war was over $30,000,000, and three thousand lives were sacrificed. The wars with the Apaches were long and difficult. The Modocs also carried on a disastrous war, and recently the Sioux took their turn. These wars could generally have been averted by proper diplomacy. The battle of Wounded Knee was precipitated by a wild and unauthorised shot at a critical moment by one of our soldiers. Had he remained inactive the battle would probably never have occurred. Many tribes were exterminated at an early period. Most of the Carolina tribes were destroyed between 1714 and 1740. To-day very few Amerinds exist in the United States east of the Mississippi. Those who were not destroyed, or who are not still living on lands reserved for them, are mostly west of the Mississippi, either on lands belonging to them in the Indian Territory, or on scattered reservations. Tribes in Indian Territory have long conducted a sort of civilised government, but some of them are now on the eve of selling their lands and purchasing broader tracts with the funds obtained, in Mexico. The Navajos are in possession of an enormous area lying across the line of Arizona and New Mexico, and their vast herds of sheep, cattle, and horses require extensive grazing, so that it will be impossible to reduce the area allotted to them, especially as the tribe is steadily increasing in numbers. Schools of mechanic arts should speedily be established among them, in order that when they eventually are obliged to look to other avenues of support than stock-raising, they can do work that will command a price. It makes not the slightest difference whether or not they are able to read English, if they have wares to sell that white people need and want, and the Navajo is capable of great development on the mechanical side. They will learn English when necessity requires it. The Mokis have a reservation adjoining the Navajos, and it is ample for them for all time, as they are not increasing, and their herds of sheep are small.

[Illustration: GROUP OF ESKIMO, PORT CLARENCE, ALASKA

Photographed by the Harriman Expedition, 1899 Permission of E. H. Harriman ]

[Illustration: SHELL SPIDER GORGETS

From mounds in Missouri, Illinois, and Tennessee

Pl. LXI.—Second Ann. ]

In the West the history of the Amerind is linked mainly with that of but two other races, the Spanish and the Anglo-Saxon, while in the East it is intimately bound up with the wars and history of the Dutch and French as well. All the struggles of these European races for supremacy affected the Amerind, and in the East he is found sometimes on one side, sometimes on another.[402] He did not for some time discover that his doom was in the European regardless of kind. At first, too, the Amerind extended the law of hospitality to the newcomers, and the Europeans would have starved to death in some instances had it not been for the timely aid of the race in possession of the soil, and whose reward was subsequent destruction. The Amerinds at last tried to combine, as in the conspiracy of Pontiac, against their increasing foe, and had they been able to throw aside some of their peculiar regulations and form a wide-spreading and close confederacy, they could have compelled the Europeans to halt on the Atlantic slopes of the Appalachian chain for a long period. “In our ignorance,” says Simon Pokagon, chief of the Pokagon Pottawatomies, “we did not comprehend the mighty ocean of humanity that lay back of the advance waves of pioneer settlement. But being fired by as noble patriotism as ever burned in the hearts of mortals, we tried to beat back the reckless white man who dared to settle within our borders—and vast armies were sent out to punish us. We fought most heroically against overpowering numbers for home and native land; sometimes victory was ours, as when, during the last decade of the eighteenth century, after having many warriors killed, and our villages burned to the ground, our fathers arose in their might, putting to flight the alien armies of Generals Harmer and St. Clair, hurling them in disorder from the wilderness across our borders into their own ill-gotten domain.”[403] But the whites who had already come to America, however much they might have desired to leave the Amerinds alone, were powerless to prevent other whites, in search of better fortunes, from dispossessing them, and so impelled by the pressure of European population, numbers came and numbers came again and again, and yet still others behind them. The result, the final result, was inevitable. The Amerind was doomed when Columbus first saw the Western land, and nothing that the Amerind could have done would have greatly changed the final course of events. Tecumseh made an heroic effort to unite his people in a stubborn stand against the enemy, but the difficulty was that there were not enough Tecumsehs. The powerful league of the Iroquois, that once promised to dominate the whole continent, began its decline with the very first intercourse with the Europeans, so that in 1750 they were about half their former number. The league was probably formed about the middle of the sixteenth century, and in these two hundred years they reached their highest power and were on the wane. As it must have taken them some time to reach the point where they could form such a body as the league, they must have been a powerful and progressive people at least a hundred years before, so that their main existence as a progressive people probably covered a period of some three hundred years if not more. Had they not been wrecked by contact with Europeans, it is safe to assume that they would have advanced to double their power, at least, in another century. They destroyed the Siouan tribes of the East, held the Lenapé in subjection, and terrorised the Algonquins as far as the banks of the Mississippi.

[Illustration: BLACK HAWK

The great central figure in the Black Hawk War, 1832

George Catlin ]

[Illustration: PORTION OF THE SO-CALLED “PALACE” OF LABNA, YUCATAN

Construction: stone. Site: tropical forest. Abandoned in prehistoric times

Saville says: “The entire surface of the country is covered with forests.... Immediately to the south and west no white man has ever penetrated beyond the first range of hills; and who can tell what gems of ancient architecture lie buried in the wilderness”

Photographed by M. H. Saville, 1890 ]

King Philip, Red Jacket, Pontiac, Black Hawk, and many other Amerinds distinguished themselves as men of wide capacity, and in our later day may be mentioned the famous Sitting Bull, whose sagacity, intelligence, and military skill were of an extremely high order. He gave us much trouble, to be sure, but if all is fair in war, Sitting Bull deserves great praise for his ability.

In war the Amerinds were given to killing all they could, but as this is the business of war, and as white armies use weapons that are also meant to kill, and seem to try to do killing in battle, we cannot be too hard on the Amerind warrior if he did not always do his killing exactly in the way we do it. “Murder as a fine art” was not one of his studies. He killed and we kill; where is the difference? Wars may be necessary; I think they sometimes are; so did the Amerind.

[Illustration: MUSICAL BOW OF THE SOUTHERN TEPEHUANES AND THE AZTECS, MEXICO

The sounding-board is a gourd with a hole in it. The other end of the brace attached to the bow rests on a stone. The cord of the bow was struck by a stick to produce the desired noise. Found by Lumholtz in use. Length of bow, 1 metre 36.5 centimetres. See page 308; and also article on “Geographical Distribution of the Musical Bow” by O. T. Mason, _American Anthropologist_, November, 1897; _Natural History of the Musical Bow_, by Henry Balfour; and “Symbolism of the Huichol Indians,” by Carl Lumholtz, _Memoirs of the American Museum_, vol. iii, pages 206, 207 ]

Long before any permanent settlers pushed to the wilderness, adventurous traders penetrated to remote regions with the whisky keg, and as they seldom expected to go to the same place twice, they usually swindled the native outrageously. Many of these were Frenchmen, and they were given the name of _Coureurs du Bois_. There were also always certain outlaws who found safety in putting a great distance between themselves and the law. These classes were more apt to stir the native up against the European than to render intercourse easy, and often, in early times as well as in our day, they incited the Amerinds to war for the sake of their own gains. But it was the coming of actual settlers which caused the greatest trouble. They appropriated the soil, killed the game, and otherwise interfered with rights which the tribe concerned had for centuries, perhaps, regarded as theirs alone. In the case of the Hudson Bay Company, it being well understood that they occupied certain points merely for trade, no trouble was ever experienced. _For two hundred years this company traded all over the northern part of the continent without a serious rupture with any tribe!_ Each tribe held its own lands as before, so far as the company was concerned, hence there was no clashing; but with settlers taking up choice places it becomes another matter.

[Illustration: GENERAL TYPE OF CHIMMESYAN, HAIDA, AND TLINKIT CHIEF’S COSTUME, NORTH-WEST COAST

The Chilkat blanket which this man has over his shoulders “is so called because the best specimens come from the Chilkat country,” says Niblack. All the North-west coast tribes use it. The warp is cedar bark twine and the woof a yarn made of mountain-goat wool. See pages 128, 142. ]

[Illustration: PERFORATED DISCOIDAL STONE, ILLINOIS]

The stories of Cabeza de Vaca, Soto, Cortes, Coronado, John Smith, La Salle, Tonti, Joliet, Lewis and Clark, Fremont, and many others are valuable, not only for the adventures contained in them and the descriptions of new country, but because of the descriptions of Amerinds as they existed in the beginning. Our understanding of the routes of some of these explorers is not always strictly accurate, and the accuracy of the route has much to do with our properly placing geographically the Amerinds named therein. There are grave discrepancies in the tracing of that of Coronado, for example. In another place I have presented my views on this subject.[404]

[Illustration: HOBOBO, THE FIRE KATCINA IN THE SOMAIKOLI CEREMONY, CICHUMOVI, 1884

From a drawing by the author, after one of his photographs. The mask enclosed the whole head, and was of cloth, stained green, with globular eyes attached ]

[Illustration: CIRCLE OF DANCERS IN THE INTERVALS BETWEEN THE APPEARANCES OF THE VARIOUS KATCINAS IN THE MOKI SOMAIKOLI CEREMONY, CICHUMOVI, ARIZONA, 1884

Photographed by the author ]

As there were outlaws among the whites, so too there were outlaws among the Amerinds. These were men from various tribes who had committed crimes and escaped the punishment they should have received according to the law of their people, and coming together they sometimes formed a band by themselves in some strong and isolated position. A good example of such a band of renegades was that of one Patnish in south-eastern Utah near the Navajo mountain. It was composed of outlaws from the surrounding tribes, chiefly Utes and Navajos, and was the terror of the country, though in 1872, when I first knew of it, nothing in the way of serious depredation had been attempted for several years. The Mormons of southern Utah looked upon Patnish as a dangerous man, yet he sometimes came to their frontier villages in a peaceful way. He had three or four stalwart sons who usually accompanied him in his travels, and they were always ready for emergencies. The band wore the Navajo dress and, I understood, preferred to be considered Navajos. Beckwourth mentions a renegade band of this sort in his time, a village “composed of outlaws from all the surrounding tribes, who were expelled from their various communities for sundry infractions of their rude criminal code; they had acquired a hard name for their cruelties and excesses, and many white traders were known to have been killed by them.... The village numbered three hundred lodges, and could bring from twelve to fifteen hundred warriors into the field.... We called it the City of Refuge.”[405] He speaks of them as Cheyennes, but I suppose they were Cheyennes in the same way that Patnish’s band were Navajos; because they preferred to be called so.

These outlaws often caused trouble between the better class of Amerinds and the whites, because, especially in the earlier days, an “Indian” was an “Indian” always and everywhere, and a crime of the outlaws or others was revenged upon the first “Indian” that was met with. There never was any inquiry to find out if he committed the crime; he was generally shot on sight. Innocence was a quality never thought of in dealing with “Indians.” By reason of their birth, they were all guilty of any crime perpetrated.

But I have already exceeded the limits prescribed for this book. In concluding, I would say that it seems from all the evidence available that this continent was peopled at a period so remote that other races had not yet developed their present characteristics. This was probably before the glacial epoch began, while the Northern climate was mild, and while land surfaces were distributed more on latitudinal lines, separated by narrower waters. Afterwards there was a rearrangement by the forces of nature, which, together with the extreme cold of the North, effectually separated the Amerinds from other peoples, and caused them to mingle and react on each other till even the affinities which had before developed in different localities and had produced some differentiation of types were almost rubbed out and remain to-day only as tinges of the earlier qualities. The other world tribes, subjected to other influences, have developed other differences and have diverged from their original stocks. It is also probable that in the redistribution of land surfaces and rearrangement of land levels, many stocks, some highly developed, were obliterated. Slight modifications may have occurred through later accidental intrusions from the Eastern Hemisphere, but if there had been any considerable intercourse within a recent period between outside peoples and the Amerinds we should have found distinct traces of it in the writings of early days. People as different and extraordinary as the Amerinds were would have produced a vivid impression on any who might have seen them and contrariwise a European, for example, would have left a lasting impression. On the extreme North-west coast there seems to be a type resemblance to Asiatics, but this is more likely due to an extremely early colouring which was preserved by special isolation on this continent, rather than to any considerable infusion of Asiatic blood in recent time. As before remarked, I am of the opinion that the Alaska and North-west coast tribes reached those regions from the South and South-east in comparatively late times.[406] Taking a broad view of the question, it seems to be an inevitable conclusion that the Amerind race, or rather _the various races of which it was originally composed_, were early cut off on this hemisphere from intercourse with the remainder of the world, and held in isolation by a change in land distribution and by the continued glaciation of the northern portions of the continent which in a measure endures to this day. The climate of North-eastern Siberia was also glacial and prevented migrations from milder regions. Many eminent archæologists agree that the Amerind was here before the great cold moved down, although the evidence of implements and remains as we now understand them is, perhaps, insufficient. Languages, traits, customs, and arts are also to be considered, and they seem all to favour, as outlined above, the theory of an exceedingly remote peopling of this continent from various directions. But this slight attempt to outline vast movements must be brought to a close. To sum briefly up, then, it seems that the Amerindian race, while originally composed of different elements, was, as a body, separated from the other peoples of the world, at a remote epoch, and by peculiar climatic and geographic influences, welded into an ethnic unity, which was unimpressed by outside influences till modern times.

[Illustration: FRONT OF THE HOUSE OF THE COLUMNS, MITLA, OAXACA

The excavation is shown that was made by Saville in January, 1900. A cement floor was uncovered and the base of a square that was probably a shrine. On the left, behind, is seen the top of the Catholic church that has been built on the site of one of the ancient structures. Excavations at the sites of old cities will doubtless yield valuable returns. Recently (October, 1900) a sewer excavation in the City of Mexico, near the Cathedral, the site of the great teocalli, furnished several wagon-loads of idols, gold objects, jade beads, etc. See also pages 209, 246

Photographed by M. H. Saville ]

+Note.+—For an excellent _résumé_ of facts on “The Prehistoric Archæology of North America,” see the article by Henry W. Haynes, p. 329, Winsor’s _Narrative and Critical History of the United States_, vol. i.; also “The Progress of Opinion Respecting the Origin and Antiquity of Man in America,” by Justin Winsor, _ibid._, p. 369; also the “Critical Essay on Sources of Information,” p. 316; and for pre-Columbian explorations see p. 76; and, _The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilisations_, by Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, Peabody Museum.

[Illustration: A COSTUMED HUMAN FIGURE FROM TAMPICO, WASHINGTON

The material is antler. Found in a stone cist somewhat resembling the stone graves of Kentucky and Ohio, but covered by a heap of jagged basaltic rocks about 8 feet in diameter. The skeleton of a child was found in the cist. The antler figure is 247 mm. long and from 2 to 5 mm. thick. The front is engraved as shown above. The back is plain. See paper on this subject by Harlan I. Smith.—_Bulletin American Museum_, vol. xx, pp. 195–203.

Harlan I. Smith ]

[Illustration: ENTRANCE OF A TOMB AT CUILAPA, MEXICO

It was around the entrances of such tombs as this that the terra-cotta funeral urns were found, shown on pp. xii, xxviii, 115. They were usually in series of five with nothing in them.

Marshall H. Saville ]

[Illustration: STICK USED IN THE AWL GAME]

APPENDIX[407]

A list of the principal stocks or families, tribes, and many sub-tribes of the North American Amerinds, based on the linguistic classification of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, as given in the _Seventh Annual Report_; on Brinton’s classification in his _The American Race_, on Mason’s “Linguistic Families of Mexico,” in the _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1; in _Mexico_, Washington, 1900, Bureau of American Republics; Dall’s Tribes of the Extreme Northwest, _Contributions to North American Ethnology_, vol. i.; James Mooney’s _Siouan Tribes of the East_; and on lists in the _Bibliographies_ of James C. Pilling, with tribal names from other sources.

+List of Stocks and Sub-Stocks+[408]

The abbreviations are the ones used in the alphabetical list of tribes. By referring back from that list to this, the linguistic affinity and general geographical location of a tribe may be determined. The author has added the term “+Hopitan+” as a sub-stock of the +Shoshonean+ to designate the group of Hopi tribes, which, while showing strong linguistic affinity, are otherwise, like the +Piman+ and +Nahuatlan+, so markedly separated in habits from the true +Shoshonean+ stock that an individual classification for them seems desirable. As the +Hopitan+ are ranked as +Shoshonean+ in the general scheme the harmony of the classification is not interfered with. +Puebloan+ is also given as a comprehensive descriptive term for all the permanent house-building tribes, regardless of linguistic affinities, or ancient or modern existence. This is necessary because it is not possible to assign a linguistic place to the former occupants of ruins like those of the Chaco, yet it is settled that they were of a kind with the other town builders. Thus, also, the Cliff-dwellers may be conveniently classed under this head. Tusayan and Cibola, as applied respectively to the +Hopitan+ and the +Zuñian+, should never be used, for the reason that it is not certain that these are the places that were so designated by Coronado in 1540. The author believes they were not seen by Coronado.[409] It is in the interest of accuracy to avoid these unnecessary designations, which confuse ethnological and geographical matters.

_Ada._ +Adaizan.+ Western Louisiana.

_Alq._ +Algonquian.+ North-east third of the continent, from Tennessee and Montana.

_Ath._ +Athapascan.+ North-west part of the continent, and from the Utah-Colorado line southward into Mexico. There are also some small groups on the Pacific coast in south-western Oregon and north-western California.

_Att._ +Attacapan.+ Southern Louisiana.

_Beo._ +Beothukan.+ Northern Newfoundland. Extinct. Formerly all Newfoundland.

_Cad._ +Caddoan.+ Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and North Dakota.

_Crb._ +Caribbean.+ Caribbean Islands and British Honduras. Also probably Florida and S. E. United States at a very early period.

_Cpn._ +Chapanecan.+ Chiapas, Mexico.

_Chi._ +Chimakuan.+ North-west Washington.

_Chrk._ +Chimarikan.+ Northern California.

_Chyn._ +Chimmesyan.+ British Columbia, near Dixon Entrance, and the neighbouring Annette Island, in Alaska.

_Cit._ +CHINANTECAN.+ Oaxaca, Mexico.

_Chik._ +Chinookan.+ Lower portion of the Columbia River.

_Cht._ +Chitimachan.+ Southern Louisiana.

_Chon._ +Chontal.+ See Zap., My., Tqs., also Tzental.

_Chm._ +Chumashan.+ Southern California coast.

_Coh._ +COAHUILTECAN.+ Lower valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico.

_Cop._ +Copehan.+ Northern California.

_Cso._ +Cusaboan.+ Coast of South Carolina; possibly mainly related to the Muskhogean. It is a group title. See Gp.

_Cost._ +Costanoan.+ California, south of the Golden Gate.

_Dak._ +Dakota.+ See Siu.

_E. Siu._ +Siouan of the East.+ Same as Siu.

_Esk._ +Eskimauan.+ From Prince William Sound, Alaska, all along the northern coasts, islands, and inlets to Hudson Bay, Greenland, and northern Newfoundland.

_Alk. Esk._ Alaska Eskimo.

_Alu. Esk._ Aleut Eskimo. Aleutian Islands.

_Gr. Esk._ Greenland Eskimo.

_Lab. Esk._ Labrador Eskimo.

_M. Esk._ Middle or Central Eskimo. North of Hudson Bay.

_Gp._ +Group title.+ Several tribes of different stocks classed erroneously together.

_Gua._ +Guatusoan.+ Nicaragua.

_Ess._ +ESSELENIAN.+ South coast of California.

_Hai._ +Haida.+ See Skit.

_Hua._ +Huavan.+ Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

_Ho._ +Hopitan.+ North-east Arizona. Classed as Shoshonean.

_Ir._ +Iroquoian.+ Around lakes Erie and Ontario, and down the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec; along the Susquehanna and its branches as far as the mouth, and also a belt through northern Georgia, eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina, and southern Virginia.

_Kal._ +Kalapooian.+ Western Oregon.

_Kar._ +Karankawan.+ Southern Texas. Extinct.

_Kers._ +Keresan.+ Northern New Mexico.

_Kio._ +Kiowan.+ Indian Territory, formerly in the Platte valley.

_Kit._ +Kitunahan.+ British Columbia and Oregon.

_Kols._ +Koluschan.+ Dixon Entrance to Prince William Sound, Alaska.

_Kuln._ +Kulanapan.+ North-western California.

_Kus._ +Kusan.+ Western Oregon.

_Ln._ +Lencan.+ Honduras.

_Lut._ +Lutuamian.+ Southern Oregon and northern California.

_Mar._ +Mariposan.+ Southern California.

_Mgn._ +Matagalpan.+ Nicaragua.

_My._ +Mayan.+ Northern border of Honduras to Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

_Mex._ +Mexicana.+ See Nah.

_Mixt._ +Mixteca.+ See Zap.

_Mo._ +Moquelumnan.+ Central California.

_Mus._ +Muskhogean.+ Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, and western Tennessee.

_Nah._ +Nahuan.+ See +Nahuatlan+.

_Nah._ +Nahuatlan.+ Southern portion of Mexico and parts of Central America. Classed as Shoshonean.

_Nah._ +Nahuatlaca.+ See +Nahuatlan+.

_Nat._ +Natchesan.+ Northern Louisiana, western Mississippi. Now in Indian Territory.

_Ot._ +Otomian.+ Central Mexico.

_Pal._ +Palaihnihan.+ North-eastern California.

_Pa._ +Pani.+ See Cad.

_Pim._ +Piman.+ The Sonoran region of Mexico, and southern Arizona. Classed as Shoshonean.

_Pbl._ +Puebloan.+ See Ho., Kers., Pim., Tan., Zun., etc. Northern Mexico and the south-western part of the United States. The stone and adobe house building tribes.

_Puj._ +Pujunan.+ North-eastern California.

_Qrs._ +Queres.+ See Kers.

_Qor._ +Quoratean.+ Northern California.

_Sli._ +Salinan.+ Southern California coast.

_Salh._ +Salishan.+ North-west Oregon, northern Washington, northern Idaho, western Montana, south-western British Columbia.

_Sas._ +Sastean.+ Northern California.

_Ser._ +Serian.+ Tiburon Island and adjacent coast of Mexico.

_Shap._ +Shahaptian.+ South-east Washington, north-west Oregon, western Idaho.

_Sho._ +Shoshonean.+ Southern Texas to northern Montana and north of the Colorado River, west to the Sierra Nevada. In southern California through to the Pacific. Under Shoshonean are classed by some authorities not only the true Shoshonean but the Nahuatlan, Piman, and Hopitan. Including the Piman and Nahuatlan the stock range would extend throughout Mexico and to parts of Central America.

_Siu._ +Siouan.+ Continuously from northern Louisiana to the province of Saskatchewan, eastward to the Mississippi, and in Wisconsin as far as Lake Michigan. Westward to the eastern boundaries of Colorado and Idaho. There were also formerly a number of tribes of this stock in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. See E. Siu.

_Skit._ +Skittagetan.+ Queen Charlotte Island, North-west coast.

_Sub._ +Subtiaban.+ Nicaragua.

_Tak._ +Takilman.+ South-west Oregon.

_Tan._ +Tañoan.+ Valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, New Mexico.

_Tar._ +Tarascan.+ Michoacan, Mexico.

_Tqs._ +Tequistlatecan.+ Oaxaca, Mexico.

_Te._ +Tewan+ or +Tehuan+. See Tan.

_Tim._ +Timuquanan.+ Florida.

_Tl._ +Tlinkit.+ See Kols.

_Tkn._ +Tonikan.+ Eastern Louisiana and western Mississippi.

_Tow._ +Tonkawan.+ Western and southern Texas.

_Tot._ +Totonacan.+ State of Vera Cruz, Mexico.

_Tzl._ +Tzental.+ Tabasco, Mexico. See also Chon.

_Uch._ +Uchean.+ Georgia.

_Ulv._ +Ulvan.+ Honduras.

_Un._ +Unidentified.+ Region, state, or possible affinity following.

_Uto-Az._ +Uto-Aztecan.+ See Ho., Nah., Pim., Sho.

_Wlp._ +Waiilatpuan.+ North-east Oregon.

_Wak._ +Wakashan.+ Coast of British Columbia.

_Wash._ +Washoan.+ Eastern California; western Nevada.

_Wei._ +Weitspekan.+ North-west California; south-west Oregon.

_Wish._ +Wishoskan.+ North-west California.

_Ykn._ +Yakonan.+ Coast of Oregon.

_Yan._ +Yanan.+ Northern California.

_Yuk._ +Yukian.+ Western California.

_Yma._ +Yuman.+ Arizona, southern California, and Lower California.

_Zap._ +Zapotecan.+ Southern Mexico.

_Zo._ +Zoquean.+ Chiapas and Oaxaca, Mexico.

_Zun._ +Zuñian.+ Western New Mexico.

+List of Tribes+

The stocks are also included and are printed in capitals. In order to facilitate reference several titles of the same tribe are sometimes given.

Abbāto-tenā. _Ath._ Abnaki. _Alq._ Absáruqe. _Siu._ Acadiau. _Alq._ Acaxees. _Nah._ Acconeechy. _E. Siu._ Acha. _Pbl._ Achē’to-tin’neh. _Ath._ Achis. _My._ Achomâwi. _Pal._ Acolhua. _Nah._ Acoma. _Kers._ Acomita. _Kers._ Acquera. _Tim._ Acxoteca. _Nah._ Adahi. _Ada._ Adáí. _Ada._ +Adaizan.+ _Ada._ Adaize. _Ada._ Adees. _Ada._ Adshusheer. _E. Siu._ Aggomiut. _M. Esk._ Agualulco. _Nah._ Aguateca. _My._ Aguile. _Tim._ Agutit. _M. Esk._ Ahaknanelet. _M. Esk._ Ahántchuyuk. _Kal._ Ahome. _Pim._ Ahowsaht. _Wak._ Aht. _Wak._ Ahtena. _Ath._ Aicale. _My._ Aivillirmiut. _M. Esk._ Aiyan. _Ath._ Ajoye. _My._ Akansea. _Siu._ Akbat. _Gr. Esk._ Akenatzy. _E. Siu._ Akoklako. _Kit._ Akorninak. _Gr. Esk._ Akudliarmiut. _M. Esk._ Akudnirmiut. _M. Esk._ Alaguilac. _Nah._ Alame. _My._ Alasapa. _Coh._ Aleut. _Alu. Esk._ Algonkin. _Alq._ +Algonquian.+ _Alq._ Algonquin. _Alq._ Alibamu. _Mus._ Aliche. _Cad._ Alikwa. _Wei._ Alimacani. _Tim._ Alsea. _Ykn._ Altatin. _Ath._ Aluik. _Gr. Esk._ Amitormiut. _M. Esk._ Amuchgo. _Zap._ Amusgo. _Zap._ Anaddakka. _Cad._ Anani. _E. Siu._ Anarnitsok. _Gr. Esk._ Anasitch. _Kus._ Andaste. _Ir._ Angmagsalik. _Gr. Esk._ Annocchy. _E. Siu._ Anouala. _Tim._ Apache. _Ath._ Apalachi. _Mus._ Appalou. _Tim._ Aquamish. _Wak._ Aquonena. _Tim._ Arapaho. _Alq._ Arctic Highlander. _Gr. Esk._ Ariquipa. _Ath._ Arikara. } _Cad._ Arikaree.} Aripa. _Yma._ Arispa. _Pim.?_ Arivaipa. _Ath._ Arkansa. _Siu._ Arra-arra. _Qor._ Arvillirmiut. _M. Esk._ Aseguang. _Skit._ Ashochimi. _Yuk._ Asomoches. _Alq._ Assinaboin. _Siu._ Assinai. _Cad._ Assiwikales. _Alq._ Astina. _Tim._ Ătaăkût not Ā]. _Ath._ Atakwa. _E. Siu._ Atai. _Ada._ Ateacari. _Nah._ Atfálati. _Kal._ Athabascan. _Ath._ Athapacca. _Ath._ Athapasca. _Ath._ +Athapascan.+ _Ath._ Atka. _Alu. Esk._ Atnah (1). _Salh._ Atnah (2). _Ath._ Atore. _Tim._ Attacapa. _Att._ +Attacapan.+ _Att._ Atuamih. _Pal._ Auk. _Kols._ Awani. _Mo._ Axion. _Alq._ Ayankēld. _Kal._ Ayapai. _Mar._ Ayhuttisaht. _Wak._ Aztec. _Nah._

Babiocora. _Pim._ Backhooks. _E. Siu._ Baiyu. _Puj._ Balló Kai Pomo. _Kuln._ Baluxa. _E. Siu._ Bannock. _Sho._ Basirora. _Pim._ Basisa. _Tim._ Batemdikáyi. _Kuln._ Batucari. _Pim._ Batuco. _Pim._ Beaver. _Ath._ Belbellah. _Wak._ Bellacoola. _Salh._ Benixono. _Zap._ Beothuk. _Beo._ +Beothukan.+ _Beo._ Bethuck. _Beo._ Biara. _Pim._ Bilkula. _Salh._ Biloxi. _E. Siu._ Binukhsh. _Siu._ Blackfeet. _Siu._ (_See_ Sihasapa.) Blackfeet. _Alq._ (_See_ Siksika.) Blood Indians. _Alq._ Boka. _Puj._ Bollanos. _Mo._ Braba. _Pbl._ Brulé. _Siu._ Bulbul. _Ulv._ Búldam Pomo. _Kuln._

Cacalote. _Coh._ Cachopostate. _Coh._ Cacores. _E. Siu._ Cadapouce. _E. Siu._ Caddo. _Cad._ +Caddoan.+ _Cad._ Cadica. _Tim._ Cahita. _Pim._ Cahokia. _Alq._ Cahrok. _Qor._ Cahuillo. _Sho._ Cailloux. _Wlp._ Cajono. _Zap._ Cakchiquel. _My._ Calabaw. _E. Siu._ Calanay. _Tim._ Calapooya. _Kal._ Canai. _Alq._ Caniba. _Alq._ Canaway. _Alq._ Capaha. _Siu._ Cape Fear. _E. Siu._ Carcha. _Ulv._ Carib. _Crb._ +Caribbean.+ _Crb._ Carrizo. _Coh._ Casa Chiquita. _Coh._ Casa Grande. _Pbl._ Casas Grandes. _Pbl._ Cascade. _Chik._ Casti. _Tim._ Catajano. _Coh._ Catawba. _E. Siu._ Cathlamet. _Chik._ Cathlapotle. _Chik._ Cathlascon. _Chik._ Cattoway. _E. Siu._ Caughnawaga. _Ir._ Cayuga. _Ir._ Cayuse. _Wlp._ Cenis. _Cad._ Ceri. _Yma._ Chaco (Ruins). _Pbl._ Chahta. _Mus._ Chainímaini. _Mar._ Chalca. _Nah._ Chalqueño. _Nah._ Chamule. _My._ Chaneabal. _My._ Changuaguane. _Ath._ Chapa. _Cpn._ Chapanec. _Cpn._ +Chapanecan.+ _Cpn._ Charack. _Siu._ Charaeo. _Ot._ Charense. _Ot._ Chasta Costa. _Ath._ Chata. _Mus._ Chatcheeni. _Skit._ Chatino. _Zap._ Chauchila. _Mo._ Chawishek. _Kuln._ Chayopine. _Coh._ Chehalis. _Salh._ Chelamela. _Kal._ Chele. _My._ Chelekee. _Ir._ Chemehuevi. _Sho._ Chenposel. _Cop._ Chepewyan. _Ath._ Cheraw. _E. Siu._ Cherokee. _Ir._ Chetco. _Ath._ Cheyenne. _Alq._ Chia. _Pbl._ Chicasa. _Mus._ Chichen Itza. _My._ Chichilticalli. _Pbl._ Chichimec. _Gp._ Chichominy. _Alq.?_ Chickasaw. _Mus._ Chicklesaht. _Wak._ Chicora. _Cso._ Chiglit. _Alk. Esk._ Chikakokim. _Alq._ Chikaree. _E. Siu._ Chikelaki. _Alq._ Chilicothe. _Alq._ Chilili. _Tim._ Chilkat. _Kols._ Chilluckquittequaw. _Chik._ Chillúla. _Wei._ Chilpain. _Ath._ +Chimakuan.+ _Chi._ Chimakum. _Chi._ Chimalakwe. _Chrk._ Chimalapa. _Zo._ Chimalapas. _Zo._ Chimalpanec. _Nah._ +Chimarikan.+ _Chrk._ Chimariko. _Chrk._ +Chimmesyan.+ _Chyn._ Chimsian.} Chimsyan.} _Chyn._ +Chinantecan.+ _Cit._ Chinanteco. _Cit._ Chinarra. _Nah._ Chinipa. _Pim._ Chinook. _Chik._ +Chinookan.+ _Chik._ Chinquíme. _Zo._ Chipeway. _Alq._ Chippewa. _Alq._ Chippewyan. _Ath._ Chiricahua. _Ath._ Chiroehaka. _Ir._ Chitimacha. _Cht._ +Chitimachan.+ _Cht._ Choam Chadila Pomo. _Kuln._ Chochona. _Zap._ Choctaw. _Mus._ Chokuyem. _Mo._ Chole. _My._ Cholupaha. _Tim._ Chontal (1). _Gp._ Chontal (2). _My._ Chontal (3). _Tqs._ Chopunnish. _Shap._ Chorotega. _Cpn._ Chorti. _My._ Chowanoc. _Alq._ Choya. _Tim._ Chozetta. _E. Siu._ Christanna. _E. Siu._ Chuchaca. _Kers._ Chuchona. _Zap._ Chugachigmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Chukaímina. _Mar._ Chūkchansi. _Mar._ Chumash. _Chm._ +Chumashan.+ _Chm._ Chumâwa. _Pal._ Chumaya. _Yuk._ Chumidok. _Mo._ Chūmteya. _Mo._ Chumtiwa. _Mo._ Chumuch. _Mo._ Chumwit. _Mo._ Chunut. _Mar._ Chwachamajù. _Kuln._ Cia. _Pbl._ Cicumovi. _Ho._ Cicuye. _Pbl._ Cimopavi. _Ho._ Cipaulovi. _Ho._ Clackama. _Chik._ Clahoquaht. _Wak._ Clallam. _Salh._ Clamets. _Lut._ Clatsop. _Chik._ Clickass. _Skit._ Cliff-Dwellers. _Pbl._ Clowetsus. _Wak._ +Coahuiltecan.+ _Coh._ Coahuilteco. _Coh._ Coaquilenes. _Coh._ Cochimi. _Yma._ Cochiti. _Kers._ Coco. _Ulv._ Cocomaricopa. _Yma._ Cocome. _My._ Coconino. _Yma._ Coconūn. _Mar._ Cocopa. _Yma._ Cœur d’Alêne. _Salh._ Coguinache. _Pim._ Cohonino. _Yma._ Cohuixca. _Nah._ Colotlan. _Nah._ Colouse. _Cop._ Colville. _Salh._ Comanche. _Sho._ Combahee. _Cso._ Comecrudo. _Coh._ Comeya. _Yma._ Comiteco. _My._ Comopari. _Pim._ Comupatrico. _Pim.?_ Comuripa. _Pim._ Comux. _Salh._ Concho (1). _Yma._ Concho (2). _Coh._ Conestoga. _Ir._ Confitachiquí. _Uch._ Congaree. _E. Siu._ Coninos. _Yma._ Conoy. _Alq._ Cook-koo-oose. _Kus._ Cooniac. _Chik._ Coosa. _Un. Mus.? Cso.?_ Cootenai. _Kit._ Copalis. _Salh._ Copan. _My._ Copeh. _Cop._ +Copehan.+ _Cop._ Coquilth. _Wak._ Cora. _Pim._ Coraru. _Nah._ Coree. _Ir.?_ Corsaboy. _Cso._ Coshatta. _Mus._ Cosninos. _Yma._ Costano. _Cost._ +Costanoan.+ _Cost._ Cotober. _E. Siu._ Cotoname. _Coh._ Coutani. _Kit._ Covisca. _Zo._ Covisco. _Zo._ Cowichin. _Salh._ Cowlitz. _Salh._ Coyotero. _Ath._ Cree. _Alq._ Creek. _Mus._ Crow. _Siu._ Cuchan. _Yma._ Cuicateco. _Zap._ Cuitlateco. _Nah._ Culua. _Nah._ Cumshawa. _Skit._ Cûñopavi. _Ho._ Cusabo. _Cso._ +Cusaboan.+ _Cso._ Cushna. _Puj._ Cusso. _Cso._ Cuthead. _Siu._ Cuttawa. _E. Siu._

Dāho′-tenā. _Ath._ Dakota. _Siu._ Dakubetede. _Ath._ Dápishul Pomo. _Kuln._ Daupom. _Cop._ Delamateno. _Ir._ Delaware. _Alq._ Didja-Za. _Zap._ Diegueño. _Yma._ Digger. _Gp._ Digothi. _Ath._ Dirian. _Cpn._ Dog Rib. _Ath._ Dohme. _Pim._ Dowaganha. _Alq._ Dwamish. _Salh._

Eastern People. _Kuln._ Eataubau. _Siu._ Echeloot. _Chik._ Edelano. _Tim._ Edisto. _Cso._ Ehiamana. _Tim._ Ehnek. _Qor._ Ekŏg´mint. _Alk. Esk._ Eloquale. _Tim._ Enecaqua. _Tim._ Eno. _E. Siu._ Erie. _Ir._ Erío. _Kuln._ Eriwoneck. Erússi. _Kuln._ Esaw. _E. Siu._ +Eskimauan.+ _Esk._ Eskimo. _Esk._ Eskin. _Puj._ Esopus. _Alq._ Esquimaux. _Esk._ Esselen. _Ess._ +Esselenian.+ _Ess._ Estakewach. _Pal._ Etchemin. _Alq._ Etiwaw.} Eutaw. } _Cso._ Euchre Creek. _Ath._ Eudeve. _Pim._ Éukshikni. _Lut._ Eurok. _Wei._

Faraone. _Ath._ Flachbogen. _Kit._ Flanahaskie. _E. Siu._ Flatbow. _Kit._ Flathead (1). _E. Siu._ Flathead (2). _Salh._ Flathead-Cootenai. _Kit._ Flonk´o. _Ath._ Fox. _Alq._

Gallinomréo. _Kuln._ Ganawese. _Alq._ Gaspesian. _Alq._ Gileño. _Ath._ Gohunes. _Yma._ Gosiute. _Sho._ Grand Pawnee. _Cad._ Gros Ventres. _Siu._ Guaicuru. _Yma._ Guailopo. _Pim._ Guajiquero. _Ln._ Gualála. _Kuln._ Guatuso. _Gua._ +Guatusoan.+ _Gua._ Guaymas. _Pim._ Guazapari. _Nah._ Guetares. _Cpn._ Guilito. _Cop._ Guimen. _Mo._ Gyidesdzo. _Chyn._ Gyitgāata. _Chyn._ Gyitksan. _Chyn._ Gyitqātla. _Chyn._ Gyitsalaser. _Chyn._ Gyitsumrälon. _Chyn._

Haeltzuk. _Wak._ Haida. _Skit._ Hailtzuk. _Wak._ Haishilla. _Wak._ Hammonasset. _Alq._ Hanahaskies. _Siu._ Hanega. _Kols._ Hano. _Tan._ Hanocoroucouay. _Tim._ Hantewa. _Pal._ Hapaluya. _Tim._ Hare. _Ath._ Hasatch. _Kers._ Hasinninga. _E. Siu._ Hatteras. _Alq._ Havasupai. _Yma._ Helto. _Puj._ Hemes. _Tan._ Hettitoya. _Mo._ Heve. _Pim._ Hicaranaou. _Tim._ Hichucios. _Pim._ Hidatsa. _Siu._ Himeri. _Pim._ Hiouacara. _Tim._ Hirrihiqua. _Tim._ Hishquayquaht. _Wak._ Hitchitee. _Mus._ Hizo. _Pim._ Hoak. _Puj._ Hoankut. _Puj._ Hololúpai. _Puj._ Homolua. _Tim._ Hoodsunu. _Kols._ Hoopah. _Ath._ Hopi. _Ho._ +Hopitan.+ _Ho._ Hopitu. _Ho._ Howakan. _Skit._ Howchuklisaht. _Wak._ Hualapai. _Yma._ Huasteca. _My._ +Huavan.+ _Hua._ Huaves. _Hua._ Huaztonteco. _Hua._ Huecos. _Cad._ Huichol. _Nah._ Huite. _Nah._ Huma.} Hume.} _Nah._ Humâwhi. _Pal._ Hunah. _Kols._ Hupa. _Ath._ Huron. _Ir._ Husky. _Esk._ Husorone. _Pim._ Hutchnom. _Yuk._ Hydah. _Skit._

Igdlolnarsuk. _Gr. Esk._ Iglulingmiut. _M. Esk._ Ikogmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Illinois. _Alq._ Ilmâwi. _Pal._ Imahklimiut. _Alk. Esk._ Inguhklimiut. _Alk. Esk._ Innies. _Cad._ Innuit. _Esk._ Iowa. _Siu._ Ipapapan. _Tot._ +Iroquoian.+ _Ir._ Iroquois. _Ir._ Isantei. _Siu._ Isleta, New Mex. _Tan._ Isleta, Texas. _Tan._ Issa. _E. Siu._ Iswa. _E. Siu._ Itafi. _Tim._ Itara. _Tim._ Itaziptco. _Siu._ Ititcha. _Mar._ Itivimiut. _Lab. Esk._ Itza. _My._ Ivimiut. _Gr. Esk._ Ixil. _My._

Janos. _Ath._ Jaripecha. _Tar._ Jemez. _Tan._ Jicarilla. _Ath._ Jocolabal. _My._ Jonaz. _Ot._ Jope. _Zo._ Joshua. _Ath._

Kabinapek. _Kuln._ Kadapaw. _E. Siu._ Kagutl. _Wak._ Kaialigmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kaigani. _Skit._ Kaimé. _Kuln._ Kaiowe. _Kio._ Kai Pomo. _Kuln._ Kaivavitz. _Sho._ Kaiyuh-khotānā. _Ath._ Kakamatsis. _Wak._ +Kalapooian.+ _Kal._ Kalapuya. _Kal._ Kăltsuerea tûnnĕ. _Ath._ Kamalel Pomo. _Kuln._ Kangivamiut. _Lab. Esk._ Kangmaligmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kaugormiut. _M. Esk._ Kani. _Mo._ Kāniăgmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kansa. _Siu._ Karankawa. _Kar._ +Karankawan.+ _Kar._ Karok. _Qor._ Karsuit. _Gr. Esk._ Kaskaskia. _Alq._ Kassooo. _Mar._ Kassovo. _Mar._ Kastel Pomo. _Kuln._ Kasua. _Sli._ Katchan. _Yma._ Kato Pomo. _Kuln._ Kauía. _Mar._ Kaulits. _Salh._ Kaus. _Kus._ Kauvuyas. _Sho._ Kaviagmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kaw. _Siu._ Kaweah. _Mar._ Kaweya. _Mo._ Kâwiasuh. _Sho._ Kayowe. _Kio._ Kayung. _Skit._ Kcaltana. _Ath._ Kechemeches. _Alq._ Kechis. _Sho._ Keimanoeitoh. _Wak._ Kek. _Kols._ Kēlta. _Un., Ath.?_ Kemisak. _Gr. Esk._ Kenai. _Ath._ Kenay. _Ath._ Kenesti. _Ath._ Kera. _Kers._ Keres. _Kers._ +Keresan.+ _Kers._ Keswhawhay. _Ker._ Keyauwee. _E. Siu._ Kiawaw. _Cso._ K’iapkwainakwin. _Zun._ Kiawétni. _Mar._ Kichai. _Cad._ Kickapoo. _Alq._ Kiguaqtagmiut. _Lab. Esk._ Kikapoo. _Alq._ Kikkertarsoak. _Gr. Esk._ Killamuk. _Salh._ Kinarbik. _Gr. Esk._ Kingnaitmiut. _M. Esk._ King’s River. _Mar._ Kinnepatu. _M. Esk._ Kiowa. _Kio._ +Kiowan.+ _Kio._ Kioway. _Kio._ Kisani. _Pbl._ Kiscapocoke. _Alq._ Kitsmaht. _Wak._ Kittegareut. _Alk. Esk._ Kittuwa. _Ir._ +Kitunahan.+ _Kit._ Kizh. _Sho._ Klallam. _Salh._ Klamath (1). _Lut._ Klamath (2). _Wei._ Klanoh-Klatklam. _Kit._ Klaokwat. _Wak._ Klenekate. _Kols._ Klikitat. _Shap._ K’naia-khotona. _Ath._ Knik. _Ath._ Knisteneau. _Alq._ Koasáti. _Mus._ Koloma. _Puj._ Kolomum. _Puj._ Kolosch. _Kols._ +Koluschan.+ _Kols._ Komácho. _Kuln._ Kombo. _Un., Yan.?_ Komuk. _Salh._ Konjagen. _Esk.?_ Konkau. _Puj._ Kootenai. _Kit._ Kopagmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kopé. _Cop._ Korusi. _Cop._ Kouksoarmiut. _Lab. Esk._ Kowagmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kowelits. _Salh._ Kowilth. _Wish._ Koyukukhotānā. _Ath._ Kramalit. _M. Esk._ Kuagmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kuchin. _Ath._ Kuitc. _Ykn._ Kulá Kai Pomo. _Kuln._ +Kulanapan.+ _Kuln._ Kulanapo. _Kuln._ Kūlmeh. _Puj._ Kulomum. _Puj._ Kung. _Skit._ Kunxit. _Skit._ Kupule. _My._ Kusa. _Kus._ +Kusan.+ _Kus._ Kuscarawock. _Alq._ Kuskwogmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kutani. _Kit._ Kŭtchā-Kŭtchin´. _Ath._ Kutchan. _Yma._ Kutchin´. _Ath._ Kutenay. _Kit._ Kwaiantikwoket. _Sho._ Kwakiutl. _Wak._ Kwalhioqua. _Ath._ Kwantlen. _Salh._ Kwapa. _Siu._ Kwashilla. _Wak._ Kwatóa. _Puj._ Kwazami. _Ath._ Kwikhpăgmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Kwokwoos. _Kus._ Kyoquaht. _Wak._

Lacandon. _My._ Laguna. _Kers._ Laimono. _Yma._ Lákmiut. _Kal._ Láma. _Kuln._ Las´sik. _Cop._ Leaf-shooters. _Siu._ Lenapé. _Alq._ Lenca. _Ln._ +Lencan.+ _Ln._ Lenni-Lenapé. _Alq._ Likatuit. _Mo._ Likwiltoh. _Wak._ Lilowat. _Salh._ Lipan. _Ath._ Liwaito. _Cop._ Llanero. _Ath._ Loldla. _Cop._ Lolon´kūk. _Ath._ Lolsel. _Cop._ Long Island. _Alq._ Long Valley. _Sho._ Lopolatimne. _Mo._ Loucheux. _Ath._ Lower Coquille. _Kus._ Lucururu. _Tim._ Lummi. _Salh._ Lutuami. _Lut._ +Lutuamian.+ _Lut._

Macaw. _Wak._ Machapunga. _Alq._ Machaua. _Tim._ Machemni. _Mo._ Machemoodus. _Alq._ Macock. _Alq._ Magemiut. _Alk. Esk._ Mahican. _Alq._ Mablemiut. _Alk. Esk._ Mahoc. _Un., E. Siu.?_ Maidu. _Puj._ Maiera. _Tim._ Makah. _Wak._ Makhelchel. _Cop._ Malaka. _Cop._ Malica. _Tim._ Maliseet. _Alq._ Mam. _My._ Mamaleilakitish. _Wak._ Manahoac. _E. Siu._ Manakin. _E. Siu._ Mandan. _Siu._ Maneetsuk. _Gr. Esk._ Mangoac. _Ir._ Mangue. _Cpn._ Manhattan. _Alq._ Mano de perro. _Coh._ Manosaht. _Wak._ Mantese. _Alq._ Mareschit. _Alq._ Maricopa. _Yma._ Mariposa. _Mar._ +Mariposan.+ _Mar._ Marracou. _Tim._ Mascoutin. _Alq._ Maskegon. _Alq._ Maskoki. _Mus._ Massachuset. _Alq._ Massawomek. _Ir._ Massett. _Skit._ Massinacak. _E. Siu._ Matagalpan. _Un._ Matapane. _Pim._ Matelpa. _Wak._ Mathaica. _Tim._ Matlaltzinco. _Ot._ Matlame. _Ot._ Mattamuskeet. _Alq._ Mattapony. _Alq._ Mattoal. _Ath._ Mauvais-Monde. _Ath._ Maya. _My._ +Mayan.+ _My._ Mayapan. _My._ Maya-Quiche. _My._ Mayarca. _Tim._ Mayáyu. _Mar._ Mayo. _Pim._ Mazahua. _Ot._ Mazapil. _Nah._ Mazateco. _Zap._ Mecos. _Ot._ Meewoc. _Mo._ Mehemencho. _E. Siu._ Meherrin. _Ir._ Meidoo. _Puj._ Meipontsky. _E. Siu._ Melchora. _Ulv._ Meliseet. _Alq._ Melona. _Tim._ Melukitz. _Kus._ Mengwe. _Ir._ Menominee. _Alq._ Mequachake. _Alq._ Mescal. _Coh._ Mescalero. _Ath._ Met’how. _Salh._ Mexicana. _Nah._ Meztitlateca. _Nah._ Miakan. _Coh._ Miami. _Alq._ Michoa. _Tar._ Michōpdo. _Puj._ Micikqwûtme tûnnĕ. _Ath._ Micmac. _Alq._ Mico. _Ulv._ Micoñinovi. _Ho._ Mije. _Zo._ Mikono tûnnĕ. _Ath._ Mimbreño. _Ath._ Mingo. _Ir._ Minisink. _Alq._ Minitaree. _Siu._ Minneconjou. _Siu._ Minsi. _Alq._ Misálamagūn. _Kuln._ Mishongnovi. _Ho._ Misisauga. _Alq._ Missouri. _Siu._ Mita. _Wei._ Mitoám Kai Pomo. _Kuln._ Miwok. _Mo._ Mixe. _Zo._ Mixtec. _Zap._ Mixteca-Zapoteca. _Zap._ Moan´auzi. _Sho._ Moapariats. _Sho._ Mobilian. _Mus._ Mochilagua. _Pim.?_ Mocoso. _Tim._ Mocossou. _Tim._ Moctoby. _E. Siu._ Modoc. _Lut._ Módokni. _Lut._ Mogollon. _Ath._ Mohave. _Yma._ Mohawk. _Ir._ Mohegan. _Alq._ Mohetan. _E. Siu._ Mohican. _Alq.?_ Mokelumni. _Mo._ Moki. _Ho._ Molale. _Wlp._ Molua. _Tim._ Monachi. _Sho._ Monagan. _E. Siu._ Monahasanugh. _E. Siu._ Monasiccapano. _E. Siu._ Mono. _Sho._ Monocan. _E. Siu._ Monqui. _Yma._ Monsey. _Alq._ Monsoni. _Alq._ Montagnais (1). _Ath._ Montagnais (2). _Alq._ Montagnard. _Ath._ Montauk. _Alq._ Moose. _Alq._ Moosonee. _Alq._ Mopan. _My._ +Moquelumnan.+ _Mo._ Moquelumne. _Mo._ Moquis. _Ho._ Moscoso. _Tim._ Mosilian. _Alq._ Moundbuilder. Composite. _Gp._ Mowachat. _Wak._ Mowhemcho. _E. Siu._ Muclaht. _Wak._ Muctobi. _E. Siu._ Mukaluk. _Lut._ Mulluck. _Kus._ Multnoma. _Chik._ Munsee. _Alq._ Musakakūn. _Kuln._ +Muskhogean.+ _Mus._ Muskhogee. _Mus._ Muskoki. _Mus._ Musquito. _Un._ Mūtsūn. _Mo._ Muutzizti. _Pim._

Naas. _Gp., Chyn., Salh.?_ Nachitoches. _Cad._ Nacu. _Kus.?_ Nadowessiwag. _Siu._ Nagailer. _Ath._ Nageuktormiut. _M. Esk._ Nahauni. _Ath._ Nahsuzi. _Pbl._ Na’htchi. _Nat._ Nahua. _Nah._ Nahuatl. _Nah._ +Nahuatlan.+ _Nah._ Nahuatleca. _Nah._ Nahyssan. _E. Siu._ Na-isha. _Ath._ Naktche. _Nat._ Nakum. _Puj._ Nakwahtoh. _Wak._ Naltun netûnnĕ. _Ath._ Nambé. _Tan._ Nanaimo. _Salh._ Nanoos. _Salh._ Nantic. _Alq._ Nanticoke. _Alq._ Naolingo. _Tot._ Napa (1). _Cop._ Napa (2). _Yuk._ Napetuca. _Tim._ Narraganset. _Alq._ Narsuk. _Gr. Esk._ Nascapee. _Alq._ Nasquá. _Chyn._ Nataco. _Cad._ Natches. _Nat._ +Natchesan.+ _Nat._ Natchez. _Nat._ Natchitoches. _Cad._ Natowek. _Ir._ Natowesieux. _Siu._ Nātsit-Kŭtchin´. _Ath._ Naugatuck. _Alq._ Nauset. _Alq._ Navaho.} Navajo.} _Ath._ Nawiti. _Wak._ Nayerit. _Pim._ Nehalim. _Salh._ Nehantic. _Alq._ Nehaunee. _Ath._ Nehethawa. _Alq._ Nenenot. _Alq._ Nespelum. _Salh._ Netchillirmiut. _M. Esk._ Netela. _Sho._ Netzicho. _Zap._ Neusiok. _Alq.?_ Neuter. _Ir._ Nevome. _Sho._ New Gold Harbour. _Skit._ Newichumni. _Mo._ Nez Percé. _Shap._ Nicaraos. _Nah._ Nicassias. _Mo._ Nicoutamuch. _Salh._ Nihaloth. _Chik._ Nikonha. _E. Siu._ Nimkish. _Wak._ Nipissing. _Alq._ Nipmuc. _Alq._ Nipnet. _Alq._ Niquiran. _Nah._ Nīshinam. _Puj._ Nisqualli. _Salh._ Nitinaht. _Wak._ Niwiti. _Wak._ Noema. _Cop._ Noje. _Yan._ Nomlaki. _Cop._ Nommuk. _Cop._ Nootka. _Wak._ Norelmuk. _Cop._ Normuk. _Cop._ Norridgewock. _Alq._ Notchee. _Nat._ Notoánaiti. _Mar._ Nottoway. _Ir._ Noyùki. _Cop._ Nozi. _Yma._ Nuchalaht. _Wak._ Nugumiut. _M. Esk._ Nuksahk. _Salh._ Numpali. _Mo._ Num´su. _Cop._ Nunatogmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Nuncock. _Siu._ Nunivagmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Nuntaly. _Un., E. Siu.?_ Nuntaneuck. _Un., E. Siu.?_ Nusdalum. _Salh._ Nushagagmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Nusulph. _Salh._ Nūtchu. _Mo._ Nūtha. _Sho._ Nutka. _Wak._ Nuwungmiut. _Alk. Esk._

Oathcaqua. _Tim._ Occaneechi. _E. Siu._ Ochíngita. _Mar._ Ocotlano. _Zap._ Oenock. _E. Siu._ Ogalalla.} _Siu._ Oglála. } Oglemiut. _Alk. Esk._ Ohiat. _Wak._ Ojadagochroene. _E. Siu._ Ojibwa. _Alq._ Okahoki. _Alq._ Okeeogmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Okinagan. _Salh._ Okkiosorbik. _Gr. Esk._ Okomiut. _M. Esk._ Olamentke. _Mo._ Olelato. _Cop._ Olhone. _Mo._ Olla. _Puj._ Olmeca. _Un., Mex._ Olowidok. _Mo._ Olowit. _Mo._ Olowiya. _Mo._ Olposel. _Cop._ Oluláto. _Cop._ Olumpali. _Mo._ Omaha. _Siu._ Onathcaqua. _Tim._ Onava. _Pim._ Oneida. _Ir._ Onochaquara. _Tim._ Onondaga. _Ir._ Ontponas. _E. Siu._ Oohenopa. _Siu._ Opata. _Pim._ Opatoro. _Ln._ Opechisaht. _Wak._ Openango. _Alq._ Opuhnarke. _Alq._ Oraibe. _Ho._ Orarian. _Alk. Esk._ Orejone. _Coh._ Orista. _Cso._ Orotina. } _Cpn._ Orotinan.} Osage. _Siu._ Osile. _Tim._ Otaki. _Puj._ Otari. _Ir._ Otayachgo. _Alq._ Oto. } _Siu._ Otoe.} Otomi. _Ot._ +Otomian.+ _Ot._ Ottawa. _Alq._ Ounángan. _Esk._ Oustaca. _Tim._ Owilapsh. _Ath._

Paanese. _E. Siu._ Paboksa. _Siu._ Pacaos. _Coh._ Pachenaht. _Wak._ Pachera. _Pim._ Pacuâche. _Coh._ Padlimiut. _M. Esk._ Paduca. _Gp._ Paguate. _Kers._ Pah Ute.} Pai Ute.} _Sho._ Paiuti. } Pajalate. _Coh._ Pakamalli. _Pal.?_ Pakawá. _Coh._ Palaihnih. _Pal._ +Palaihnihan.+ _Pal._ Palaik. _Pal._ Palenque. _My._ Paléumni. _Sho._ Palligawonap. _Sho._ Paloos. _Shap._ Paluxsi. _E. Siu._ Pamaque. _Coh._ Pamawaioc. _Alq._ Pame. _Ot._ Pamlico. _Alq._ Pampopa. _Coh._ Pamticoke. _Alq._ Pamunkey. _Alq._ Pani. _Cad._ Panpakan. _Puj._ Pantasma. _Ulv._ Panteco. _My._ Papabuco. _Zap._ Papago. _Pim._ Parrastah. _Ulv._ Paskagula. _Siu._ Pasquotank. _Alq._ Passamaquoddi. _Alq._ Pastancoya. _Coh._ Patacale. _Coh._ Patawat. _Wish._ Patáwe. } _Cop._ Patcháwe.} Patchica. _Tim._ Patshenin. _E. Siu._ Patwin. _Cop._ Paugusset. _Alq._ Paupákan. _Puj._ Pausane. _Coh._ Pavant. _Sho._ Paviotso. _Sho._ Pawnee. _Cad._ Paya. _Un._ Payseya. _Coh._ Pea. _Alq._ Pecos. _Pbl._ Pedee. _E. Siu._ Pehtsik. _Qor._ Pekwan. _Wei._ Pend d’Oreille. _Salh._ Penobscot. _Alq._ Pennacook. _Alq._ Pentlash.} _Salh._ Pentlatc.} Peoria. _Alq._ Pequot. _Alq._ Pericu. _Yma._ Perquiman. _Alq._ Peten. _My._ Piankishaw. _Alq._ Picuris. _Tan._ Pi Ede. _Sho._ Piegan. _Alq._ Pihique. _Coh._ Pilingmiut. _M. Esk._ Pima. _Pim._ +Piman.+ _Pim._ Pinal Coyotero. _Ath._ Pinome. _Zo._ Pintahae. _E. Siu._ Pipile. _Sho._ Piqua. _Alq._ Pirinda. _Ot._ Piros. _Tan._ Piscataway. _Alq._ Pisquow. _Salh._ Pitkachì. _Mar._ Pitt River. _Pal._ Pi Ute. _Sho._ Poam Pomo. _Kuln._ Pocomtock. _Alq._ Podunk. _Alq._ Poélo. _Sho._ Pohállin Tinleh. _Mar._ Pohonichi. _Mo._ Pojoaque. _Tan._ Pokomam. _My._ Pokonchi. _My._ Poluksalgi. _E. Siu._ Pomo. _Kuln._ Pomouik. _Alq._ Ponca. _Siu._ Ponderay. _Salh._ Popoluca. _Gp., Mex._ Poquonnoc. _Alq._ Potanou. _Tim._ Poteskeet. _Alq._ Potlapigua. _Pirn._ Pottawatomi. _Alq._ Pottawattomi. _Alq._ Powhattan. _Alq._ Pueblito. _Kers._ Pueblo. _Pbl._ +Puebloan.+ _Pbl._ Pujunan. _Puj._ Pujuni. _Puj._ Pulairih. _Pal._ Punyeestye. _Kers._ Punyekia. _Kers._ Pusityitcho. _Kers._ Pusúna. _Puj._ Putum. _My._ Puyallup. _Salh._

Qagutl. _Wak._ Qaumauangmiut. _M. Esk._ Qinguamiut. _M. Esk._ Quaitso. _Salh._ Quapaw. _Siu._ Quatquiutl. _Wak._ Quatsino. _Wak._ Quekchi. _My._ Queniut. _Salh._ Queptlmamish. _Salh._ Querechos. _Un., Sho.?_ Queres. _Kers._ Quiahanless. _Skit._ Quiche. _My._ Quile-Ute. _Chi._ Quinnebaug. _Alq._ Quinnipiac. _Alq._ Quinpi. _Alq._ Quivira. _Un., Siu.?_ Quoddy. _Alq._ +Quoratean.+ _Qor._ Quoratem. _Qor._ Qwinctûnnetûn. _Ath._

Rama. _Un._ Ramapoo. _Alq._ Ramcock. _Alq._ Reho. _Un._, _Cali._ Republican Pawnee. _Cad._ Riccaree. _Cad._ Rickohockan. _Ir._ Rikwa. _Wei._ Rogue River. _Ath._ and _Tak._ Runsien. _Gp._ Rurok. _Wei._

Saagit. _Wei._ Sabaquis. _Pim._ Sabaibo. _Nah._ Sac. _Alq._ Sac and Fox. _Alq._ Sacumehu. _Salh._ Sagdlirmiut. _M. Esk._ Saharipa. _Pim._ Sahewamish. _Salh._ Sahkey. _Alq._ Saiaz. _Ath._ Saidyuka. _Sho._ Saint Regis. _Ir._ Saiwash. _Sas._ Sakaiakumni. _Mo._ +Salinan.+ _Sli._ Salish. _Salh._ +Salishan.+ _Salh._ Saluda. _Alq.?_ Samamish. _Salh._ Samish. _Salh._ San Antonio. _Un._ Sandia. _Tan._ Sanetch. _Salh._ San Felipe. _Kers._ Sanhican. _Alq._ San Ildefonso. _Tan._ Sanipao. _Con._ San Juan. _Tan._ San Juan de Guacara. _Tim._ San Mateo. _Tim._ San Rafael. _Mo._ Sans Arcs. _Siu._ Sans Puell. _Salh._ Santa Ana. _Kers._ Santa Barbara. _Sli._ Santa Clara, New Mexico. _Tan._ Santa Clara, Utah. _Sho._ Santa Cruz, Cali. _Mo._ Santa Elena. _Cso._ Santa Inez. _Sli._ Santa Lucia de Acuera. _Tim._ Santee. _E. Siu_ and _Siu_. Santiam. _Kal._ Santo Domingo. _Kers._ Saponi. _E. Siu._ Saps. _E. Siu._ Saptin. _Shap._ Sara. _E. Siu._ Sarcees. _Ath._ Saste. _Sas._ +Sastean.+ _Sas._ Satsika. _Alq._ Satsop. _Salh._ Saturiwa. _Tim._ Sauk. _Alq._ Saumingmiut. _M. Esk._ Sauteux. _Alq._ Savanna. _Alq._ Sawákhtu. _Mar._ Sawamish. _Salh._ Saxapahaw. _E. Siu._ Sayúskla. _Ykn._ Scatacook. _Alq._ Sebasa. _Wak._ Secoffie. _Alq._ Secotan. _Alq._ Seemunah. _Kers._ Seguas. _Nah._ Sekamish. _Salh._ Sekumne. _Puj._ Selawigmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Selish. _Salh._ Seminole. _Mus._ Seneca. _Ir._ Senecú. _Tan._ Senel. _Kuln._ Sequas. _Nah._ Seri. _Ser._ +Serian.+ _Ser._ Sermiligak. _Gr. Esk._ Sermilik. _Gr. Esk._ Seroushamne. _Mo._ Serrano. _Ot._ Seshaht. _Wak._ Sewee. _E. Siu._ Shacco. _E. Siu._ Shackaconias. _Siu._ Shahaptaní. _Shap._ +Shahaptian.+ _Shap._ Shakan. _Skit._ Shanktonwan. _Siu._ Shasta. _Sas._ Shastika. _Sas._ Shasty. _Sas._ Shawano. _Alq._ Shawnee. _Alq._ Sheshtapoosh. _Alq._ Shetimasha. _Cht._ Shevwitz. _Sho._ Sheyenne. _Alq._ Shibal´ni Pómo. _Kuln._ Shingwauk. _Alq._ Shinomo.} Shínumo.} _Pbl._ Shiwapmuk. _Salh._ Shiwokugmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Shoccori. _E. Siu._ Shódo Kaí Pomo. _Kuln._ Shomamish. _Salh._ Shooswap. _Salh._ Shoshokoes. _Sho.?_ +Shoshonean.+ _Sho._ Shoshone.} _Sho._ Shoshoni.} Shotlemamish. _Salh._ Sia. _Kers._ Síako. _Kuln._ Sicatl. _Salh._ Sicaunie. _Ath._ Sihasapa. _Siu._ Sikonesse. _Alq._ Sikosuilarmiut. _M. Esk._ Siksika. _Alq._ Silets. _Salh._ Silla. _Kers._ Similaton. _Ln._ Sinaloa. _Pim._ Sinimiut. _M. Esk._ Sinnager. _Ir._ +Siouan.+ _Siu._ Sioux. _Siu._ Siquai. _Ulv._ Sisseton. _Siu._ Sissipahaw. _E. Siu._ Sitcaxu. _Siu._ Sitcomovi. _Ho._ Sitka. _Kols._ Siuslaw. _Ykn._ Skagit. _Salh._ Skedan. _Skit._ Skidi. _Cad._ Skihwamish. _Salh._ Skiteiget. _Skit._ Skitsuish. _Salh._ Skittaget. _Skit._ +Skittagetan.+ _Skit._ Skoffi. _Alq._ Skokomish. _Salh._ Skopamish. _Salh._ Skoyelpi. _Salh._ Sktehlmish. _Salh._ Skwaksin. _Salh._ Skwallyamish. _Salh._ Slave. _Ath._ Sluacus tinneh. _Ath._ Smoos. _Ulv._ Smulkamish. _Salh._ Snake. _Sho._ Snohomish. _Salh._ Snoqualmi. _Salh._ Sobaipuri. _Pim._ Sochimiloco. _Nah._ Soke. _Salh._ Sokóa. _Kuln._ Solteco. _Zap._ Songish. _Salh._ Sonomi. _Mo._ Sonora. _Pim._ Sonorense Opata. _Pim._ Sorrocho. _Tim._ Souriquoi. _Alq._ Spirit Lake. _Siu._ Spokan. _Salh._ Squawmisht. _Salh._ Squaxon. _Salh._ Squonamish. _Salh._ Stahkin. _Kols._ Stegara. _E. Siu._ Stehtsasamish. _Salh._ Stenkenocks. _E. Siu._ Stillacum. _Salh._ Stono. _Cso._ St. _Regis. Ir._ Subirona. _Ulv._ Subtiaba. _Sub._ +Subtiaban.+ _Sub._ Sugan. _E. Siu._ Sugaree. _E. Siu._ Sugon. _Wei._ Suinyi. _Zun._ Suisun. _Cop._ Sumass. _Salh._ Supi. _Yma._ Suquamish. _Salh._ Suquinimiut. _Lab. Esk._ Susquehannock. _Ir._ Swali. _Siu._ Swinamish. _Salh._

Tâcame. _Coh._ Tacatacura. _Tim._ Táchi. _Mar._ Taculli. _Ath._ Taderighrone. _E. Siu._ Taensa. _Nat._ Tagish. _Kols._ Tahichapahanna. _Sho._ Tahkaht. _Wak._ Tahkali. _Ath._ Tāh´ko-tin´neh. _Ath._ Tablewah. _Ath._ Tahltan. _Ath._ Tâiakwin. _Zun._ Tait. _Salh._ Taitchida. _Puj._ Takilma. _Tak._ +Takilman.+ _Tak._ Taku. _Kols._ Talamanca. _Un._ Talamo. _Salh._ Talatui. _Mo._ Talirpingmiut. _M. Esk._ Taltûctun tûde. _Ath._ Tamal. _Mo._ Tamaroi. _Alq._ Tamoleka. _Mo._ Tanek. _E. Siu._ Taño. _Tan._ +Tañoan.+ _Tan._ Tantoyoc. _My._ Tanu. _Skit._ Taos. _Tan._ Tapaneco. _Nah._ Tapijulapane. _Zo._ Tappas. _Cad._ Taqagmiut. _Lab. Esk._ Tarahumara. _Pim._ Tarasca. _Tar._ +Tarascan.+ _Tar._ Tarasco. _Tar._ Tarelepa. _My._ Tarratine. _Alq._ Tartanee. _Skit._ Tataten. _Ath._ Tatera. _E. Siu._ Taterat. _Gr. Esk._ Tatimole. _Tot._ Tatsāh-kutchin. _Ath._ Tatu. _Yuk._ Tauxsnitania. _E. Siu._ Tawakomie. _Cad._ Taywaugh. _Tan._ Tcême. } _Ath._ Tchême.} Tcĕtlĕstcan tûnnĕ. _Ath._ Tchĭkûn. _Ath._ Tchishi. _Ath._ Tchokoyem. _Mo._ Teacualitzistis. _Pim._ Teata. _Pim._ Tebaca. _Nah._ Teco. _Nah._ Tecojine. _Zo._ Tecoripa. _Pim._ Tecualme. _Pim.?_ Tigninatio. _E. Siu._ Teguima. _Pim._ Tehama. _Cop._ Tēhānin-kŭtchin. _Ath._ Tehua. _Tan._ +Tehuan.+ _Tan._ Tehueco. _Pim._ Tejano. _Coh._ Tektikilhatis. _Tot._ Télumni. _Mar._ Tenaino. _Shap._ Tenăn-kŭtchin. _Ath._ Tenez. _Cit._ Tenime. _Zo._ Tennŭth-Kutchin´. _Ath._ Teotenanca. _Un., Mex._ Tepaneco. _Nah._ Tepehuane. _Pim._ Tepozcolul. _Zap._ Tequis. _Pim._ Tequistlateca. _Yma._ Terwar. _Ath._ Tessuisak. _Gr. Esk._ Tesuque. _Tan._ Tetero. _E. Siu._ Teton. _Siu._ Teuteca. _Cit._ Tewa. _Tan._ +Tewan.+ _Tan._ Texano. _Coh._ Texas. _Cad.?_ Texone. _Coh._ Teyas. _Cad.?_ Tezcucan. _Nah._ Tezcuco. _Nah._ Thlinket. _Kols._ T’ho. _My._ Tientien. _Cop._ Tigua. } _Tan._ Tiguex.} Tillamook. _Salh._ Timoga. _Tim._ Timucua. _Tim._ Timuquana. _Tim._ +Timuquanan.+ _Tim._ Tínlinneh. _Mar._ Tinné. } Tinneh.} _Ath._ Tinney.} Tionontate. _Ir._ Tipatolápa. _Sho._ Tisèchu. _Mar._ Tíshum. _Puj._ Titõwā. _Siu._ Tiutei. _E. Siu._ Tlacopán. _Nah._ Tlahuico. _Nah._ Tlamatl. _Lut._ Tlaoquatch. _Wak._ Tlapanec. _Zap._ Tlapaneco. _Zo._ Tlascalan. _Nah._ Tlascaltecan. _Nah._ Tlatluican. _Nah._ Tlatscanai. _Ath._ Tlingit.} _Kols._ Tlinkit.} Toámtcha. _Puj._ Tobikhar. _Sho._ Tocaste. _Tim._ Tockwhogh. _Alq._ Toderichroone. _E. Siu._ Todetabi. _Cop._ Tokar. _Sho._ Tokoaat. _Wak._ Tolemato. _Tim._ Tolewa.} _Ath._ Tolowa.} +Toltec.+ _Nah.?_ Tongass. _Kols._ Tonika. _Tkn._ +Tonikan.+ _Tkn._ Tonkawa. _Tow._ +Tonkawan.+ _Tow._ Tonto. _Yma._ Topaidisel. _Cop._ Topoqui. _Tim._ Toquaht. _Wak._ Tosikoyo. _Puj._ Totero. _E. Siu._ Toto. _Puj._ +Totonacan.+ _Tot._ Totonaco. _Tot._ Towiachies. _Cad._ Towakarehu. _Cad._ Triqui. _Zap._ Tsamak. _Puj._ Tsawadinoh. _Wak._ Ts’emsián. _Chyn._ Tshinkitani. _Kols._ Tshokoyem. _Mo._ Tsimshian. _Chyn._ Tsinuk. _Chik._ Tubare. _Nah._ Tucano. _Pbl._ Tucururu. _Tim._ Tŭkkūth-kŭtchin. _Ath._ Tukuarika. _Sho._ Tulare. _Mo._ Tumidok. _Mo._ Tumun. _Mo._ Tunglas. _Mus._ Tununirmiut. _M. Esk._ Tununirusirmiut. _M. Esk._ Tunxi. _Alq._ Tuolomne. _Mo._ Tusayan. _Pbl._ Tuscarora. _Ir._ Tutahaco. _Pbl._ Tŭtchoné-kŭtchin. _Ath._ Tutelo. _E. Siu._ Tututena. _Ath._ Tutu tûnnĕ. _Ath._ Twaka. _Ulv._ Twana. _Salh._ Twichtwicht. _Alq._ Twightwee. _Alq._ Two Kettle. _Siu._ Tyigh. _Shap._ Tzendal.} _Tzl._ Tzental.} Tzotzil. _My._ Tzutuhil. _My._

Ucalta. _Wak._ Uché. _Uch._ +Uchean.+ _Uch._ Uchita. _Yma._ Ucita. _Tim._ Ugalakmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Ugaqpa. _Siu._ Ugjulirmiut. _M. Esk._ Uinkarets. _Sho._ Ukiah. _Kuln._ Ukivokgmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Ūkumnom. _Ath._ Ukusiksalingmiut. _M. Esk._ Ukwulta. _Wak._ Ulva. _Ulv._ +Ulvan.+ _Ulv._ Umaha. _Siu._ Umanak. _Gr. Esk._ Umatilla. _Shap._ Umerik. _Gr. Esk._ Umkwa. _Ath._ Umpqua. _Ath._ Unakhotānā. _Ath._ Unalachtigo. _Alq._ Unalashka.} _Alu. Esk._ Unalaska. } Unaligmiut. _Alk. Esk._ Unami. _Alq._ Uncapapa. _Siu._ Unechtgo. _Alq._ Ungavamiut. _Lab. Esk._ Unquachog. _Alq._ Ūnŭnǵŭn. _Alu. Esk._ Urriparacuxi. _Tim._ Usheree. _E. Siu._ Ushiti. _Yma._ Uspanteca. _My._ Ustóma. _Puj._ Uta. } Utah.} _Sho._ Ute. } Utchium. _Mo._ Utina. _Tim._ Utlateca. _My._ Uttewa. _Skit._ Uxmal. _My._

Vacissa. _Tim._ Valiente. _Un._ Varogio. _Nah._ Vebetlateca. _My._ Venaambakaiia. _Kuln._ Venado. _Coh._ Viard. _Wish._ Vŭntā-kŭtchin´. _Ath._

Waccamaw. _E. Siu._ Waco. _Cad._ Wagluxe. _Siu._ Wahaikan. _Chik._ Wahkiacum. _Chik._ Wahpeton. _Siu._ Waicurru. _Yma._ Waiilatpu. _Wlp._ +Waiilatpuan.+ _Wlp._ Waikenmuk. _Cop._ Waikosel. _Cop._ Waikur. _Yma._ Wailaki (1). _Cop._ Wailakki (2). _Ath._ Wailaksel. _Cop._ Wailatpu. _Wlp._ Wairika. _Sas._ Wakash. _Wak._ +Wakashan.+ _Wak._ Walakumni. _Mo._ Walapai. _Yma._ Walla Walla. _Shap._ Walli. _Mo._ Walpi. _Ho._ Wampanoag. _Alq._ Wangum. _Alq._ Wangunk. _Alq._ Wapanachki. _Alq._ Wapanoc. _Alq._ Wapoo. _Cso._ Wappinger. _Alq._ Wappo. _Chik._ Wapuchuseamma. _Kers._ Wapúmni. _Puj._ Warren nuncock. _E. Siu._ Wasco. _Chik._ Washaki. _Sho._ Washita. _Cad._ Washo. _Wash._ +Washoan.+ _Wash._ Waskiteng. _E. Siu._ Wateree. _E. Siu._ Watlala. _Chik._ Waxhaw. _E. Siu._ Wazaza. _Siu._ Wea. _Alq._ Weapemeoc. _Alq._ Weenee. _E. Siu._ Weeyot. _Wish._ Weitspek. _Wei._ +Weitspekan.+ _Wei._ Wendat. _Ir._ Wepawaug. _Alq._ Westo. _Cso._ Whīlkut. _Ath._ Whonkenteae. _E. Siu._ Wíchikik. _Mar._ Wichita. _Cad._ Wihinasht. _Sho._ Wikchúmni. _Mar._ Wikenak. _Wak._ Wíksachi. _Mar._ Wilaksel. _Cop._ Willamat. } _Kal._ Willamette.} Wima. _Puj._ Wimbee. _Cso._ Winangik. _Sho._ Winatsha. _Salh._ Winnebago. _Siu._ Wintoon. _Cop._ Wintu. _Cop._ Wintun. _Cop._ Winyaw. _E. Siu._ Wisack. _E. Siu._ Wishosk. _Wish._ +Wishoskan.+ _Wish._ Witchita. _Cad._ Wiwash. _Alq._ Wíyot. _Wish._ Woccon. _E. Siu._ Wolokki. _Puj._ Woolwa. _Ulv._ Wyandot. _Ir._ Wylackker. _Cop._

+Xicaque.+ _Un._ Xicayan. _Zap._ Xime. _Nah._ Ximena. _Pbl., Pim.?_ +Xinca.+ _Un._ Xicalanca. _Un., My.?_ Xuala. _E. Siu._

Yaketahnoklatakmakanay. _Kit._ Yakon. _Ykn._ +Yakonan.+ _Ykn._ Yakutat. _Kols._ Yakwĭna. _Ykn._ Yamacraw. _Mus._ Yamasi. _Mus._ Yamil. _Kal._ Yamkally. _Kal._ +Yanan.+ _Yan._ Yankton. _Siu._ Yanktonnais. _Siu._ Yaqui. _Pim._ Yatasses. _Cad._ Yavipais. _Yma._ Yellow-knives. _Ath._ Yecpin. _Alq._ Yesang. _E. Siu._ Yodetábi. _Cop._ Yokáya Pomo. _Kuln._ Yokultat. _Wak._ Yokut. _Mar._ Yonkalla. _Kal._ Yope. _Zo._ Yosemité. _Mo._ See Awani. Yótowi. _Puj._ Youkone. _Ykn._ Yuba. _Puj._ Yucatec. _My._ Yuchi. _Uch._ Yuclulaht. _Wak._ Yuit. _Asiatic Esk._ Yukai. _Kuln._ Yuke.} _Yuk._ Yuki.} +Yukian.+ _Yuk._ Yúkol. _Mar._ Yukulta. _Wak._ Yuloni. _Mo._ Yuma. _Yma._ +Yuman.+ _Yma._ Yupaha. _Tim._ Yuqueyunque. _Pbl._ Yurok. _Wei._ Yusâl Pomo. _Kuln._ Yuta. _Sho._

Zapotec. _Zap._ +Zapotecan.+ _Zap._ Ziamma. _Kers._ Zoque. _Zo._ +Zoquean.+ _Zo._ Zoque-Mixe. _Zo._ Zuaque. _Pim._ Zuñi. _Zun._ +Zuñian.+ _Zun._

[Illustration: WOODEN SEAL-DISH, HAIDA, NORTH-WEST COAST]

INDEX

See also list of illustrations, page xv.

A

Abandoned works, meaning of, 348

Aboriginal dress, 126, 133

Adobe, 220; brick, 234; house, 195

Adoption, 366, 416

Adoratorio, 186

Alaska, peopled from S. and S.-E., 457

Albornoz, 136

Aleut houses, 216

Aleutian islands, when inhabited, 457

Aleuts, range of, 217

Algonquin, dress, 142; records, 58

Alloy of gold and copper, 301

Alosaka, the, 179

Alphabet, Bureau of Ethnology, 36; Cherokee, 52; Sauk, 53

Amazon myth, 403

America, when peopled, 456

Amerind, a village dweller, 247; definition of, 2; literature, 30

Amerindian race composed of different elements, 457

Amerinds a stone-age people, 248

Amnesty, 370

Amusements, 308

Ancient fabrics, 108

Antiquity of man in America, evidences of, 434

Antiquity of Mayas, 242

Apaches and Navajos remaining behind, 440

Appendix, 461

Aqueduct, 339

Arch, 217, 242

Ardnainiq, tribe called, 407

Armour, 156, 255, 257

Arrow- and spear-heads, 263

Assembly place, 412

Astrology, reliance of Aztecs on, 373

Astronomical, knowledge, 183; reckonings, 303; station at Zuñi, 306; stone, 182

Atlantis, 15

Atolli, 360

Authentic history, beginning of, 443

Awatuwi, ruins of, 179

Awl game, 320

Aztec, books, 73; cannibal banquet, 371; confederacy, 421, 423, 424; descent, how reckoned, 423; sculptures, 184; states, government of, 423; stone tools, 433; towns, 238; writing, 68, 69; year, 306

B

Bag, sacred, 204

Baggattaway, 327

Baidar, 283

Baidarka, 283

Balance not known, 305

Ball games, 327

Baqati wheel, 317

Barábara, 217

Bark for rope-making, 126

Basket-drum, 92, 311

Basketry hats, 147, 148, 415

Basque, resemblance of language to Amerind, 32

Bathing, 386

Battle, costume, 357; for a wife, 385; of Wounded Knee, how begun, 445

Bayeta cloth, how used by Navajos, 131

Beads, wampum, 56

Beadwork, 153

Bear-mother carving, 164

Beckwourth, head chief of the Crows, 416

Bells, 292, 301, 302

Belts, 143

Bird box, 364; spear, Eskimo, 268

Bird-stones, 175

Bison, disappearance of, 333; possibility of domestication, 276

Black dye, 304

Blanket and basket designs symbolic, 58

Blanket-loom, 124, 131, 132

Blanket-making, 128, 133

Blanket-pole, 162

Blue dye, 304

Boats, 281; Omaha, 284

Boiling-basket, 89

Bolas, 268

Bologna codex, 72

Books, of Chilan Balam, 82; of the Mayas, 77, 82

Borgian codex, 69

Boundary lines, 410, 411

Bow and arrow, 249, 254, 256

Bow-drill, 254

Boxing, 326

Bronze tools, 299

Buffalo wool blankets, 159

Building methods, change of, 200, 350

Bunch-word, 32

Burial, 388

Burning pottery, 100

C

Cactus-fruit wine, 360

Cahokia mound, 342

Cajon, 220, 236

Cakchiquel year, 307

Calaveras skull, 434

Calculiform writing, 73, 186

Calendar, stick, 305; stone, 181, 305

California houses, 215

Calumet, 364

Cannibal banquet, 371

Cannibalism, 368

Canoe, dugout, 282; Haida, 164, 282

Captain David, 140

Captives, treatment of, 366

Card-playing, 320, 326

Carved panthers, 180

Carving, 162, 167, 169

Casa Grande, 200, 233, 234

Casas Grandes, 234

Casting metals, 301

Cause of North-American race homogeneity, 441

Cavate lodge, 220, 228; plan and sections, 227

Cedar mats, 147

Cement, 303, 305

Cenoté, 370

Central-American arts, why superior, 439

Centre of culture, 431

Ceremonials, 320, 376, 381

Cérros trinchéras, 344

Chac-Mool, statue, 190

Chaco ruins, 230, 232

Chalchivitl, 136

Change in building methods, 200, 350

Cherokee, alphabet, 52; syllabary, 52; writing, 36

Chiefs, 416, 424; civil, 418; grades of, 424; war, 418

Chief’s office hereditary in the gens, 424

Chilkat blanket, 452

Chimney, Puebloan, 226

Chinook jargon, 28

Chirimia, 311

Chiriqui, pottery, 104; stools, 192

Chocolatl, 360

Cholula, Great Mound of, 350

Chultune, 288

Cigarette used, 363

_Cire perdue_ process, 301

City of Refuge, 456

Civil and military branches often separate, 418

Civilised tribes, 358

Clan, 414; crest, 166, 220; privileges and obligations of, 419

Classification by stone implements impossible, 433

Cleanliness, 386

Cliff-dwellers, 176, 229

Codex, Bologna, 72; Borgia, 69; Cortesianus, 82; Dresden, 82; Mendoza, 72; Peresianus, 76, 82; Telleriano-Remensis, 72; Troano, 82; Vaticanus, 72

Coil-process pottery, 99, 104

Comalli, 360

Commerce, 375

Communal, buildings, 247; living, 200, 247

Complementary days, 306

Confederacy, Aztec, 421, 423, 424; Iroquois, 421, 425, 449

Conical cap, 148; hat, 147

Continent peopled before glacial period, 432

Controversy, 383

Cooking-basket, 89

Copan, 242, 351

Copper, bells, 292; bowlder, 288; hardening, 299; implements, 291; mines, date of working, 290; plates, 291; working, 249, 288, 291, 301

Coppers, 162, 293

Corbel, arch, 242; vault, 235, 237, 242

Cord, 126

Cord-marked pottery, 106

Coronado, error in tracing of route of, 453

Cortesianus codex, 82

Costume, 133 to 144, 367

Cotton, 128, 338

Cotton-padded armour, 259

Cotton weaving, 137

Council, 420; general, 420; of women, 420; tribal, 420

Councillors, 416, 420

Counterfeiting, 49

“Counts back” of the Dakotas, 60, 377

_Coureurs du Bois_, 451

Covenant chain of the Iroquois, 352

Crest, 166

Crops, 333

Cross, the, 254; in America, 63

Crotalus, 380

Cruciform tomb, 3, 384; ground plan, 385

Cueitl, 138

Culture not evidence of relationship, 430

Cup-markings, 65

Cupped-stones, 65, 272

Curtains for doors, 205

D

Dagänowédä, 421

Daily life not bloody, 353

Dakota winter counts, 60

Dance, around a cedar tree, 315; Ghost, 316; Rain, 364; Resurrection, 316; Snake, 376; Somaikoli, 318, 381, 454

Dancing, 376, 378, 381

Dead, disposal of, 388

Death-house, Natchez, 208

Death-masks in Amerindian pottery, 106, 171

Declaration of war, 366

Decoration of pottery, 99

Defensive, village, 346; walls, 345

Deformity rare, 366

Degeneration of Yucatecs, 439

Descent, basis of, 419

Destruction of Amerinds by Gov. Kieft, 444

Details of Puebloan house architecture, 211

Dibble, 270

Dighton Rock, 45

Diseases introduced by whites, 229

Distinction between gens and clan, 419

Distribution of, arts, 439; food, 354

Dog, harness, Eskimo, 278; whip, 279

Dogs, 276

Dolls, 328

Doors, 205

Doorways, 228

Double-headed snake, 168, 392

Dramatic sense, 331

Dresden codex, 82

Dress, 143

Drill, 251, 252

Drums, 308

Dry-painting, 61, 387

Dugout canoe, 282

Dwarfs, races of, 405

Dwellings, 195

Dyes, 303, 304

E

Early advancement, 432

Earthenware burial casket, 105

Earth, iglu, 219; lodge, 202

Earthworks, Cahokia mound, 342; connected with agriculture, 338; Etowah group, 337, 346; foundations for houses, 338; method of construction, 342; Newark group, 346

East Mesa, 378

Effigy jars, 119

Eldorado myth, 403

Election of Aztec chief, 424

Election of chiefs, 418

Elephant mound, 334; pipe, 172

Elephant’s trunks, 190

Elopement, 383

Emblem of peace, 364

Embroidery, 153

Enchanted mesa, 408

Eskimo, boots, 158; cloak, 159; clothing, 156, 158; derivation of term, 32; dog harness, 278; drum, 313; fuel, 275; house, 217, 219, 221; lamp, 169, 274; language, 36; light from lamp, 276; not in Alaska 500 years back, 428; southern range of, 273; wick for lamp, 276

Estufa, not a sweat-house, 375

Etchings, rock-scratchings incorrectly called, 180

Eternal fires, 252

Etowah mound, 337, 346

F

Fabric-marked pottery, 109

Face decoration, 366

Farming, 336

Farm products, 247, 338

Feather, garments, 134, 137, 138; mail, 134; mantles, 138

Feather-work, method of making, 137

Feathered, horned serpent, 63

Fetich, of what consisting, 420

Fire-drill, 250, 252; by friction, 368, 370; eternal, 252

Firing pottery, 100

Five Nations (or Tribes), 212, 425

Flageolet, 308

Flax, 130

Flint Ridge, 264

Flood stories, 407, 408

Floods, 439

Flute, 308

Fondness for singing, 318

Football, Eskimo, 326

Foot-races, 323

Forbidden food, 373

Foreign influence, no, 247

Fort Ancient, 344

Fortifications, 344

Fraudulent implements, 49

Funeral, jars, 112; urns, 190

Fur companies, methods of, 363

G

Gallantry, 387

Gallatin’s work, 20–26

Gambling, 323

Games, 320

Garments, primitive, 126

Garters, 133

Gauntlet, running the, 366

Genesis, myth of the Mokis, 403

Gens, 414; basis of, 419; definition of, 414; privileges of, and obligations, 419

Gentes, 414

Gentile system, 414

Georgia costume, 141

Gesture language, 26

Ghost dance, 316, 399

Ghost-shirt, 156, 262

Gilded man, the myth of, 403

Glacial period, cause of, 435

Glaciation, duration of, 435; extent of, in North America, 435

Glue, 303, 305

God-houses of the Huichols, 409

Gold, alloy, 301; plating, 302

Government, 414

Governor’s palace, Uxmal, 244

Grass seeds for food, 358

Grave monuments, 166

Graves, 388; stone box, 388

Grease feast, 162

Great Heads, 407

Great Mound of Cholula, 350

Great Spirit, no knowledge of a single, 375

Gukumatz, 397

H

Haida canoes, 164

Hair dressing, 150

Hall of Columns, 209, 246

Hano, establishment of village of, 22

Hard pottery, 100

Hardened copper, 299, 300

Harpoon, 267

Hawk bells, 292, 309

Head at Izamal, 191

Head chief, 416

Head roll for carrying, 153

Health, 356

Heat, debilitating to Amerinds, 439

Helmet, 260

Hereditary offices, 423–424

Hero-gods, 371, 396, 399, 401

Hiawatha, 393; in Longfellow and Schoolcraft ranked as an Algonquin, 395

Hieratic languages, 29

Hill forts, 344

Hinuⁿ, God of Thunder, 364

History, linked with other races, 447

Hodenosaunee, 212

Hodenosote, 200, 210

Hollow square earthworks, 208

Homogeneity, 358

Hopewell cache, 264

Horse-racing, 323, 329

Hospitality, a law, 354, 447

House, column, 162; of the dead, 208; post, 162

Household utensils, 273

Houses on piles, 240

Hudson Bay Co., peaceful success of, 453

Huepilli, 140

Human flesh eaten, 367, 368

Hunt-the-button game, 324

Hut of the Great Sun, 208

I

Ideographic records, 48, 59

Iglu, 217

Iglugeak, 217

Ikonographic writing, 69

Ikonomatic, 48, 69

Imaginary animals, 174

Indian, corn, 358; names, 395; stocks or families, list of, 461; tribes, list of, 465

Indio Triste, 184

Intercalation of days, 306; denied, 306

Interkilling, 381

Internecine wars, 229, 427

Irish and Danes in Ancient America, 429

Irrigating, 333; canals, 195, 333, 336

Iroquois, confederacy, 421, 425, 449; costume, 140; house, 198, 200, 210; unsurpassed, 375

Israelite and Amerindian myths compared, 403

Itzamna, 401

Ixtlilxochitl, 443

Izamal, head at, 191

J

Jacal construction, 220, 236

Jargon, Chinook, 28

Joint tenements, 240

Jossakeed, 373

K

Kabinapek orchestra, 325

Kalopaling, 407

Karankawa, 34

Kashim, 216

Katcina, 47, 378

Kayak, 281, 283

Kishoni, 196

Kisi construction, 196

Kiva, 231, 232, 325, 350, 375, 412, 414

Knives, 269

Kwakiutl, house front, 239; statues, 167

Kwokwuli, 405

L

Labna, palace of, 450

Labret, 355

Lacandon idol, 190

Lack of carving in the South-west, 181

Lacrosse, 327

Ladders, 197, 226

Lamp, 169, 274; of Vancouver Island, 275; wick, 276

Landa’s alphabet, 50; legacy, 78

Language, classification, 17; roots, 18, 25

Languages, number of, 20; polysynthetic, 32

Laōlaxa costume, 406

Law of hospitality, 354, 447

League of the Iroquois, 421, 425, 449

Legends, 393, 403, 405

Leggings, 134, 143, 144, 148, 150

Lenapé houses, 206

Length of year calculated, 305

Limits of ancient inhabitants, 437

Linguistic map, 33

Long-house, 200, 210, 414

Loom, 124, 131, 132

Lost-Tribes-of-Israel theory, 53, 63, 401, 403, 429

Louisiana costume, 140

M

Main points of Iroquois organisation, 425

Maize, 358

Makah house, 213

Malignant sprites, 405

Man always the same, 315

Manatee pipe, 173

Mandan costume, 144

Manner of dying, 356

Mantle of fur, 137

Map, Central-American ruins, 436; linguistic, 33; Mexican ruins, 438

Masks, 165

Mats, 147

Maxtlatl, 136

Maya, alphabet, 50; books, 77, 82; buildings, ground plans, 238; chronicles, 408; chronology, 242, 307; greatness, 242; house, 246; numeral system, 83; numerals, 86; paper, 77; parchment, 77; war and rain gods, 190; week, 306; writing, origin of, 78; year, 306

Mealing stones, 194

Medicinal remedies, 373

Medicine-men, 371, 372

Mendoza codex, 72

Mesa Encantada, 408

Messiah, the, 399

Metates, 181, 191, 194, 272

Method of attaching arrow-heads, 265

Methods of the fur companies, 363

Metlatl, 272

Mexican, bronze tools, 299; costume, 134, 136, 138; hardened copper, 299; houses, 238; knowledge of metals, 299; mining, 299

Mezcal, 360

Michabo, 396, 399, 401

Midē, society, 401; songs, 58

Migration theory, 428

Milk not used, 360

Mining, 285; by fire method, 285

Misconceptions of the Spaniards, 421

Mississippi valley, houses, 205; pottery, 106

Mitla, 209, 246; roof construction, 230

Mnemonic records, 48, 59

Moccasin, 134, 142, 145, 150, 159, 369

Modoc houses, 215

Moki, hair dressing, 150, 151; house plan, 220; loom, 130; method of watering crops, 335; putchkohu, 268, 270; reservation, 447; sacred blanket, 130; throwing-stick, 268, 270; women’s costume, 150

Monitor pipe, 171

Monolithic monuments, 186

Montezuma, legend of, 408; rank of, 423

Moons computed to the year, 305

Morgan’s classification, 14

Mormon protective garment, 262

Mortar, 246, 272

Most widely spread stocks, 443

Mound foundations, 242

Moundbuilder pipes, 172, 174

Moundbuilders, lack of skill, 174

Mounds, 195, 206, 207, 342, 350; builders of, 343

Murder, settlement of, 381

Musical, bow, 308, 451; instruments, 308

Mustache, 154

Myths, 393, 403; resemblances to those of Israelites, 403

N

Nahuatls, 443. _See_ Mexican _and_ Aztec

Names, derivation of, 386; indicating totem, 420

Natchez temple, 207

Navajo, costume, 150; dramatic sense, 331; dry-painting, 61; house, 199; loom construction, 131, 132; reservation, 445; silversmiths, 294; silver-work, 296; songs the most primitive, 313; summer and winter homes, 412; women’s costume, 150

Navajos remained behind, 440

Nenenot tent, 219

Nets, 269

New-fire, 252, 368, 370; Moki, 370

Newark group of earthworks, 346

Nicaragua costume, 140

Night attacks, 366

North growing warmer, 443

North-west coast, “coppers,” 293; houses, 212, 241; totem poles, 241

North-western tribes, costume, 144

Notched doorway, 213, 228

Numerals of the Mayas, 83, 86

O

Object of Aztec war, 368

Observatories, 183

Obsidian, mines, 264; tools, 299

Octli, 360

Oglala roster, 387

Okeepa ceremony, 362, 378

Oldest people of Valley of Mexico, 443

Olmecas, 443

Omaha boat, 284

Only one kind of music, 314

Ontonagon bowlder, the, 289

Opinion, effect of, on civil chief, 416

Oraibi at night, 325

Organisation and government, 410, 414

Organisation of Iroquois confederacy, 425

Origin, migrations, and history, 428

Origin of Maya writing, 78

Ornamentation of Yucatec architecture, 191

Outlaws, 453, 455

P

Pai Ute Messiah, 399

Pai Utes, 303

Painting faces, 366

Palace of Palenque, 351

Palenque buildings, 244, 351, 404, Frontispiece; transverse section of, 210

Palm-drill, 252, 368

Paper of the Mayas, 77

Parallelism of human development, 396

Patnish and his band, 455

Patolli, 322

Peace chiefs, 418; envoys, 364

Penn’s dealings, 358

Peopling of America, 428

Peresianus codex, 76

Period of time since recession of ice, 441

Permanent houses, 195

Phonetic element in Mayan and Mexican writing, 71

Phonographic records of songs, 320

Photographs bad medicine, 381

Phratry, 414

Pictographs, painted, 42

Picture-writing, 39; classified, 50

Piki (Moki bread), 377

Pima house, 199

Piñon nuts for food, 358

Pipe, 171; of peace, 364; stone, 375

Pisé, 220, 236

Platforms, 206

Plumaje, 134

Plum-stone game, 324

Pochotl, 360

Poet, 313

Pokagon, Simon, quoted, 449

Pole, sacred, of the Omahas, 204

Polygamy, 386

Polysynthetic languages, 32

_Popol Vuh_, 82, 397

Population, 177; before glacial cold, 434

Portable houses, 195

Potlatch, 162

Pottery, area, 110; burnished, 100; cloisonné, 101; coil made, 99; decoration of, 99, 120, 122; Eskimo knowledge of, 428; glaze, 101; invented, 98; preparation of clay for, 99

Priest doctor, 371

Primitive, fabrics, 124; garments, 126; loom, 121

Pronunciation, 34

Protective, armour, 156; medicine, 262

Protruding tongue, 166

Pueblo, 207

Puebloan, costume, 133, 151, 153; ignorance of metals, 292; use of term, 44

Pulque, 360

Pump-drill, 251, 254

Putchkohu, 268, 270

Pyramid, not a proper term, 343, 351; of Cholula, 350; of the Sun, 350

Q

Quarries, 264, 273

Quetzalcohuatl, 371, 396, 397

R

Rabbit-skin robe, 130

Rain dance, 364

Raised houses, 240

Rapidity of erosion after recession of ice, 441

Rations, issue of, 445

Rattles, 309

Rattlesnake, centre of distribution, 190; designs, 188; horned, 380; species, 189; venerated, 63

Recession of the sea, 437

Records of Tecpan, Atitlan, 82

Red Cloud’s census, 60

Red dye, 304

Red pipe-stone, 375

Red score, authenticity of, 390; of the Lenapés, 46, 47, 390

Rehearsal, a, 317

Religion, 375

Religious feasts, 368

Remedies, medicinal, 373

Remedy for smallpox, 375

Repoussé method of working copper, 291

Resemblance to Asiatics, 457

Resemblances of Amerinds and Old World people, cause of, 432

Reservoirs, 195, 338

Resurrection dance, 316, 399

Right of asylum, 364

Roasting tray, 90

Rock, carving, 168; peckings, 42, 168, 180

Roof construction, Mitla, 230; Moki, 226

Rope-making, 126, 346

Round towers, 232

Ruins in Honduras and Nicaragua, 246

Running the gauntlet, 366

S

Sachems, duties of, 425

Sacred, bag, 204; buffalo-cow skin, 204; Moki blanket, 130; pole, 204, 383; structures, 208; tent, 204, 208; tipi, 204

Sacrifice, method of Aztec, 371; of children, Aztec, 371

Sacrificial stone, 182

Sail of umiak, 284

Sauk alphabet, 53

Sealskin, bottles, 276; floats, 267

Secret society, 414

Section of Yucatec building, 235

Seminole, costume, 154; war, 445

Sequoia, 360

Sequoyah (George Gist) syllabary, 52

Seven cities myth, 403

Shamans, 371, 373, 408; definition of, 372

Shell carvings, 174

Shields, 258

Shoshokoes, 8

Sign-language, 26

Sign of clan or gens membership, 420

Silversmith’s tools, 298

Silversmiths, Navajo, 294, 296; Tlinkit, 296

Similarities between Amerind and European words, 25, 28

Singing, 312, 318; in the night, 319

“Singing-girl,” statue, 188

Sīsul, 168, 392

Sitting Bull, 356, 451

Six Nations, 425

Skin armour, 260

Skull-cap, 147

Slab houses, 212

Sledge, 277

Smallpox remedy, 375

Smelting ore, 291

Smoking, 363

Snake dance, 376

Snow-house, 217; iglu, 217; knife, 217; shoe, 280; snake, 323

Soapstone quarries, 273, 286; vessels, 273

Sod house, 217

Soft pottery, 99

Sokus Waiunats and the magic cup, 403

Somaikoli ceremony, 318, 381, 454

Songs of the Ghost dance, 316

Sorceress, 371

Sound writing, 69

Soyaita ceremony, _see_ Somaikoli

Spades, 270

Spear- and arrow-heads, 263

Spindle, 126

Spinning, 128

Statue of the Sun, 350

Stelæ, Copan, 186

Stock names, how derived, 30

Stocks, 17

Stone, cutting, 300; graves, 388; implements as charms, 263; statues in Georgia and Tennessee, 176

Stools of Chiriqui, 192

Story telling, 330

String-drill, 252

Sun priests of the Moki, 305

Superstition, 377

Swastika, 63, 458

Sweat, bath, 374; house, 374

Syllabary, Cherokee, 52

Symbol of the peaceful council fire, 418

Symbolic writing, 69

T

Tablet of the, Cross, 184; Sun, 186

Tablets, Maya, 184

Taensa house, 208

Tambourine-drum, 308, 313

Taos, 3, 234

Tattooing, 56

Tchungkee game, 328

Tecumseh, 449

Tegua (moccasin), 134

Telleriano-Remensis Codex, 72

Temple, of the Cross, 184, 190, 244; of the Natchez, 207; of the Sun, Frontispiece, 186; of Tepoztlan, 242, 391; of Xochicalco, 23, 31, 242

Temples, 350

Temporary house, 195

Tennis, 328

Teocalli, Frontispiece, 391

Tepehuaje, 311

Teponaztli, 312

Tepoztlan, temple of, 242, 391

Terms for describing stone weapons, 263

Terra-cotta, figures, 112, 113, 115; tubing, 116, 117

Tetzontli, 350

Tewa, village of, when established, 22

Thought writing, 69

Thread, 126, 138

Throwing-stick of Mokis, 267, 268

Thunder-bird, 167, 342, 393

Tilmatli, 136

Time calculations, 305

Tipi, 195, 198, 200, 204; construction, 200; decoration, 202; derivation of, 200; sacred, of the Omahas, 204

Tiste, 360

Tlaloc, 396

Tlapan-huehuetl, 311

Tlaxcala, not a Mexican Switzerland, 423

Tlaxcalteco organisation, 424

Tlinkit silversmith, 296

Tobacco, 28, 363; pipe, 171, 363, 364

Toboggan, 279

Toltecs, 443

Tongue in Amerindian carving, 166

Tools, 249

Topek, 219

Tortillas, 360

Totem, and totemism, 386; poles, 162, 386

Totems, where chosen, 420

Totolospi game, 322

Towers, round, 232

Tozacatl, 311

Traditions, 393

Traits, 354

Translation of picture-writing by Mormons, 63

Transportation, 276

Triangular arch, 242

Tribal, chief, 416; organisation, 414

Tribes, change building methods, 350; exterminated, 445

Troano Codex, 82

True arch, 217

Tupek, 219

Turf house, 217

Turtleback flints, 261

U

Umiak, 157, 282, 283; sail, 284

Unity of all music, 314

Unseen ruins, 246

Utahs, costume of 1776, 141

V

Value of a “copper,” 297

Variation in culture, 178

Vase from Labna, 74

Vatican Codex, 72

Veils, 138

Vicuna in Arizona, 130, 276

Village dweller, 8

Villages, location of, 412; permanent, 228

Virgin copper, 301

Votan, 397

Votive stones, 188

W

Walamink, or Place of Paint, 304

Wālasaxa dance, 359

Wall, steps on, Moki, 222, 224

Walls, Moki, 226

Walam Olum, 47, 390

Wampum, 55, 143, 418; belt, 418

War, 8, 366, 445; belt of Iroquois, 418; bonnet, 145, 156, 266; chief’s office hereditary in the tribe, 424; chiefs, 418, 424; costume, 156, 357, 442; declaration of, 418; infrequent, 366; object of, with Aztecs, 368; Seminole, 445; shirt, 262

Water-pocket, 405

Waterproof, boots, 159; garment, 159

Weaving, 126, 128, 137, 141, 147

Weighing, 305

Whalebone dish, 96

Whip, of Eskimos, 279; top, 328

Whisky, 360, 361

Whistles, 308, 310

White, brutality, 445; buffalo-cow skin, sacred, 204; men as chiefs, 416

Wicker-work, in house construction, 234, 236; plastered, 236

Wigwam, 200, 204

Wikiup, 195

Wilson, Jack, the Pai Ute Messiah, 399

Windows, 228, 242

Wine, from cactus fruit, 360

Winter counts, Dakota, 60, 377

Wolf-killer, 267

Wooden, house, 195; walls in ancient Puebloan construction, 236

Woonupits, 320, 405

Wrecks of Japanese vessels on Pacific coast, 429

X

Xicalancas, 443

Xochicalco, temple of, 23, 31, 242

Y

Yant, 358

Yellow dye, 304

Yokuts houses, 215

Yourt, 216

Yucatec, buildings, ground plans, 238; stone, 242

Z

Zahcab, 238, 288

Zoötheism, 375

[Illustration: THE SWASTIKA

A primitive and universal sign]

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See the last chapter.

[2] See linguistic map p. 33, and list of tribes and stocks in Appendix.

[3] When the ice front was along the Ohio, the Eskimo naturally were distributed along the southern fringe.

[4] For many details of the life of the American Indians, or Amerinds, see _The Indians of To-Day_, by George Bird Grinnell. For the origin of the word Amerind see the _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 3, p. 582.

[5] It must be borne in mind that the general estimate of the Amerind is entirely drawn from white men’s writings. The Amerind side has never been presented.

[6] _Narrative of James P. Beckwourth_, p. 254; Irving’s _Bonneville_, p. 225.

[7] “Amidst all the devastating incursions of the Indians in North America it is a remarkable fact that no Friend who stood faithful to his principles in the disuse of all weapons of war, the cause of which was generally well understood by the Indians, ever suffered personal molestation from them,” vol. v., p. 63, Brinton’s _Library of Am. Ab. Literature_, from _An Account of the Conduct of the Society of Friends toward the Indians_, p. 72. London, 1844.

[8] Payne says, “Anahuac was becoming a military despotism.” _History of the New World called America_, vol. ii., p. 494.

[9] See Preface and the last chapter.

[10] Brinton’s “Uto-Aztecan.” The connection between the Nahuatl, or Aztec, and Shoshonean is not well established.

[11] Lewis H. Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, Dr. W. J. McGee has added a fourth stage, “Enlightenment.”

[12] For a full statement of this story, see the fascinating book, _Atlantis: The Antediluvian World_, by Ignatius Donnelly.

[13] See Chap. XVI. and also the Preface.

[14] The widest differences were in the Maya and the Timuquanan. Each of these differed greatly from the bulk of the Amerind languages and from each other, probably because both stocks held more isolated positions than the others during the glacial period, and preserved more of their earlier life, whatever it may have been.

[15] See J. N. B. Hewitt, _American Anthropologist_, October, 1893.

[16] “There are well-known examples in the ethnography of other races, where reliance on language alone would lead the investigator astray; but all serious students of the native American tribes are united in the opinion that with them no other clue can compare to it in general results.”—D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, Preface.

[17] As to the value of linguistics as a means of classification, Cyrus Thomas says: “On the one side, it is held by some authors that affinity of languages implies racial identity or unity of origin; on the other, it is contended that the theory that the affinity of languages necessarily implies identity of race is not warranted.”

[18] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_. He does not approve wholly of these terminations.

[19] _Seventh Annual Report, U. S. Bureau of Ethnology_, contains complete list of American race stocks, north of Mexico, as far as known. See Appendix.

[20] _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 35.

[21] Hopi is the singular; Hopituh the plural. Dr. Fewkes and others having decided in favour of the singular form, it is so given here.

[22] They have intermarried with the Hopi and Navajo till Fewkes believes that in “the next generation the percentage of pure Tañoan blood will be so small that we cannot regard the stock as Tañoan.”—_American Anthropologist_, April, 1894, p. 167.

[23] See Chap. XVI.

[24] _The American Race_ and _Chronicles of the Maya_.

[25] For further coincidences see Payne, _History of the New World Called America_, vol. ii., p. 78, _et seq._

[26] See the _American Anthropologist_, July, 1894, vol. vii., “The Chinook Jargon,” by Myron Eells.

[27] _Snake Dance of the Mokis_, p. 190.

[28] There are analogies between the Nahuatl and some languages of the North-west and Alaska, especially that of the Koluschan, or Tlinkit, living along the sea from Dixon Entrance to Prince William Sound.

[29] The Maya, however, has been found a useful language by Europeans. Dr. Berendt met “whole families of pure white blood” who used this language and did not know Spanish. This is not the usual fate of the Amerind tongues.

[30] This word was popularly written Esquimaux, after the French. Then the Bureau of Ethnology wrote it Eskimo, and this has been the accepted spelling and pronunciation. But it is from the Abnaki dialect of Algonquin, according to Brinton (_The American Race_, p. 59), and is properly Eskimwhan. This is better represented by Eskimä than by Eskimo.

[31] See the list of stocks in the Appendix.

[32] “Their language was reduced to writing some sixty years ago and has now a considerable literature. Nearly all the men of the tribe are able to conduct personal correspondence in their own language.”—Mooney, _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, p. 137, 1899.

[33] The “l” like “cl” in “exclaim.”

[34] See also Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 96 _et seq._, for an excellent discussion of Amerind languages.

[35] “Cherokee Formulas,” Mooney, _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[36] For a complete presentation of the subject of sign-language, see paper by Garrick Mallery, _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, and for that of picture-writing see _Tenth Ann. Rept._, a paper by same author, and one in _Fourth Ann. Rept._

[37] Note in Preface and last chapter statement as to irregularity of culture progress.

[38] The Mayas, however, had passed the zenith of their development.

[39] “Etching” is the word commonly used, but as etching is a totally different thing it has no place in this connection, and only adds to the incongruities already existing in writings on the Amerind subject.

[40] _Painted_ characters are found in southern California, west and south-west of Sierra Nevada; _painted_ and _scratched_, from Colorado River to Georgia, north to West Virginia and along the Mississippi. Remaining parts of United States show rock scratchings almost exclusive of paintings, according to Mallery.

[41] The name applied by the Pai Utes to the old Puebloans.

[42] That is, the rock faces change slowly. Other changes may occur, as, for instance, the foothold from which the pictures were made. I remember seeing in Keam’s Canyon, Arizona, some pictographs on a cliff wall that were far above reach, ten or twelve feet above my head. My explanation was that the ground had been washed away after they were made.

[43] I say “type,” because the Pueblo culture was not confined to one stock. “Puebloan” may be used to designate them.

[44] A rock near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, is inscribed with characters supposed to be Runic, which have been translated by Phillips, “_Harkussenmen varu_” = “Harko’s son addressed the men.” The Dighton inscription was read as an account of the party of Thorfinn, while other interpreters have made out Scythian and Phœnician characters. It is possible that there may have been a few Runic characters mingled with the Algonquian on the Dighton Rock.

[45] For a full account of the Walam Olum, see Brinton’s “The Lenapé and their Legends,” in vol. v. of his _Library of American Aboriginal History_.

[46] The pronunciation of this word always sounded to me “_kat-chee´-nah_,” but Dr. Fewkes eliminates the “h” sound from this and other words, and as he has devoted much attention to the subject I follow his spelling.

[47] See Brinton, _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 213.

[48] At Newark, Ohio, a business was carried on in the manufacture of inscribed stones, buried and dug up to suit occasion.

[49] See “A Remarkable Counterfeiter” by A. E. Jenks, _American Anthropologist_, April-June, 1900.

[50] J. T. Goodman, _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part ix., p. 11.

[51] The Sauk, of Algonquian stock, “have a syllabic alphabet, apparently the work of some early French missionary, by means of which they keep up a correspondence with friends on their various scattered reservations.”—Mooney, _American Anthropologist_, January, 1899, p. 143.

[52] For an explanation of the Lost Tribes theory see Payne’s _History of the New World Called America_, vol. ii., p. 75 _et seq._

[53] Finally, after 1714, the machine-made beads grew in favour, because the supply of native beads diminished with the diminution of the number of Amerinds. These machine-made beads were of uniform size, while the native beads varied considerably. See Horatio Hale, _Pop. Sci. Monthly_, February, 1897.

[54] “The best blanket-makers, smiths, and other artisans among the Navajos are the descendants of captives from Zuñi and other Pueblos.”—J. G. Bourke, _Jour. Am. Folk-Lore_, p. 115.

[55] Garrick Mallery, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[56] Mallery, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[57] See “The Mountain Chant,” by Washington Matthews, _Fifth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._ The dry-paintings also occur in the “Yebitchai” ceremony, described by James Stevenson, _Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[58] “Pictographs of the feathered, horned serpent are also found on the cliff to the south-west of Walpi. These pictographs have the head, with a representation of a horn and feathers, and the same conventionalised markings of parallel lines and arrow-points which are found on the kilts of the Snake priests.”—Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology_, vol. ii., p. 38.

[59] _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. of Eth._, p. 92.

[60] By Dr. Nicolas Leon. _Science_, Jan. 27, 1899, p. 156. Still another lately turned up in possession of an English gentleman.

[61] “They may have passed through some of the same stages of growth, but the general consensus of opinion is that the Mayan is the older of the two classes, and that these two classes have developed independently.”—Thomas, _Study of American Archæology_, p. 360.

[62] P. 213 _et seq._

[63] Several have recently been splendidly reproduced and may be found at large libraries.

[64] Suggested by the Abbé Brasseur.

[65] Egypt had three kinds of writing.

[66] _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part ix., p. 11.

[67] For a fac-simile of part of the Landa MS. and bibliographic notes on Mayan and Mexican writing see _Winsor’s Nar. and Crit. Hist. of the U. S._, vol. i., p. 197.

[68] See the Preface, p. vii., and the last chapter.

[69] Cyrus Thomas, Introduction to _Study of American Archæology_, p. 361.

[70] _Ibid._, p. 343.

[71] _Queen Moo_, by A. Le Plongeon, p. xv.

[72] Pp. 95 and 100.

[73] The “Codex Cortesianus is considered to furnish a connecting link between Maya and Mexican symbols.”—Powell.

[74] Written in 1558. An abridgment of an older book.

[75] Goodman gives these three signs for 20 [symbol symbol symbol] and remarks, “the last of the three being drawn with a great variety of detail.”—_Biologia Centrali Americana_, part viii., p. 64.

[76] _Sixth Ann. Rep. Bu. Eth._, p. 337.

[77] See the monumental work on basketry by Otis T. Mason, and other writings on this subject by the same author.

[78] See the _American Anthropologist_, April, 1894, vol. vii., “The Basket Drum,” by Washington Matthews, as an illustration of how a certain specialty in an art may survive after the art itself is neglected.

[79] Murdoch found fragments of a cooking pot at Point Barrow.—_Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 91. Rude cups were also sometimes made.

[80] _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 276.

[81] W. H. Holmes, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, “Pottery of the Ancient Pueblos.”

[82] The Amerind paste was generally quite dark, a light surface colour being obtained by a “slip.” But I have found fragments of a pinkish-white ware in Arizona the same colour all the way through.

[83] The earthenware of the Greeks and Romans was not glazed, but covered with wax, bitumen, etc.

[84] With all the differences, however, an examination of pottery from all over North America will convince any close observer of its general homogeneity.

[85] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Pottery of the Mississippi Valley,” _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 372.

[86] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 56.

[87] F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Death-Masks in Ancient American Pottery,” _American Anthropologist_, February, 1897.

[88] In this connection it may be mentioned that Swallow found a human skull enclosed in an earthen jar, the opening of which was too small to admit of the skull’s extraction.

[89] W. H. Holmes, “Prehistoric Textile Fabrics,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; _Ibid._, “Prehistoric Textile Art,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[90] F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Fabric-Marked Pottery,” _Popular Science Monthly_, March, 1898.

[91] Brinton states that the art of the potter was extensively practised by the Lenapé, but if this were accurate fragments of pottery ought to be commoner than they are in the region formerly their home.

[92] Compare Preface and last chapter.

[93] M. H. Saville, “Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in Southern Mexico,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S., April, 1899.

[94] _American Anthropologist_, N. S., 1899, i., p. 355.

[95] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[96] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[97] Rib is the term applied by our potters to the small thin pieces of wood used for smoothing the ware. The Moki “rib” corresponds closely in size, shape, and use to that I have seen employed by our potters.

[98] For soapstone or steatite vessels, see Chap. X.

[99] Hoffman, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 260.

[100] Holmes, _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 22.

[101] Boas, _Report U. S. Nat. Museum_, p. 319.

[102] Gibbs, _U. S. G. S., Contrib. to N. A. Ethnology_, vol. i., part ii., p. 219.

[103] National Academy of Sciences, _Bones of the Hemenway Expedition_, Introduction by Washington Matthews, p. 157.

[104] See for description of kiva the chapter in this book on Architecture, etc., and also Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[105] Dr. Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers.” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 375.

[106] Washington Matthews, _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 377.

[107] Some of the finest Navajo blankets command high prices. A two faced blanket is described by Matthews in the _American Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 4.

[108] Bandelier, _Final Report_, part i., p. 158.

[109] Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. i., pp. 439, 442.

[110] _Ibid._, vol. ii., p. 13.

[111] _Ibid._, p. 71.

[112] The _timatli_ or _tilmatli_ for men was a piece of cloth, according to Biart, “four feet long, which enveloped the body, and two corners of which were knotted upon the breast or upon the shoulder.”

[113] _Ibid._, p. 73.

[114] Du Pratz, _Hist. de la Louisiane_, vol. ii., pp. 191, 192.

[115] Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. ii., pp. 133, 134.

[116] Lucien Biart, _The Aztecs_.

[117] Squier, _Nicaragua_, p. 289.

[118] _The History of Erie County, N. Y._, pp. 58, 59, edited by H. Perry Smith.

[119] Quoted in Captain Simpson’s _Report_, p. 494.

[120] Buckingham Smith’s translation.

[121] Lieutenant Mowry, _Report_, p. 587, Ex. Doc. No. 11, 35th Cong., 1st Session.

[122] John W. De Forrest, _History of the Indians of Connecticut_, pp. 9–11.

[123] Catlin had wonderful success in persuading Amerinds to pose for him. When I went amongst the Navajos and Mokis in 1884–85 I found it next to impossible to get them to sit for me. Only one solitary specimen in the whole region was willing to run the risk. It was considered very “bad medicine.”

[124] The Crows, Sioux, Mandans, and Assiniboins are the same stock—the Dakota or Siouan.

[125] Catlin, _Smithsonian Report_, 1885, pp. 450, 451.

[126] Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 310.

[127] Geo. Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and North-western Oregon,” _U. S. G. S. Contrib._, vol. i., part ii., p. 220.

[128] _Ibid._, p. 219.

[129] _Ibid._, p. 176.

[130] The same kind of a wicker cap is worn by many California Amerinds.

[131] Cushing says of the early Zuñis: “They wore but scant clothing besides their robes and blankets—breech-cloths and kilts, short for the men, long for the women, and made of shredded bark and rushes or fibre; sandals also of fibre.... The hair was bobbed to the level of the eyebrows in front, but left long and hanging at the back, etc.”—_Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 358.

[132] “Coronado Letter,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 562.

[133] “Narrative of Jaramillo,” _Ibid._, pp. 586, 587.

[134] “Relación Postrera de Sívola,” _Ibid._, p. 569.

[135] C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” _Fifth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 486.

[136] _Memoirs Long Island Hist. Soc._, vol. i., p. 99, “Journal of a Voyage to New York in 1679–80.”

[137] See chapter on Weapons, and note also the quotation from Prescott—pp. 134 and 136.

[138] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 789, 790; see also Chap. IX., this work.

[139] Murdoch, “The Point Barrow Eskimo,” _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; Turner, “Hudson Bay Eskimo,” _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[140] Murdoch.

[141] Dr. Kane, _Arctic Exploration_, vol. i., p. 203.

[142] John D. Hunter, _Memoirs of a Captive among the Indians of North America_, London, 1823, pp. 289, 290.

[143] Sometimes two high poles are set up, between which, at a potlatch or “grease feast,” the piles of blankets forming payment for a “copper” are laid. These are called “blanket-poles.”

[144] There is a fine specimen in the American Museum of Natural History, New York.

[145] See _Tenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 478.

[146] W. H. Dall, _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 112.

[147] Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1895, pp. 323, 324.

[148] Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1895, pp. 370, 371.

[149] _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[150] _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[151] Chap. V., and _American Anthropologist_, February, 1897.

[152] _Prehistoric Art_, p. 477.

[153] Joseph D. McGuire, “American Aboriginal Pipes,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1897, p. 468.

[154] H. W. Henshaw, “Animal Carvings,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 166.

[155] Warren K. Moorehead, _The Bird-Stone Ceremonial_ (pamphlet).

[156] The Pai Utes make rude clay and wood dolls, but nothing larger, and no pottery.

[157] A. F. Bandelier, _Final Report_, p. 152.

[158] A. F. Bandelier, _Final Report_, p. 153.

[159] _Ibid._, p. 161.

[160] A painted design, similar to that of the “Calendar Stone,” was found on one of the inside walls at Mitla. See pl. xxv., Fig. 1, Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_.

[161] A compass card has five concentric circles, and the Calendar Stone appears to have the same number. The compass was known in Europe in the twelfth century, in China earlier.

[162] A. F. Bandelier, _Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico_, p. 78.

[163] Two structures at Palenque are so called on account of the tablets in them bearing emblems that resemble a cross. In that designated by Stephen as No. 2, by Charnay later as No. 1, and by H. H. Bancroft as No. 4, the cross form is the more pronounced, and it is the one usually referred to by the above title.

[164] For the exterior of the Temple of the Sun, see Frontispiece.

[165] Leonhard Stejneger, “Poisonous Snakes of North America,” _Rep. U. S. Museum_, 1893, p. 421.

[166] Edward S. Holden, “Studies in Central American Picture-Writing,” _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 229.

[167] Charnay found at Palenque that some of the figures were modelled first nude and draperies applied afterwards, the latter separating from the figure itself.

[168] Desiré Charnay, _Ancient Cities of the New World_.

[169] “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 27.

[170] For definitions of aboriginal architecture, see Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[171] Bandelier, _Final Report_, part i., p. 103.

[172] Or, if the climate should change, the character of the house might change with it.

[173] For full information on Dakota customs, etc., see the papers of the late Rev. James Owen Dorsey in the third, eleventh, thirteenth, and fifteenth _Ann. Repts. Bu. Eth._

[174] Wigwam is frequently used in a general sense to designate any Amerind house of the skin or earth or wood type.

[175] See “ti” and “pi” in _Dakota-English Dictionary_, vol. vii.; _Cont. U. S. G. S._, pp. 421, 467.

[176] Lewis H. Morgan, “Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines,” _Contributions to N. A. Ethnology_, vol. iv., p. 114.

[177] Castañeda describes the Querechos and Teyas in 1540 as travelling, “like the Arabs, with their tents and troops of dogs loaded with poles, and having Moorish pack-saddles and girths.”—Winship’s translation, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527.

[178] Morgan’s “Houses and House Life,” etc., p. 113.

[179] W. J. Hoffman, “The Menominee Indians,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 254–55.

[180] The Lenapé houses “were built in groups and surrounded with a palisade.... In the centre was sometimes erected a mound of earth, both as a place of observation and as a location to place the children and women.”—Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 51.

[181] Cyrus Thomas, “Mound Explorations,” _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 647.

[182] _Ibid._, p. 649.

[183] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 653.

[184] Francis Parkman, _Discovery of the West_, p. 277.

[185] George Bancroft, _U. S. History_.

[186] L. H. Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 120; see also _The Iroquois League_, by Morgan.

[187] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 77.

[188] Gibbs cites a split plank he saw in Puget Sound region, 24 feet long and 4½ feet wide.

[189] Gibbs mentions a house of the Makah, north-west Washington, 75 feet long, 40 wide, and 15 high, all one room; and another used for festivals 520 feet long, 60 feet wide, 15 feet high in front, and 10 feet in the rear.—George Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and North-western Oregon,” _Contributions U. S. G. S._, vol. i., p. 215.

[190] Stephen Powers, “Tribes of California,” _Contributions_, etc., vol. iii., p. 255.

[191] _Ibid._, p. 215.

[192] _Ibid._, p. 45.

[193] W. H. Dall, “Tribes of Alaska,” _Contributions U. S. G. S._, vol. i., p. 82.

[194] The tree growth ceases at about the line of the village of Kodiak on Kodiak Island. The Aleuts ranged over the Aleutian Islands and eastward as far as Stepovak Bay on the peninsula.

[195] For definitions of these terms see Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[196] Schwatka found cliff-dwellings occupied by Tarahumaris in northern Mexico. See _Cave and Cliff-Dwellers_, by Frederick Schwatka, p. 187.

[197] In early days upper stories in New Mexico were sometimes built of wood, plastered.

[198] For details of Pueblo architecture, see paper on the subject by Victor Mindeleff, _Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._ And “The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly,” by Cosmos Mindeleff, _Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[199] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[200] See paper by Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of the Verde Valley,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[201] See illustrations, pp. 225, 227, 228.

[202] See the writings of Geo. H. Pepper, director of the Hyde Expedition.

[203] _Commerce of the Prairies._

[204] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_. Kiva is a Moki term to replace the Spanish estufa, which is misleading. The kiva is not a sweat house, as the Spanish term seems to imply. A sweat house or lodge is expressly built and heated for the purpose of a sweat bath.

[205] See _Mem. Nat. Acad. Sciences_, vii., p. 146. Introduction by Washington Matthews.

[206] “And have five or six stories, three of them with mud walls and two or three with thin wooden walls.”—“Relacion del Suceso,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 575.

[207] Littré gives _pisé_ as “made with a species of large bricks made in wooden moulds”; _piser_, “to construct by beating earth between two planks.”

[208] Prescott, _Mexico_, i., p. 474.

[209] _Ibid._, ii., p. 70.

[210] _Ibid._, ii., p. 110.

[211] Prescott, _Mexico_, ii., p. 109.

[212] _Voyages of Vancouver_, ii., p. 274.

[213] Morgan, _House Life_, p. 231. For the houses and house life of some modern cave and cliff dwellers see _Unknown Mexico_, by Carl Lumholtz.

[214] M. H. Saville, “Temple of Tepoztlan,” _Monumental Records_, i., No. 1.

[215] Goodman in _Biologia Centrali Americana_. From an inscription on the back of the “Yucatec Stone” 10,731 years back to the date of an

## action represented on the front of the stone from 1895.

[216] Cyrus Thomas (_American Anthropologist_, July, 1899) says: “Here we see the culmination of Mayan art.” There are several terraces, but one is so large as to eclipse the others.

[217] Viollet-le-Duc thinks these buildings and the Maya ones originated in wooden structures. For details of construction, see Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour in Mexico_.

[218] For mining operations see Chap. X.

[219] The Lenapé had arrow-heads and pipes made of copper. See Abbott’s _Primitive Industry_.

[220] The Amerind muscles that came into play in bow shooting were so highly developed that a white man untrained could not half pull a bow that a generally weaker Amerind could pull with ease.

[221] Hoffman (_Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 281) describes similar bows found in Arizona and Nevada, three feet long, but made of wood in a composite way.

[222] Hough says he has often made fire in thirty seconds with the palm-drill and in five seconds with the bow-drill.—_National Museum Report_, 1888, p. 531.

[223] See chapter on Customs for a quotation from Prescott describing the festival of the new-fire.

[224] The Iroquois rigged large pump-drills out of saplings.

[225] Hoffman denies this, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 279.

[226] For modern arrow-making among the Menominee, see _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 275 _et seq._

[227] It is said that a blow-gun was also used by some North American tribes. “Many of the Siouan Indians use the lance, javelin, or spear.”—McGee, _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 171.

[228] “Primitive American Armour,” _Report of National Museum_, 1893.

[229] Bancroft, H. H., _Native Races_, vol. ii., p. 407.

[230] Veytia, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 289, 290; see also page 134, this book.

[231] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 138.

[232] “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” by James Mooney, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; see also Chap. VI., this book.

[233] The Utah Mormons wear an undergarment supposed to have such resistance. The idea may have come from them.

[234] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 790.

[235] See Preface pages iv. and v., and also the last chapter of this book.

[236] For “Medicine Arrows of the Oregon Indians,” see A. S. Gatschet, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, 1893.

[237] The surface flint was in bowlders and nodules.

[238] For a valuable account of stone implements of the “Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province,” see paper by W. H. Holmes in _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; also, “The Obsidian Mines of Hidalgo, Mexico,” by the same author, _American Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 3, N. S.

[239] Tylor declares that it is not possible to distinguish stone weapons from one part of the world from those from any other part.

[240] From the Aztec: _metlatl_.

[241] While the Eastern Amerinds generally seem not to have known how to melt copper, some few may have experimented in a limited way with it.

[242] Walter Hough, “The Lamp of the Eskimo,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1896, p. 1028.

[243] The Amerinds of Vancouver Island were said by Captain Chase to use a lamp made of a clam shell, with oil from the whale or porpoise. The wick was bark.—Hough, p. 1039.

[244] See Castañeda’s narrative, Winship’s translation, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527; and Ternaux Compans, _Relation de Castañeda_, p. 190, “ils ont de grands troupeaux de chiens qui portent leur bagage; ils l’attachent sur le dos de ces animaux au moyen d’une sangle et d’un petit bât”; also the same narrative, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 456.

[245] For excellent descriptions in detail of the Eskimo sledge and methods of using it, see Boas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 529 _et seq._; Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 353 _et seq._; and Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 241 _et seq._

[246] Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 358.

[247] O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, p. 566; see also p. 564; and Turner, in the _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 307.

[248] See O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, pp. 381–410; _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 308–312; _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 344–352.

[249] For details of construction see Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 305; and Hoffman, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 292.

[250] Baidarka is the Russian term used at Kodiak and along the Alaska peninsula. Baidar = umiak; baidarka = kayak.

[251] For details of kayak and umiak construction, see Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 328; Boas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527; Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 235; see, also, for hunting weapons and methods, “Aboriginal American Zoötechny,” by Otis Tufton Mason, _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, 1899.

[252] The Omahas made one out of dried bison hides, branches, and saplings.

[253] Mines of steatite vessels have been found on Santa Catalina Island, California, as well as on the Eastern United States coast. Charles F. Holder describes the Santa Catalina mines in the _Scientific American_ for December 16, 1899.

[254] W. H. Holmes, _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 108, 109.

[255] For a description of these chultunes, see “The Chultunes of Labna,” _Memoirs of Peabody Museum_.

[256] Champlain’s _Voyages_, Prince Society edition, vol. ii., p. 236.

[257] Now in the National Museum, Washington. See article on the subject by Charles Moore, _Report of U. S. Museum_, 1895.

[258] Frank Hamilton Cushing, “Primitive Copper Working, An Experimental Study,” _American Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. vii., No. 1, 1894.

[259] Fewkes found several of these bells in his excavations around the headwaters of the Gila.

[260] During my stay with the Mokis and in their vicinity and in all the long time I have been observing them, I never saw nor heard of a single object in metal wrought by them.

[261] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 52.

[262] F. Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rept. Nat. Mus._, 1895, p. 344.

[263] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 171.

[264] The tribes of the North-west made some gold and silver ornaments, and at Sitka to-day there is a jewelry establishment kept by a native Tlinkit, who makes most of his own silverware.

[265] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 172.

[266] Prescott, _Mexico_, vol. i., p. 138.

[267] Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i., pp. 213–215.

[268] _Ibid._, p. 216.

[269] _Ibid._, p. 218.

[270] Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i., p. 222.

[271] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 186.

[272] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 53.

[273] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 376.

[274] Squier describes a Tyrian purple of various shades secured in Nicaragua from the murex shellfish by a slow and tedious process; see his _Nicaragua_, p. 286.

[275] Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, vol. ii., p. 151.

[276] Cyrus Thomas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 271.

[277] Prescott, _Mexico_, vol. i., p. 111.

[278] _Ibid._, p. 112. The intercalation of these 12½ or 13 days is denied by Payne, _History of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 294–316 _et seq._, but Mrs. Zelia Nuttall and other eminent scholars are certain they were intercalated.

[279] Goodman, _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part viii., pp. 5, 8.

[280] This bell is supposed, however, to have developed here from the rattle.

[281] The Peabody Museum contains an exhibit of forty-five whistles made of bone, all found together in one basket. They were wrapped with split reed and were seven to ten inches in length.

[282] Washington Matthews, “The Basket Drum,” _American Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. vii., No. 2, April, 1894.

[283] A. F. Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 150.

[284] John Comfort Fillmore, “The Harmonic Structure of Indian Music,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S., April, 1899. See also Chas. K. Wead, “The Study of Primitive Music,” _Am. Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1.

[285] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 994, 995.

[286] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 994, 995

[287] Murdoch says the Point Barrow Eskimo wake up in the night to sing.—_Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 388.

[288] James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 1002, 1003.

[289] J. Walter Fewkes, _Jour. of Am. Eth._, vol. ii., p. 159.

[290] James Mooney, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 1008.

[291] Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_, pp. 211, 212.

[292] _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 255.

[293] For a description of the “Cat’s Cradle” games of the Amerinds, see the elaborate work _String Figures_ by Caroline Furness Jayne.

[294] Col. Richard Irving Dodge, _The Plains of the Great West_, pp. 329, 330.

[295] _Plains of the Great West_, p. 324.

[296] John T. Short, _The North Americans of Antiquity_.

[297] From the Moki method of guiding shower-waters amongst the corn to guiding waters from a brook or river in that way would not be a great step; indeed, it would be most simple and natural and would easily be forced by circumstances.

[298] Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of Verde Valley,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 238.

[299] The term “horticulture” as employed by some writers means agriculture on a small scale, the operations not being considered by them extensive enough to merit the title of agriculture.

[300] Refer to previous chapter on “Architecture and Dwellings.”

[301] J. Walter Fewkes, “Preliminary Account of Archæological Field Work in Arizona in 1897,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1897, p. 613.

[302] Desiré Charnay, _Ancient Cities_, p. 36.

[303] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 209.

[304] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 408.

[305] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 408.

[306] In New England there was once a fortification in Sanbornton, N. H., which had walls six feet thick and breast-high, faced outside with stone.—Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._, vol. i., p. 404.

[307] The great Cahokia mound in Illinois is seven hundred feet by five hundred feet on the ground. For illustration of Etowah mound see page 337.

[308] Cyrus Thomas, _Study of North American Archæology_, p. 125.

[309] Gerard Fowke describes in the _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii, No. 3, “Points of difference between Norse Remains and Indian works.”

[310] _Ancient Cities._

[311] Ad. Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 233 _et seq._

[312] Contact with civilisation has, however, changed the average health in many if not all tribes.

[313] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, vol. i.

[314] For further details of the Mexican drinks, see Charnay’s _Ancient Cities_.

[315] Squier, _Nicaragua_, p. 272.

[316] Biart, _The Aztecs_, p. 290.

[317] _The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, Mountaineer, Scout, and Pioneer, and Chief of the Crow Nation of Indians_, p. 444. Harper Bros., 1856.

[318] _Ibid._, p. 445.

[319] The council was opened by the sachem puffing smoke from the pipe over the heads of the assembly, and then each councillor in turn drawing at the pipe. This accomplished, business was begun.

[320] Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 72.

[321] _History of the United States._

[322] Important announcements are made by appointed criers.

[323] _Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth_, p. 228.

[324] _History of the United States._

[325] Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 495, 499, and 501.

[326] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 81.

[327] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 126; see also pp. 251, 252 of this book.

[328] Lucien Carr, _Smithsonian Report_, 1891, p. 543; see also Payne’s _History of the New World_, page 330.

[329] _Ibid._

[330] See Fewkes, “The New-Fire Ceremony at Walpi,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1.

[331] For details of cenoté, etc., see Desiré Charnay’s _Ancient Cities_.

[332] _Archæological Tour_, p. 204.

[333] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 980.

[334] Mrs. Erminnie Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 68.

[335] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 121.

[336] James Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 328.

[337] “Our materia medica owes tobacco, gum copal, liquid amber, sarsaparilla, resin of tecamaca, jalap, and huaca to the Aztecs.”—L. Biart, _The Aztecs_, p. 285.

[338] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 82.

[339] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 55.

[340] _Ibid._, pp. 330–333.

[341] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 77.

[342] These ceremonials often introduce historical matters. I was surprised once to hear the song change to one of our Sunday-school hymns. This portion of the ceremony was describing the establishment of a Presbyterian mission at Keam’s Canyon years before.

[343] See J. Walter Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology_, for a description of some of the Moki ceremonials and other papers by the same author.

[344] In some of the pueblos there is a constant inter-killing going on for supposed evil practices of witchcraft (Bandelier _Report_, part i., p. 35), but whether this has any connection with the secret orders, I do not know.

[345] For information on these and other social points see the various writings of J. W. Powell.

[346] The clan totem is probably an expansion of the individual totem by increase.

[347] See pp. 162, 164, 241, this book, for illustrations of totem poles.

[348] Dr. H. C. Yarrow, “Mortuary Customs,” _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[349] The head-stones of these graves were this shape, [symbol] and a portion in some cases protruded above the ground when I was there. The ground was very sandy. The stones were natural slabs, about 1½ in. thick.

[350] Stansbury, in his _Report_, describes graphically a “death lodge” he found, but, unfortunately, space is lacking to reprint it here.

It is important in studying burial customs of the Amerinds to remember that all members of a tribe were not necessarily disposed of in the same way. Cabeza de Vaca mentions that “sometimes common members of a tribe were buried while medicine men were burned.”

[351] See p. 46, this book.

[352] D. G. Brinton, _The Lenapé and their Legends_, pp. 158, 164.

[353] “The spirit of any plant, any star, or other personage in creation may become a man’s attendant. In our popular phraseology this is called his medicine.”—Jeremiah Curtin, _Creation Myths_, p. 29.

[354] See “The Lessons of Folklore,” J. W. Powell, _American Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 1, N. S., January, 1900.

[355] Jeremiah Curtin, _Creation Myths of Primitive America_, p. 499.

[356] Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 180.

[357] _Ibid._, p. 193. See p. 170 _et seq._ for his whole discussion of Quetzalcohuatl. See also the “Book of Quetzalcohuatl.” Payne, _History of the New World_, II., p. 435 _et seq._

[358] _American Hero Myths_, p. 64 _et seq._

[359] A. S. Gatschet, “An Indian Visit to Jack Wilson, the Payute Messiah,” _Journal of American Folk-Lore_.

[360] _American Hero Myths_, p. 147.

[361] Payne accepts the Amazon stories as true. _History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 11.

[362] For some Amerind legends delightfully related, see _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_, and other books, by George Bird Grinnell.

[363] _Native Races_, vol. i., p. 129.

[364] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 43.

[365] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 15.

[366] _History of the American Indians_, p. 282.

[367] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_; pronounced _kee-vah_.

[368] _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 59.

[369] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[370] Parkman mentions Beckwourth in the _Oregon Trail_, p. 124, as “a mongrel of French, American, and Indian blood.... He is a ruffian of the worst stamp, bloody and treacherous, without honour or honesty”; but other writers seem to give him a better character.

[371] Beckwourth, _Life and Adventures_, first ed., pp. 227, 228.

[372] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 47.

[373] _The American Race_, p. 46.

[374] Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 8. “In the ancient gens descent was limited to the female line.” _Ibid._, p. 5.

[375] _Ancient Society_, p. 69.

[376] _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol i., No. 4, October, 1899, p. 710.

[377] _Ancient Society_, p. 71, and _Houses and House-Life_, p. 7.

[378] Powell, _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 61.

[379] Originally _Häyowenthä_ in the Mohawk. He and _Däganowédä_ are usually considered mythical personages.

[380] _The American Race_, p. 130.

[381] Payne, as before noted, says “a military despotism.”

[382] _Archæological Tour_, p. 31, and footnote, p. 31.

[383] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 23.

[384] _Ancient Society_, pp. 71, 72.

[385] _Houses and House-Life_, p. 28.

[386] See the Preface of this book, and also Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., which, unfortunately, the author did not have the benefit of seeing till after this book was written.

[387] In this connection see “Archæology of the Thompson River Region, British Columbia,” by Harlan I. Smith, _Memoirs of the American Museum_, vol. ii., May, 1900. The Eskimo probably entered Alaska along the coast from the east.

[388] It is of course possible that some infusion of blood occurred in this manner, but it is not likely that it was ever sufficient to tinge a whole stock.

[389] “This uniformity finds one of its explanations in the geographical features of the continent, which are such as to favour migrations in longitude, and thus prevent the diversity which special conditions of latitude tend to produce.”—Brinton, _American Race_, p. 41.

[390] See also “On the Peopling of America,” by August R. Grote, _Bulletin Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences_, February 2, 1877.

[391] The tinge of resemblance between certain Amerind stocks and foreign stocks endures from the pre-glacial period, then, when intercourse was on different lines, and does not indicate any latter-day relationship.

[392] These tools might easily be quite as good as many found on the surface to-day, and it would be difficult to distinguish them from at least the ruder forms of modern implements.

[393] W. H. Holmes, “Preliminary Revision of the Evidence Relating to Auriferous Gravel Man in California,” _American Anthropologist_, October, 1899.

[394] An elevation of the ocean bottom in the Atlantic tropical regions would probably disturb the existing climate of the North Atlantic regions by deflecting the warm currents.

[395] See _A Naturalist in Nicaragua_, by Thomas Belt, Chap. XIV.

[396] Payne believes that by this lowering of the waters combined with land elevation, a Miocene land passage was formed leading from Asia to the North-west coast and that the American continent was then peopled by this route.

[397] See also, “Man and the Glacial Period in America,” Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 62 _et seq._, and discussion of the effects of glaciation, _ibid._, p. 348.

[398] “When first met with the Navajos occupied the same range of country they now inhabit.”—Bandelier, _Report_, part i., p. 175.

[399] _National Geographical Magazine_, December 1, 1899, p. 509.

[400] “That there was a primitive empire ... seems to some minds confirmed by other evidences than the story of Votan ... and out of this empire ... have come, as such believers say, after its downfall, somewhere near the Christian era, and by divergence, the great stocks of people called Maya, etc.”—Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._, vol. i., p. 134.

[401] _League of the Iroquois._

[402] For information on the Amerindian wars, their efforts to preserve their territory, etc., see Bancroft’s _History of the United States_; Winsor’s _Narrative and Critical History of the United States_; Winsor’s other works; Parkman, John Fiske; and numerous other books to be found in any good library.

[403] _Harper’s Magazine_, March, 1899, p. 649.

[404] “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” _Bulletin of American Geographical Society_, December, 1897.

[405] _Life and Adventures_, p. 438.

[406] Bering found no inhabitants on the Aleutian islands and his visit of discovery was recent—1741.

[407] The thanks of the author are due to Prof. Otis Tufton Mason, of the United States National Museum, for kindly reviewing this appendix in proof. Prof. Mason writes, “Your work has my approval and it is well done.”

[408] See map, page 33 this book, and also the original of it in the _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[409] See “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” by F. S. Dellenbaugh, in the _Bulletin of the American Geographical Society_, December, 1897.

By F. S. DELLENBAUGH

The North-Americans of Yesterday

A Comparative Study of North-American Indian Life, Customs, and Products, on the Theory of the Ethnic Unity of the Race. 8ᵒ. Fully illustrated net, $4.00

The Romance of the Colorado River

A Complete Account of the Discovery and of the Explorations from 1540 to the Present Time, with Particular Reference to the Two Voyages of Powell through the Line of the Great Canyons.

8ᵒ. Third Edition Revised. Fully illustrated net, $3.50

Breaking the Wilderness

The Story of the Conquest of the Far West, from the Wanderings of Cabeza de Vaca to the First Descent of the Colorado by Powell, and the Completion of the Union Pacific Railway, with Particuvlar Account of the Exploits of Trappers and Traders.

8ᵒ. Fully illustrated net, $3.50

A Canyon Voyage

The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the Green-Colorado River from Wyoming, and the Explorations on Land in the Years 1871 and 1872.

8ᵒ. Fully illustrated net, $3.50

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS NEW YORK LONDON

Breaking the Wilderness

_The story of the Conquest of the Far West, from the Wanderings of Cabeza de Vaca to the first Descent of the Colorado by Powell, and the Completion of the Union Pacific Railway. With particular account of the exploits of trappers and traders._

By +Frederick S. Dellenbaugh+ _With about 146 illustrations. 8ᵒ, net $3.50._

“Mr. Dellenbaugh has performed here an excellent and valuable service in collecting a vast array of heretofore disconnected accounts of a fascinating and wonderful region of land still fraught with mystery and rich in glorious possibilities. It would be difficult to convey a greater amount of useful and interesting information in a volume of corresponding size and scope.”—_Phila. North American._

“Taken as a whole the book gives the most comprehensive account of the history of Western exploration and discovery that has been given to the public.”—_N. Y. Tribune._

“No other American was so competent to write this thrilling and captivating story.”—_Henry Haynie in the Boston Times._

“A most readable book.... A book that will interest every student of American history and every reader whose blood is stirred by deeds of hardship and daring.”—_N. Y. Evening Telegram._

_SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR_ G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS New York London

A Canyon Voyage

_The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the Green-Colorado River from Wyoming and the Explorations on Land in the Years 1871 and 1872._

By +Frederic S. Dellenbaugh+

Artist and Assistant Topographer of the Expedition

_8vo with 50 Full-page Illustrations from Photographs and from Drawings by the Author (2 in color) and Maps including reproductions of the first maps made. Net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75._

Mr. Dellenbaugh’s new book is a narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, generally known as the Second Powell Expedition down the Green and Colorado Rivers from Wyoming almost forty years ago; an expedition which in all these years never has been described in any government publication, nor by anyone in print excepting Mr. Dellenbaugh, who was a member of the party. Yet it was the expedition to make the first maps of the course of the river and of some of the contiguous country. In the _Romance of the Colorado_, Mr. Dellenbaugh gave a brief description of this expedition in order to make his history of the remarkable river complete, but now feeling the desirability of a fuller record in the interest of Western United States history, he tells, in _A Canyon Voyage_, the whole experience.

_SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR_ G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS New York London

_The_ Romance _of the_ Colorado River : : :

_A Complete Account of the Discovery and of the Explorations from 1540 to the Present Time, with Particular Reference to the two Voyages of Powell through the Line of the Great Canyons_

By +Frederick S. Dellenbaugh+

_8ᵒ, with 200 Illustrations, net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75_

“As graphic and as interesting as a novel.... Of especial value to the average reader is the multiplicity of pictures. They occur on almost every page, and while the text is always clear, these pictures give, from a single glance, an idea of the vastness of the canyons and their remarkable formation, which it would be beyond the power of pen to describe. And the color reproduction of the water-color drawing that Thomas Moran made of the entrance to Bright Angel Trail gives some faint idea of the glories of color which have made the Grand Canyon the wonder and the admiration of the world.”—_The Cleveland Leader._

“His scientific training, his long experience in this region, and his eye for natural scenery enable him to make this account of the Colorado River most graphic and interesting. No other book equally good can be written for many years to come—not until our knowledge of the river is greatly enlarged.”—_The Boston Herald._

_SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR_ G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS New York London

Transcriber’s Notes:

• Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). • Text enclosed by equals is in bold (=bold=). • Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. • Since image attributions are given in the List of Illustrations, they are not provided for each image. • Image size and internal details are removed in the text version. • Front advertisement was moved to the back.