part I

am content_. =Hän on itse kauttansa rikastunut=, _he has grown rich by his own exertions_ (_through himself_). =En siitä huolisi itse tähteni=, _I should not trouble about it on my own account_.

III. =Kaikki=, _all, every_, is the Latin _omnis_. =Koko=, _all_ or _the whole_, is _totus_. This latter word is properly a substantive meaning collection, and it is not declined when used as an adjective. =Kaikki= is declined, but its accusative singular is either =kaikki= _or_ =kaiken=. The nominative and accusative plural are also generally =kaikki=, but =kaiket= is used in the sense of =koko=. N.B. =Hän on minulle kaikki kaikessa=, _he is all in all to me_.

IV. =Moni= is generally used in the singular, =moni mies=, _many a man_. When it is used as the subject of a sentence, the partitive =monta= is generally employed. =Monta miestä, monta mieltä=, _many men, many opinions_ (proverb).

The plural =monet= has generally the sense of various. =Monet venäjän kansat elävät kalastuksella=, _many races in Russia live by fishing_.

V. The word =toinen=, _another_ or _second_, is used with the pronominal suffixes as a reciprocal pronoun. In this case either the oblique case may be used alone with the suffix, or the nominative, without the suffix be added. =He rakastavat toisiansa=, _they love one another_, or =He rakastavat toinen toisiansa=.

=Muu= means _other_ or _another_, whereas =toinen= usually means _the other_, or at any rate refers to a definite person. Thus =Näistä miehestä toinen on venäläinen, toinen saksalainen=, _one of these men is a Russian, the other a German_. =Se ei ole kukaan muu kuin kuningas itse=, _this is no other than the king himself_. =Ovatko toiset tulleet?= _are the others come?_ =Onko ketään muita tullut?= _Has anyone else come?_

The adverbial forms =muualla=, =muualta=, =muualle= seem derived from a stem =muuka=, which is not found in the nominative. =Miehet ovat muualta tulleet=, _the men have come from another country_.[14]

VI. The indeclinable adjective =joka= has much the same meaning as =jokainen=, namely _each_ or _every_. =Joka vuosi=, _every year_. =Se nähdään joka aika=, _that is always seen_. =Annoin rahaa joka miehelle=, _I gave every man some money_. =Joka toinen, kolmas, neljäs=, etc., _every second, third, fourth_, etc. =Joka toisena päivänä=, _every other day._

NUMBERS.

The use of the numbers presents some peculiarities.

A. =Yksi=, _one_, is an adjective which agrees with the substantive it qualifies. =Hän aina puhuu yhtä asiaa=, _he always talks on one subject_. =Olla yhdessä neuvossa=, _to be concerned in a plan_.

B. The other numbers require that the word they qualify should be in the

## partitive singular, _if the number is in the nominative_. Under these

circumstances the verb is the singular. =Kolme poikaa on talossa=, _three boys are in the house_. =Viisi tuhatta miestä=, _5000 men_. =Seitsemän kalaa=, _seven fishes_.

But with words that have no singular, both the numeral and substantive are put in the nominative. =Yhdet, kahdet häät=, _one, two marriages_. =Viidet sakset=, _five pairs of scissors_. =Kahdeksat sukat=, _eight pairs of stockings_.

C. If the numeral is in an oblique case, then the substantive is put in the same case also, _but in the singular_. =Viidelle pojalle=, _to five boys_. =Kolmelle kymmenelle miehelle=, _to thirty-six men_.

But in the Kalevala, one finds such expressions as =löyti kuusia jyviä=, =Seitsemiä siemeniä=.

D. If the number and substantive have a pronoun or adjective agreeing with them, this latter is put in the plural and in the same case as the number. But the substantive obeys the preceding rules, if the attribute is in the nominative plural, the verb is also in the plural. =Nämät viisi poikaa tulivat kotia=, _these five boys come home_. =Anna leipää näille viidelle pojalle=, _give some bread to these five boys_.

N.B. In all the numbers except =yksi= the accusative is the same as the nominative. =Näin kaksi miestä=, _I saw two men_. =Ampui viisi lintuja=; _he shot five birds_; but =Näin yhden miehen=, _I saw one man_.

_Expression of a date._

I. To express the year the word =vuosi= is employed, and a cardinal number after it. If =vuosi= is used in the local or in the essive case this number is not inflected. =Vuonna tuhatta= (_or_ =tuhat=) =kahdeksan sataa kahdeksankymmentä yhdeksän=, _in the year 1889_.

But if the genitive of =vuosi= is used, then the number is also put in the genitive. =Vuoden tuhatta kahdeksan sataa kahdeksankymmentä viiden sato=, _the harvest of 1885_.

II. The day of the month is expressed in two ways.

(1) First comes the name of the month in the genitive, then an ordinal number in the essive, and the word =päivänä=. =Maaliskuun kolmantena päivänä=, _March 3_.

(2) Or the numeral and =päivänä= come first, and are followed by the name of the month in the partitive. =Kolmantena päivänä Maaliskuuta.=

III. The hour expressed by the word =kello=, which remains under all circumstances invariable, followed by a cardinal numeral which can be inflected. =Kello on kuusi=, _it is six o’clock_. =Nousen kello neljältä=, _I get up at five o’clock_.

The half hours are expressed in much the same way as in German or Russian. _Half past four_, =puoli viisi=; _half past five_, =puoli kuusi=; _half past six_, =puoli seitsemän=, etc. _A quarter past five_ is expressed by =se on neljänneksen yli viisi= (_five plus a quarter_), and _a quarter to six_ by =se on neljännestä vailla kuusi= (_six minus a quarter_).

The names of the days of the week and months are as follows:—

_Sunday_ =Sunnuntai=. _Monday_ =Maanantai=. _Tuesday_ =Tiitai=. _Wednesday_ =Keskiviikko=. _Thursday_ =Torstai=. _Friday_ =Perjantai=. _Saturday_ =Lauantai=.

_January_ =Tammikuu=. _February_ =Helmikuu=. _March_ =Maaliskuu=. _April_ =Huhtikuu=. _May_ =Toukokuu=. _June_ =Kesäkuu=. _July_ =Heinäkuu=. _August_ =Elokuu=. _September_ =Syyskuu=. _October_ =Lokakuu=. _November_ =Marraskuu=. _December_ =Joulukuu=.

THE VERB.

The moods and tenses of the Finite verb in Finnish are very simple.

The present and imperfect with the compound tenses called perfect and pluperfect form the entire indicative mood.

I. The present indicates—

(1) An habitual action, or an action which is going on at the present time. =Joka päivä hän lukee sanomalehden alusta loppuun saakka=, _every day he reads the newspaper through from one end to the other_. =Mihin menette? Menemme metsään=, _where are you going? we are going to the wood_. When it is desired to emphasise the fact that some one is engaged in an action at the present time, such phrases as =he ovat kalastamassa=, _they are fishing_, may be used (_v._ p. 191).

(2) A future action, as we say ‘he comes to-morrow.’ Some distinction is made between these two uses by the fact that while a verb representing an

## action as going on always takes an object in the partitive, a verb which

represents an action as to be completed in the future takes an object in the genitive. =Kirjoitan kirjettä=, _I am writing a letter_; =huomenna kirjoitan kirjeen=, _I shall write a letter to-morrow_. =Kun saan tietää missä asuu, niin menen hänen luo=, _when I know where he lives I shall go and see him_.

(3) In a few expressions the present indicative is used in a concessive sense. =Maksaa mitä maksaa=, _cost what it may_. =Sano mitä sanot=, _say what you will_.

II. The imperfect is used in two senses:—

(1) It denotes an action in past time, either habitual or isolated, either continuous or momentary; it thus corresponds to several past tenses in other languages. =Seuraavana päivänä tuli nuori rouva aamiais-pöytään, kun muut olivat lopettaneet=, _next day the young lady came down to breakfast when the rest had finished_. =Tapasitko sisartani?= _did you meet my sister?_ =En tavannut=, _I did not meet her_. =Joka päivä lähti hän kävelemään pääkadulle=, _every day he took a walk in the principal street_. =Lohi loimahti merehen=, _the salmon jumped into the sea_. =Itki yötä kaksi kolme=, _he wept two or three nights_.

(2) It is also used like the present in a concessive sense, but much more frequently than that tense. =Kävi miten kävi, asiaan on ryhtyttävä=, _come what may, the business must be begun_. =Oli kumpi hyvänsä=, _whichever of the two it is_. Cf. such expressions as =kuka niitä kaikkia muisti? Lempo niitä ymmärsi=.

It is noticeable that in the narrative portions of the Kalevala and other poems the present and imperfect are used almost indifferently (_v._ extracts at end of book). Perhaps the sound of the terminations =pi= and =vi=, which, like the imperfect, end in =i=, made the confusion easier.

III. The perfect corresponds pretty nearly to the tense formed with the auxiliary _have_ in English. =Olemme maanneet vähän aikaa niin lähdemme järvelle koko yöksi=, _we have slept a little and are going out on the lake for the whole night_. =Oletteko ennen kuulleet sitä laulua?= _have you heard that song before?_ =En ole nähnyt häntä moneen aikaan=, _I have not seen him for a long time_.

IV. The pluperfect expresses an action finished in past time, and may be rendered by _had_ in English. =Kun hän sen sanonut oli, meni hän taas ulos=, _when he had said this he went out again_. =Oliko hän ehkä saanut tiedon asiasta?= _had he by any chance heard of the matter?_

It will be observed that there is no real future tense in Finnish. Its want is supplied in several ways.

A. By the present tense as described above.

B. By a periphrastic conjugation consisting of the present participle and the present or imperfect of =olla=. This corresponds to the Russian future with =буду=, and denotes a future action the time of which is not specified. =Ennenkuin päivät tulevat koskas olet sanova....=, _before the days come in which thou shalt say...._ (Eccl. xii. 1). =Hän on vapahtava kansansa heidän synneistänsä=, _He shall save His people from their sins_.

C. By the concessive. This tense is frequently used to imply something probable or doubtful in the future. =Ostanevat kaupungista kirjat ja tuonevat ne jo huomenna kotia=, _they will probably buy new books and bring them home to-morrow_. =Tappaneeko hän itsensä?= (S. John viii. 22) _will he kill himself?_

D. By the conditional, especially in conditional sentences. =Tulisin huomenna, jos ehtisin=, _I shall come to-morrow, if I have time_. =Isäntä ei palkitsisi sinua ennenkuin olisit työsi lopettanut=, _your master will not pay you before you finish your work_.

E. Various periphrases are used, particularly when there is any idea of necessity or obligation in the future. The following examples taken from the translation of the Bible will show this. =Minä saan nähdä hänen, mutta en nyt=, _I shall see him, but not now_ (Num. xxiv. 17, but the passage continues =minä katselen häntä waan en lästä=). =Teidän pitää minua etsimän=, _ye shall seek me_ (S. John vii. 34). =Sillä ei sitä pidä unhotettaman heidän siemenensä suussa=, _for it shall not be forgotten out of the mouths of their seed_ (Deut. xxxi. 21). =Autuaat ovat siviät sillä he saavat maan periä=, _blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the earth_ (S. Matt. v. 5).

_The Concessive._

This mood represents an action as possible, and is particularly used in questions, or in sentences introduced by such particles as =ehkä=, which imply a doubt or question.

It has two tenses.

I. The present, implying a potential action in the present or future. =Lieneekö totta mitä sanotaan?= _is it likely that what people say is true?_ =Hän sen parhaiten tietänee=, _he probably knows best_. =Jos et tuostana totelle=, _if thou willst not obey that_. =Osannet palkan ottaa, osaa työkin tehdä=, _wouldst thou know how to receive the reward, learn how to do the work_. =Sureneeko Jumala härkiä?= _doth God care for oxen?_ =Ei suattane sinua Saaren suurehen sukuhun=, _they are not likely to tolerate your alliance with the great family of the island_ (Kal. xi. 71).

II. The past, implying a potential action in past time. =Hän lienee luullut minua toiseksi=, _he probably thought I was some one else_. =Ei liene sinua luotu Ison tammen taittajaksi= (Kal. ii. 145), _thou art probably not created to break the mighty oak_. =Lieneekö hän arvanuut ketä puhutteli?= _did he know with whom he spoke?_

_The Conditional._

The conditional mood has two tenses, the present and past, which denote an action dependent on certain conditions in present or past time.

It is used:—

(1) In conditional, comparative, and concessive sentences, both in the protasis and apodosis. When used in the sentence introduced by =jos=, or some similar particle, the present implies that the condition is not yet realised, and the past that it has not been. But this distinction is not always observed, the present being used of a condition not realized in the past. =Jos menisitte tässä myrskyssä järvelle niin hukkuisitte=, _if you were to go on the lake in this storm you would be drowned_. =Parempi olisi ollut Ilman impenä eleä=, _it would have been better to live as the virgin of the air_ (Kal. i. 161). =Jos varani myöntäisivät niin matkustaisin ulkomaille=, _if my means allowed me I should go abroad_. =Kukapa ... käkiä kukutteleisi, Lintusia laulattaisi, Jos minä menisin muunne, Saisin marja muille maille. Jos tämä kana katoisi, Tämä hanhi hairahtaisi=, etc. (Kal. x. 441 ff.).

The word =jos= is sometimes omitted and replaced by the interrogative suffix =-ko= after the verb. Kal. xi. 95:—=Nauraisitko Saaren naiset, Pitäisit pyhäiset piiat, Niin siitä tora tulisi, Sota suuri lankeaisi=, _were you to seduce the maidens of the island a quarrel would come of it and a great war fall on us_.

(2) In final sentences to express the object of an action. =Ilmoittakaat minulle että minäkin tulisin ja kummartaisin häntä= (S. Matt. ii. 8), _bring me word that I may come and worship him also_. =Kirjoitan hänelle että hän toimittaisi sen asian=, _I am writing to him that he may undertake the affair_. =Olkaa hiljaa, lapset, että saisin rauhassa työskennellä=, _be quiet, children, that I may work in peace_. =Ava suusi suuremmaksi ... pääsisin mahasta maalle= (Kal. xvii. 583), _open thy mouth ... that I may come forth from thy stomach_.

(3) In temporal and relative sentences when the temporal particle or relative involves some idea of purpose, capacity, etc. =En tahtonut ruveta kirjoittamaan ennenkuin saisin varman tiedon asiasta=, _I did not wish to write before I received certain news of the affair_. =Päätin lakkauttaa kauppaliikkeeni kunnes ajat paranisivat=, _I determined to close my business till the times should be better_. =Sen mä mieheksi sanoisin, Urohoksi arveleisin, Joka jouseni vetäisi, Kiveräni kiinnittäisi.= (Kal. xxvi. 357). N.B. The conditional is used only if the principal verb is in a past tense or conditional.

(4) In Oratio Obliqua.

_a._ After verbs of wishing, asking, commanding, etc. =Käske että palvelija valjastaisi hevosen=, _tell the servant to get the horse harnessed_. =Tahdotko että se heti tehtäisiin?= _do you wish it to be done at once?_

_b._ To represent the imperative in the Oratio recta. =Isäntä sanoi että rengit menisivät pellolle=, _the master told the servants to go to the fields_. =Hän viitasi että he vaikenisivat=, _he motioned to them to be silent_.

(5) As a polite form of statement, request, or question, from which, as mentioned above, it often comes to be used as a future. =Minä luulisin että hän ostaisi talonne=, _I should think he would buy your house_. =Voisitteko kertoa minulle?= _can you tell me?_ =Tahtoisin puhua kanssanne=, _I should like to talk to you_. =Näyttäisitte minulle=, _please show me_. =Enkö saisi ...?= _can I have ...?_ =Menisitte noutamaan yhdet hyyryvaunut=, _please go and call a cab_.

(6) To express a wish with such particles as =jos=, =jospa=, =kunhan=, etc. =Jospa hän tulisi!= _if he would only come!_ =Jospa olisin tietänyt!= _had I only known!_ =Kunhan tuttuni tulisi!= _if my friend would but come!_

_Imperative and Optative._

Though these moods are given as two in the Accidence on account of the slight difference in their form, they may be treated as one syntactically, as they supply one another’s deficiencies, the imperative being only used in the 2nd sing. and 1st and 2nd persons plur., and the optative only in the 2nd sing. and the 3rd person singular and plural. In poetry a 2nd pers. plur. optative ending in =otte= is occasionally found. There is no difference between the meaning of the two in 2nd person singular.

The imperative expresses:—

I. A command or request. =Lähe nyt kanssa laulamahan=, _come to sing with me_ (Kal. i. 14). =Toki tullos toinen kerta=, _come again_ (Kal. v. 137). =Käy pian välehen jou’u=, _go quickly and finish the business_ (Kal. l. 211). =Ellös menkö poikaseni Parempikin itseäsi=, _aspire not, my son, to those that are better than thyself_ (Kal. xi. 69).

II. A condition. =Sano mitä sanot, en siitä kuitenkaan välitä=, _you may say what you like, but I don’t care_. =Teen minä sen vaikka hän kieltäköönkin=, _I shall do it, even though he forbid it_.

_The Passive._

The passive, as has already been mentioned in the Accidence, is impersonal. =Käytetään= means _there is a using_, or _one uses, people use_. The clearest proof of the real character of the form is to be found in the fact that the verb substantive =olla=, _to be_, has a so-called passive.

Examples:—=Niin kohta kun ollaan tultu=, _as soon as people come_. =Ennen oltiin terveempiä=, _people were healthier formerly_. =Siihen oltaneen tyytyväisiä=, _this will probably prove satisfactory_ (_people will be satisfied with this_). =Järvellä oltaessa tuuli kovasti=, _while they were on the lake, the wind blew violently_.

(1) The passive of ordinary verbs is used absolutely; that is to say, no noun is connected with it as subject or object. =Koulussa kirjoitetaan ja luetaan=, _they read and write in the school_. =Helsingissä huvitellaan paljo talven aikoina=, _there is much amusement in Helsingfors in winter time_. =Suomen järvissä ja joissa kalastetaan=, _people fish_ (or _there is fishing_) _in the lakes and rivers of Finland_.

(2) As the above examples show, the passive represents the action of a verb without designating the agent. It is not unnatural that such forms should be used in an imperative or optative sense, for the second singular of the imperative is simply the root of the verb. It is true that the imperative is the closed root, due to the loss of =k=, but like the passive it has no sign of person.

This use of the passive for the imperative is particularly common in dialects, though it is also found in the literary language. Its usual meaning is ‘_Let us_.’ =Mennään sisään=, _let us go in_. =Luetaan=, _let us read_, or _it’s time to read_. =Lähdetään kotia=, _we ought to go home_. =Mennäänkö jalan vain ajetaanko hevosella?= _Shall we go on foot, or take a carriage?_

(3) This use of the passive for the imperative is important as explaining the common use of the form with a nominative case. Such a phrase as =mies tunnetaan= can be correctly translated as _the man is known_; but there is no doubt that the nominative is really the object of an impersonal verb, which naturally remains invariable, whatever the noun is. Now the object of the imperative is also put in the nominative and not in the accusative, though both in the case of the imperative and the passive it may be put in the partitive, if partial. It would seem that in these forms of the verbs, where the agent is not denoted by any suffix, it was felt that the sense was sufficiently clear without adding any termination to the noun to mark its exact relation to the verb.

The object of the passive, as above stated, can be either in the nominative, if total, or in the partitive, if partial.

_a._ Nominative. =Koira ajetaan huoneesta ulos=, _the dog is sent out of the room_. =Palvelija lähetetään viemään kirjettä postiin=, _the servant is sent to take a letter to the post_. =Hevoset valjastetaan=, _the horses are being harnessed_. =Ruis kylvetään syksyllä=, _rye is sown in the autumn_. =Keskellä yötä sammutetaan tulet=, _the lights are put out at midnight_. =Tässä sodassa tapettiin viisikymmentä tuhatta miestä=, _fifty thousand men were killed in this war_.

_b._ Partitive. =Miksi sanotaan sitä Englannin kielellä?= _What is that called in English?_ =Jos ei aleta varhain, niin ei työtä saada aikanansa valmiiksi=, _the work won’t be ready in time if not begun early_. =Poikaa ei vielä pantu kouluun=, _the boy was no longer sent to school_. =Ei vielä ollut uutta kirkkoa rakennettu=, _the new church had not yet been built_. =Ei kynttilätä sytytetä ja panna wakan ala=, _neither do men light a candle and put it under a bushel_, S. Matt. v. 15.

When the personal pronouns are used with the verb, it is commoner,

## particularly in speaking, to put them in the accusative ending in =t=,

e.g. =minut=, =sinut=, =hänet nähdään=, is more usual than =minä=, =sinä=, =hän nähdään=. But the form with the nominative is not only grammatically correct, but found in writing, especially in the Bible, e.g. Rom. viii. 36, =Sinun tähtes me kuoletetaan yli päivää: me pidetään niinkuin teurastettavat lampaat=, _for thy sake we are killed all the day long: we are accounted as sheep for the slaughter_. Similarly 2 Cor. xi. 36, =Kuka pahoitetaan ja en minä pala?= _Who is offended and I burn not._ =Sillä he ravitaan=, _for they shall be filled_, S. Matt. v. 6. =Että te heiltä nähtäisiin=, _that ye may be seen of them_, S. Matt. vi. 1[15].

The conjugation of a passive form contains not only the strictly impersonal forms, like =luetaan=, _people read_, =luettiin=, _people did read_, but also compound tenses formed with the past passive participle which stand grammatically upon a different footing. For the participle in question is a simple adjective (or substantive), and such phrases as =kirja on luettu=, =kirjat ovat luetut= are exactly analogous to =kirja on hyvä= and =kirjat ovat hyvät=. In some cases, however, double constructions are possible: one can say either =kirjat eivät ole löydetyt=, _the books have not been found_, which is a simple adjectival construction; or =kirjoja ei ole löydetty=, in which the construction with the participle is assimilated to that with the other forms of the verb. If a participle of =olla= is employed in a compound tense in this construction it must be the passive participle. =Kirjaa ei oltu löydetty=, _the book was not found_.

INFINITIVES.

The five infinitives of the Finnish verb play a great part in the syntax, and are often used to express the subordinate sentences (temporal, final, etc.) of other languages. The simplest way to understand their many uses is to recollect that they are equivalent to an English verbal ending in _ing_, such as _cutting_. Now a word like this is a noun, but it can also have an object, e.g. _cutting the wood_, and it can be also combined with a substantive or pronoun indicating the agent, e.g. _my cutting the wood_ or _the man’s cutting the wood_. Such expressions as _my cutting the wood is unavoidable_, _during my cutting the wood_, or _without my cutting the wood_ are intelligible in English, though not idiomatic; but they are the literal translation of the Finnish idiom. In other words, the infinitive is a noun capable of declension in certain cases and of being combined with a genitive or personal affix to mark the agent. As it is also a verbal noun, it is likewise capable of being combined with a second substantive to mark the object of the action. Thus =nähdessänsä minun päiväni= is literally ‘_in his seeing my day_,’ that is _when he saw_. The use of the fourth infinitive is slightly different. In the phrase =Minun on tämä kirja lukeminen=, _I should read this book_, it will be observed that the object is in the nominative. This is because the literal meaning seems to be, _This book is a reading for me_, though it must be admitted that the negative form =Ei ole minun tätä kirjaa lukemista= does not lend itself to this explanation, and can only be explained by supposing it is due to analogy. The object of the other infinitives is mostly put in the partitive, partly perhaps because, as the genitive and accusative are identical in form in the singular, the subject and object might be confused if the latter were in the accusative. The object is, however, often put in the nominative. The rule generally given is that this is only right if the infinitive depends on an imperative or a verb implying necessity, as =minun pitää ostaman hevonen=, _I must buy a horse_. But this rule is not always observed in the Kalevala, or even in modern books. E.g. Kal. xi. 127, =Onko saarella sioa minun leikki lyöäkseni?=

_Infinitive I._

The first infinitive has two forms, one with the translative termination and always used with a prominal suffix; the other with no case termination and used without a pronominal suffix.

A. The longer form with the suffix is used to express the purpose of the

## action of the main verb, and is rendered in English by _in order to_ or

by a simple infinitive. =Antakaa vettä juodakseni=, _give me water to drink_. This is of course literally _give me water for my drinking_, and is exactly analogous to the use of the same case of a noun in the sentence, =Juon vettä terveydekseni=, _I drink water for my health_. It is important to notice that the pronominal suffix always indicates the subject of the action denoted by the infinitive, and not the object, though in translation it is often necessary to invert the sentence. For instance in S. John vii. 19 and 20 the questions ‘_Why go ye about to kill me? Who goeth about to kill thee?_’ are rendered =Miksi te etsitte minua tappaaksenne? Kuka sinua etsii tapaaksensa?= literally _Why seek ye me for your killing? Who seeks thee for his killing?_ =Me pyysimme venettä soutaaksemme=, _we asked for a boat to row in_. =Menkäämme tuolle vuorelle katsellaksemme järveä=, _let us go up that hill to have a view of the lake_. =Tahdon lukea laskun nähdäkseni onko kaikki oikein=, _I want to read the bill to see if everything is right_. =Oli paljon matkustellut ulkomailla täydentääkseen sivistystään=, _he had travelled much abroad to complete his education_. The distinction between the uses of the longer and shorter forms of the infinitive is not always observed in dialects and poetry. Thus the longer form is used with impersonal verbs, e.g. =Sinun täytyy mennäksesi=, _you must go_, where =mennä= would now be used. So too =Älä pelkää ottaaksesi=, _fear not to take_. Kal. i. 165, =Wilu tääll’ on ollakseni, Waiva wärjätelläkseni, Aalloissa asuakseni, Weessä wierielläkseni=, _it is cold for me to be here, painful to stay, to dwell in the waves, to roll in the water_. Cf. Kal. xliii. 401, and xvii. 507.

B. The fact that the last syllable of the shorter form of the first infinitive is closed shows that it has undoubtedly lost a letter or syllable. It is probable therefore that the short form is not really the nominative from which the translative is derived, but a translative which has lost its termination. Cf. =luo=, =taa= for =luoksi=, =taaksi=. The employment of the form is also agreeable to its origin, for its manifold uses, as given in grammars, may be summed up in the formula that it defines the meaning of verbs, adjectives, and substantives; that is to say, it expresses that towards which an action tends, which is one of the uses of the translative (p. 159). Such phrases as =voin=, =tahdon=, =tiedän lukea=, _I can read_, _wish to read_, or _know how to read_ might be expressed as _I have power_, _will_, or _knowledge for reading_.

In some cases the use of the translative and this infinitive are obviously analogous. =Ei sovi suuttua=, _it is not fitting to be angry_. =Hän sopii sotamieheksi=, _he is fit for a soldier_. =Ei minun kelpaa juoda vettä=, _it does not suit me to drink water_, can be also expressed in the form, =Vesi ei kelpaa minulle juotavaksi= (_or_ =juomaksi=).

The short form of this infinitive never takes suffixes in ordinary Finnish, though it does occasionally in the Kalevala; e.g. the first lines =Mieleni minun tekevi, Aivoni ajattelevi, Lähteäni laulamahan, Saa’ani sanelemahan=. =Onko saarella sioa ... Minun laulut laulellani=, _is there a place on the island for me to sing my song_ (Kal. xxix. 137). Cf. =Onpa saarella sioa ... Sinun laulut laulellasi= (_ib._ 147).

The subject of the infinitive, which in the longer form is denoted by a suffix, is in the case of the shorter form either not expressed at all in such a phrase as =Isä antoi kirjan pojalle lukea=, _the father gave the boy the book to read_; or it is put in the _genitive_. =Isä toi kirjan pojan lukea=, _the father bought the book for the boy to read_, literally _for the boy’s reading_.

The short form of the infinitive is used:—

(1) As the subject of impersonal verbs like =täytyy=, =tulee=, =kelpaa=.

=Paha koira tarvitsee tappaa=, _one ought to kill a bad dog_. =Täytyy köyhän kärsiä, pitää kiittää päälliseksi=, _the poor must endure and give thanks into the bargain_ (proverbs). =Sinun tulee puhua totta=, _you must speak the truth_.

In this use two constructions are possible. One can say either =talossa pitää olla isäntä=, _the master must be in the house_, or =Isännän pitää olla talossa=. In this latter case the fact of the obligation affecting the person is emphasized, while the sentence with the nominative means rather, _the master’s being in the house is necessary_.

(2) As the complement of the verb =olla= combined with an adjective or substantive. =Se kirja on hyödyllinen pojan lukea=, _this book is useful for the boy to read_. =Ei ole aikaa lähteä=, _it is not time to go_. =Pyyntösi on mahdoton kenenkään täyttää=, _your prayer is impossible for anyone to fulfil_. =Tämä kuorma on raskas sinun kantaa=, _this burden is hard for you to bear_. =On vaikea sanoa=, _it is hard to say_.

(3) It is used to define the meaning of verbs. =Talon mies ei osaa lukea=, _the farm servant does not know how to write_. =Alkaa sataa=, _it begins to rain_. =Laiska lapsi ei tahdo oppia=, _a lazy child does not want to learn_. =Hän ei ymmärrä puhua=, _he does not know how to speak_. =En voi tulla=, _I cannot come_. =Hän saa odottaa=, _he can wait_. =Aiotko viipyä täällä=, _do you mean to stay here_. =Sallitteko minun mennä?= _do you allow me to go?_ =Klaus lähteä lupasi=, _Klaus promised to go_ (Kanteletar).

(4) It is used much like the longer form to express the object of an

## action. =Tuo kala muidenkin katsella=, _bring the fish for others to

see_. =Panen maata=, _I am going to bed_. =Onko teillä hevosta myödä?= _have you a horse to sell?_ =Arvelevi miten olla kuin eleä=, _he considered what he should do, how he should live_.

There is another use of this infinitive, when it is employed with a verb of kindred meaning in an adverbial sense. This use is very frequent in the Kalevala and poetry and occasionally found in prose. It is to be noted, however, that the infinitive generally represents what would be the principal verb in ordinary language, while the verb in the indicative indicates the manner in which the action is performed. Thus such a phrase as =astua taputtelevi=, means _walking he stamped_ or _he stamped as he walked_. =Härkä käyä källeröitti= (Kal. xx. 43), equivalent to =astui keveästi=; cf. =Astua lykyttelevi, Käyä kulleroittelevi= (Kal. ii. 165). =Waka vanha Wäinämöinen Ajoa karittelevi= (Kal. viii. 18). =Soutoa melastelevi= (Kal. v. 41). =Astua ajattelevi, Käyä kääpäröittelevi. Polttaa tuprutteli havannaansa.=

The first infinitive is hardly ever used in the passive form, but the

## active form may be used with a passive verb or in sentences where our

idiom would use the passive infinitive. =Rautatie aiotaan rakentaa=, _the railway is meant to be built_ or _there is an intention to build the railway_. =Linnoitus voidaan ottaa=, _the fortress can be taken_.

The infinitive cannot be used with a negative on account of the peculiar character of the Finnish negative verb. For the various devices used to overcome this difficulty _vide_ pages 193 and 219.

_Infinitive II._

This infinitive is only employed in two cases, the inessive and the instructive.

(1) The inessive expresses an action coincident in time with the action of the principal verb, and must be rendered in English by a temporal sentence, the subject of which appears in Finnish as a genitive, but where the subject of the principal and subordinate sentences are the same in English, the infinitive takes a pronominal suffix. =Palvelijan tullessa kotiin, isäntä läksi metsään=, _when the servant came home, the master went into the wood_, or literally ‘_on the coming home of the servant_.’ =Abraham teidän isänne iloitsi nähdessänsä minun päivääni= (S. John viii. 56), _your father Abraham rejoiced to see (when he saw) my day_. =Ollessani teidän kanssanne=, _when I was with you_. =Astuessansa ahoa, Saloviertä vierressänsä kuuli= (Kal. xliv. 77), _as he went through the desert place, as he walked near the wood he heard_.

This infinitive is frequently used in the passive. =Kaskea poltettaessa=, _while the forest was burning_. =Kotiin tultaessa ei ollut ketäkään=, _on coming home, there was no one_. Kal. iii. 245, =Eikä lie sinua nähty ... Tätä maata saataessa, Ilmoa suettaessa=, etc.

The active infinitive is also used impersonally. =Aika menee arvellessa, päivä päätä käännellessä=, _time passes while one thinks, and the day while one turns one’s head_ (proverb).

As the Finnish negative, owing to its peculiar character, cannot be used with the infinitive, a negative temporal proposition is rendered by the abessive or infinitive III, and the inessive of infinitive II. =Lukematta istuessani=, _when I was not reading_; literally, _in my sitting without reading_.

(2) The instructive of infinitive II is used to express the manner in which an action is performed, and is generally rendered by a participle in English. If the subject of the infinitive is expressed (in which case it must be rendered otherwise than by a participle) it is put in the genitive. This form is not used in the passive.

=Astui huollen huokaellen=, _he walked sorrowing and groaning_ (Kal. v. 13). =Muu seura vaikeni, jättäen heidät kahden kesken sanaotteluun=, _the rest of the company was silent, leaving them to argue it out between themselves_. =Toisinaan sydämellisesti syleillen erosivat=, _after again heartily embracing they parted_. =Hän ei ollut ollenkaan ruma nuorukainen=, _he was not at all a bad looking young man_ (literally, _was not in his being_).

A few words, chiefly denoting perception, add suffixes to this infinitive. =Sanoin sen heidän kuultensa=, _I said it in their hearing_. =Hän teki sen rikoksen teidän tietenne=, _he committed this crime with your knowledge_.

_Infinitive III._

The substantival nature of the Finnish infinitives is most apparent in this form, for it is frequently used as a noun without any verbal signification, e.g. =kuolema=, _death_; =elämä=, _life_; =sanoma=, _speaking_ or _report_. Such a sentence as =kuvat ovat maalarin tekemät=, which may be rendered either _the pictures are the work of the painter_, or, _are made by the painter_, shows the connection between the purely substantival and verbal uses of this infinitive.

Its other uses are very various.

I. It is used as a past passive participle. =Tämä kirja on isän antama=, _this book has been given by my father_, or, _is the giving of my father_. =Minä luen isän antamaa kirjaa=, _I read the book given by my father_. As there is no real distinction between the noun and the adjective, this use of a verbal substantive as a participle is not unnatural. =Kirjoittamassansa kirjeessä hän ei ollut puhunut mitään tästä=, _in the letter he wrote he did not say a word about it_. =Omat on virret oppimani=, =Omat saamani sanaiset=.

This infinitive is as a rule only used as a past participle when the agent is indicated, but in the Kalevala it is found used as simple past

## participle without a genitive or affix. Kal. i. 51, =Viel’ on muitaki

sanoja, Ongelmoita oppimia, Tieohesta tempomia, Kanervoista katkomia, Risukoista riipomia, Vesoista vetelemiä, Päästä heinän hieromia, Raitiolta ratkomia=.

II. Most of the other cases of this infinitive are found used in a verbal signification.

A. The case ending in =n= (which is considered by some grammarians as a genitive, and by others, with greater probability, as an instructive) is used with the impersonal verb =pitää=. =Ei sinun pidä tappaman=, _thou shalt do no murder_. =Hänen pitää oleman ankara=, _he should be firm_. This form is also used in the passive. =Lapset pitää otettaman mukaan=, _one should take one’s children with one_. =Työt pitää saataman aikanansa valmiiksi=, _the work should be got ready in time_.

B. The inessive expresses the action in which anyone is engaged. =He ovat oleet jo kauan kalastamassa=, _they have long been fishing_. =Hän on lintuja ampumassa=, _he is out shooting_. =Rupean käymään usein lukemassa englantilaisia sanomalehtiä=, _I shall often read the English papers_.

C. The elative expresses an action from which anyone ceases, or which is forbidden. =He tulivat kotia kalastamasta=, _they came home from fishing_. =Milloin hyvänsä tuli huoneesen tapasi hänen aina lukemasta=, _whenever one went into her room one always found her reading_ (v. p. 145). =Hän kielsi lapsia riitelemästä=, _he forbade the children to quarrel_. =Jumala pelasti miehen hukkumasta=, _God preserved the man from drowning_.

D. The illative is used:—

(1) After verbs, adjectives, and participles, which imply either literally or figuratively motion to perform an action (_v._ the uses of the illative given above). =Mies meni järvelle kalastamaan=, _the man has gone to fish on the lake_. =Neuvon teitä kääntymään Herra V:n puoleen=, _I advise you to apply to Mr. V._ =Ruvennee tulemaan lunta=, _it will probably snow_. =Koko talo rupeaa palamaan=, _the whole house takes fire_. =Hän ei ole tottunut säästelemään=, _he was not accustomed to live economically_. =Minua käskettiin menemään pois=, _I was ordered to leave_.

(2) From such uses the illative passes naturally into an infinitive of purpose. =Tulin kysymään=, _I have come to ask_. =Lähettivät palvelijat häntä ottamaan kiini=, _they sent servants to take him_. =Meni puhdistamaan itseänsä=, _he went to purify himself_. =Menemme puutarhaan juomaan kahvia=, _let us go to take coffee in the garden_.

E. The adessive has two meanings, corresponding to the two uses of that case in nouns.

(1) With the verb =olla= it denotes an action which one is on the point of performing. The infinitive always takes a pronominal suffix in this use. =Olen juuri lähtemälläni=, _I am just going_, literally, _I am on my departing_. =Olin tekemälläni tuhmuuden=, _I was on the point of committing a folly_.

(2) It expresses the means by which an action is performed. =Ostamalla kaikkia saapi=, _one gets everything by buying_. =Hauskempaa on kalastaa onkimalla kuin tarpomalla=, _it is more agreeable to catch fish by angling than by netting_. =Pelasti henkensä uimalla=, _he saved his life by swimming_. =Viittomalla osoiti hän meille tien=, _he showed us the way by waving his hand_.

F. The abessive expresses an action without which the action of the principal verb takes place. It is very largely used in Finnish to express what is represented by negative sentences in other languages, on account of the restrictions on the use of the negative words =en=, =et=, =ei=, etc. It can take the pronominal suffixes. =Viivyttämättä=, _without delay_. =Mies meni pois kenenkään huomaamatta=, _the man went away without any one remarking it_. =Sen asian tunnen sanomattasikin=, _I know that without your saying a word_. =Hänen hyväsydäminen isänsä ei voinut olla hänelle antamatta tulevaa perintöösuutta=, _her good-natured father could not help giving her the part of her inheritance due to her_.

In examples like this the abessive of this infinitive (often with the verb =olla=) serves as a negative form of the other infinitives. =Tahtoisin tulla=, _I should like to come_; but =Tahtoisin olla tulematta=, _I should like not to come_ (_to be without coming_). =Hän läksi minun nähteni=, _he went out while I was looking_. =Hän läksi minun näkemättäni=, _he went out without my seeing_.

This infinitive is also used in a passive sense, though not in a passive form. =Työ on vielä tekemättä=, _the work is not yet done_ (lit. _is without doing_). In this sense it serves as a negative of the past passive participle.

This case of the infinitive III is very common in the Kalevala. E.g. iv. 217, =Parempi minun olisi, Parempi olisi ollut Syntymättä, kasvamatta, Suureksi sukeumatta=, which is equivalent to, _better had it been for me not to have been born_, xliii. 417, =Vihoin päivän paistamatta, Vihoin kuun kumottamatta=, etc.

_Infinitive IV._

The fourth infinitive, like the third, is used as a simple substantive. =Se on parhain keino sen oppimiseen=, _that is the best means for the study of it_. =Viipymisesi on sinua paljo vahingoitanut=, _your delay has greatly injured you_.

There is also a use of this infinitive analogous to that of infinitive I mentioned above, p. 188. In order to express a continued action the verb is repeated in the partitive of infinitive IV with the pronominal suffix. =Vähetä vähenemistään=, _to grow less and less_. =Äiti kiivastui kiivastumistaan tyttärensä itsepintaisuudesta=, _the mother grew more and more furious at her daughter’s obstinacy_. =Päivä alenee alenemistaan=, _the sun sinks lower and lower_.

The fourth infinitive is used verbally in two cases:—

(1) In the nominative, as the subject to the verb =olla= in affirmative sentences. It then denotes the necessity or propriety of performing an

## action, the subject of which is put in the genitive. =Minun on tämä kirja

lukeminen=, _I ought to read this book_, or literally, _this book is a reading for me_. =Meidän on tottuminen siihen=, _we must get used to it_. =Tehty kauppa kiittäminen, tekemätön tietäminen=, _one should praise a bargain which is made, but enquire into one which is not yet made_ (prov.). Copious examples can be found in Kal. xxiii. 61, =Tapa on uusi ottaminen, Entinen unohtaminen=, etc.

(2) The partitive is, agreeably to general rules, used in a similar sense in negative sentences, or interrogative sentences implying a negative. =Ei ole minun tätä kirjaa lukemista=, _I need not read this book_. =Ei koiraa karvoihin katsomista=, _one must not judge a dog by his coat_. =Ei pojan isäänsä opettamista=, _a son should not teach his father_.

In such phrases as =minulla on vielä paljo sanomista=, _I have still much to say_, the partitive depends on the word =paljo=, just as it does in such a sentence as =paljo rahaa=, _much money_.

_Infinitive V._

This infinitive is only a diminutive form derived from infinitive III. As a rule, it is only used in one case, the adessive plural, to denote an

## action on the point of taking place (cf. infinitive III, E. 1). It always

takes the pronominal suffix. =Olin työtä alottamaisillani=, _I was on the point of beginning to work_. =Juna on juuri lähtemäisillänsä=, _the train is just going_. =Aurinko oli katoamaisillaan=, _the sun was just going to set_. =Yhtiö on muodostumaisillaan=, _the company is on the point of being formed_. =Mies oli kaatamaisillaan puuta=, _the man was on the point of felling the tree_.

## PARTICIPLES.

The participles may be called verbal adjectives, just as the infinitives are verbal substantives. But, as has already been observed, there is no clear distinction between adjectives and substantives in the Finnish language, and the participles are used substantively in many constructions, just as the third infinitive is used adjectively. They sometimes lose all temporal signification and become mere adjectives, as =oppinut=, _learned_; =väsynyt=, _tired_; =mädännyt=, _rotten_.

When used with a verbal meaning the present participles (part. I) indicate an action beginning or continuing, and the past participles (part. II) an action which is completed. The temporal signification is not very marked. It is noticeable that the passive participles have two distinct meanings, one impersonal like the rest of the so-called passive verb, the other distinctly passive.

All the participles can be used—

(1) As attributes or predicates.

(2) To form the compound tenses of verbs in conjunction with the verb =olla=, after the manner already explained.

_Participle I—Active._

This participle denotes an action taking place or which is to take place in the future, just as the present indicative represents both a present and future tense. =Lentävä lintu saa jotakin, istuva ei mitään=, _the bird who flies catches something: the bird who sits still nothing_. =Ei työtä tekevä nälkään kuole=, _the man who works does not die of hunger_. =Kysyvä ei tieltä eksy=, _he who asks does not lose his way_. =Hukkuva oljen korteenkin tarttuu=, _a drowning man catches at a straw_ (provs.).

In the combination with the verb =olla= it has a future signification (_v._ p. 176).

The essive of this participle is used with the verb =olla= to signify something pretended by the subject. In this sense it is often in the plural, though the subject itself is singular. =Hän on olevinansa= (_or_ =olevanansa=) =oppinut=, _he pretends to be learned_. =Hän on paljonkin tietävinänsä=, _he thinks he knows a great deal_. =Hän oli lähtevänänsä eilen, mutta ei mennyt=, _he pretended he was starting yesterday, but did not go_. So also it is used in speaking of dreams and hallucinations. =Minä olin näkevinäni=, _I thought I saw_. Gen. xxxvii. 7, =Katso, me olimme sitovanamme jalallisia wainiolla= (_of a dream_); cf. Gen. xli. 17, =Unessani olin minä seisovana=.

Words ending in =ja= as a rule correspond to English forms in _er_. E.g. =rakentaja=, _a builder_; that is to say they denote an action, like the present participle, but do not define the time in any way. Sometimes, however, they are used exactly like the present participle, e.g. Kal. xvi. 169, =Se oli poukkujen pesiä Räpähien räimyttäjä=, which means, not _she was a washerwoman_, but _she was washing clothes_. Similarly, =Pappi oli ristijänä=, _the priest was christening a child_. Cf. Kal. x. 111, =Miesten syöjille sioille=.

_Participle II—Active._

The past active participle expresses an action, which has taken place at any past time. =Ei ole vuoksen voittanutta, Yli käynyttä Imatran= (Kal. iii. 182), _there is no (waterfall) that has conquered the Vuoksa or surpassed Imatra_. =Äijä on tänne tullehia, Ei paljo palannehia= (Kal. xvi. 270), _there are many who have come down here, not many who have gone back_. =Alkää häiritkö nukkunutta=, _wake not the sleeper_.

The translative singular of this participle is used in connection with the verb =tulla= to denote an incidental or chance action. =Hän tuli sanoneeksi, kertoneeksi ...=, _he happened to say in the course of conversation ..._ =Mennessään kaupunkiin tuli nähneeksi ...=, _as he went to the town he happened to see ..._ =Puodissa käydessään tuli ostaneeksi uuden maton=, _in going round the shops he happened to buy a new carpet_. Cf. Kal. ii. 149, =Sai toki sanoneheksi=, _scarce had he said it_. =Olkoon menneeksi=, _it does not matter_, or _let that pass_.

_Participle I—Passive._

This participle has not a simple temporal signification, but has always an idea of desirability, or necessity. =Kunnioitettava Herra=, _a man to be honoured_. In combination with the verb =olla= it can be used either as a simple adjective, e.g. =se on korjattava=, _that should be corrected_, or as a part of the impersonal passive verb, =sitä on korjattava=. It is sometimes used with a genitive of the agent like the infinitive. =Sentähden oli etsittävä kahdenkeskistä yksinäisyyttä=, _on this account it was necessary to seek for a tête-à-tête interview_. =Sanokaa, mitä tietä minun on mentävä=, _tell me what road I should take_. =Tämä asia on meidän mielessämme pidettävä=, _we must keep that in mind_.

The translative singular of this participle is used exactly like the illative of the third infinitive, but with a passive signification. =Setä toi kirjoja lasten luettavaksi=, _the uncle brought books for the children to read_ (_for the reading of the children_). =Hän antoi veitsen hiottavaksi=, _he gave the knife to be sharpened_.

_Participle II—Passive._

This participle is really a substantive expressing the result of the verb’s action. From this it passes easily to an adjectival meaning. For instance, =työ on tehty=, _the work is a thing done_, is much the same as _the work is done_. In combination with =olla= it is used to form tenses of the passive impersonal verb, and as such, can take an object, otherwise it has the same signification as the past passive participle in other languages. =Puhuttu puhe ammuttu nuoli=, _a word once spoken is an arrow shot forth_. =Unhotettu maksettu velka=, _a debt paid is forgotten_ (proverbs). =Jos mun tuttuni tulisi=, _if one known by me were to come_.

It is noticeable that when used in this sense the past passive participle does not as a rule take the pronominal suffix. Thus one says, =ostettu kirja=, _the book that has been bought_, but by preference, =ostamani kirja=, _the book that has been bought by me_.

Part. II passive is also used substantively in the partitive singular to express an action antecedent to the action of the principal verb. As the original meaning of the partitive is motion from, this is very analogous to the use of the elative of infinitive III. Like other expressions of the same nature (e.g. the inessive of infinitive II) this use is rendered in English by a temporal sentence. The subject of that sentence is represented in Finnish by a genitive, or by a pronominal suffix, if the subjects of the principal and temporal sentence are the same.

=Jopa tuonne tultuansa, Matkan päähän päästyänsä= (Kal. xlii. 25), _after he had come thither and reached the end of his journey_. =Muutaman päivän kuluttua=, _after a few days_. =Luettuaan sanomalehtiä ja syötyään aamiaisen=, _after he had read his paper and eaten his breakfast_. =Kävelyltään palattuaan=, _after returning from his walk_. =Juotuaan kolme, neljä lasia teetä=, _after drinking three or four glasses of tea_. =Sotamiehen kotiin palattua=, _when the soldier had come home_. =Päivän laskettua=, _when the sun had set_.

As however this participle denotes a completed rather than a past action, it is sometimes used in cases where we have to translate it by a present

## participle. Kal. xvii. 593, =Hyvin laait tultuasi=, _thou hast done

well in coming_. xlvi. 284, =Terve, terve tultuasi= (=terve tuloa= is a common expression), _hail to thee in thy coming_. These two examples show clearly the substantival character of the participle.

_Use of Participles in Oblique Oration._

The participles have another use in Finnish—viz. they correspond to the construction known in Latin grammar as the accusative and infinitive in subordinate sentences.

In other words, a subordinate sentence which in English begins with the word _that_ (and some others), and which might in Finnish be represented by a similar sentence beginning with =että=, can be put in a shorter and more idiomatic form by: (1) omitting the word =että=; (2) replacing the finite verb by the _genitive singular_ of the participle; (3) representing the subject by a genitive, partitive, or pronominal affix. Thus =se luulee että hän tekee Jumalalle palveluksen=, _he thinketh that he doeth God service_ becomes =se luulee tekevänsä Jumalalle palveluksen=.

The participle present is used in this construction when the action of the subordinate sentence is coincident with that of the principal sentence or future to it, and the past participle when the action of the subordinate sentence is anterior. _He thinks he will receive the book_, =luulee kirjan saavansa=. _He thinks he has received the book_, =luulee kirjan saaneensa=. Notice that a past tense does not require necessarily the past participle. =Hän luuli lintuja olevan metsässä=, _he thought there were birds in the wood_. Here the present participle is used because the action of the two verbs is contemporaneous.

The noun or pronoun which is the subject in the expanded sentence is put in the genitive when total, in the partitive when partial, and represented by the pronominal suffix when the subjects of the two sentences are the same. The participle remains in the genitive sing. whatever be the case or number of the subject.

This use is more frequent in affirmative than in negative sentences, but there is no objection to such sentences as =En luule voivani tulla=, _I do not think I can come_, where the _principal_ verb is negatived. It is however very rarely used when the verb of the _subordinate_ sentence is negatived (_vide_ p. 220 for some curious irregularities in this respect).

Examples:—=Kuin hän siis kuuli hänen sairastavan=, _when he heard he was ill_. =Luuletteko olevan mitä vaaraa?= _do you think there is any danger?_ =Minä päivänä toivotte saapuvanne perille?= _on what day do you expect to arrive?_ =En usko häntä näkeväni=, _I don’t believe I shall see him_. =Minä luulen sotamiesten jo saapuneen leiriin=, _I think the soldiers have already gone to the camp_. =En usko palvelijan varastaneen rahoja=, _I do not believe that the servant has stolen the money_. =Tiedän vieraita tulevan=, _I know that some strangers have come_. =Näin vettä satavan=, _I see that it is raining_. =Kuulin laivoja tulleen=, _I heard that some ships had arrived_. When the verb =olla= is used in this construction, its complement remains in the same case as it would be in an expanded sentence, _if it is in any case but the nominative singular_.

{ =vesi on hyvää=, =Luulen että= { =poika on terveenä=, { =syytetyt ovat tuomitut kuolemaan=.

become

{ =veden olevan hyvää= =Luulen= { =pojan olevan terveenä= { =syytettyjen olevan tuomitut kuolemaan=.

But if the complement is a nominative singular it appears as a genitive singular when the subject is put in that case.

=Luulen että poika on ahkera= becomes =Luulen pojan olevan ahkeran=.

It is possible to still more abridge the proposition by rejecting =olevan= and putting the complement in the translative. =Luulen pojan ahkeraksi=. =Tiesi hetkensä tulleeksi=, _he knew that his hour had come_. =Huomasin hänen menneeksi=, _I noticed he was gone_. =Kertoi veneen kaatuneeksi=, _he related that the boat had been upset_ (_v._ page 158).

If the predicate of the subordinate sentence in the expanded form is a passive verb, the passive participle can be used in the genitive singular. The subject of such a proposition is always in the partitive. As a rule only part. I passive is used in the genitive, part. II being generally in the translative according to the construction mentioned above.

=Tiedän häntä odotettavan=, _I know they are waiting for him_. =Näin karhua ammuttavan=, _I see the bear is being shot at_; but =Epäilen karhua tappetuksi=, _I doubt if the bear has been killed_. =Uskon metsää hakattavan=, _I think the forest is being cut down_; but =Uskon metsän hakatuksi=, _I think the forest has been cut down_.

These participal constructions are also employed when the verb introducing the subordinate sentence is in the passive form. Under such circumstances the subject of the subordinate sentence may either remain in the nominative or pass into the genitive.

=Siinä makasiinissa kuulutaan saatavan oikeata kiinalaista teetä=, _this shop is said to receive real Chinese tea_. =Sanotaan varustettavan sotaretkeä=, _it is said that an expedition is being armed_. =Luultiin ihmisiä kuolleen=, _it was thought the men were dead_.

The intransitive verbs =näkyä=, _to be seen_; =näyttää=, _to appear_; =tuntua=, _to feel_; =kuulua=, _to be heard_, also take the genitive of the participle.

=Hän kuuluu eronneen miehestään ja lähteneen Pietariin=, _she is said to be divorced from her husband and to have left for St. Petersburg_. =Et näy tuntevan vanhaa ystävääsi=, _you don’t seem to know your old friend_. =Ei kuulu saadun kaloja=, _it is said no fish have been caught_[16].

PREPOSITIONS, POSTPOSITIONS, AND ADVERBS.

As has been already explained in the Accidence the greater number of these words in Finnish are declinable substantives, and take the various cases under just the same rules as an ordinary noun. With the exception of a certain number of petrified and isolated forms, they may be compared to the word _midst_ in English. We say _he came from the midst_, _went into the midst_, or _stood in the midst_. In the language of Finnish grammarians such forms would be considered as adverbs. Whereas in such expressions as _in the midst_, or _from the midst of the crowd_, they would be called postpositions or prepositions. This practice of declining adverbs and postpositions is, however, carried to lengths for which no analogy can be found in English. Thus =myöhä=, is _late_ (an adjective), but _to come late_ is rendered by =tulla myöhään=; on account of the idea of motion in the verb. _To watch late into the night_ is =valvoa myöhälle yötä=, and such an expression as _later on_ (of a date) is rendered by the essive =myöhempänä=.

Most, but not all, postpositions, are capable of taking the pronominal affixes, with or without a genitive of the personal pronoun before them.

The subjoined list of prepositions and postpositions gives all the words considered as falling under these categories by ordinary grammars. As a matter of fact, it might very well be either enlarged or curtailed, which last would be better, as some of the words are substantives in ordinary use. But I have thought it better to adhere to the conventional list.

I. Postpositions and Prepositions used in only one case.

(1) =Ennen= (instrumental of =ensi=). Preposition followed by partitive. _Before._ =Ennen Kristuksen syntymää=, _before the birth of Christ_. =Ennen aikojansa=, _before one’s time_; _too soon_. =Ennen tuloani=, _before I came_.

(2) =Halki=, _across_. Preposition followed by genitive. =Halki metsän=, _through the wood_. =Lenti kokko halki taivon=. (Kal. ii. 265).

(3) =Ilman= (instrumental of =ilma=), _without_, preposition with

## partitive. =Ilman apua=, _without help_. =Ilman rahaa=, _without money_.

=Ilman sitä=, _besides_. Also used with the abessive. =Ilman muiden avutta=, _without the help of others_. =Hän otti rahat vastaan ilman lukematta=, _he received the money without counting it_. =Ilman maan alistamatta, Ilman kasken kaatamatta= (Kal. ii. 254).

(4) =Kanssa=, _with_. Postposition with the genitive. =Pojan kanssa=, _with the boy_. =Isänsä kanssa=, _with his father_. =Kanssa= takes the pronominal suffixes. =Minun kanssani=, =sinun kansassi=, =hänen kanssansa=, etc. =Hän kulki kanssani koko matkan=, _he went all the way with me_. =Puhuiko hän kanssasi?= _did he speak to you?_

(5) =Kautta= (partitive of =kausi=). Postposition after the genitive, _through_, or _by the help of_; like =kanssa= it takes the pronominal suffixes. =Minun kauttani=, _by my help_. =Hän on tunnetu isänsä kautta=, _he is known on account of his father_. Also used as a preposition in the sense of _all over_. =Huhu leviää kautta kaiken kaupungin=, _the rumour spreading over the whole city_. =Kävelimme kylien kautta=, _we went through the villages_.

(6) =Paitsi=, _besides_. Preposition with the partitive. =Paitsi sinua ei ole minulla yhtään ystävää=, _I have no friend but you_. =Paitsi sitä=, _besides this_. =Paitsi veljensä apua olisi hän joutunut hukkaan=, _he would have been ruined without his brother’s help_.

(7) =Pitkin=, _along_. Preposition with the partitive. =Käydä pitkin tietä=, _to go along a road_. =Lapset juoksentelevat pitkin pihoja=, _the children run about in the courts_.

(8) =Poikki=. Postposition or preposition with genitive, _across_: =Kulkea joen poikki=, _to cross the river_. =Jänis juoksi poikki tien=, _the hare ran across the road_.

(9) =Puhki=. Preposition or postposition, _across_. =Luoti meni puhki lasin=, _the bullet came through the glass_.

(10) =Suhteen= (illative of =suhde=), postposition with genitive, _in relation to, compared with_. =Wähä tarpeen suhteen=, _small for one’s wants_. =Palkan suhteen oli tyytyväinen=, _he was satisfied with the remuneration_.

(11) =Takia=, =Tautta=, =Tähden=, postposition with genitive, _for the sake of_, _for_, _in consequence of_.

=Älä minun tähdeni vaivaa näe=, _do not trouble on my account_. =Kipeän jalkani tautta en voi astua=, _I can’t stand on account of my bad leg_. =Nälän tähden=, _from hunger_. =Kauppamies viipyi pari päivää asiansa takia=, _the merchant waited a couple of days for affairs_.

(12) =Varten=. Preposition with partitive, _for_, _for the use of_. =Isä osti vaatteita lapsiansa varten=, _the father bought clothes for his children_. =Kouluja varten=, _for the use of schools_. =Mitä varten sinä itket?= _why do you weep?_

(13) =Vuoksi=, _for the sake of, for_ (much the same as =tähden=). Postposition with the genitive. =Rahan vuoksi=, _for money_. =Minä lueskelen huvin vuoksi=, _I read for pleasure_.

II. Postpositions and Prepositions which are declined in several cases.

(1) The following words, usually considered as cases of a nominative =ali= which is not found, are used as postpositions with the genitive to express rest or motion under an object.

_a._ =Alla=, rest under. =Pöydän alla=, _under the table_. =Paljaan taiwaan alla=, _under the open heaven_. Also metaphorically, =Hänellä on suuret maat allansa=, _large countries are under his dominion_. =Johdon alla=, _under the direction of_. =Oven suussa orren alla=, Kal.

_b._ =Alta=, motion from under. =Koira tuli pöydän alta=, _the dog came from under the table_. =Itse altansa=, _of oneself_. =Hän on mies itse altansa=, _he is a self-made man_. =Karhu nousi petäjän alta=, _the bear got up from under the fir tree_.

_c._ =Alle=, motion to the place under an object. =Koira juoksi pöydän alle=, _the dog ran under the table_. =Antaa asia toisten tuomion alle=, _to leave a thing to another person’s discretion_. =Kala ui sillan alle=, _the fish swam under the bridge_.

_d._ =Alitse= _or_ =alatse=, expressing motion across a space under an object. =Lintu lensi auringon alatse=, _a bird flew under_ (or _across_) _the sun_. =Yli kuun, alitse päivän=, _above the moon, but below the sun_.

(2) From the nominative =asen=, _place_, come =asemessa= and =asemesta=, postpositions with genitive, _in the place of_, _instead of_. =Miehen asemesta=, =leivän asemesta=, _instead of a man_, _bread_, etc. =Talon pojat suorittavat veronsa rahan asemesta viljassa=, _the peasants pay their taxes in corn instead of money_.

(3) From =esi=, the space before an object, are formed the following postpositions which require the genitive before them.

_a._ =Edessä=, rest before. =Hevonen on reen edessä=, _the horse is (harnessed) in front of the sledge_. =Älä seiso edessäni=, _do not stand before me_. =Pilvet ovat kuun edessä=, _there are clouds over the moon_.

_b._ =Edestä=, motion from before. =Siirtyä jonkun edestä=, _to move from before some one_, _to get out of the way_. =Edestä= is also used somewhat loosely to express _for_, _instead of_, etc.; e.g. =Kristus kuoli meidän synteimme edestä=, _Christ died for our sins_. =Tee se minun edestäni=, _do it instead of me_, _for me_.

_c._ =Eteen=, the illative, expresses motion into the space before an object. =Wiholliset seisahtuivat leirin eteen=, _the enemy marched up to the camp and halted_. When used metaphorically, like =edestä=, it means _for_. =Isä tekee työtä lastensa eteen=, _the father works for his children_. =Katsoa eteensä=, _to look before_ or _take care_.

_d._ =Edellä= expresses rest on a space before an object, and is nearly the same as =edessä=, the only difference being that between the inessive and adessive cases. =He kävivät minun edelläni=, _they walked before me_. =Prepositionit käytetään partitivin edellä=, _prepositions are used before the partitive_.

_e._ =Edelle= expresses motion into a place before anything. =Hän ajoi hevosensa koko joukon edelle=, _he drove his horse on to a place before all the people_. =Kuningas asetti johtajat kansan edelle=, _the king appointed leaders for the people_.

_f._ Similarly =edeltä= expresses motion from a place in front of anything. =Mies läksi toisten edeltä=, _he went from before the others._

(3) =Joukko=, _a crowd_, _number_.

_a._ =Joukossa=, _in the crowd_ or _among_. Postposition with the genitive. =Elää ihmisten joukossa=, _to live among men_. =Älä istu pilkkaajain joukossa=, _be not among the scornful_.

_b._ =Joukkoon= expresses motion into or with. =Katosi kansan joukkoon=, _he was lost in this crowd_.

(4) =Jälki=, _footstep_ or _trace_, is used in several cases to mean _behind_, chiefly of motion.

_a._ =Jälessä=, _behind_. =Mennä jonkun jälessä=, _to walk behind anyone_. =Paimen kulkee laumansa jälessä=, _the shepherd goes behind his flock_. =Tuli minun jälessäni=, _he walked behind me_.

_b._ =Jälestä=, _behind_ or _after_, with the idea of motion from. =Jumalten jälestä ovat ihmiset=, _men come next to gods_. =Hän tuli minun jälestäni=, _he came later than I_. Also used in exactly the same sense as =jälessä=. =Sen jälestä on iso joki=, _behind it is a big river_.

_c._ =Jälkeen= means simply _after_, the force of the illative case having been lost. =Kristuksen syntymän jälkeen=, _after the birth of Christ_. =Minun luuloni jälkeen=, _according to my opinion_. =Kello kolmen jälkeen=, _after three o’clock_. =Minä kirjoitan sanainne jälkeen=, _I write from your dictation_.

(5) =Kera=, meaning _company_ or _society_, is used as a postposition with the genitive in the nominative, adessive, and allative, in the signification of _with_, or _beside_.

_a._ =Kera=:—=Sen kera=, _therewith_. =Istuin isännän kera=, _I sat with the master of the house_.

_b._ =Keralla=:—=Minä menin hänen kerallansa=, _I went with him_. =Kenenkä keralla olette olleet?= _with whom were you?_

_c._ =Keralle=:—=Tule keralleni=, _come with me_.

(6) =Keski=, _the middle_. From this are formed the following:—

_a._ =Kesken.=

i. Preposition with the partitive, or rarely with the genitive, _in the midst of_. =Hän pysähtyi kesken puhettansa=, _he stopped in the middle of his speech_. =Poika itki kesken lauluansa=, _the boy wept in the midst of his song_.

ii. More commonly as a postposition with the genitive. =Heidän kesken syntyi riita=, _a controversy arose between them_. =Kahden keskan=, _tête-à-tête_. =Olkoon se sanottu kahden kesken=, _let this be between ourselves_. =Asia on sovittu miesten kesken=, _the matter has been arranged among the men_.

_b._ =Keskenä=, literally, _in the midst_, is used with the pronominal suffixes in a reflexive sense which closely resembles the Latin _inter se_. =He pitävät vihaa keskenänsä=, _they hate one another_. =Me sovimme keskenämme=, _we became reconciled_. =Pilatus ja Herodes tulivat ystäviksi keskenänsä=, _Pilate and Herod were reconciled_.

_c._ =Keskellä= (dial. =Kesellä=). Preposition with the partitive, or postposition with the genitive, _in the midst of_. =Keskellä kaupunkia= _or_ =kaupungin keskellä=, _in the middle of the town_. =Keskellä virtaa=, _in the middle of the stream_. =Keskellä kesää=, =alvea=, =yötä=, =päivää=, _in the middle of summer_, _winter_, _the night_, _the day_.

_d._ =Keskeltä=, _from the midst_. Preposition with the partitive, or, more usually, postposition with the genitive. =Tulla keskeltä peltoa= _or_ =pellon keskeltä=, _to come from the middle of the field_. =En nähnyt miestä keskeltä huonetta=, _I did not see the man from the middle of the room_.

(7) =Kohta=, _a place_ (_or_ =kohti=) gives the following forms:—

_a._ =Kohdalla=, =kohdalta=, and =kohdalle=, denote rest in, or motion from and to a place in the vicinity of something else, and are postpositions with the genitive. =Talo on kirkon kohdalla=, _the house is near the church_. =Ota pois tuolit ikkunan kohdalta=, _take the chairs away from the window_. =Katu on laaistu talon kohdalta=.

_b._ =Kohtaan=, the illative postposition with the partitive, means _for_ or _in respect of_. =Hän on hyvä ystäviänsä kohtaan=, _he is good to his friends_. =Rakkaus Jumalaa kohtaan=, _love of God_. =Lapset ovat nöyrät isäänsä kohtaan=, _the children are humble before their father_.

_c._ =Kohti=, _or_ =kohden=, postpositions with the partitive. =Tulla kaupunkia kohti= _or_ =kohden=, _to come to the town_. =Hän kulki kotia kohti.= =Maksetaan viisi markkaa päivässä miestä kohden.=

(8) =Liki.= The nominative, adessive, allative, and ablative are used to mean _near_.

_a._ =Liki=, preposition with partitive. =Talo on liki kaupunkia=, _the house is near the town_. =Reppänä on liki lakea=, _the smoke hole is near the roof_.

_b._ =Likellä=

_c._ =Likelle=

_d._ =Likeltä=

are used either as prepositions with the partitive, or as postpositions with the genitive. =Minä asun kaupungin likellä=, _or better_, =likellä kaupunkia=, _I live near the town_. And similarly the other two cases are used to express motion towards or from the neighbourhood of an object.

(9) =Lähi=, _neighbourhood_, is used in the adessive, allative, and ablative in exactly the same sense as =liki=, either as a preposition with the partitive, or as a postposition with the genitive. =Kirkon lähellä= _or_ =lähellä kirkkoa=, _near the church_, etc. =Rannan lähellä= (_or_ =lähellä rantaa=) =kasvavat kaihlat=. =Minä ammuin linnun aivan läheltäni=, _I shot a bird quite near me_.

(10) =Luo=, which is not found as a substantive in the nominative, is used in the essive, partitive, and translative as a postposition with the genitive.

_a._ The essive, =luona=, means _with_ or _at the house of_ (French _chez_). =Lapset asuivat setänsä luona=, _the children lived with their uncle_.

_b._ The translative, =luoksi=, is used to express motion to the house or presence of a person. =Milloin tulette minun luokseni?= _when are you coming to see me?_ =Keisari käski ruhtinaan tulla hänen luoksensa=, _the emperor ordered the prince to appear before him_.

_c._ There is a form =luo=, no doubt shortened from =luoksi= and really a translative, which is used in the same sense as =luoksi=. =Minä menen tuttujeni luo=, _I am going to see my acquaintances_.

_d._ The partitive =luota= denotes motion from the house or presence of a person. =Lähettiläs tuli keisarin luota=, _the ambassador came from the emperor_. =Milloin läksit hänen luotansa?= _when did you leave him?_

(11) =Läpi=, =lävitse= (=läpitse=), mean _across_. =Läpi= means literally _a hole_.

_a._ =Läpi= is either a postposition with the genitive, or a preposition with the same case. =Kuula meni ikkunan läpi=, _the bullet came through the window_. =Aurinko paistaa läpi ikkunan=, _the sun shines through the window_. =Katosi läpi käsien=, _it fell through his hands and was lost_.

_b._ =Läpitse= _or_ =lävitse=, the prolative, is used in much the same sense, expressing a motion along and through an object. =Nuoli tunkesi seinän läpitse=, _the arrow passed through the wall_. =Ei puhalla tuuli turkin lävitse=, _the wind does not pierce through a fur_.

(12) =Muka=, _nearness_ or _likeness_.

_a._ =Muassa=, _with_. Postposition with genitive. =Kulkea muiden muassa=, _to journey in company with others_. =Ei minulla ollut rahoja muassani=, _I had no money about me_.

_b._ The essive =mukana= is also used in the same sense. =Kuka on sinun mukanasi?= _who is with you?_

_c._ =Mukaan=, postposition with the genitive, means _with_, or _according to_, _agreeably to_, _after_. =Lähteä toisten mukaan=, _to go with the others_. =Tehkää käskyn mukaan=, _do as you are bid_. =Neuvon mukaan=, _according to the advice_. =Luonnon mukaan=, _naturally_. =Tapansa mukaan=, _according to his custom_. =Koetti hän kasvattaa itsensä Turgenjevin naistyyppien mukaan=, _she tried to form herself after Turgenieff’s female types_.

(13) _a._ =Myötä=, postposition with genitive, meaning _with_. =Onko rahoja miesten myötä?= _have the men money with them?_ =Hän ei ottanut aseita myötänsä=, _he did not take the arms with him_.

_b._ =Myöten=, postposition with partitive, meaning _along_ or _according to_. =Käydä tietä myöten=, _to follow a road_. =Tahtoasi myöten=, _as you wish_. =Virta paisui äyräitänsä myöten=, _the river flowed by its banks_.

(14) =Ohi=, _side_, forms the following postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Ohessa=, _at the side of_. =Istui tien ohessa=, _he sat by the wayside_. =Muun ohessa puhui=, _among other things he said_.

_b._ =Ohesta=, _from the side_, rarely used. =Nousi tien ohesta=, _he rose from the way side_.

Similarly

_c._ =ohella= (_or_ =ohilla=),

_d._ =ohelta=,

_e._ and =oheen=

in much the same sense, _by the side of_ or _with_. =Hän kulki minun ohellani=, _he came with me_. =Ääni kuului tien ohelta=, _a noise was heard from the road_. =Iso kivi on pellon ohella=, _there is a big stone by the field_. =Istautui tien oheen=, _he sat down by the wayside_.

_f._ =Ohitse= _or_ =ohi= expresses motion along or by the side of anything. =Kulkea jonkun ohitse=, _to pass a person_. =Me ajoimme heidän ohitsensa= (_or_ =ohi=), _we drove by them_. =Ammuin linnun ohitse=, _I missed (shot beside) the bird_.

(15) =Perä=, the _extreme_ or _hinder part_ of anything, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Perässä=, _behind_. =Lapsi käy isän perässä=, _the child walks behind the father_. =Sairaswaunut kulkevat sotajoukon perässä=, _the ambulance goes behind the army_.

_b._ =Perästä=, _behind_ or _after_, generally implying that the second object depends on the first, which is thus a point of departure. =Sen perästä=, _afterwards_. =Toinen toisensa perästä=, _one after another_. =Kolmen wuoden perästä=, _after three years_.

_c._ =Perään=, _after_, implying motion. =Mennä jonkun perään=, _to go to look for some one_. =Katsoa lapsen perään=, _to look after the children_. =Miksi ette lähettäneet minun perääni?= _why did you not send for me?_

(16) The local cases of =Puoli=, _a half_ or _side_, are used as postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Puolessa=, _at_ or _near_. =Turun puolessa=, _round Turku_ (_Åbo_). =Pohjan=, =idän puolessa=, _in the North_, _in the East._

_b._ =Puolesta=, _from the side of_ or _for_, _on behalf of_. =Puhua itsensä puolesta=, _to speak for oneself_. =Se tapahtukoon minun puotestani=, _it can be done as far as I am concerned_. =Sen puolesta, että....=, _for this reason, that...._ =Hän nousi maansa puolesta=, _he rose up for his fatherland_.

_c._ =Puolella=, _on the side of_. =Tuuli on idän puolella=, _the wind is in the East_. =Olla kuninkaan puolella=, _to be on the king’s side_. N.B. =toisella puolella= followed by partitive. =Toisella puolella järveä=, _on the other side of the lake_.

_d._ =Puolelta=, _from the side of_, _from_. =Tuli syttyi tuulen puolelta=, _the fire burnt in the side when the wind blew_.

_e._ =Puolelle=, _to the side of_, _to_. =Mennä wihollisten puolelle=, _to go over to the enemy_.

_f._ =Puoleen=, _to the side of_, _to_. =Katsoa jonkun puoleen=, _to look towards a person_. =Kenenkä puoleen minun olisi käännyttävä?= _to whom shall I turn?_

(17) =Pää=, _the head_ or _extremity_, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Päässä=

_b._ =Päästä=

_c._ =Päähän=

are used to express a distance or limit in space. =Kuula menee kahden virstan päähän=, _the bullet carries two miles_. =Suomen raja on jonkun penikulman päässä Pietarista=, _the Finnish frontier is some miles from Petersburg_. =Minä tunsin tulijan viiden kymmenen sylen päästä=, _I recognised the new comer from several yards’ distance_. =Vihollinen on virstan päässä=, _the enemy is a mile off_. =Päästä= is also used of time. =Viikon päästä=, _after a week_.

_d._ =Päällä=

_e._ =Päältä=

_f._ =Päälle=

express respectively rest on, motion from above or into the space above an object. =Olla veden päällä=, _to float_. =Tuuli on meren päältä=, _the wind comes from the sea_. =Lentää katon päälle=, _to fly on to the roof_. =On sadekaapu palttoon päällä=, _there is a cape on the great coat_.

(18) =Rinta=, _breast_ or _side_, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Rinnalla=

_b._ =Rinnalle=

expressing rest by, or motion to the side of. =Poika istuu isänsä rinnalla=, _the boy sits by his father’s side_. =Laskea joku jonkun rinnalle=, _to put some one by some one else_, i.e. _to compare_. =Älä pyri hänen rinnallensa=, _strive not to be like him_.

=Jos arvossa mä oisin= =Ja rikkahitten rinnalla.=—_Popular song._

(19) =Seka=, _a mixture_ or _collection_, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =seassa=

_b._ =seasta=

_c._ =sekaan=

=Kiiltää kulta rikkojenkin seasta=, _gold glitters in what one throws away_. =Panna wettä wiinin sekaan=, _to mix water with wine_. =Ihmisten seassa=, _among men_. =Seassamme=, _between us_.

(20) =Sisä=, _the interior_, is used as a postposition in all the local cases.

_a._ =Sisässä=

_b._ =Sisästä=

_c._ =Sisään=

_d._ =Sisällä=

_e._ =Sisältä=

_f._ =Sisälle=

=Oletko ollut tämän huoneen sisässä=, _have you been in this room?_ =Kärme tuli puun sisästä=, _the snake came out of the tree_. =Onko kirkon sisällä paljo väkeä=, _are there many people in the church?_

(21) =Taka=, meaning _the space behind anything_, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Takaa= (partitive), _from behind_ or _after_. =Hän tuli oven takaa=, _he came from behind the door_. =Iso honka näkyy koivujen takaa=, _there is a great fir behind the beeches_. =Wuoden takaa=, _after a year_. It means also _according to_. =Woimansa takaa=, _according to one’s power; with all one’s might_.

_b._ =Takana= (essive), _behind_. =Käydä jonkun takana=, _to go behind_ or _follow any one_. =Seisoa seinän takana=, _to stand behind the wall_. =Rahat on takanani=, _the money is in my keeping_. =Olla turvan takana=, _to be under the protection of_.

_c._ Translative—=taaksi=, =taakse=, =taa=, _back_, _backwards_, or _across_. =Katsoa taaksensa=, _to look backwards_. =Lähteä meren taaksi= (_or_ =taa=), _to go across the sea_. =Aurinko laskeutuu vuorten taa=, _the sun sets behind the mountains_.

(22) =Sisäpuoli=, _interior_, is used in the adessive, ablative, and allative.

_a._ =Sisäpuolella Suomalaiset kanssaheimot eivät asu kaikki suomen rajain sisäpuolella=, _all the Finnish tribes do not live within the Finnish frontier_.

_b._ =Kuuluiko ääni huoneen sisäpuolelta?= _was the voice heard within the room?_

_c._ =Paimen ajoi lampaat aitauksen sisäpuolelle=, _the shepherd drove the sheep into the sheepfold_.

(23) =Tykö=, _nearness_, forms postpositions with the genitive which have exactly the same meaning as the corresponding cases of =luo=. =Tyköä=, _from_; =työ=, _to_ (e.g. =minä tulen miehen työ=); =tykönä=, _at_ or _with_. The form =työ= is due to the fact that a termination, probably that of the translative, has been lost. It is only used dialectically.

(24) =Ulkopuoli= (cf. =sisäpuoli=), _the exterior_, is used in the adessive, allative, and ablative as either a preposition with the

## partitive or a postposition with the genitive. =Kaupungin ulkopuolella=

or =ulkopuolella kaupunkia=, _outside the town_. Similarly are employed the other cases to express motion to or from the outside of anything.

(25) =Vasta=, _the place opposite anything_.

_a._ =Vastassa=, postposition with the genitive, means _opposite_, _facing_. =Hänen vastassansa=, _opposite him_. =Toistensa vastassa olevat kaupungit=, _the cities lie facing each other_.

_b._ =Vastaan=, postposition with the genitive, has the same meaning with the idea of motion towards added, which however seems to disappear in many metaphorical uses. =Mennä isän vastaan=, _to meet one’s father_. =Minä en ole sitä vastaan=, _I am not against that_. =Tehdä käskyä vastaan=, _to disobey a command_. =Sitä vastaan=, _on the other hand_.

_c._ =Vastoin= (instructive plural) is a preposition with the partitive, meaning _against_ or _contrary to_. =Vastoin virtaa, tuulta=, _against the river, the wind_. =Vastoin tahtoani=, _against my wish_. =Älkää pakoittako tyttäriänne vastoin mieltä=, _do not compel your daughters against their will_. =Vastoin lakia=, _against the law._

_d._ =Vasten=[17] (instructive singular from a form =vasti=), preposition or postposition with the partitive, is used in much the same sense as =vastoin=, but means also (1) _about, towards_. E.g. =älä lyö poikaa vasten silmiä=, _don’t hit the boy about the eyes_. =Hän sai vasten silmänsä=, _he got one in the eye_; (2) as a postposition with the genitive it means _for_, _on account of_. =Moni tekee työtä ainoastansa omaa hyötyänsä vasten=, _many work only for their own profit_. But =varten= is better in this sense.

_e._ =Vastapäätä= is used in the meaning of _opposite_ or _vis-à-vis_, as a preposition with the partitive. =Kirkko on rakennettu vastapäätä raastupaa=, _the church is opposite the court-house_.

(26) =Väli=, _the midst_, forms postpositions with the genitive. All the local cases are used: =Välissä=, =välistä=, =väliin=, =välillä=, =välille=, =välitse=. =Kirkon ja pappilan välillä on maantie=, _there is a road between the church and the parsonage_. =Kansan välitse=, _through the midst of the people_. =Sano hänelle suoraan silmien väliin=, _tell him to his face_.

(27) =Yli=, meaning the place above anything, is used in various forms as a preposition or a postposition with the genitive.

_a._ =Yli= (1) as a preposition with the genitive expresses existence above an object; e.g. =Pilvet liitävät yli meren, yli maan=, _the clouds glide over land and sea_. =Yli päämme on kirkas taivas=, _the bright heaven is above us_. We also find expressions like =kello on yli viiden=, _it is after five o’clock_. It also expresses metaphorically pre-eminence. =Hän on kunnioitettava yli muiden=, _he is more honourable than the rest_. It is used metaphorically in such expressions as =yli wuoden=, _more than a year_; =maata yli aikansa=, _to sleep too long_. =Yli sen mitä ennen on maksettu=, _what has been paid in addition to previous payments_.

(2) =Yli= is also used as a postposition with the genitive, and as such expresses motion over a thing, so that the object moving remains temporally above it. =Matto on levitetty koko lattian yli=, _the carpet is spread over all the floor_. =Hän tuli wähän yli puoliwäliin matkaa=, _he came a little over half way_. =Hän katseli olan yli=, _he looked over his shoulders_.

_b._ =Ylitse= (prolative) expresses motion over and across an object. =Purjehtia meren ylitse=, _to sail across the sea_. =Kun pääsisi tämän raskaan ajan ylitse=, _when one has got over these hard times_.

_c._ =Yllä=

_d._ =Yltä=

_e._ =Ylle=

literally expressing rest on, and motion from or to the space above an object, are used as postpositions with the genitive to express the wearing, putting on or taking off of clothes. =Pojan yllä on uusi takki=, _the boy has a new coat on_. =Hänellä on waatteet yllänsä=, _he has clothes on_. =Riisua waatteet yltänsä=, _to take off one’s clothes_. =Panna, pukea yllensä=; _to put on clothes_. Cf. =oli loassa yltä päältä= (adverb), _to be dirty from head to foot_.

(28) =Ympäri=, the space surrounding, gives the following forms.

_a._ =Ympäri= is used as a postposition with the genitive. =Laiva purjehti maan ympäri=, _the ship sailed round the land_. It is also used as a preposition with the genitive or partitive in much the same sense. =Riittikö oma leipä ympäri vuoden?= _is your own corn enough for the year?_

_b._ =Ympärillä=

_c._ =Ympäriltä=

_d._ =Ympärille=

are postpositions with the genitive expressing rest in, motion from or to the space round an object. =Kuori on puun ympärillä=, _the tree has bark round it_. =Panna sontaa puun ympärille=, _to manure a tree_. =Metsät ovat kadonneet kaupungin ympäriltä=, _the forests have been cut down round the town_. =Miksi on kääre sormesi ympärillä?= _why have you a bandage on your finger?_ =Ota huivi kaulan ymperiltä=, _take the handkerchief from round your neck_.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES.

As has been explained, the negative in Finnish only exists in combination with the personal pronouns as a negative verb, and there is no word corresponding to _no_ or _not_. This peculiarity naturally makes the structure of negative sentences different from that of other languages.

(1) The answer ‘no’ to a question must be rendered by the proper person of the negative verb, with or without the root of the verb negative. To the question =Tuletteko?= _are you coming?_ the negative answer is =en tule= _or_ =en=, if one person is referred to, but =emme tule= _or_ =emme=, if more than one. Similarly, to =tulevatko lapset?= _are the children coming?_ the negative reply must be =eivät tule= _or_ =eivät=.

(2) If a sentence contains such words as _never_, _no one_, _nothing_, _nowhere_, etc., they are expressed by using the proper person of the negative verb, with the proper case of the interrogative pronoun or the interrogative adverb, which receive the termination =kaan= _or_ =kään=, sometimes shortened into =aan= _or_ =ään=. =Emme ole nähneet ketäkään= _or_ =ketään=, _we have seen no one_. =Missä olette käyneet? En missäkään=, _where have you been? Nowhere_. =Onko hän koska ollut Helsingissä? Ei koskaan= (_or_ =Ei milloinkaan=) _has he ever been to Helsingfors? No, never_.

(3) It is clear that as the negative is always joined to a personal pronoun, sentences where it qualifies an infinitive in most languages (for instance, _it would be better not to go_) cannot by any means be rendered literally in Finnish. Such sentences are turned quite differently, the chief device being to use the abessive of inf. III; for instance, _I advise you not to go_, =minä kehoitan teitä, älkää menkö=, _or_ =olemaan menemättä=. =Olisi parempi olla kirjoittamatta=, _it would be better not to write_. _The house is not sold_, =talo on myömättä= (but =ei ole myöty= is also possible). _The present is not given_, =lahja on antamatta= (_or_ =ei ole annettu=). _You need not go_, =ei sinun pidä mennä= (where =ei= negatives =pidä= not =mennä=), _or_ =sinun pitää olla menemättä=. _You will have to go away and not see your sister_, =teidän pitää matkustaa pois sisartanne näkemättä=.

Sentences are occasionally found where =ei= apparently negatives an infinitive. E.g. S. John vii. 34, =Teidän pitää minua etsimän ja ei löytämän=, _ye shall seek me and not find me_. But this construction is really elliptical for =ja ei pidä löytämän=.

Nevertheless this use of the negative verb with an infinitive or

## participle is occasionally found, even in the Kalevala; e.g. xxviii. 262,

=Sie vanno valat ikuiset ... ei sotia käyäksesi=, _swear eternal oaths ... that thou willst not go to war_. And immediately afterwards, =Vannon mie valat vakaiset En kesänä ensimmäisnä ... Saa’a suurihin sotihin=, _I swear firm oaths that in the first summer ... I will not go to war_. Here =käyäksesi= and =saa’a= (for =käydäksesi= and =saada=) are infinitives constructed with =ei= and =en=. In the first passage =et= would have seemed more natural. So again in xliii. 237, =Sanoit et käyväsi sotoa=, _thou saidst thou wouldst not go to war_. As these constructions do not seem capable of being explained by the principles of Finnish syntax, they are probably due to the influence of foreign languages.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

If an interrogative sentence does not contain an interrogative pronoun or adverb, its character is marked by adding the particle =ko= or =kö= to some word in the sentence. Thus one says =menettekö kotiin?= _are you going home?_ But in such sentences as =mihin menette?= or =kuka menee?= it is unnecessary to use =ko=, as the sentence already contains a word which makes its interrogative character clear. It will be noticed that this use of =ko= is exactly similar to that of =ли= in Russian.

The termination =ko=, =kö= is added to the word on which the chief interrogative stress is laid.

=Tiedättekö mihin hän on lähtenyt?= _do you know where he is gone?_ =Isäkö sen sanoi?= _was it the father who said so?_ =Meritsekö aiotte matkustaa?= _are you thinking of going by sea?_

In a negative question the termination =kö= is always attached to the negative verb. =Ettekö ole nähneet häntä?= _have you not seen him?_ =Eikö jo lakkaa satamasta?= _hasn’t it stopped raining yet?_

In a disjunctive question the particle =ko=, =kö= is attached to the first alternative which is connected with the second by the word =vai=. =Poikako se on vai tyttö?= _is that a boy or a girl?_

But if there are two verbs in the sentence =ko= or =kö= is added to each. =Onko hän vielä kotona vai läksikö?= _is he still at home or has he started?_

In such a sentence as, _Are you coming or not?_ one can say either =Tuletteko vai ette?= or, =tuletteko vai ettekö tule?=

The manner of giving a negative reply has been described above. Though there are two words, =ja= and =niin= (instr. plural of =se=), which can be used for ‘yes,’ the usual way of giving an affirmative reply is, to repeat the word which in the question has =ko= attached to it. =Tuliko pappi?= _has the priest come?_ =Tuli=, _yes_.

OTHER SENTENCES.

Causal, temporal and consecutative sentences offer no special peculiarities, being introduced by the conjunctions given in the accidence and having the verb in the indicative mood. The particle =että= is generally combined with the negative verb: =etten=, =ettet=, =ettei=, etc.

Concessive sentences, introduced by =vaikka=, =vaikkapa=, _or_ =jos kohta=, have the verb in either the indicative or the conditional. =Hän oli niin köyhä ettei ollut mitä syödä=, _he was so poor that he had nothing to eat_. =Vaikka näin häntä usein, kun olin Pietarissa= (_or_ =Pietarissa olessani=), =emme kuitenkaan ole tutut=, _though I often saw him when I was at Petersburg, we were not well acquainted_. =Vaikka hän vannoisi en sittekään uskoisi=, _though he should swear I would not believe him_.

The first member of a conditional sentence is introduced by =jos=, or, if negative, by =jollen=, =ellen= (=jollet=, =jollei=, etc., =ellet=, =ellei=, etc.). The second is often introduced by =niin=. In such sentences as _if I go, he will come_, where the realization of the condition is considered as certain, the indicative is used—=Jos menen niin hän tulee=. But where the realization is doubtful the conditional present is employed, and where it is no longer possible the conditional past. _If I were to go, he would come_, =jos menisin, niin hän tulisi=. _If I had gone, he would have come_, =jos minä olisin mennyt, niin hän olisi tullut=.

Final sentences are introduced by =että= _or_ =jotta=, or in the negative form by =etten=, =ettet=, =ettei=, etc. The verb is in the conditional. As has been described above (pp. 192 and 198) final sentences can also be rendered by infinitives and participles. =Ilmoittakaat minulle että minäkin tulisin ja kumartaisin häntä= (S. Matt. ii. 8), _tell me, that I may come and worship him_. =Hän kävelee ettei vilustuisi=, _he walks that he may not catch cold_.

ORATIO OBLIQUA.

A sentence in oratio obliqua can be rendered by the participial constructions above described, or by a sentence beginning with =että=, _that_. In this latter case the sentence is constructed exactly as in English.

=Hän sanoi ettei se ole varma, mutta että koettaisi tiedustaa tarkemmin=, _he said it was not certain, but that he would endeavour to obtain more accurate information_. =Minä kysyin häneltä oliko hän kuullut että ystäväni oli kuollut ja pyysin että hän kirjoittaisi=, _I asked him if he had heard that my friend was dead, and begged him to write_.

The word =muka= is often used to denote that a statement rests not on the authority of the speaker but of some one else.

=Hän ei tahtonut viipyä: oli muka kovin väsyksissä=, _he did not want to wait, saying he was very tired_. =Luulevat hänen veljensä tulevan: hän oli muka kirjoittanut jollekulle=, _people think his brother is coming: it is said he has written to some one_. =Hän eroitti palvelijansa se kun oli muka varas=, _he dismissed his servant because he was a thief_ (according to his master’s statement).

ON THE DIALECT OF THE KALEVALA.

There are two main dialects of Finnish, the Western, which has produced the modern literary language, and the Eastern, in which the Kalevala is written. There are also many others of which perhaps the most important is that called the Savolaks dialect, which is hardly a literary language, though in the ‘Lönrötin Albumi,’ p. 286, there is a story called ‘Keisarin tuttu’ written in it. It appears to be characterized by a great fondness for the sound of =i=, which is added to other vowels; e.g. =tiällä= for =täällä=, =hiän= for =hän=. On the other hand =i= is often apparently shortened to a semivowel, merely modifying the previous consonant; e.g. =olj= for =oli=. The letter =d= does not occur, but is represented by =j= or =v=, =meijänni= for =meidänkin=, =käyvä= for =käydä=. The dialect would seem to be generally characterized by a soft and rather thick utterance. =Olen= becomes =oun= and =olette=, =outta=. =V= is frequently doubled; e.g. =hyvvee päivee=, and =o= is often used for =a=; e.g. =mokomoo= for =mokomaa=. So also we have forms like =soatanoo= for =saatanee=, =pankoo= for =pankaa=. The root of verbs has the letter =k= added in the negative and imperative forms: =en annak=, =annak=.

On the Eastern frontier of Finland and in the adjoining parts of the Russian Government of Olonetz is spoken a dialect called Karelian, which in its present form is much corrupted by the influence of Russia. The Kalevala, however, which was mostly collected in this part of the world, is written in a pure Finnish dialect, which has come to be accepted as the ordinary language of poetical composition.

The chief peculiarities of the dialect of the Kalevala are as follows[18]:—

I. The letter =d= does not exist. =T= disappears altogether in the cases where in the ordinary dialect it is softened to =d=. For instance—=saa’a= (=saada=), =pöyän= (=pöydän=), =tieän= (=tiedän=), =tahon= (=tahdon=), =kahen= (=kahden=), =yhen= (=yhden=), =puhas= (=puhdas=), =ouoille= (=oudoille=), =eellä=, =eessä= (=edellä=, =edessä=), =sio= (=sido=).

II. Similarly the letter =k= is dropped altogether when in literary Finnish it either becomes =j= or remains unchanged.

(1) =lk=, =rk= in a closed syllable become simple =l= and =r=, not =lj=, =rj=: e.g. =jälen= for =jäljen= (=jälki=), =kulen= for =kuljen=.

(2) =sk= and =tk=, which are not subject to softening in ordinary Finnish, become =s= and =t= in closed syllables: =kosen= for =kosken=, =kaselle= for =kaskelle=, =itettävä= for =itkettävä=.

III. =rt=, =lt= are not assimilated in the infinitive of verbs of conj. 3: =kuulta=, =surten= for =kuulla=, =surren=.

IV. The pronominal affixes do not always prevent consonants being softened as in ordinary Finnish: =ajansa= for =aikansa=, =iäni= for =ikäni=.

V. Where long vowels and diphthongs are the result of contraction, the Kalevala employs dissyllabic forms. These contracted forms in ordinary Finnish may be divided into two classes.

(_a_) The long vowel is the result of the omission of =h= (representing an original =s= or other consonant) between the two component vowels. In such cases the Kalevala always employs the fuller and more primitive forms with =h=. So we have =vierahan= for the literary =vieraan=, =kotihin= for =kotiin=, =käyähän= for =käydään= (=d= omitted).

(_b_) But there are a number of cases where the long vowels =aa= and =ää= in ordinary literary Finnish are not the result of the omission of =h=. Under these circumstances the Kalevala has =oa= instead of =aa= and =eä= instead of =ää=. Thus the partitive singular of =kala= is formed by suffixing =a=—that is =kala-a=. In ordinary Finnish this gives =kalaa= (dissyllabic), but in the Kalevala we find =kaloa=. This form may be compared with the partitive plural, =kaloja=, where =a= becomes =o= in ordinary Finnish. It is to be noted however that the change to =oa= occurs in the Kalevala even when the vowel of the first syllable is =a=—=oroa= for =oraa=.

The instances of this change fall under three categories:

(1) Partitive cases of nouns and adjectives: =aikoa= for =aikaa=, =ilmoa= for =ilmaa=, =luutoa= for =luutaa=, =päiveä= for =päivää=, =tereä= for =terää=.

(2) The first infinitive of verbs: =ajoa= for =ajaa=, =eleä= for =elää=, =lenteä= for =lentää=, =piteä= for =pitää=.

(3) Contracted verbs of class 3: =arvoan= for =arvaan=, =lupoan= for =lupaan=, =lepeämättä= for =lepäämättä=.

VI. The plural (except the nom.) is sometimes formed with the suffix =-loi=, before the case suffix. This form is used chiefly in words ending in =o=, =ö=, =u=, =y=, =i=, and =e=; e.g. =rekilöitä=, =ristilöitä=, =lukkoloita=, =mahtiloita=.

VII. The style of the Kalevala is characterized by the frequent use of derivative forms from nouns ending in =o=, =nen= (_or_ =onen=), =yt= (or =ut=), and =kainen=. These forms have a diminutive or endearing significance. They are mostly quite incapable of translation into English, but correspond to the Russian diminutives. E.g. from =emä= are formed =emo=, =emonen=, and =emyt=; from =isä=, =iso=, =isonen=, and =isyt=; from =kaunis=, =kauno=, =kaunokainen= _or_ =kaunukainen=; from =kesä=, =kesonen= and =kesyt=; from =meri=, =meronen= and =meryt=; from =neiti=, =neitinen=, =neito=, =neitonen=, =neiyt=, and =neityinen=; from =puu=, =puuhut=; from =päivä=, =päivönen= and =päivyt=; from =veli=, =velo=, =vello=, =veljyt=, =veijo=, =veito=, =veitonen=, =veikko=, and =veikkonen=.

We also find a great quantity of derivative verbs ending in =ella=, =skella=, =ahta=, =alta=, etc., in which the exact force of the syllable added is often obscure.

VIII. In verbs the 3rd person sing. of the present is formed with the suffix =vi=, a weakening of the original =pi= used in monosyllables. E.g. =tekevi=, =ajattelevi=, =sanovi=, =ajavi=, =kaatelevi=. But in monosyllables =pi= is always used, =uipi=, =saapi=.

IX. Some verbal stems ending in =a= or =ä= reject this vowel before =t=, =k=, =n=, and are conjugated as if they belonged to the third class. Thus =löytää= forms the past participle =löynnyt= for =löytänyt=: =tietää= forms concessive =tiennen= and past part. =tiennyt=. So =seista=, =seiskaamme=, =seissut= from =seiso=.

X. In the formation of the passive many verbs ending in =ta=, =tä= reject this syllable and also the consonant =n=, if it precedes. =Löytää= makes the passive stem =löyttä= instead of =löydettä=: =rakentaa=, =raketta= for =rakennetta=: =kuumentaa=, =kuumetta= for =kuumennetta=.

XI. The conjugation of the reflexive verbs (as already mentioned) offers a mass of forms unknown to literary Finnish, which sometimes also occur in verbs which are not strictly reflexive.

The chief terminations found in these verbs are:—

_Indicative present._

Sing. 1. =me= _or_ =ime=—=luome=, =kaivaime=. 2. =tet=, =itet=, _or_ =te=—=pistätet=. 3. =kse=, =ikse=, _or_ =ksen=—=astuikse=, =istuikse=, =astuiksen=, =katseleikse=.

_Imperfect._

Sing. 1. =ime=—=annoime=, =siirrime=, =siirräime=. 2. =ihet= _or_ =ihit=—=astelihet=, =suorihet=. 3. =ihe= _or_ =iin=—=ajoihe=, =loihe=, =vetihe=, =pistihe=, =rikkoihe=, =heittiin=.

The termination =ime= is also found in the 1st pers. sing. of the conditional and =ihe= in the 3rd sing. of the concessive and conditional. The 2nd sing. of the Imper. often ends in =te= or =ite=—=veäite= (=vedä itsesi=), =laskeite=, =paneite=. The inf. of such verbs generally ends in =itä=; e.g. =vetäitä=. Rarely are found such forms as =kuolkosi=, =kaotkosi= for =kuollos=, etc.

XII. The negative verb frequently follows instead of preceding the root which it negatives; e.g. =oisi en paljo pitänyt, maha et lausua lapiksi=.

XIII. The style of the Kalevala is characterized by a general absence of conjunctions and connecting particles, but on the other hand abounds in syllables used merely to give emphasis or quite pleonastically. Such are the suffixes =pa=, =pä=, =han=, =hän=, =kana=. The word =on= is used in the same way; e.g. =juop’ on vanha Wäinämöinen.= =Tuop’ on Pohjolan emäntä sanan virkkoi.= =Enpä anna tyttöäni.=

XIV. A number of other differences from the literary dialect occur, some of which may be classified as follows:—

(1) Contracted essives, where the ordinary language prefers the full form: =lasna= for =lapsena=; =nuorra= for =nuorena=; =suurra= for =suurena=.

(2) In pronouns =ma=, =mä=, or =mie= for =minä=; =sa=, =sä=, =sie= for =sinä=; =milma=, =silma= for =minua=, =sinua=; =miusta= for =minusta=; =siulle= for =sinulle=, =ka= _or_ =ken= for =kuka=, =mi= for =mikä=.

(3) From the verb =olla= are found =oo= for =ole=; =oisi= for =olisi=; =lie=, =liet= for =lienee=, =lienet=; =liekkö= for =lieneekö=.

(4) The imperf. ends in =ti= where in ordinary Finnish it is softened to =si=: =kynti=, =löyti=, =kaati=, =pyyti= for =kynsi=, =löysi=, =kaasi=, =pyysi=.

XV. The syntax of the Kalevala is marked by extreme simplicity in its main features. This is natural in popular poetry, and, besides, the system of versification (short lines of eight syllables generally containing a complete sentence) and the tendency to parallelism and repetition, were all unfavourable to the growth of long and involved phrases. On the other hand, the sentences of the Kalevala are often difficult to understand on account of their irregularity. Not only are the boldest inversions and omissions permitted (e.g. =Emo tuosta itkemähän= for =rupesi itkemähän=), but words are frequently strung together in so loose a manner that, though the thought is plain, it is almost impossible to analyse the sentence grammatically. For instance, xl. 401, =Anna luoja, suo Jumala, Anna onni ollaksemme, Hyvin ain’ eleäksemme, kunnialla kuollaksemme=. This clearly means, _grant that we may be prosperous, live well and die gloriously_, but it is almost impossible to explain it grammatically. Such a tendency to be more careful of the general sense than of the separate words and their correct relation to one another, is very natural in a poem whose authors were ignorant of grammar and had probably no written literature before them. It is accompanied in the Kalevala by a habit of repeating the same idea under numerous synonyms for the sake of emphasis and of creating new words for the sake of parallelism or alliteration, which have sometimes a meaning and bear testimony to the flexibility and fecundity of the language, but sometimes are absolutely unmeaning. Thus in Kal. xi. 55 we have =Enkä lähe Inkerelle, Penkerelle, pänkerelle=. Here =pänkerelle= means nothing at all, but is simply a kind of repetition of =penkerelle=. Similarly Kal. xlviii. 100, =Ihveniä, ahvenia, Tuimenia, taimenia=. =Ihveniä= and =Tuimenia= are meaningless words.

SELECTIONS FROM FINNISH LITERATURE

N.B. When a _rule_ is cited by a number, this refers to the numbered phonetic rules from page 6 to page 18.

PYHÄN JOHANNEKSEN EVANGELIUMI.

1. Alussa[1] oli[2] Sana[3] ja[4] se[5] Sana[3] oli[2] Jumalan[6] tykönä[7] ja[4] Jumala[6] oli[2] se[5] Sana[3].

2. Tämä[8] oli[2] alussa[1] Jumalan[6] tykönä[7].

3. Kaikki[9] ovat[10] sen[11] kautta[12] tehdyt[13] ja[4] ilman[14] sitä[15] ei[16] ole[16] mitään[17] tehty[16] joka[18] tehty[13] on[19].

4. Hänessä[20] oli[2] elämä[21] ja[4] elämä[21] oli[2] ihmisten[22] valkeus[23].

5. Ja[4] se[5] valkeus[23] pimeydessä[24] paistaa[25] jota[26] ei[27] pimeys[24] käsittänyt[27].

6. Yksi[28] mies[29] oli[30] lähetetty[30] Jumalalta[31] jonka[32] nimi[33] oli[2] Johannes[34].

7. Se[35] tuli[36] siitä[37] valkeudesta[38] todistamaan[39] että[40] kaikki[9] uskoisivat[41] hänen[42] kauttansa[43].

8. Ei[44] hän[45] ollut[44] se[5] valkeus[23] mutta[46] hän[45] oli[30] lähetetty[30] valkeudesta[38] todistamaan[39].

9. Se[35] oli[2] totinen[47] valkeus[23] joka[18] valistaa[48] kaikki[9] ihmiset[49] jotka[50] maailmaan[51] tulevat[52].

10. Se[35] oli[2] maailmassa[53] ja[4] maailma[54] on[19] hänen[42] kauttansa[43] tehty[13] jä[4] ei[55] maailma[54] häntä[56] tuntenut[55].

11. Hän[45] tuli[36] omillensa[57] ja[4] ei[58] hänen[42] omansa[60] häntä[56] ottaneet[58] vastaan[59].

12. Mutta[46] niille[61] jotka[50] hänen[42] ottivat[62] vastaan[59], antoi[63] hän[45] voiman[64] Jumalan[6] lapsiksi[65] tulla[66] jotka[50] uskovat[67] hänen[42] nimensä[68] päälle[69];

13. Jotka[50] ei[70] verestä[71] eikä[70] lihan[72] tahdosta[73] ei[70] myös[74] miehen[75] tahdosta[73] mutta[46] Jumalalta[76] syntyneet[77] ovat[77].

14. Ja[4] sana[3] tuli[78] lihaksi[79] ja[4] asui[80] meidän[81] seassamme[82] (ja[4] me[83] näimme[84] hänen[42] kunniansa[85] niinkuin[86] ainoan[87] Pojan[88] kunnian[89] Isästä[90]) täynnä[91] armoa[92] ja[4] totuutta[93].

THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO ST. JOHN, I. 1-14.

1. In-the-beginning was the-Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.

2. That was in-the-beginning with God.

3. All were made through Him, and without Him was not anything made which was made.

4. In-Him was life, and the-life was the-light of-men.

5. And that light shineth in-the-darkness, which the-darkness comprehended not.

6. A man was sent from-God whose name was John.

7. He came to-bear-witness of-that light, that all might-believe through Him.

8. He was not that light, but He was sent to-bear-witness of-the-light.

9. That was the-true light which lighteth all men who come into-the-world.

10. He was in-the-world, and the-world was made by Him, and the-world knew Him not.

11. He came to-His-own, and His own received Him not.

12. But to-them who received Him, He gave power to-become the-children of-God, who believe on His name,

13. Who were not born of-blood, not of-the-will of-the-flesh, also not of-the-will of-men, but of God.

14. And the-word became flesh, and dwelt in-our-midst (and we saw his glory, as the-glory of-the-only Son of-the Father) full of-grace and of-truth.

[Note 1: Inessive sing. of =alku=, formed with suffix =u= (p. 45); verb =alkaa=, _to begin_; =alkussa= becomes =alussa= by rule 27.]

[Note 2: 3rd pers. sing. imperf. of =olla=, _to be_ (p. 72).]

[Note 3: Nom. sing. identical with stem; cf. verb =sanoa=, _to speak_.]

[Note 4: Conjunction borrowed from the Swedish, _and_.]

[Note 5: Nominative of demonstr. pron. (p. 59) used almost like article (p. 166).]

[Note 6: =Jumala=, gen. =Jumalan=, _God_.]

[Note 7: Essive sing. of =tykö=; postposition governing =Jumalan= (p. 215).]

[Note 8: Nominative sing. of demonstr. pron. (p. 58).]

[Note 9: Nominative plur. without term. (pp. 61 and 170).]

[Note 10: 3rd pers. plur. pres. of =olla= (p. 72).]

[Note 11: Gen. sing. of demonstr. =se= (p. 59).]

[Note 12: =Kautta=, postposition governing gen. =sen= (p. 204).]

[Note 13: =tehty=, past part. pass. of root =teke= (rule 41); nominative plur. =tehdyt= (rule 32). Here the participle is used in combination with =ovat= to form perf. passive (p. 74).]

[Note 14: Preposition governing the partitive =sitä= (p. 203).]

[Note 15: Partitive sing. of demonstr. pron. =se=.]

[Note 16: =ei ole tehty=, negative perf. passive of root =teke= (p. 74).]

[Note 17: Partitive sing. of =mikä= with suffix =an= (pp. 61 and 219). For explanation of use of partitive here _v._ p. 183.]

[Note 18: Nom. sing, of rel. pron.]

[Note 19: 3rd pers. sing. pres. of =olla=.]

[Note 20: Iness. sing. of personal pron. =hän=.]

[Note 21: Nom. sing. formed from root =elä= with suffix =mä= (p. 45).]

[Note 22: Gen. plur. of =ihminen= declined like =toinen= (p. 35).]

[Note 23: Stem =valkeute= (nominative =-us=, p. 36) formed by adding affix =ute= to root =valke= (cf. =valkea=, _white_ or _fire_, and =valjeta=).]

[Note 24: Stem =pimeyte=, nominative =pimeys=; substantive formed from =pimeä=, _dark_, analogous to =valkeus=, but with soft termination; =pimeydessä= is inessive sing.]

[Note 25: 3rd pers. sing. pres. of root =paista=.]

[Note 26: =Jota=, part. sing. of relative pron. object of negative verb (p. 127).]

[Note 27: 3rd sing. negative imperf. (p. 70) of verbal root =käsitä=, _to grasp_ or _understand_ (exact equivalent of comprehendere).]

[Note 28: =Yksi=, _one_, here used as the indefinite article, p. 51.]

[Note 29: Nominative sing. of stem =miehe=, _man_.]

[Note 30: Plupf. passive of =lähettää=, _to send_; pres. passive =lähetetään=, past part. =-etty= (p. 67).]

[Note 31: Ablative sing. of =Jumala=, _God_.]

[Note 32: Genitive sing. of relative pron. =joka=.]

[Note 33: Nominative sing. of stem =nime=.]

[Note 34: Nominative sing. of stem =Johannekse= (p. 36).]

[Note 35: Dem. pron. used as pers. pron. (p. 166).]

[Note 36: 3rd sing. imperf. of root =tule=, p. 95.]

[Note 37: Elative sing. of pron. =se=.]

[Note 38: Elative sing. of nominative =valkeus=, for use of case, _v._ p. 144.]

[Note 39: Illative of 3rd infin. of verbal stem =todista=, 1st infin. =todistaa=, for constr. _v._ p. 194.]

[Note 40: Particle used here with conditional, _v._ for constr. p. 179.]

[Note 41: 3rd pers. plur. conditional of =uskoa=, _to believe_.]

[Note 42: =hänen=, gen. sing. of 3rd pers. pron. depending upon]

[Note 43: the postposition =kautta= with the affix of the 3rd person. Notice that throughout this extract (vv. 10, 12, 14) the genitive of the pers. pron. is used as well as the suffix, _v._ p. 164.]

[Note 44: 3rd sing. impf. negative of =olla=.]

[Note 45: Nominative sing. 3rd pers. pron.]

[Note 46: conjunction _but_.]

[Note 47: Nom. sing. of stem =totise= (p. 35) formed with adjectival ending =ise= from stem =tote=, nom. =tosi=.]

[Note 48: 3rd sing. pres. of root =valista= (1st inf. =-taa=), _to light_.]

[Note 49: Acc. plur. of stem =ihmise=, nom. sing. =ihminen=, _man_.]

[Note 50: Nom. plur. of rel. pron. =joka=.]

[Note 51: =maailmaan=, illative sing. of =maailma=, _universe_ (=maa=, =ilma=), denoting motion into after =tulevat=.]

[Note 52: 3rd plur. pres. of root =tule= (1st inf. =tulla=) _to come_ (p. 95).]

[Note 53: Inessive sing.]

[Note 54: Nom. sing.]

[Note 55: 3rd pers. sing. imperf. negative of =tuntea=.]

[Note 56: Partitive sing. of 3rd pers. pron. after negative verb (p. 127).]

[Note 57: Allative plur. of =oma=, _own_, with the suffix of the 3rd pers. =om-i-lle-nsa=.]

[Note 58: Negative imperf. of =ottaa=, _to take_.]

[Note 59: Illative sing. of =vasta=, meaning literally, _what is opposite_. The combination =ottaa vastaan=, is used to mean _receive_.]

[Note 60: Nom. plur. of =oma= with suff. of 3rd pers. pron. (p. 57). As =omansa= is subject to the verb, the latter should strictly be =eivät ottaneet=, but _v._ page 123.]

[Note 61: Allative plur. of demons. pron. =se=, nom. plur. =ne=.]

[Note 62: 3rd pers. plur. imperf. of =ottaa=, _to take_.]

[Note 63: 3rd pers. sing. imperf. of =antaa=, _to give_, pres. =annan=. For difference of form in =otti=, =antoi= _v._ page 85.]

[Note 64: Acc. sing. of =voima=, _power_, formed with suffix =ma= from root =voi= (1st inf. =voida=), _to be able_.]

[Note 65: Transl. plur. of =lapse=, _a child_, _v._ p. 158.]

[Note 66: 1st inf. from root =tule=, _to come_, here used as auxiliary meaning _to become_ or _enter on a state_, and taking the translative case.]

[Note 67: 3rd pers. plur. pres. of =uskoa=, _to believe_.]

[Note 68: Genitive sing. of =nimi= (stem =nime=) with pronom. affix of 3rd pers.]

[Note 69: Allative sing. of =pää=, _a head_, governing the genitive =nimensä=. The local cases of =pää= are used in a variety of metaphorical expressions.]

[Note 70: =Eikä= is the negative verb with the adverbial suffix =kä=, _and_; as in verse 11, the singular of the negative verb is used for the plur.; =syntyneet= must be understood with the negative.]

[Note 71: Elative sing. of =veri= (stem =vere=), _blood_, for use _v._ p. 143.]

[Note 72: Genitive sing. of =liha=, _flesh_, depending on =tahdosta=.]

[Note 73: Elative sing. of =tahto=, _will_, used as a nominal and verbal stem (=tahtoa=, _to wish_).]

[Note 74: Particle, _also_, connected with =myötä= and =myöten=.]

[Note 75: Genitive sing. of =mies= (stem =miehe=), _man_, depending on =tahdosta=.]

[Note 76: Elative sing. of =Jumala=, _God_.]

[Note 77: 3rd pers. plur. of the perf. of =syntyä=, _to be born_, composed of auxiliary and nom. plur. of partitive =syntynyt=, _v._ p. 73.]

[Note 78: For form _v._ No. 36. Here used as auxiliary _became_ and followed by translative, _v._ Nos. 65 and 66 above.]

[Note 79: Translat. sing. of =liha=, _flesh_.]

[Note 80: 3rd pers. sing. imperf. of =asua=, _to dwell_.]

[Note 81: Genitive plur. of 1st pers. pron. depending on postposition =seassamme=.]

[Note 82: Postposition in inessive following genitive and taking possessive affix of 1st pers. plur., _v._ p. 214.]

[Note 83: Nom. plur. of 1st pers. pron.]

[Note 84: 1st pers. plur. imperf. of root =näke= (inf. =nähdä=, _v._ p. 108), =näke-i-mme= becomes =näimme= by rules 14 and 28.]

[Note 85: Acc. sing. of =kunnia=, _glory_, with the pron. affix of 3rd pers.]

[Note 86: _So as_, compound adverb formed of =niin=, instr. plur. of =se= and =kuin=, instr. plur. of root =ku= (nom. =kuka=).]

[Note 87: Genitive sing. of =ainoa=, _only_, agreeing with =Pojan=.]

[Note 88: Genitive sing. of =Poika=, _son_, for form _v._ rule 28.]

[Note 89: Accus. sing. of =kunnia=, _glory_, governing the genitive =ainoan Pojan=.]

[Note 90: Elative sing. of =Isä=, _Father_. The elative is no doubt used to prevent the confusion arising from too many genitives and accusatives coming together.]

[Note 91: Essive sing. of stem =täyte=, in apposition to =sana= (_v._ p. 157. iii). Modern Finnish makes =täytenä=, but here the =e= is dropped and =täytnä= becomes =täynnä=, cf. =ynnä= for =yhtenä= from =yksi=. In nom. =täyte= forms =täysi= by rule 37.]

[Note 92: Part. sing, of stem =armo=, _grace_ or _mercy_; for use of part. after =täynnä= _v._ p. 136.]

[Note 93: Part. sing. of stem =totuute= (p. 36), which rejects =e= before =ta= of part.; for formation from root =tote=, _v._ p. 47. iii.]

KALEVALA, XXXVI. 319-346.

Kullervo Kalervon poika Tempasi[1] terävän[2] miekan[3], 320 Katselevi kääntelevi, Kyselevi tietelevi[4]; Kysyi[5] mieltä[6] miekaltansa[3] Tokko[7] tuon[8] tekisi[9] mieli[6] Syöä[10] syyllistä[11] lihoa,[12] 325 Viallista[13] verta[14] juoa[15]. Miekka[3] mietti[16] miehen[17] mielen[6]. Arvasi[18] uron[19] pakinan[20], Vastasi[21] sanalla[22] tuolla[8]: ‘Miks[23] en[24] söisi[24] mielelläni[25], 330 Söisi[24] syyllistä[11] lihoa[12], Viallista[13] verta[14] joisi[26]? Syön[10] lihoa[12] syyttömänki,[27] Juon[15] verta[14] viattomanki[28].’ Kullervo Kalervon poika, 335 Sinisukka[29] äijön[30] lapsi[31] Pään[32] on[33] peltohon[34] sysäsi[35], Perä[36] painoi[37] kankahasen[38], Kären[39] käänti[40] rintahansa[41], Itse[42] iskihe[43] kärelle[44], 340 Siihen[45] surmansa[46] sukesi[47] Kuolemansa[48] kohtaeli[49]. Se oli surma[45] nuoren[50] miehen[17], Kuolo[51] kullervo-urohon[52], Loppu[53] ainakin[54] urosta[55] 345 Kuolema[56] kova-osaista[57].

[Kullervo, the hero of Kalevala xxxi-xxxvi, is represented as a child of misfortune, who by no possible means could do good. After a series of crimes and disasters, rivalling the history of Oedipus, he determines to kill himself.]

Kullervo the son of Kalervo Grasped the sharp sword, 320 Looked (at it), turned (it), Asked, inquired: Asked of his sword its mind, If it were minded, To eat guilty flesh, 325 To drink sinful blood. The sword understood the mind of the man, Followed the speech of the hero, Answered with this word: ‘Why should I not eat to my pleasure, 330 Eat guilty flesh, Drink sinful blood? I eat the flesh of the guiltless, I drink the blood of the sinless.’ Kullervo the son of Kalervo, 335 The old man’s child with blue stockings, Drove the hilt into the ground, Fixed the end in the plain, Turned the point to his breast Himself fell on the point. 340 Thus he sought his fate, Met his death. This was the fate of the young man, The death of the hero Kullervo, The end of the hero, 345 The death of the ill-fated one.

[Note 1: 3rd sing. imperf. of stem =tempata=, 1st inf. =temmata=, conjugated like =lupata=, pp. 95 and 101.]

[Note 2: Acc. sing. of adj. =terävä=, _sharp_, formed from =terä=, _edge_, with affix va.]

[Note 3: Acc. sing. of =miekka=, _sword_; =kk= becomes =k= in closed syllable (rule 25); in l. 323, occurs the ablative sing. with affix of 3rd pers. pron.]

[Note 4: These four verbs are all formed with the affix =ele= (_v._ p. 111) from the simple forms =katsoa=, =kääntää=, =kysyä=, =tietää=. The =vi= is the termination of the 3rd. pers. sing. pres. (p. 62).]

[Note 5: 3rd sing. imperf. of =kysyä=, followed by ablative, _to ask of_ (p. 154).]

[Note 6: Part. sing. of =miele=, nom. =mieli=, genitive =mielen=, etc.; =e= lost before =tä= by rule 17.]

[Note 7: Particle, _whether_.]

[Note 8: Acc. of demonstr. pron. =tuo=.]

[Note 9: 3rd pers. sing. conditional of root =teke=, inf. =tehdä=, of 3rd conjugation. The phrase =mieli tekee= followed by an accusative (here =tuon=) means _his mind drives him to_, or _he has a mind to_. Cf. the first lines of the =Kalevala Mieleni minun tekevi ... lähteäni laulamahan=, _my mind incites me to begin singing_.]

[Note 10: = =syödä= (p. 224) 1st inf. of root =syö= (pres indic. =syön=), depending on phrase =mieli tekisi= (p. 188).]

[Note 11: Part. sing. (object of =syöä=) of =syyllinen=, _guilty_, formed from =syy=, _cause_ or _guilt_, with affix =llise= (p. 47).]

[Note 12: = =lihaa= (p. 225), part. sing. of =liha=, _flesh_.]

[Note 13: Part. sing. of =viallinen=, formed from =vika=, _fault_, like =syyllinen=, =k= lost by rule 28.]

[Note 14: Part. sing. of =vere= (nom. =veri=); cf. =mieltä= for form.]

[Note 15: = =juoda= (p. 224), 1st inf. of =juo=, pres. =juon=.]

[Note 16: 3rd sing. imperf. of =miettiä= (2nd conj.) _to think over_, here meaning _understand_.]

[Note 17: Genitive sing. of stem =miehe= (nom. =mies=).]

[Note 18: 3rd sing. imperf. of =arvata=; pres. indic. =arvaan=, _to think, understand_, conjugated like root =lupata=, p. 101.]

[Note 19: Genitive sing. of =uro=, _hero_, which is more usual in the form =uros= (stem =uroho=, =uroo=).]

[Note 20: Accusative sing. (object of =arvasi=) of =pakina=, _speech_.]

[Note 21: =Vastasi=, 3rd sing. imperf. of =vastata=, conjugated like root =lupata=.]

[Note 22: Adessive sing. of =sana=, _word_, used here in instrum. signification (p. 152).]

[Note 23: Transl. sing. of =mikä=, used adverbially to mean _why_ (p. 159).]

[Note 24: Negative conditional of =syö=, composed of 1st pers. sing. of neg. verb, and stem of conditional (p. 70). By rule 4 =syö + isi= becomes =söisi=.]

[Note 25: Adessive sing. of =mieli= (_v._ No. 6) with affix of 1st pers. sing. _with my mind_, i.e. _with pleasure_.]

[Note 26: =Juo + isi= becomes =joisi= (_v._ No. 15).]

[Note 27: =ki= is an adverbial affix (p. 118) meaning _even_; =syyttömän= is the genitive sing. of =syytön=, _guiltless_ (stem =syyttömä=), a caritive adjective formed from =syy=, with suffix =ttoma=, just as =syyllinen= is formed with suffix =llise= (_v._ pp. 47 and 37).]

[Note 28: Genitive sing. of caritive adjective =viaton=, formed from =vika=.]

[Note 29: _Blue-stockinged_, a compd. of =sini=, _blue_, and =sukka=, _stocking_.]

[Note 30: Gen. sing. of =äijö= (= =äijä=), _an old man_.]

[Note 31: Nom. sing. of stem =lapse=, _child_.]

[Note 32: Accusative sing. of =pää=, _head_, here _the hilt of a sword_.]

[Note 33: Particle of emphasis frequently used in Kalevala, and not the verb substantive.]

[Note 34: = =peltoon= (p. 225), illative sing. of =pelto=, _field_ or _ground_.]

[Note 35: 3rd pers. sing. of =sysätä=, _to drive_, conj. like =luvata=.]

[Note 36: Accusative sing. of =perä=, _end_.]

[Note 37: 3rd pers. sing. impf. of =painaa=, _to force down_ or _into_.]

[Note 38: = =kankaasen= (p. 225), illative sing. of stem =kankaha=, nom. =kangas= (p. 38 and rule 26), _a bare plain_.]

[Note 39: Accusative sing. of stem =kärke=, nom. =kärki=, here _the point of the sword_.]

[Note 40: 3rd sing. impf. of =kääntää=, _to turn_, _v._ p. 16.]

[Note 41: = =rintaansa=, illative sing. of =rinta=, _breast_, with suffix of 3rd pers. pron.]

[Note 42: Nominative sing. of pronoun.]

[Note 43: 3rd pers. sing. reflex. impf. of =iskeä=, _to strike_. For form _v._ pp. 109 and 227.]

[Note 44: All. sing. of =kärki= (_v._ No. 38).]

[Note 45: Illative sing. of pron. =se=, but here the force of the illative is lost; literally _to this_, _up till now_.]

[Note 46: Acc. sing. of =surma=, _fate_, with pron. aff. of 3rd pers.]

[Note 47: 3rd sing. imperf. of root =suketa=, 1st infin. =sueta=, _to make_, or _prepare_, conjugated like =luvata=.]

[Note 48: Accusative sing. of =kuolema=, _death_ (pp. 45 and 190).]

[Note 49: 3rd sing. imperf. of =kohtaella=, _to meet_ (one’s fate); cf. =kohtalo=, _fate_.]

[Note 50: Genitive sing. of =nuori= (stem =nuore=), _young_.]

[Note 51: Nominative sing. = =kuolema=, but formed with suffix =o= (p. 45).]

[Note 52: Compound of proper name =Kullervo= and =uros=, _hero_ (stem =uroho=).]

[Note 53: Nominative sing. _end_, genitive =lopun=; cf. =loppua=, _to end_, intrans., =lopettaa= trans.]

[Note 54: Adv. =aina=, _always_, with suffix =kin=. Lönnrot explains this word as =åtminstone=, =visst=; it seems here almost pleonastic, and cannot be rendered _for ever_.]

[Note 55: Partitive sing. of =uros= (stem =uroho=), _hero_, used here as the genitive.]

[Note 56: Transcriber’s Note: note 56 was omitted.]

[Note 57: Partitive sing. of compound adj. formed from =kova= _hard_ and =osainen= (stem =-se=) _fated_; adjective of =osa=, _share_.]

KALEVALA, XVI. 151 ff.

Läksi[1] Tuonelta[2] sanoja[3], Manalalta[4], mahtiloita[5]; Astua taputtelevi[6], Kävi[7] viikon[8] vitsikkoa[9], Viikon[8] toisen[10] tuomikkoa[9], 155 Kolmannen[11] katajikkoa[9], Jo[12] näkyi[13] Manalan[4] saari[14], Tuonen[2] kumpu[15] kuumottavi[16]. Vaka[17] vanha[18] Väinämöinen Jo[12] huhuta[19] huikahutti[20] 160 Tuossa Tuonelan[21] joessa[22], Manalan[4] alantehessa[23]: ‘Tuo[24] venettä[25] Tuonen[2] tytti[26], Lauttoa[27] Manalan[4] lapsi[28] Yli[29] salmen[30] saa’akseni[31], 165 Joen[22] poikki[32] päästäkseni[33]!’ Lyhykäinen[34] Tuonen[2] tytti[26], Matala[35] Manalan[4] neiti[36] Tuo oli peukkujen[37] pesiä[38], Räpähien[39] räimyttäjä[40] 170 Tuonen[2] mustassa[41] joessa[22], Manalan[4] alusve’essä[42]; Sanan[3] virkki[43], noin[44] nimesi[45], Itse lausui[46] ja pakisi[47]: ‘Vene[25] täältä[48] tuotanehe[49], 175 Kuni[50] syy[51] sanottanehe[52], Mi[53] sinun Manalle[2] saattoi[54] Ilman[55] tau’in[56] tappamatta[57], Ottamatta[58] oivan[59] surman[60], Muun[61] surman[60] musertamatta[62].’ 180 Vaka[17] vanha[18] Väinämöinen Sanan[3] virkkoi[43] noin[44] nimesi[45]: ‘Tuoni[2] minun tänne[63] tuotti[64], Mana[2] mailtani[65] veteli[66].’ Lyhykäinen Tuonen tytti, {_v._ 167, 168 Matala Manalan neiti { Tuonpa[67] hän sanoiksi[68] virkki[43]: ‘Jopa[12] keksin[69] kielastajan[70]! Kunp’[71] on[72] Tuoni[2] tänne[65] toisi[73], Mana mailta[65] siirteleisi[74], 190 Tuoni toisi[73] tullessansa[75], Manalainen[76], matkassansa[77], Tuonen hattu[78] hartioilla[79], Manan kintahat[80] käessä[81]; Sano[82] totta[83] Väinämöinen, 195 Mi[52] sinun Manalle saattoi[54]?’ Vaka[17] vanha[18] Väinämöinen Jo[12] tuossa[84] sanoiksi[68] virkki[43]: ‘Rauta[85] mun[86] Manalle[2] saattoi[54], Teräs[87] tempoi[88] Tuonelahan[21].’ 200 Lyhykäinen Tuonen tytti, { Matala Manalan neiti {_v._ 167, 168, 173. Sanan virkkoi, noin nimesi: { ‘Tuosta[89] tunnen[90] kielastajan[70]! Kun[71] rauta[85] Manalle[2] saisi[91], 205 Teräs[87] toisi[73] Tuonelahan[21], Verin[92] vaattehet[93] valuisi[94], Hurmehin[95] hurahteleisi[96]; Sano totta Väinämöinen, _v._ 195. Sano totta toinen[10] kerta[97]!’ 210 Vaka[17] vanha[18] Väinämöinen Itse virkki[43], noin[44] nimesi[45]: ‘Vesi[98] sai[91] minun Manalle[2], Aalto[99] toi[73] on[72] Tuonelahan[21].’ Lyhykäinen Tuonen tytti, { Matala Manalan neiti {v. 167, 168, 173. Sanan virkkoi, noin nimesi: { ‘Ymmärrän[100] valehtelian[101]! Jos[102] vesi[92] Manalle[2] saisi[91], Aalto[99] toisi[73] Tuonelahan[21], 220 Vesin[102] vaattehet[93] valuisi[94], Helmasi[103] herahteleisi[104]; Sano[82] tarkkoja[105] tosia[106], Mi[53] sinun Manalle[2] saattoi[54]?’ Tuossa[84] vanha[17] Väinämöinen 235 Vielä[107] kerran[108] kielastavi[109]: ‘Tuli[110] toi[73] mun[86] Tuonelahan[21], Valkea[111] Manalle[2] saattoi[54].’ Lyhykäinen Tuonen tytti, { Matala Manalan neiti {_v._ 167, 168, 183. Hänpä tuon sanoiksi virkki: { ‘Arvoan[112] valehtelian[101]! Jos[102] tuli[110] Manalle[2] toisi[73], Valkeainen[113] Tuonelahan[21], Oisi[114] kutrit[115] kärventynnä[116], 235 Partaki[117] pahoin[118] palanut[119].’ ‘Oi[120] sie[121] vanha[17] Väinämöinen, Jos[102] tahot[122] venettä[25] täältä[48], Sano[82] tarkkoja[105] tosia[106], Valehia[123] viimeisiä[124], 240 Mitenkä[125] tulit[126] Manalle[2] Ilman tau’in tappamatta, { Ottamatta oivan surman, {_v._ 178-183. Muun surman murentamatta[127].’ { Sanoi[82] vanha[18] Väinämöinen: 245 ‘Jos[102] vähän[128] valehtelinki[129], Kerran[108] toisen[10] kielastelin[109], Toki[130] ma[131] sanon[82] toetki[132]: Tein[133] tieolla[134] venettä[25], Laain[135] purtta[136] laulamalla[137], 210 Lauloin[138] päivän[139], lauloin toisen[10], Niin[140] päivällä[139] kolmannella[141] Rikkoihe[142] reki[143] runoilta[144], Jalas[145] taittui[146] lausehilta[147]; Läksin[1] Tuonelta[2] oroa[148], 255 Manalalta[4] vääntiätä[149] Rekosen[150] rakentoani[151], Laulukorjan[152] laatiani[153]; Tuopa[24] nyt[154] venoista[155] tänne[60], Laita[156] mulle[157] lauttoasi[27] 260 Yli salmen saa’akseni, {_v._ 165, 166. Joen poikki päästäkseni!’ { Kyllä[158] Tuonetar[159] toruvi[160], Manan[2] neiti[36] riitelevi[161]: ‘Oi [120] on[72] hullu[162] hulluuttasi[163], 265 Mies[164] on[72] mielesi[165] vähyyttä[166]! Tulet[126] syyttä[167] Tuonelahan[21], Tauitta[56] Manan[2] majoille[168]; Parempi[169] sinun olisi[170] Palata[171] omille[172] maille[173]; 270 Äijä[174] on tänne[63] tullehia[175], Ei paljo[176] palannehia[177].’ Sanoi vanha Väinämöinen: ‘Akka[178] tieltä[179] kääntyköhön[180], Eip’ on[72] mies[164] pahempikana[181], 275 Uros[182] untelompikana[183]; Tuo[24] venettä[25] Tuonen[2] tytti[26], Lauttoa[27] Manalan[2] lapsi[28]!’ Vei[184] venehen[25] Tuonen[2] tytti[26], Sillä[184] vanhan[18] Väinämöisen 280 Yli[23] salmen[30] saattelevi[185], Joen[82] poikki[32] päästelevi[185], Itse tuon[67] sanoiksi[68] virkki[43]: ‘Voi[180] sinua Väinämöinen, Läksit[162] surmatta[60] Manalle[2], 285 Kuolematta[186] Tuonelahan[21]!’ Tuonetar[159] hyvä[187] emäntä[188], Manalatar vaimo[189] vanha[18] Toip’[73] on[72] tuopilla[189] olutta[190], Kantoi[191] kaksikorvaisella[192], 290 Itse tuon sanoiksi virkki: _v._ 283. ‘Juop’[193] on[72] vanha[18] Väinämöinen!’ Vaka[17] vanha[18] Väinämöinen Katsoi[194] pitkin[195] tuoppiansa[189], Sammakot[196] kuti[197] sisällä[198], 295 Maot[199] laioilla[200] lateli[201]; Siitä[185] tuon[67] sanoiksi[68] virkki[43]: ‘En mä[131] tänne[65] tullutkana[175] Juomahan[193] Manalan[4] maljat[202], Tuonen[2] tuopit[180] lakkimahan[203]! 300 Juopuvat[204] oluen[190] juojat[205], Kannun[206] appajat[207] katoovat[208].’ Sanoi[182] Tuonelan[28] emäntä[188]: ‘Oi[120] on[72] vanha[18] Väinämöinen, Mitä[209] sie[121] tulit[126] Manalle, 305 Kuta[210] Tuonelan[21] tuville[211] Ennen[212] Tuonen[2] tahtomatta[213], Manan[2] mailta[214] kutsumatta[215]?’ Sanoi[128] vanha[18] Väinämöinen: ‘Veistäessäni[216] venoista[155], 310 Uutta[217] purtta[136] puuhatessa[218] Uuvuin[219] kolmea[220] sanoa[3] Peripäätä[221] päätellessä[222], Kokkoa[223] kohottaessa[224]; Kun[50] en[225] noita[226] saanutkana[225], 315 Mailta[214] ilmoilta[227] tavannut[228], Piti[229] tulla[126] Tuonelahan[21], Lähteä[1] Manan[2] majoille[168] Saamahan[230] sanoja[3] noita[226], Ongelmoita[231] oppimahan[232].’ 320 Tuopa[67] Tuonelan[21] emäntä[188] Sanan[3] virkkoi[43], noin[44] nimesi[45]: ‘Ei[233] Tuoni[2] sanoja[3] anna[233], Mana mahtia[5] jakele[234], Etkä[235] täältä[48] pääsnekänä[235] 325 Sinä[236] ilmoisna[237] ikänä[238] Kotihisi[239] kulkemahan[240], Maillesi[241] matelemahan[242].’ Uuvutti[243] unehen[244] miehen[164], Pani[245] maata[246] matkalaisen[247] 330 Tuonen[2] taljavuotehelle[248]; Siinä mies[164] makaelevi[249], Uros[182] unta[250] ottelevi[251], Mies[164] makasi[246], vaate[93] valvoi[251a]. Oli akka[178] Tuonelassa[21], 335 Akka[178] vanha[18] käykkäleuka[251b], Rautarihman[251c] kehreäjä[251d], Vaskilankojen[251e] valaja[252], Kehräsi[251a] sataisen[253] nuotan[254], Tuhantisen[255] tuuritteli[256] 340 Yönä[257] yhtena[258] kesäisnä[259], Yhellä[260] vesikivellä[261]. Oli ukko[262] Tuonelassa[21], Se on ukko[262] kolmisormi[263], Rautaverkkojen[264] kutoja[265], 345 Vaskinuotan[266] valmistaja[267], Se kutoi[268] sataisen[253] nuotan[254], Tuhantisen[255] tuikutteli[269] Samana[270] kesäisnä [259] yönä[257], Samalla[270] vesikivellä[261]. 350 Tuonen[2] poika[271] koukkusormi[272], Koukkusormi[272], rautanäppi[273], Se veti[274] sataisen[253] nuotan[254] Poikki[32] Tuonelan[21] joesta[275], Sekä[276] poikki[32], jotta[276] pitkin[190], 355 Jotta[276] vieläki[107] vitahan[277], Jott’[276] ei päästä[278] Väinämöisen, Selvitä[279] Uvantolaisen Sina[236] ilmoisna[237] ikänä [258], Kuuna[280] kullan[281] valkeana[282] 360 Tuolta[67] Tuonelan[21] koista[283], Manalan[4] ikimajoista[284]. Vaka[17] vanha[18] Väinämöinen Sanan virkkoi, noin nimesi: _v._ 173. ‘Joko[12] lie[285] tuhoni[286] tullut[285], 365 Hätäpäivä[287] päälle[288] pääsnyt[235] Näillä Tuonelan[21] tuvilla[211], Manalan[4] majantehilla[289]?’ Pian[290] muuksi[291] muuttelihe[292], Ruton[293] toiseksi[10] rupesi[294], 370 Meni[295] mustana[41] merehen[296], Sarvana[297] saraikkohon[298], Matoi[299] rautaisna[300] matona[197], Kulki[240] kyisnä[301] käärmehenä[302] Poikki[32] Tuonelan[21] joesta[275], 375 Läpi[303] Tuonen[2] verkkoloista[304]. Tuonen[2] poika[271] koukkusormi[272], Koukkusormi[272], rautanäppi[273], Kävi[7] aamulla[305] varahin[306] Verkkojansa[304] katsomahan[193], 380 Sa’an[307] saapi[308] taimenia[309], Tuhat[310] emon alvehia[311], Eip’[308] on[72] saanut[308] Väinämöistä[312], Ukkoa[262] Uvantolaista[312].

(Väimöinen journeys to the place of the dead to find his lost spells.)

He set out to fetch words from Tuoni (Words of) power from Manala; Going he stepped firmly, Went a week through forests of young trees, A second week through bird cherries, 155 A third week through junipers: Already appeared the island of Manala, The hill of Tuoni loomed. The prudent old Wäinämöinen Now shouting cried loudly 160 In the river of Tuoni In the lowland of Manala. ‘Bring a boat, daughter of Tuoni, A ship, child of Manala, For my going over this creek, 165 For my crossing over the river.’ The dwarfish daughter of Tuoni, The stunted maiden of Manala, She was washing dirty linen, Beating clothes, 170 In the black river of Tuoni, In the marsh-water[19] of Manala; Spoke a word, thus uttered, Herself talked and conversed: ‘The boat will be brought 175 When the reason shall be told, What brought thee to Mana, Without slaying by disease Without taking by a natural death Without breaking by another death.’ 180 The prudent old Wäinämöinen, Spoke a word, thus uttered: ‘Tuoni brought me hither, Mana brought me from my lands.’ The dwarfish daughter of death, 185 The stunted maiden of Manala Spoke this in words: ‘Now I recognize the liar. Had Tuoni brought (thee) hither, Mana removed from the earth, 190 Tuoni would have brought (thee) in his coming, Manalainen in his journeying, The hat of death on (thy) head (lit. necks), The gloves of death on (thy) hand[20]; Speak the truth, Wäinämöinen: 195 What brought thee to Manala?’ The prudent old Wäinämöinen Hereupon spoke in words: ‘Iron brought me to Mana, Steel sped me to Tuonela.’ 200 The dwarfish daughter of Tuoni, The stunted child of Manala, Spoke a word, thus uttered: ‘From this I know the liar! If iron had sent (thee) to Mana 205 Steel brought (thee) to Tuonela: (Thy) clothes would drip with blood, Would trickle with gore. Speak the truth, Wäinämöinen, Speak the truth a second time.’ 210 The prudent old Wäinämöinen Himself spoke, thus uttered: ‘Water sent me to Mana, The wave brought (me) to Tuonela.’ The dwarfish daughter of Tuoni 215 The stunted maiden of Manala, Framed a word, thus uttered: ‘I detect the liar. If water had sent (thee) to Mana, The wave brought (thee) to Tuonela, 220 (Thy) clothes would drip with water Thy bosom would flow. Speak the exact truth: What brought thee to Mana?’ Hereupon the old Wäinämöinen 225 Lied again a time. ‘Fire brought me to Tuonela, Flame sent me to Mana.’ The dwarfish daughter of Tuoni, The stunted maiden of Manala, 230 She spoke this in words. ‘I detect the liar. If fire had brought thee to Mana, Flame to Tuonela, (Thy) ringlets would be singed, 235 And (thy) beard be badly burnt. O thou old Wäinämöinen, If thou desirest the boat from here, Speak the exact truth, Last lies, 240 Why thou hast come to Mana, Without slaying by disease, Without taking by natural death, Without destroying by another death.’ Said the old Wäinämöinen: 245 ‘If I lied a little, Told an untruth a second time, Yet (now) I speak the truth: I was making a boat with skill, Constructing a ship with singing: 250 I sang a day, I sang a second, Now on the third day The sledge broke from my verses, The foot-piece broke from my speech. I set forth to obtain an auger from Tuoni, 255 A gimlet from Manala, For my building the sledge, For my arranging the basket-sledge of song[21]. So bring the boat here, Prepare for me thy ship, 260 For my going over this creek, For my crossing over the river.’ Greatly Tuonetar was wroth The maiden of Mana was angry: ‘Alas, fool, for thy folly, 265 Man, for the smallness of thy sense. Thou comest without a cause to Tuonela, Without sickness to the dwellings of Mana: Better were it for thee To return to thy own lands. 270 Many are they who come hither, Not many they who return.’ Said the old Wäinämöinen— ‘Let an old woman turn from the path, Not even a worse man, 275 Not a duller hero. Bring the boat, daughter of Tuoni, The ship, child of Manala.’ The daughter of Tuoni brought the boat, With it the old Wäinämöinen 280 Across the creek she carried. Conveyed over the river. Herself she spoke this in words. ‘Woe to thee, Wäinämöinen, Thou hast come without death to Mana, 285 Without dying to Tuonela.’ Tuonetar, the good hostess, Manalatar the old woman[22] Brought beer in a cup, Bore (it) in a two-handled vessel. 290 Herself framed this in words: ‘Drink old Wäinämöinen.’ Prudent old Wäinämöinen Looked up and down over his cup. Frogs were wriggling in the inside, 295 Worms crawled at the edges. Then he framed this in words: ‘I came not here at all To drink the pots of Manala, To empty the cups of Tuoni. 300 The drinkers of beer get drunk, The drainers of the cup fall.’ The hostess of Tuonela said: ‘O old Wäinämöinen, Why hast thou come to Mana, 305 To the dwellings of Tuonela Before the bidding of Tuoni, The calling of Mana from the earth?’ Old Wäinämöinen said: ‘In my hewing a boat, 310 In fashioning a new ship, I lost three words, In finishing the end-piece, In building up a structure of wood. Since I have not found them, 315 Or met in the wide world, It was necessary to come to Tuonela, To set out for the habitations of Mana, In order to find those words, To learn dark sayings.’ 320 The hostess of Tuoni, Spoke a word, thus uttered: ‘Tuoni does not give words, (Nor) Mana distribute (words of) power, And thou wilt not get free from here 325 In all this life To go to thy home, To return to thy land.’ She made the man sink into slumber, Laid the traveller to sleep, 330 On to the skin rugs of Tuoni. Then the man slept, The hero took slumber, The man slept, the clothes watched. There was a hag in Tuonela, 335 An old hag with a sharp chin, A spinner of iron threads, A caster of brass threads. She spun a hundred fold net, Wrought one of a thousand fold 340 In one summer night On one water-stone. There was an old man in Tuonela. He is an old man with three fingers, A weaver of iron nets, 345 A preparer of brass nets. He wove a hundred-fold net, Forged one of a thousand-fold In the same summer night On the same water stone. 350 Tuoni’s son with crooked fingers, With crooked fingers, with iron nails, He spread the hundred fold net Across the river of Tuoni, Both across and along, 355 And also slantwise, That it might not let pass Wäinämöinen (Or) free Uvantolainen, In all this life, While the golden moon shines, 360 From there, from the homes of Tuoni, From the eternal dwellings of Mana. Prudent old Wäinämöinen Spoke a word, thus uttered: ‘Can my doom have already come, 365 The day of misfortune have lighted on my head, In these dwellings of Tuonela, In the abodes of Manala.’ Suddenly he changed himself to another shape, Swiftly he became other, 370 Went black into the water, As an otter into the reedy place, Crept like an iron worm, Moved like a viper snake Across the river of Tuonela, 375 Through the nets of Tuoni. Tuoni’s son with crooked fingers, With crooked fingers and iron nails, Went in the morning early. To look at his nets, 380 Catches a hundred small fish A thousand fry, Did not catch Wäinämöinen The old Uvantolainen.

KALEVALA XL. 113 ff.

[While Väinämöinen, Lemminkäinen, and Ilmarinen are sailing to Pohjola, the ship goes aground. Väinämöinen asks Lemminkäinen to find out what is the matter.]

Se on[72] lieto[313] Lemminkäinen[314] Pyörähtihe[315] katsomahan[193], Katsovi[193] venosen[155] alle[316], 115 Sanan virkkoi, noin nimesi: _v._ xvi. 182. ‘Ei ole veno[155] kivellä[261], Ei kivellä, ei haolla[317], Vene[25] on hauin[318] hartioilla[70], Ve’en[98] koiran[319] konkkaluilla[320].’ 120 Vaka vanha Väinämöinen {_v._ xvi. 151, Sanan virkkoi, noin nimesi: {182. ‘Jotaki[321] joessa[22] onpi[322], Hakojaki[323], haukiaki[318]; Kun[50] lie[285] hauin[318] hartioilla[79], 125 Ve’en koiran konkkaluilla, _v._ l. 120. Veä[324] miekalla[325] vetehen[98], Katkaise[326] kala[327] kaheksi[328]!’ Se on lieto Lemminkäinen, _v._ l. 113. Poika[271] veitikka[329] verevä[330] 130 Miekan[325] vyöltänsä[331] vetävi[324], Luunpurian[332] puoleltansa[333]; Veti[324] miekalla[325] meryttä[334], Alta[335] laian[198] laskettavi[336], Itse vierähti[337] vetehen[98], 135 Kourin[338] aaltohon[99] kohahti[339]. Siitä[340] seppo[341] Ilmarinen[342] Tarttui[343] tukkahan[344] urosta[345], Nostalti[346] merestä[295] miehen[164], Itse tuon sanoiksi virkki: _v._ xvi. 283. ‘Kaikki[347] on mieheksi[164] kyhätty[348], Pantu[245] parran[117] kantajaksi[191], Lisäksi[349] satalu’ulle[350], Tuhannelle[351] täytteheksi[352].’ Miekan vyöltänsä vetävi, _v._ line 131. Tupestansa[353] tuiman[354] rauan[85], Jolla[355] kalhaisi[356] kaloa[327], Alta[335] laian[198] läimähytti[357]; Miekka[325] murskaksi[358] mureni[359], Eipä hauki[318] tiennytkänä[360]. 150 Vaka vanha Väinämöinen {_v._ xvi. 197, Tuossa tuon sanoiksi virkki: { 198. ‘Ei ole teissä[361] puolta[362] miestä[164], Ei urosta[182] kolmannesta[363]; Kun[50] konsa[364] tulevi[120] tarve[365], 155 Miehen[164] mieltä[165] vaaitahan[366], Silloin[367] mieli[165] melkeässä[368], Kaikki[347] toimi[369] toisialla[370].’ Itse miekkansa[325] veälti[371], Tempasi terävän rauan, _v._ xxxvi. 326. Työnti[372] miekkansa[325] merehen[295], Alle[316] laian[198] langetteli[373] Kalahauin[374] hartioihin[79], Ve’en koiran konkkaluihin. _v._ line 120. Miekka[325] luottihe[375] lujahan[376], 165 Kitasihin[377] kiinnittihe[378]; Siitä[340] vanha Väinämöinen Nostalti[346] kaloa[327] tuota[67], Veti[324] haukia[318] ve’estä[98]: Hauki[31] katkesi[379] kaheksi[328], 170 Pursto[380] pohjahan[381] putosi[382], Pää[288] kavahti[383] karpahasen[384]. Jo[12] otti[385] venonen[155] juosta[386], Pääsi[235] pursi[136] puutoksesta[387]; Vaka vanha Väinämöinen 175 Luotti[388] purren[136] luotoselle[389], Ravahutti[390] rantasehen[391], Katselevi, kääntelevi _v._ xxxvi. 321. Tuota[67] hauin[318] pääpaloa[392], Itse tuon sanoiksi virkki: _v._ xvi. 283. ‘Ken[393] on vanhin[18] sulholoista[394], Sepä hauki halkomahan[395], Kala[327] viploin[396] viiltämähän[397], Pää[298] paloiksi[322] pahkomahan[398]!’ Miehet[164] purresta[136] puhuvat[399], 185 Vaimot[189] lausui[46] laitasilta[400]: ‘Saajanpa[401] käet[81] sulimmat[402], Sormet[263] pyytäjän[403] pyhimmät[404].’ Vaka vanha Väinämöinen Veti[324] veitsen[405] huotrastansa[406], 190 Kyleltänsä[407] kylmän[408] rauan[85], Jolla[355] hauin[318] halkaisevi[409], Pahkovi[410] kalan[327] paloiksi[392], Itse tuon sanoiksi virkki: _v._ xvi. 283. ‘Ken[393] on nuorin[411] neitosista[412], 195 Sepä hauki keittämähän Murkinaisiksi[414] muruiksi[415], Kalaisiksi[416] lounahiksi[417]!’ Kävi[7] neiet[38] keittämähän[413], Kävi[7] kilvan[418] kymmenenki[419]; 200 Siitä[340] hauki[318] keitetähän[420], Murkinoiahan[421] muruina[422], Jäipä[423] luita[424] luotoselle[389], Kalanluita[424] kalliolle[425]. Vaka vanha Väinämöinen 205 Noita[226] tuossa[84] katselevi, Katselevi, kääntelevi, _v._ xxxvi. 321. Sanan virkkoi, noin nimesi: _v._ xvi. 182. ‘Mikä tuostaki[426] tulisi[126], Noista[427] hauin[218] hampahista[428], 210 Leveästä[429] leukaluusta[430], Jos[102] oisi[114] sepon[341] pajassa[431], Luona[432] taitavan[433] takojan[434], Miehen,[164] mahtavan[435] käsissä[81]?’ Sanoi[128] seppo[134] Ilmarinen: 215 ‘Ei tule[126] tyhjästä[436] mitänä[437], Kalan[327] ruotasta[438] kalua[439], Ei seponkana[341] pajassa, Luona taitavan takojan, _v._ lines 213, 214. Miehen mahtavan käsissä.’ Vaka vanha Väinämöinen Itse tuon sanoiksi virkki: _v._ xvi. 283. ‘Näistäpä[130] toki tulisi[126] Kalanluinen[424] kanteloinen[440], Kun[50] oisi[114] osoajata[441], 225 Soiton[442] luisen[424] laatiata[443].’ Kun[50] ei toista[10] tullutkana[175], Ei ollut osoajata[441], Soiton luisen laatiata, _v._ line 226. Vaka vanha Väinämöinen 230 Itse loihe[444] laatiaksi[443], Tekiäksi[445] teentelihe[446]; Laati[153] soiton[442] hauinluisen[424], Suoritti[447] ilon[448] ikuisen[449]. Kust’[450] on koppa[451] kanteletta[452]? 235 Hauin[318] suuren[453] leukaluusta[430]; Kust’[450] on naulat[454] kanteletta[452]? Ne on hauin[318] hampahista[428]; Kusta[450] kielet[454] kanteletta[452]? Hivuksista[455] Hiien[456] ruunan[457]. 240 Jo oli soitto[442] suorittuna[458], Valmihina[459] kanteloinen[440], Soitto[442] suuri[453] hauinluinen[421], Kantelo[440] kalaneväinen[460].

THE INVENTION OF THE HARP.

The gay Lemminkäinen Turned himself to see, Looked under the boat, 115 Spoke a word, thus spoke: ‘The boat is not on a stone, Not on a stone, not on timber, The boat is on the neck of a pike, On the hip bones of a water dog.’ 120 The prudent old Väinämöinen, Spoke a word, thus said: ‘There are all sorts of things in a river, Timber, pikes: If it be on the neck of a pike, 125 On the hips of a water-dog, Smite with the sword into the water, Cut the fish in two.’ The gay Lemminkäinen, The bright lively youth, 130 Draws the sword from his girdle, The bone biter from his side; Struck the sea with the sword, Stirs under the side (of the ship). Himself rolled into the water, 135 Fell splash into the billow hands foremost. Then the smith Ilmarinen, Clung on to the hair of the hero, Raised the man from the sea. Himself spoke this in words: 140 ‘Every-one is formed to be a man, Made to be a bearer of a beard, To be a supplement to the number of a hundred, To complete a thousand[23].’ He draws the sword from his girdle, 145 The cruel iron from his sheath, With which he smote the fish, Struck below the side (of the ship). The sword broke into pieces, The pike did not even perceive. 150 Prudent old Väinämöinen On this spoke this in words: ‘There is not in you half a man, Not the third part of a hero, When need comes, 155 The mind of a man is wanted, Then (your) mind fails, All (your) sense is away.’ He himself drew his sword, Seized the sharp iron 160 Struck his sword into the sea, Smote below the side (of the ship) On-to the neck of the pike fish, On to the hip bones of the water dog. The sword was driven home into the firm (flesh), 165 Fixed in the gills; Then old Väinämöinen Brought up that fish, Drew the pike from the water; The pike fell in two; 170 The tail dropped to the bottom of the sea, The head rolled into the boat. Now the boat began to run, The vessel got free from the impediment. Prudent old Väinämöinen 175 Brought the vessel near to shore, Drove her on to the strand, Looked at and turned That head-piece of the pike. Himself spoke this in words: 180 ‘Who is the oldest of the youths, (Let him come) to cut up the pike, Divide the fish into pieces, Split the head into bits.’ The men speak from the ship, 185 The women cry from the shore: ‘The hands of the catcher are the purest, The fingers of the seeker are the holiest.’ The prudent old Väinämöinen Drew a knife from his sheath, 190 The cold iron from his side, With which he cuts up the pike, Splits the fish into pieces. Himself spoke this in words:— ‘Who is the youngest of the women, 195 (Let her come) to cook the pike, Into morsels for dinner, Into a fish midday meal.’ The women went to cook, Ten went in rivalry; 200 Then the pike is cooked, Pieces for dinner; The bones remained on the shore, The fish bones on the edge of the sea. The prudent old Väinämöinen 205 Looked at them there, Looked, turned, Spoke a word, thus uttered: ‘What might come from this, From these teeth of the pike, 210 From the broad jaw bone, If it were in the smithy of a smith, With a clever forger, In the hands of a cunning man?’ Said the smith Ilmarinen:— 215 ‘There comes not anything from nothingness, No instrument from the mouth of a fish, Not even in the smithy of a smith, With a clever forger, In the hands of a cunning man.’ 220 Prudent old Väinämöinen Himself spoke this in words: ‘Yet from these might come A fish-bone harp, Were there but an artist, 225 A maker of bone playing-instruments.’ When there came no other, (When there) was not any artist, (No) maker of bone playing-instruments, Prudent old Väinämöinen 230 Himself became a maker, Appeared as a fabricator: Made an instrument of pike-bone, Made ready an eternal joy. Of what is the body of the harp? 235 Of the jaw-bone of the great pike. Of what are the pegs of the harp? They are the teeth of the pike. Of what are the strings of the harp? Of the hairs of the courser of Hiisi. 240 Now the instrument was prepared, The harp made ready, A great instrument of pike-bone, A harp of fish-fins.

[Note 1: 3rd sing. imperf. of =lähteä= (rule 40); =lähti= is also found. The lit. meaning of this word is _to set out_, but it is used sometimes with an object to mean _to go after_, _to fetch_.]

[Note 2: Ablative sing. of =tuoni=, _death_. =Mana= is a synonym.]

[Note 3: Part. plur. of =sana=, _word_ (rule 7), obj. of =läksi=.]

[Note 4: Ablative sing. of =Manala=, _abode of death_ (_v._ p. 47 for the suffix).]

[Note 5: Part. plur. of =mahti=, _power_, obj. of =läksi=; for suffix =loi=, _v._ p. 225.]

[Note 6: For constr. _v._ p. 188; =astua=, 1st infin., _to step_; =taputtelevi=, 3rd pers. sing. pres. (p. 228) of =taputella=, _to tread heavily or firmly_.]

[Note 7: 3rd sing. imperf. of =käydä= (rule 5, p. 9), _to go_ or _traverse_.]

[Note 8: Accusative sing. of =wiikko=, _week_, denoting duration (_v._ p. 137).]

[Note 9: These three words are formed with the suffix =kko= (p. 47) from the words =witsa=, _small tree_ or _shoot_; =tuomi=, _bird-cherry_, Swedish =hägg=; and =kataja=, _juniper_.]

[Note 10: Accusative sing. of =toinen= (p. 35).]

[Note 11: Accusative sing. of =kolmas= (p. 35).]

[Note 12: Adv. _now_ or _already_.]

[Note 13: 3rd. sing. imperf. of =näkyä=, neut. form of =nähdä=, _to see_ (p. 109).]

[Note 14: Nominative sing. of stem =saari=, _an island_.]

[Note 15: Nominative sing. _a hill_.]

[Note 16: 3rd sing. pres. of =kuumottaa=, _to loom_ or _be seen indistinctly_.]

[Note 17: This is a constant epithet of =Wäinämöinen=, meaning literally _firm_, and then used to denote a kind of steady prudence, which is a natural characteristic of the Finns, and (like Scotch canniness) untranslatable, though more frivolous nations might render it by stolid.]

[Note 18: Adj. _old_, also a constant epithet.]

[Note 19: 1st infin.; for constr. _v._ p. 188.]

[Note 20: 3rd sing. imperf. of =huikahuttaa=. Like the last word this is onomatopœic.]

[Note 21: Genitive sing. of =Tuonela=, _place of Tuoni_ (_v._ p. 47).]

[Note 22: Inessive sing. of =joki=, _a river_ (rule 28).]

[Note 23: Inessive sing. of =alanne=, _lowland_ or _depth_ (stem =alantehe=).]

[Note 24: 2nd sing. imper. of =tuoda= (p. 80).]

[Note 25: Part. sing. of =vene=, _a boat_; stem =venehe= (cf. =terve=, p. 39), obj. of =tuo=.]

[Note 26: = =tyttö=, diminutive, nom. sing.]

[Note 27: = =lauttaa= (p. 225), part. sing. of =lautta=, _ship_.]

[Note 28: Nominative sing. of stem =lapsi=, _child_.]

[Note 29: Preposition with gen. (_v._ p. 217) _across_.]

[Note 30: Genitive sing. of =salmi=, _creek_, depending on =yli= (p. 217).]

[Note 31: = =saadakseni=, longer form of 1st infin. of root =saa= (here used intransitively) with suffix of 1st pers. pron. For constr. _v._ p. 185.]

[Note 32: Postposition (p. 204) governing the genitive =joen=.]

[Note 33: Longer form of =päästä= (root =pääse=) with suffix of 1st pers.]

[Note 34: Nominative sing. dimin. adj. from =lyhyt= (p. 48).]

[Note 35: Nominative sing. _low_, _dwarfish_.]

[Note 36: Nominative sing. _a maiden_.]

[Note 37: Genitive plur. of =poukku=, _dirty linen_.]

[Note 38: = =pesijä=, _washer_, _v._ p. 196.]

[Note 39: Genitive plur. of =räväs= (stem =räpähä=), _rag_.]

[Note 40: Nominative sing. _a beater_; cf. =räimätä=, _to beat_.]

[Note 41: Inessive sing. of =musta=, _black_.]

[Note 42: Inessive sing. of compound noun =alusvesi= (p. 34).]

[Note 43: 3rd sing. imperf. (the form varies between =virkki= and =virkkoi=) from =virkkaa=, _to speak_.]

[Note 44: Instr. plur. of =tuo=, _thus_.]

[Note 45: 3rd sing. imperf. of =nimetä=, literally _to name_.]

[Note 46: 3rd sing. imperf. of =lausua=, _to call_.]

[Note 47: 3rd sing. imperf. of =pakista=, _to talk_ or _speak_.]

[Note 48: Adv. _thence_; abl. of =tämä=, _this_; =täällä=, =täältä= are written with two =ä=’s when used adverbially.]

[Note 49: = =tuotaneen=, concessive passive of =tuoda=, _to bear_. The final =n= of the passive is omitted. For constr. _v._ pp. 177 and 182.]

[Note 50: = =kun=, _when_.]

[Note 51: Nominative sing. _a cause_.]

[Note 52: Conditional passive of =sanoa=, _to speak_ (= =sanottaneen=).]

[Note 53: = =mikä=.]

[Note 54: 3rd sing. imperf. of =saattaa=, causative form of =saada= (p. 110), _to cause to come_ or _bring_; for form _v._ rule 7.]

[Note 55: Prep. with the abessive (p. 203): used also as adverb. Apparently genitive of =ilma=, _air_, but connection of meaning is obscure.]

[Note 56: = =taudin=, gen. sing. of =tauti=, _disease_, constr. with =tappamatta= (p. 184).]

[Note 57: Abessive of the 3rd infin. of =tappaa=, _to kill_ (p. 193).]

[Note 58: Abessive of 3rd infin. of =ottaa=, _to take_.]

[Note 59: Genitive sing. of =oiva=, _right_ or _proper_.]

[Note 60: Genitive sing. of =surma=, _fate_; _a right fate_ is a natural death. For constr. _v._ p. 184.]

[Note 61: Genitive sing. of =muu=, _other_; _another fate_ means one other than a natural death.]

[Note 62: Abessive of 3rd infin. of =musertaa=, _to break_.]

[Note 63: Adv. _hither_, _v._ p. 24.]

[Note 64: 3rd sing. imperf. from =tuottaa=, causal of =tuoda=, _to bear_.]

[Note 65: Ablative plur. of =maa=, _land_, with affix of 1st person.]

[Note 66: 3rd sing. imperf. from =vedellä=, formed from =vetää=, _to carry_.]

[Note 67: Accusative sing. of pron. =tuo=, with adverbial suffix =pa=.]

[Note 68: Transl. plur. of =sana= after =virkki=, _spoke this into words_ (p. 158).]

[Note 69: 1st sing. pres. of =keksiä=, _to find_ or _detect_.]

[Note 70: Accusative sing. of =kielastaja= (from =kieli=, _tongue_). One who is ready with his tongue, hence _a liar_. The Finns are a silent race.]

[Note 71: =kun=, _if_, with adv. suffix =pa=.]

[Note 72: =On=, a particle of emphasis, not the verb substantive.]

[Note 73: 3rd sing. conditional of =tuoda=, _to bring_.]

[Note 74: 3rd sing. conditional of =siirtellä=, deriv. verb from =siirtää=.]

[Note 75: Inessive of 2nd infin. of =tulla=, _to come_, with pron. affix of 3rd person.]

[Note 76: Adjectival form from =Manala= (_v._ p. 46).]

[Note 77: Inessive of =matka=, _a journey_.]

[Note 78: Nominative sing. _a hat_. For the constr. of nominative absolute _v._ p. 134.]

[Note 79: Adessive plur. of =hartia=, _neck_ or _shoulders_.]

[Note 80: Nominative plur. of =kinnas=, _a glove_, stem =kintaha= (p. 38).]

[Note 81: = =kädessä=, inessive of =käsi=, _a hand_ (stem =käte=), for use _v._ p. 141.]

[Note 82: 2nd sing. imper. of =sanoa=, _to speak_.]

[Note 83: Part. sing. of =tosi=, _truth_ (stem =tote=, _v._ p. 34).]

[Note 84: Inessive of =tuo=, _there_ or _thereupon_.]

[Note 85: Nominative sing. (gen. =raudan=, =rauan=), _iron_.]

[Note 86: = =minun=, _me_.]

[Note 87: Nominative sing. of stem =teräkse=, _steel_.]

[Note 88: 3rd sing. imperf. of =tempoa=, cf. =temmata=.]

[Note 89: Elative sing. of =tuo=, _from this_.]

[Note 90: 1st sing. pres. of =tuntea=.]

[Note 91: 3rd sing. conditional of =saada=, meaning here _to convey_ (cf. reflex. =saapua=). N.B. Pres. cond. used here with past signif.]

[Note 92: Instr. plur. of =veri= (stem =vere=), blood.]

[Note 93: Nominative plur. of =vaate= (stem =vaattehe=), _garment_.]

[Note 94: 3rd pers. sing. cond. (though with plur. subject) of =valua=, _to drip_.]

[Note 95: Instr. plur. of =hurme=, _gore_ (stem =hurmehe=).]

[Note 96: 3rd sing. (for plural) cond. of =hurahdella=.]

[Note 97: Nom. sing. (gen. =kerran=) _time_; for use of nom. _v._ p. 137. In l. 224 the accusative is used in same constr.]

[Note 98: Nominative sing. of stem =vete=, p. 34.]

[Note 99: Nominative sing. (gen. =aallon=), _billow_.]

[Note 100: 1st pers. sing. pres. of =ymmärtää=, p. 93.]

[Note 101: Accusative sing. of =valehtelia= (or =valhetelija=), _a liar_, _v._ No. 129.]

[Note 102: Conj. _if_.]

[Note 103: Nominative sing. with affix of 2nd person.]

[Note 104: 3rd pers. sing. (for plur.) of =herahdella=, identical with =hurahdella= above.]

[Note 105: Part. plur. of =tarkka=, _exact_.]

[Note 106: Part. plur. of stem =tote= (nom. =tosia=), _truth_.]

[Note 107: Adv. _once more_.]

[Note 108: Accusative sing. of =kerta=, cf. No. 97.]

[Note 109: 3rd sing. pres. of =kielestaa=, _v._ No. 70.]

[Note 110: Nominative sing. of =tule=, _fire_.]

[Note 111: Nominative sing.; has two meanings, (1) _white_ or _bright_, (2) _flame_; so here.]

[Note 112: = =arvaan=, 1st sing. pres. of =arvata=, _to think_ or _perceive_, conjugated like =luvata=.]

[Note 113: Adj. from =valkea= (p. 47), _the flaming one_, i.e. _fire_.]

[Note 114: = =olisi=, here used for =olisivat=.]

[Note 115: Nominative plur. of =kutri=, _a lock_.]

[Note 116: = =kärventyneenä=, essive sing. of past part, act of =kärventyä=, neuter form of =kärventää=, _to burn_.]

[Note 117: Nominative =parta=, _beard_ (gen. =parran=), with adverbial affix =ki=.]

[Note 118: Instrum. plur. of =paha=, _bad_, used adverbially (p. 161).]

[Note 119: Nominative sing. past part. act. of palaa, _to burn_ (intrans.).]

[Note 120: An interjection.]

[Note 121: = =sinä=.]

[Note 122: = =tahdot=, 2nd pers. sing. pres. of =tahtoa=, _to wish_.]

[Note 123: Part. plur. of =walhe=, _a lie_ (the cases and derivatives of this word are written either =walhe= or =waleh=).]

[Note 124: Part. plur. of =viimeinen= (stem =sen=), _last_, often employed in indeclinable form =viime=.]

[Note 125: Adv. fr. pron. stem =mi=.]

[Note 126: 2nd sing. imperf. of =tulla=, _to come_.]

[Note 127: Abessive of 3rd infin. of =murentaa=, _to crush_ or _break_.]

[Note 128: Instr. of =vähä=, _little_, used adverbially.]

[Note 129: 1st sing. imperf. of =valehdella=, with suffix =ki=.]

[Note 130: Adv. _yet_.]

[Note 131: = =minä=.]

[Note 132: = =todet=, accusative plur. of stem =tote=, nominative =tosi=, _truth_.]

[Note 133: 1st sing. imperf. of =tehdä=, stem =teke=.]

[Note 134: = =tiedolla=, adessive sing. of =tieto=, _knowledge_, used instrumentally, _v._ p. 152.]

[Note 135: = =laadin=, 1st pers. imperf. of =laatia=, _to fashion_.]

[Note 136: Part. sing. of =pursi= (stem =purte=), _ship_; part. is used because action was not completed, _v._ p. 127.]

[Note 137: Adessive of 3rd infin. of =laulaa=, _to sing_ (p. 193).]

[Note 138: 1st sing. imperf. of same verb (p. 85).]

[Note 139: Accusative sing. of =päivä=, _day_ (p. 137).]

[Note 140: Instr. plur. of =se=, used adverbially.]

[Note 141: Adessive sing. of =kolmas= (p. 35); the essive would be more usual as a definite date is mentioned (p. 150).]

[Note 142: 3rd sing. imperf. of =rikkoa=, _to break_ (_v._ p. 227).]

[Note 143: Nominative sing. _sledge_ (p. 33).]

[Note 144: Ablative plur. of =runo=, _verse_ (p. 154).]

[Note 145: Nominative sing. of stem =jalakse= (fr. =jala=, _foot_), _the foot_ or _end of a sledge_.]

[Note 146: 3rd sing. imperf. from =taittua=, _to bend_, reflex. form of =taittaa= (p. 109).]

[Note 147: Ablative plur. of =lause= (stem =lausehe=).]

[Note 148: = =oraa=, part. sing, of =ora=, _a gimlet_.]

[Note 149: Part. sing. of =vääntiä=, _an auger_.]

[Note 150: Accusative sing. of =rekonen=, dim. fr. =reke=, _a sledge_.]

[Note 151: = =rakentaa= (p. 93) 1st infin. with affix of 1st person (p. 187).]

[Note 152: Accusative sing. compound word formed from =laulu=, _song_, and =korja=, _a basket sledge_ (Swedish =korgsläde=).]

[Note 153: _v._ No. 135, 1st infin. with suffix of 1st person.]

[Note 154: Adv. _now_.]

[Note 155: Part. sing. of =venoinen=, _dim._ of =vene=, _boat_.]

[Note 156: 2nd sing. imperf. of =laittaa=, _to make ready_.]

[Note 157: = =minulle=.]

[Note 158: =kyllä=, adv. _much_; originally a subst. meaning _plenty_.]

[Note 159: Nominative sing. of =tuonettare=, from stem =tuone=, with affix =ttare= (p. 46).]

[Note 160: 3rd sing. pres. of =torua=, _to chide_.]

[Note 161: 3rd sing. pres. of =riidella= (stem =riitele=), _to quarrel_ or _be angry_.]

[Note 162: Nominative sing., _a fool_.]

[Note 163: Part. sing, with affix of 2nd pers. of stem =hulluute=, _folly_, derived from =hullu= (p. 47); for use of part, after =oi=, _v._ p. 136.]

[Note 164: Nominative sing. of stem =miehe=.]

[Note 165: Gen. sing. of =mieli=, with affix of 2nd pers. sing.]

[Note 166: Part. sing. of stem =vähyyte= (after =oi=), formed like =hulluus=, above, from =vähä=, _little_.]

[Note 167: Abessive sing. of =syy=, _cause_; =tauitta= (from =tauti=) is same case.]

[Note 168: Allative sing. (after =tulet=) from =maja=, _a habitation_.]

[Note 169: Nominative of stem =parempa=, comp. of =hyvä=, _good_.]

[Note 170: For constr. _v._ p. 138.]

[Note 171: 1st infin. and root _to return_, conjugated like =luvata=.]

[Note 172: Adessive plur. of =oma=, _own_.]

[Note 173: Adessive plur. of =maa=, _land_.]

[Note 174: Adv. and adj. _much_.]

[Note 175: Part. plur. of stem =tullehe= (nominative sing. =tullut=, p. 40), 2nd part. act. of =tulla=, _to come_.]

[Note 176: Adv. _much_.]

[Note 177: _v._ 175; this is corresponding form from =palata=, _to return_.]

[Note 178: Nominative sing., _an old woman_.]

[Note 179: Ablative sing. =tie=, _a way_.]

[Note 180: = =kääntyköön=, 3rd sing. opt. of =kääntyä=, reflex. form of =kääntää=, _to turn_.]

[Note 181: Nominative of compar. of =paha=, _bad_ (p. 42), with adv. affix =kana=. N.B. As =ei= is indic. and not imper. the line must mean ‘the meanest man _will_ not.’]

[Note 182: Nominative sing. stem =uroho= (p. 38).]

[Note 183: Nominative of compar. of =untelo=, _sleepy_ or _dull_, from =untua=, _to be sleepy_.]

[Note 184: 3rd sing. imperf. of =viedä= (rule 4).]

[Note 185: =saatella=, =päästellä= are derivative forms from =saada=, =päästä= (p. 111).]

[Note 186: Abessive of 3rd infin. of =kuolla=, _to die_.]

[Note 187: Nominative sing. _good_.]

[Note 188: Nominative sing. (gen. =emännän=), _mistress_ or _hostess_.]

[Note 189: Adessive sing. of =tuoppi=. The inessive would seem more natural.]

[Note 190: Part. sing. of =olut=, _beer_, stem =olue=; cf. =kevät=, p. 39; for part. _v._ p. 135.]

[Note 191: 3rd sing. of =kantaa=, _to bear_.]

[Note 192: Adessive sing. of =kaksikorvainen=, formed of =kaksi=, _two_; =korva=, _ear_, with adj. ending =inen=, _two-eared_ or _two-handled_.]

[Note 193: 2nd sing. imperf. of =juoda=, _to drink_.]

[Note 194: 3rd sing. imperf. of =katsoa=, _to look_.]

[Note 195: Prep. governing partitive =tuoppiansa= (p. 204).]

[Note 196: Nominative plur. of =sammakko=, _frog_.]

[Note 197: 3rd sing. (for plural) imperf. of =kutea=.]

[Note 198: Adessive sing. of =sisä=, _interior_ (cf. p. 214).]

[Note 199: = =madot=, nominative plur. of =mato=, _worm_.]

[Note 200: = =laidoilla=, adessive plur. of =laita=, _side_.]

[Note 201: = =mateli= (which perhaps should be read), imperf. of =madella= (sing. for plur.), _to creep_ (connected =mato=).]

[Note 202: Accusative plur. of =malja=, _a cup_.]

[Note 203: Illative of 3rd infin. of =lakkia=. For the construction of this and of =juomahan=, _v._ p. 192.]

[Note 204: 3rd pers. plur. pres. of =juopua= (p. 111).]

[Note 205: Nominative plur. of =juoja= (p. 45).]

[Note 206: Genitive sing. of =kannu=, _a cup_, or _can_.]

[Note 207: Nominative plur. of =appaja=, formed from =appaa=, _to eat_ or _drink greedily_.]

[Note 208: 3rd plur. pres. of stem =katota=, 1st infin. =kadota=, conjugated like =koota= (p. 104).]

[Note 209: Part. of =mitä=, used adverbially, _why_.]

[Note 210: Part. of =kuka=, here used like =mikä=.]

[Note 211: Allative plur. (after =tulit=) of =tupa=, _house_.]

[Note 212: Adv. _before_.]

[Note 213: Abessive of 3rd infin. of =tahtoa=, _to wish_. There is here a confusion of two ideas, _without the will of Tuoni_ and _before the bidding of Tuoni_.]

[Note 214: Ablative plur. of =maa=, _land_.]

[Note 215: Abessive of 3rd infin. of =kutsua=, _to call_.]

[Note 216: Inessive of 2nd infin. of =veistää=, _to cut_, from =veitsi=, _a knife_, _v._ p. 189.]

[Note 217: Part. sing. of =uusi= (stem =uute=), _new_; part. because

## action was not complete.]

[Note 218: Inessive of 2nd infin. of =puuhata=, like =luvata=.]

[Note 219: 1st pers. sing. of =uupua=, _to fall asleep_, _to lose_; cf. No. 243.]

[Note 220: Part. of =kolme=, _three_, followed by part. sing. of =sana= (p. 172).]

[Note 221: = =peräpää=, lit. _end-head_, i.e. _extreme part_.]

[Note 222: Inessive of 2nd infin. of =päätellä=, derived from =päättää=, _to finish_.]

[Note 223: = =kokkaa=, part. sing. of =kokka=, _prow_.]

[Note 224: Inessive of 2nd infin. of =kohottaa=, transitive form of kohota, _to swell_ or _rise_.]

[Note 225: 1st sing. imperf. neg. of =saada=, with adv. affix =kana=.]

[Note 226: Part. plur. of =tuo= used after negative.]

[Note 227: Ablative plur. of =ilma=, _air_. =maailma= (_earth_, _air_) means _universe_, and the present expression, in which the two elements are declined, has much the same force.]

[Note 228: Nominative sing. 2nd part. active of =tavata= (root =tapata=), conjugated like =luvata=; =en= must be understood with this participle.]

[Note 229: 3rd sing. imperf. of =pitää= (here impersonal, _oportere_).]

[Note 230: Illative of 3rd infin. of =saada=. N.B. This infin. does not depend on =piti=, but denotes the purpose of the action; _v._ p. 192.]

[Note 231: Part. plur. of =ongelmo= (derived from =onki=), _a crooked saying_, _a riddle_.]

[Note 232: Illative of 3rd infin. of =oppia=, _to learn_.]

[Note 233: 3rd. sing. pres. neg. of =antaa=, _to give_ (p. 69).]

[Note 234: Negative form (understand =ei=) of =jaella=, derived from =jakaa=, _to divide_ or _distribute_.]

[Note 235: 2nd pers. sing. concessive negative of =päästä= (like =nousta=).]

[Note 236: Essive of =se=.]

[Note 237: Essive sing. of =ilmoinen=, derived from =ilma= (_the open space_ or _air_) and apparently meaning _long_.]

[Note 238: Essive of =ikä=, _life_. For temporal meaning of essive, _v._ p. 157. The whole expression apparently means _in this long life_, i.e. _as long as you live_.]

[Note 239: Illative plur. of =koti=, _home_, with affix of 2nd pers. pron.]

[Note 240: Illative of 3rd infin. of =kulkea=, _to go_.]

[Note 241: Allative plur. of =maa=, _land_, with affix of 2nd pers.]

[Note 242: Illative of 3rd infin. of =madella=.]

[Note 243: 3rd sing. imperf. of =uuvuttaa=, _to tire_ or _throw to sleep_.]

[Note 244: = =uneen=, illative sing. of =uni=, _sleep_; the illative is used on account of the idea of change of state in =uuvutti=.]

[Note 245: 3rd sing. imp. of =panna= (like =tulla=), _to put_.]

[Note 246: 1st infin. of root =makata= (like =lupata=), _to sleep_. The expression =panna maata= is generally used in an intransitive sense, _to go to bed_.]

[Note 247: Acc. sing. of =matkalainen=, _a traveller_, deriv. from =matka=, _journey_.]

[Note 248: Allative sing. (on account of motion in lying down _unto_) of compound noun composed of =talja= and =vuode=, both meaning _skin_, or _fur_.]

[Note 249: 3rd sing. pres. of =makaella=, derivative verb from =maata=.]

[Note 250: Part. sing. of =uni=.]

[Note 251: Derivative verb from =ottaa=, _to take_.]

[Note 251a: 3rd sing. imperf. of =valvoa=, _to watch_. The expression is a proverb, and means _he slept with one eye open_.]

[Note 251b: Nominative sing. of compound adj. formed of =käykkä=, _prominent_, and =leuka=, _chin_.]

[Note 251c: Genitive sing. of compound substantive formed of =rauta=, _iron_, and =rihma=, _thread_.]

[Note 251d: Noun of agency formed with affix =ja= from =kehrätä=, _to spin_.]

[Note 251e: Genitive plur. of =vaskilanka=, compound of =vaski=, _brass_, and =lanka=, _twine_.]

[Note 252: Noun of agency from =valaa=, _to pour_ or _make by casting_.]

[Note 253: Accusative sing. of =satainen=, _hundred-fold_, here meaning _complicated_ or _large_.]

[Note 254: Accusative sing. of =nuotta=, _a large net_.]

[Note 255: Accusative sing. of =tuhantinen=; _v._ =satainen=, _above_.]

[Note 256: 3rd sing. imperf. of =tuuritella=, _to knit_ (from =tuurittaa=).]

[Note 257: Essive sing. of =yö=, _night_ (p. 157).]

[Note 258: Essive sing. of =yksi=.]

[Note 259: Essive sing. of =kesäinen=, adj. from =kesä=, _summer_; =kesäisenä=, contracted to =kesäisnä=.]

[Note 260: = =yhdellä= (p. 51).]

[Note 261: Adessive sing. of compound subst. formed of =vesi=, _water_, and =kivi=, _stone_.]

[Note 262: Nominative sing. _an old man_.]

[Note 263: Nominative sing. compound of =kolme=, _three_ (N.B. in compounds the =e= becomes =i=), and =sormi=, _a finger_.]

[Note 264: Genitive plur. of =rautaverkko=, compound of =rauta=, _iron_, and =verkko=, _a net_.]

[Note 265: Noun of agency from =kutoa=, _to weave_.]

[Note 266: Genitive sing. of =vaskinuotta=; _v._ Nos. 251 and 254.]

[Note 267: Noun of agency from =valmistaa=, _to make ready_.]

[Note 268: 3rd sing. imperf. of =kutoa=.]

[Note 269: 3rd sing. imperf. of =tuikutella=.]

[Note 270: Essive of =sama=, _the same_.]

[Note 271: Nominative sing. (gen. =pojan=), _a boy_.]

[Note 272: Compound adj. =koukku=, _a hook_, =sormi=, _a finger_.]

[Note 273: Compound adj. =rauta=, _iron_, =näppi=, _finger tip_.]

[Note 274: 3rd sing. imperf. of =vetää=, _to draw_ or _spread_.]

[Note 275: Elative sing. of =joki=, _river_; =alatse=, =läpi=, =poikki=, =yli=, sometimes take the elative instead of partitive in the Kalevala.]

[Note 276: =sekä ... jotta= = _both ... and_, but the third =jotta= introduces a final sentence with the verb in the indicative, not in the subjunctive, as is more usual.]

[Note 277: Illative sing. of =vita=, _crosswise_.]

[Note 278: Negative pres. of =päästää=, _to let go_.]

[Note 279: Negative pres. of =selvittää=, _to liberate_ (from =selvä=, _free_ or _clear_).]

[Note 280: Essive of =kuu=, _moon_.]

[Note 281: Genitive sing. of =kulta=, _gold_.]

[Note 282: Essive of =walkea=, _bright_. The meaning of these three words is clearly _as long as the moon shines_, but their exact relation to each other is a little obscure. =Kullan= is apparently an attributive genitive belonging to =kuun=, and the essive is to be taken in a temporal sense. Literally, _in the moon of gold shining_. Cf. XLIX. 116. =Päivä-kullan paistamahan.=]

[Note 283: Elative plur. of =koti=, _home_.]

[Note 284: Elative plur. of =ikimaja=, compound of =iki=, _always_, and =maja=, _dwelling_.]

[Note 285: Compound concessive of =tulla=; =lie= = =lienee=. For use of the concessive in questions, _v._ p. 177.]

[Note 286: Nominative sing. with affix of 1st person.]

[Note 287: Compound of =hätä=, _straits_ or _danger_, and =päivä=, _day_.]

[Note 288: Allative sing. of =pää=, _head_.]

[Note 289: Adessive plur. of =majanne= (stem =-tehe=) formed from =maja= (p. 47), _a poor dwelling_.]

[Note 290: Genitive of =pika=, _swiftness_, used adverbially.]

[Note 291: Translative sing. of =muu=, _other_; for use of the case here and in =toiseksi= after verbs denoting change (_v._ p. 158).]

[Note 292: 3rd pers. sing, imperf. (_v._ p. 109) of =muutella=, derived from =muuttaa=, _to make other_ (=muu=), or _change_.]

[Note 293: Genitive of =rutto=, _rapid_, used adverbially.]

[Note 294: 3rd sing. imperf. of =ruveta=, _to begin_ or _become_.]

[Note 295: 3rd sing. imperf. of =mennä=, _to go_.]

[Note 296: Illative of =meri=, _sea_.]

[Note 297: Essive of =sarva= (or =saarva=), _an otter_. For the case of this and =mustana=, etc., _v._ p. 157.]

[Note 298: Illative sing. of =saraikko=, formed from =sara=, _sedge_; cf. No. 9.]

[Note 299: 3rd sing. imperf. of =matoa=, _to creep_.]

[Note 300: Essive sing. of =rautainen=, _iron_.]

[Note 301: Essive of =kyinen= (stem =se=) adj. from =kyy=, _a viper_.]

[Note 302: Essive of =käärme= (stem =käärmehe=), _a serpent_.]

[Note 303: Preposition with elat. _v._ No. 280.]

[Note 304: Part. plur. of =verkko=, _net_; cf. No. 5.]

[Note 305: Adessive of =aamu=, _morning_ (p. 150).]

[Note 306: = =varhain=, adv. _early_.]

[Note 307: = =sadan=, accusative of =sata=, _hundred_.]

[Note 308: 3rd sing. pres. of =saa=.]

[Note 309: Part. plur. of =taimen= (stem =taimene=), _a kind of fish_ (_salmo fario_ or _trutta_, Lönnrot).]

[Note 310: a thousand, p. 52.]

[Note 311: =Emon= is gen. of =emo= (= =emä=), _mother_; =alvehia=, part. plur. of =alve= (stem =alpehe=, _a young fish_). The phrase seems to mean _fry that follow their mother_.]

[Note 312: Part. cases of =Väinämöinen= and =Uvantolainen=, after negative verb.]

[Note 313: Nominative sing. adj. originally _muddy_; thence _soft_ or _light_; explained as meaning here =kevytmielinen=, _light-minded_.]

[Note 314: Also called =Ahti= and =Kaukomieli=. The most fascinating and adventurous of the heroes of the Kalevala, but sadly deficient in moral sense. He was much attached to female society, which led to his being killed, apparently very thoroughly, in