D.

DAGGER. _See_ OBELISK.

DANCES. _See_ FORM DANCES.

DANISH.

The Danish alphabet consists of twenty-seven letters.

_Remarks on the Alphabet._

Q, q, (Ku, pronounced _coo_) is here omitted, being not merely superfluous and useless, but even prejudicial to a faithful representation of the language, by observing the origin and affinity of words, for instance, _Kvinde_, woman, is derived from _Kone_, wife; _bekvem_, convenient, from _komme_, to come (Fr. venir); _Kvartér_, a quarter of an hour, is also called _Kortér_; _Kvast_, tuft, is originally the same word as _Kóst_, broom; and _kvæle_, suffocate, the same as the English _kill_. The Q is therefore justly rejected by the celebrated grammarian P. Syv, as also by the learned Prof. S. N. J. Bloch in his _Danske Sproglære_, Odense 1817. It is however still used by some, but always followed by _v_, never by _u_ in any Danish book, as, _Qvinde_, _beqvem_, _Qvarter_, &c.

[Illustration: The Danish Alphabet]

_The Alphabet._

+----------------+----------+-----------------------------------+ | Figure. | Name. | Power. | +------+---------+----------+-----------------------------------+ | A a | ~A a~ | A | a in _father_, _part_. | | B b | ~B b~ | Bé | b. | | C c | ~C c~ | Cé | s and k as in English. | | D d | ~D d~ | Dé | d hard, and th flat. | | E e | ~E e~ | E | French _é fermé_, and _è ouvert_. | | F f | ~F f~ | Ef (eff) | f. | | G g | ~G g~ | Gé (ghe) | g in _go_, _give_. | | H h | ~H h~ | Hå (hô) | h aspirated. | | I i | ~I i~ | I (ee) | ee in _bee_, i in _bill_. | | J j | ~J j~ | Jé (jod) | y consonant. | | K k | ~K k~ | Kå (ko) | k. | | L l | ~L l~ | El | l. | | M m | ~M m~ | Em | m. | | N n | ~N n~ | En | n. | | O o | ~O o~ | O | o in _more_, _for_. | | P p | ~P p~ | Pé | p. | | R r | ~R r~ | Er | r. | | S s | ~S s~ | Es | s hard. | | T t | ~T t~ | Té | t. | | U u | ~U u~ | U (oo) | oo in _fool_, u in _full_. | | V v | ~V v~ | Vé | v in _vein_, w in _howl_. | | X x | ~X x~ | Ex (eks) | x hard. | | Y y | ~Y y~ | Y | French _u_ in _pure_, _nul_. | | Å å | [#] [#] | Å (ô) | a in _warm_, oa in _broad_. | | Æ æ | [#] [#] | Æ (ai) | a in _sale_, ai in _said_. | | Ø ø | [#] [#] | Ø | French _eu fermé_ in _peu_. | | Ö ö | [#] [#] | Ö {| French _eu ouvert_ in _veuve_, | | | | {| œu in _cœur_, _œuf_. | | |([#] [#])| | | | |([#] [#])| | | | |([#] [#])| | | | |([#] [#])| | | | |([#] [#])| | | | | ([#]) | | | +------+---------+----------+-----------------------------------+

Z, z, (Zet, pronounced _sett_) has crept from the German orthography into a few words, which should be written by _s_, according to the true pronunciation; as, _Zobel_, sable; _Zire_, to adorn; better _Sobel_, _sire_.

Å has been, till the beginning of this century, commonly represented by _aa_, according to the old Low German orthography, but _å_ is found in ancient Danish and Norwegian manuscripts: its reintroduction, proposed by the celebrated Danish grammarian Höjsgård 1743, later by Schlegel, Baden, Nyerup, Schrejber, Thonboe, &c. has, in the last decennium, been realized in about thirty separate books or pamphlets by Prof. A. Gamborg, Mr. H.J. Hansen, Mr. N.M. Petersen, and also by E. Rask, and several anonymous writers. At all events the sound is simple, and continually interchanging with other simple vowels (_a_, _æ_, _o_,) in the inflection and derivation of words, for instance, _tæller_, to count, in the past tense _talde_ or _tålde_, counted; _gå_, to go, _Gang_, gait, _gængse_, current, common; from _Får_, sheep, is derived _Færøerne_, the Farroe islands. Thus even in kindred dialects; as, _Vingård_, vineyard; _Tåre_, tear, German Zähre; _Måned_, month, German Monath; _åben_, open, &c. Whereas _aa_ is sometimes long _a_, sometimes even to be read in two syllables as: _Haarlem_, _Aaron_, _Kanaan_, _Knud Danaast_, the name of a Danish prince. The learner however will find _aa_ for _å_ in most printed books hitherto published.

Æ, like Å, represents a simple vowel sound, and must never be separated or resolved into _ae_, which make distinct syllables, for instance, _bejae_ (be-ya-e), affirm.

Ø and Ö are commonly confounded, so that Ø is used for both sounds in books printed in the Gothic type, Ö in those in the Roman character.

There are no diphthongs in Danish, but _aj_, _ej_, _oj_, _uj_, _öj_, even though written by some _ai_, _ei_, _oi_, _ui_, _öi_, are pronounced with the open sound of the vowels and a distinct _y_ consonant following, never like _ai_, _ei_, French _oi_, _ui_ or the like, for instance, _ej_, not, sounds like English _eye_ or _I_; _Konvoj_, a convoy, like the verb _to convoy_, &c.

In like manner _av_, _ev_, _iv_, _ov_, _æv_, _øv_ are pronounced as clear vowels followed by a distinct _v_ consonant or rather _w_, for the _v_ also is softer after the vowels than at the beginning, for instance, _tav_, was silent; _Brev_, letter; _stiv_, stiff; _Tòv_, cable; _Ræv_, fox; _døv_, deaf. The sound of _w_ is particularly observable, when another consonant follows, for instance, _tavs_, silent; _Evropa_, Europe; _stivne_, to stiffen; _hovne_, to swell; _Hævn_, revenge; _søvnig_, sleepy, drowsy.

As to the division of words into syllables, _j_ is always referred to the preceding vowel, which is in these cases constantly pronounced short and sharp, for instance, _Vej-e_, ways, not _Ve-je_. The other consonants are usually referred to the vowel following, when single; or divided between the preceding and succeeding vowel, when more than one, no care being taken to distinguish the radical parts from the accessories, but in compound words, for instance, _Da-ge_, days, from _Dag_, day, but _for-ud-si-ge_, foretell, from _for-ud_, beforehand, and _sige_, tell, say.

It is a great advantage in the Danish orthography, that every noun substantive is written with a capital letter at the beginning, as numbers of words, else perfectly alike, are thereby easily distinguished at the first view. Ex.

(_en_) _Tale_, a speech, (_at_) _tale_, to speak, (_en_) _Bör_, a bier, (_jeg_) _bör_, I must, ought, (_en_) _Tro_, faith, _tro_, faithful, (_en_) _Flöj_, weathercock, _flöj_, flew, (_et_) _Önske_, a wish, (_at_) _önske_, to wish, _Vande_, waters, (_at_) _vande_, to water.

On the other hand, adjectives of national names are usually written with small initials, contrary to the English usage, as, _dansk_, Danish; _norsk_, Norwegian; _svensk_, Swedish; _hollandsk_, Dutch; _engelsk_, English; _angelsaksisk_, Anglosaxon.

Though the Roman character is daily gaining ground, being introduced into the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Copenhagen, and of most other learned societies in Denmark and Norway, as also used in many excellent works of private authors, yet the monkish or Gothic form of the letters is still preferred by many.

In this character the capital ~J~ is also usually applied for the ~I~, for instance, ~Jsrael~ and ~Jesus~; the long ſ is constantly applied in the beginning of syllables, even in the combinations: ſk, ſl, ſp, ſt.

For å, has been proposed another figure, viz. [#], which has been adopted by the celebrated Capt. Abrahamson in his first edition of Langes _Dänische Gramm. für Deutsche_, as also by Rask, in the first edition of his Icel. Grammar; that he has afterwards preferred the å, is not only from patriotic motives; this figure being found in old Danish MSS. down to 1555, but also because it is introduced into several other languages, as Swedish and Laplandic, and has even been used in the upper German dialects; also in the Bornholm dialect by Mr. Skougaard, in the Farroic by the Revd. Mr. Lyngbye, and in the Acra (on the coast of Guinea) by Capt. Schönning, whereas [#] is used nowhere else in the world.--_From Rask’s Danish Grammar, Copenhagen_, 1830.

DASH. _See_ PUNCTUATION.

DELE,

Lat. The second person singular, imperative mood, of the active verb _deleo_, to blot out, to expunge. This is a word that is much used in a printing office; and its initial, with a round top, [#] or [#], is the regular mark in proofs to expunge a letter, word, or words that are redundant. _See_ CORRECTING.

DELIVERING BOOKS.

It is the general practice with publishers to leave a work when finished, in the warehouse of the printer, and to send written orders for the delivery of a part, as occasion or convenience suits; the warehouseman should always be prepared to deliver copies to these orders at the moment, otherwise complaint will be made against him, and he will incur blame; but he ought not on any account to deliver copies without a written order, for should there happen a mistake, or an omission in the publishers making an entry, credit will not be given for them, and he will become responsible. He ought invariably to enter them instanter, and take the person’s signature to the entry, and file the order. He will then be enabled, when an account of the delivery is called for, to prove its correctness.

DEVIL.

The pressman sometimes has a week boy to take sheets, as they are printed, off the tympan: these boys do in a printing house commonly black and daub themselves; whence the workmen do jocosely call them _Devils_; and sometimes _Spirits_, and sometimes _Flies_.--_M._ The boys that make the fires, sweep the rooms, assist in the warehouse, and go on errands, are now called _Devils_, or _Printers Devils_; but in the trade they are generally styled _Errand Boys_ and _Warehouse Boys_. _See_ FLY.

DIÆRESIS. _See_ ACCENTED LETTERS.

DIAMOND.

The name of a type one size smaller than Pearl, and the smallest that is cast in the British founderies. It originated in casting a type with a pearl face upon a smaller body, for the purpose of getting in, in printing pocket Bibles; the founders subsequently cut it with a smaller face, and made it completely a distinct size. It is not enumerated in Moxon’s list. _See_ TYPES.

DILLY, CHARLES. _See_ DONATIONS.

DIPLE.

A mark in the margin of a book to show where a fault is to be corrected.--_Bailey’s Dict._ This word is not used in the profession.

DIRECTION.

The word that stands alone on the right hand in the bottom line of a page.--_M._ It is the first word of the following page. _See_ CATCH WORD.

DIRECTION LINE.

The line the direction stands in.--_M._ _See_ CATCH WORD.

_TO_ DISTRIBUTE.

To replace the types in their respective boxes in the cases after printing therewith, in order to their being used again. This is done in a very expeditious manner by the compositor, who, placing his composing rule against the head of a page, with his thumbs against it, pressing the sides of both his third fingers against the sides of the matter, and his forefingers against the bottom line of the quantity which he means to lift, takes up what is termed a handful, and keeping the face of the letter towards him, rests one end of the composing rule against the ball of the thumb of his left hand, and pressing the other end of the rule with the third finger, steadies the matter with his forefinger, and thus has his right hand at liberty, with which he takes a word or part of a word from the uppermost line as he holds it in his hand, and drops the several letters into their particular boxes. Matter is always wetted when distributed, to render it slightly cohesive, as the operation is thus performed with more facility than when dry. When the form has not been well rinsed in laying-up, and the types have been much used, the ends of the fingers are apt to get smooth, so as to lose the command, in some measure, of dropping the types into their places with quickness and certainty; in this case compositors frequently keep a piece of alum in some part of the case, and occasionally touch it with their thumb and two fingers, which gives them a little roughness, and restores their command of the types.

If a compositor is desirous of producing his first proofs free from literal errors, he should be particular in distributing clean, that is, depositing each letter in its proper box.

When new letter remains in chase, locked up for any considerable time, it becomes what is termed, baked. _See_ BAKE.

DISTRIBUTING STICK.--_M._ _See_ COMPOSING STICK.

DIVIDING.

There are practical rules in printing for dividing words where the whole of a word cannot be comprised within the line; and there are also grammatical rules for the same object. Every printing office has some peculiarity on this subject.

The most general practical method of dividing words is to preserve the primitive word at the end of a line, and carry the termination to the next line; but this cannot always be done, as the following few instances will show. In these and similar cases it will be better to avoid dividing the word, and either drive the whole out, or get the termination in, as the spacing of the line will best allow.

air-y bulge-d change-d chuff-y brace-d carve-d charge-d cleave-r brawn-y cause-d chose-n cloud-y craft-y gloom-y might-y scrape-r crust-y judge-d nest-le strange-r curve-d lapse-d part-y tame-d date-d large-st plate-d tease-d dew-y love-r rate-d tune-r earth-y luck-y rhime-r vote-r give-n make-r safe-r write-r

Words whose plurals are formed by the addition of s, which adds another syllable to them, by making the last into two, ought not to have these two syllables divided; such as--

accom-plices conse-quences frontis-pieces prefer-ences acquaint-ances differ-ences hinder-ances privi-leges advan-tages discord-ances observ-ances quintes-sences allow-ances disturb-ances occur-rences recom-pences appear-ances embas-sages over-charges redun-dances arti-fices enter-prises perform-ances reli-ances bene-fices equi-pages petu-lances resem-blances cogni-zances evi-dences post-offices resi-dences conni-vances exer-cises preci-pices sen-tences.

The terminations of words, chion, cial, cient, cion, cious, shion, sian, sion, tial, tion, and tious, ought never, in my opinion, to be divided, as they each form one sound, although Murray and Walker say they form two syllables.

When the primitive word cannot be retained at the end of a line, I would prefer the prefixes ab, ac, ad, al, anti, be, bi, co, com, con, de, di, dia, dis, en, in, per, pre, pro, re, sub, super, un, when words in which they occur require to be divided; provided it does not cause any great violence in the spacing.

When it is necessary to divide a word at the end of a line, it is also necessary to study the appearance of the termination of that line, as well as of the commencement of the succeeding line, for they are equally affected. An improper division of a word will sometimes look better than a proper one, but it ought always to be avoided, if possible.

It frequently happens that the last syllable, when it is short, has a meagre appearance at the beginning of a line; when this is the case, it is preferable to drive out another syllable, provided the appearance and the correctness of the first part of the word are not compromised.

It is not usual, and is looked on as bad workmanship, to divide a word with a single letter at the end of a line, for it may be driven out, or, if the line be wide spaced, the next syllable may be got in; but should the second syllable of the word be a long one, or the last syllable a very short one, it will then be advisable to overrun a preceding line or two, to get rid of the objectionable division.

Neither is it usual to carry over the last syllable of a word if it consist of two thin letters only; for the hyphen is more than equal to one of them, and changing two or three spaces will make room for the other, without affecting the appearance.

Some persons object to the dividing of words at all in printing, as being unnecessary and displeasing to the eye; but then they must sacrifice all regularity of spacing, which is still worse, and has the appearance of bad workmanship. I would recommend that a compositor should make each give way a little to the other, always preserving such an uniformity in spacing that there should be no glaring disproportion in different lines.

Avoid dividing words in lines following each other, so as not to have hyphens at the ends of two adjoining lines, but never have three or more divided words at the ends of consecutive lines; although five or six may occasionally be seen, yet in book work it is held to be bad workmanship, and should never be allowed to pass. Neither is it desirable to divide proper names, nor the last word in a page so as to have part of a word to begin the succeeding page, particularly when it is an even one; sums of money and series of figures are never divided.

It is not possible in every instance to divide words correctly, particularly when the page is of a narrow measure, and the type large; when this happens, the compositor is obliged frequently to sacrifice correctness to necessity; but when the page is of a width proportionate to the size of the type, he may in the usual way of workmanship preserve his regular spacing, and also his correct dividing.

The preceding observations may be looked on as practical ones for printing. Lindley Murray gives the following grammatical directions for dividing words.

“1. A single consonant between two vowels must be joined to the latter syllable: as, de-light, bri-dal, re-source: except the letter x; as, ex-ist, ex-amine: and except likewise words compounded; as, up-on, un-even, dis-ease.

“2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be separated; as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided; as, ut-most, un-der, in-sect, er-ror, cof-fin.

“If the preceding syllable is short, the consonants must be separated: as, cus-tard, pub-lic, gos-ling.

“3. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced long, they are not to be separated; as, de-throne, de-stroy. But when the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, one of the consonants always belongs to that syllable; as, dis-tract, dis-prove, dis-train.

“4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper to begin a word, meet between two vowels, the first consonant is always kept with the first syllable in the division: as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil, dan-dler, dap-ple, con-strain.

“5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided into separate syllables; as, cru-el, deni-al, soci-ety.

“A diphthong immediately preceding a vowel, is to be separated from it: as, roy-al, pow-er, jew-el.

“6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple words of which they are composed; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over-power, never-the-less.

“7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are generally separated: as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, teach-er, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed, good-ness, free-dom, false-hood.

“Two consonants which form but one sound, are never separated: as, e-cho, fa-ther, pro-phet, an-chor, bi-shop. They are to be considered as a single letter.

“8. In derivative words, the additional syllables are separated: as, sweet-er, sweet-est, sweet-ly; learn-ed, learn-eth, learn-ing; dis-like, mis-lead, un-even; call-ed, roll-er, dress-ing; gold-en, bolt-ed, believ-er, pleas-ing.

“_Exceptions._ When the derivative word doubles the single letter of the primitive, one of those letters is joined to the termination: as, beg, beg-gar; fat, fat-ter; bid, bid-ding.

“When the additional syllable is preceded by _c_ or _g_ soft, the _c_ or _g_ is added to that syllable: as, of-fen-ces, cotta-ges, pro-noun-cer, in-dul-ging; ra-cer, fa-cing, spi-ced; wa-ger, ra-ging, pla-ced, ran-ger, chan-ging, chan-ged.

“When the preceding single vowel is long, the consonant, if single, is joined to the termination: as, ba-ker, ba-king; ho-ping, bro-ken; po-ker, bo-ny; wri-ter, sla-vish; mu-sed, sa-ved.

“The termination _y_ is not to be placed alone: as, san-dy, gras-sy; dir-ty, dus-ty; mos-sy, fros-ty; hea-dy, woo-dy; except, dough-y, snow-y, string-y, and a few other words. But even in these exceptions, it would be proper to avoid beginning a line with the termination _y_.

“Some of the preceding rules may be liable to considerable exceptions; and therefore it is said by Dr. Lowth and others, that the best and easiest directions for dividing the syllables in spelling, is to divide them as they are naturally separated in a right pronunciation, without regard to the derivation of words, or the possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a syllable.”

Before quitting this subject, it should be stated that there is yet a mode of dividing, which is peculiar to the philologist. To him it appears but natural that a compounded word should be divided at the point where its elements were originally conjoined. With respect to a purely English compound we find this to be one of Murray’s rules; but in an adopted word, however much from its recurrence it may seem to have become our own, the scholar’s eye is offended, if, where a division has become requisite, it be made in violation of etymological principles. This remark must be understood as having reference only to the division which would occur in the neighbourhood of the point of junction: in other respects he does not impugn the validity of the rules which are in general laid down. To apply with precision this principle, which, when judiciously practised, is frequently very highly approved, it is evident that an acquaintance with the language from which the imported word has been derived, is necessary: yet, as a person not thus qualified may occasionally be required to make his divisions in conformity with this system, it has been thought desirable to subjoin a brief list of words in which an uninitiated person would be most likely to err. A few of the following divisions will appear a little startling, and they are in consequence generally evaded; but it has been thought proper in this place to conceal nothing from the general eye which may appear to militate against the full adoption of the system. The words selected are but a few of the very large class of compounds; but the rest have been omitted, as their analytical and their syllabical divisions will in general be found to coincide.

abs-cess ad-opt an-other au-spicious ab-scind ad-ore ant-agonist aut-opsy ab-scission ad-ust ant-arctic baro-scope abs-cond aero-scopy anti-strophe bin-ocular ab-solve aero-static ant-onomasia cat-acoustic abs-tain amb-ient apo-phthegm cata-strophe abs-terge amb-ition apo-state cat-echism abs-tinence an-archy apo-stle cat-optrical abs-tract ana-stomosis apo-strophe chir-urgeon abs-truse ana-strophe armi-stice co-gnate ab-use anim-advert atmo-sphere cyn-anthropy

de-scend go-spel omni-science re-spond de-scribe hemi-sphere palin-ode re-stitution de-sperado hemi-stich pan-oply re-store de-sperate hept-archy pen-insula re-strain de-spicable herm-aphrodite penta-ptote re-stringent de-spise hier-archy pen-ultima retro-spect de-spoil horo-scope pen-umbra se-gregate de-spond hypo-stasis per-emptory sol-stice de-sponsate in-iquity (i. e. per-ennial spher-oid de-spumation in-equity) per-ish su-spect de-stitute inter-stice per-spire sym-ptom de-stroy iso-sceles per-use syn-onymous de-struction log-arithms phil-anthropy syn-opsis dia-gnostic lyc-anthropy plani-sphere sy-stole dia-stole man-œuvre pot-sherd tele-scope di-phthong meta-stasis pre-science terr-aqueous di-ptote met-onomy pre-scind trans-act di-scind micro-scope pro-gnosticate tran-scend dis-pend mis-anthropy pro-scribe tran-scribe di-sperse miso-gyny pro-spect trans-ient di-spirit mon-arch pro-sperous tran-silience di-spread mon-ocular pro-stitute trans-itory di-stich mon-ody pro-strate trans-parent di-stil mono-ptote rect-angle tran-spire di-strain mult-ocular re-scind trans-port epi-scopal neg-lect re-script trans-pose epi-stle ne-science re-spect tran-sude frontispiece* non-age re-spire tri-phthong gastro-cnemius ob-struct re-splendent tri-ptote vin-egar un-animous.

* This word has had the singular fortune of having been all but universally mis-spelt; having in its present form the appearance of being what is inadmissible--the compound of a Latin and an English word. A few years ago an ingenious critic, in a work which he published, corrected this spelling by writing the word “frontispice.” As the word comes immediately from _frontispicium_, the emendation appears to have been judiciously made. (Compare _auspice_, from _auspicium_ = avispicium.) It may not be unnecessary also to observe, that the amended form is that in which it appears in the French language. The division of the corrected word would be fronti-spice.

DIVISORIUM.

Commonly called Visorum.--_Smith._ _See_ VISORUM.

DOMESDAY BOOK.

The register of the lands of England, framed by order of William the Conqueror. It was sometimes termed _Rotulus Wintoniæ_, and was the book from which judgment was to be given upon the value, tenures, and services of the lands therein described.

In 1767, in consequence of an address of the House of Lords, His Majesty George III. gave directions for the publication of this Survey. It was not, however, till after 1770 that the work was actually commenced. Its publication was entrusted to Mr. Abraham Farley, a gentleman of learning as well as of great experience in records, who had almost daily recourse to the book for more than forty years. It was completed early in 1783, having been ten years in passing through the press, and thus became generally accessible to the antiquary and topographer. It was printed in facsimile, as far as regular types, assisted by the representation of original contractions, could imitate the original.

[Illustration: Layout of the Domesday case]

DOMESDAY.--_Upper Case._

+----+----+----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | A | B | C | D | E | F | G || A | B | C | D | E | F | G | +----+----+----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | H | I | K | L | M | N | O || H | I | K | L | M | N | O | +----+----+----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | P | Q | R | S | T | V | W || P | Q | R | S | T | V | W | +----+----+----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | | | | | ℞ | | || X | | | | | | | | X | Y | Z | Æ |····| J | U ||····| b̃ | c̃ | d̃ | ẽ | f̃ | g̃ | | | | | | Đ | | || ã | | | | | | | +----+----+----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | | | | | | | n̄ || | | | | | | | | ā | ē | ī | ō | ū | m̄ |····|| h̃ | ĩ | k̃ | l̃ | m̃ | ñ | õ | | | | | | | | ḣ || | | | | | | | +----+----+----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | | | | | | | || | q̃ | | | | ũ | w̃ | | c̚ | g̚ | m̚ | n̚ | p̚ | s̚ | t̚ || p̃ |····| r̃ | s̃ | t̃ |····|····| | | | | | | | || | q̱ | | | | ṽ | ã | +----+----+----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | | | | | | | || c̉ | | | | | | v̉ | | u̚ | v̚ | x̚ | Various.|Hair| k ||····| m̉ | n̉ | s̉ | t̉ | ủ |····| | | | | | | Sp.| || g̉ | | | | | | x̉ | +----+----+----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

DOMESDAY.--_Lower._

+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+-----+-----+ | [ | | æ | þ |[#]| | || | | ( | ? | ; | | | |···| A |···|···|···| ’ | ||Thin | j |···|···|···| p̉ | fl | |[#]| |ll͠|co͠|bb͠| | || Sp. | |[#]|[#]|[#]| | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+ |+-----+---+---+---+---+-----+-----+ | & | | | | || | | |[#]| p̲ | ff | +---+ | | | || | | +---+-----+-----+ |[#]| b | c | d | e || i | s | f | | | | |···| | | | || | | | g | p̱ | fi | | ȝ | | | | || | | | | | | +---+---+-------+-------+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+-----+-----+ | ffl | | | | || | | | | | | | |···| | | | || | ẏ | |[#]| | En | Em | |[#]| | | | || +---+ +---+ |Quad-|Quad-| +---+ l | m | n | h || o | | p | | w |rats.|rats.| | ffi | | | | || | y | | , | | | | +---+---+-------+-------+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+-----+-----+ | z | | | | || | | q | | | |···| | | | || | |···| : | | |[#]| | | |Thick|| | |[#]| | | +---+ v | u | t | Sp. || a | r +---+---+ Quadrats. | | x | | | | || | | . | - | | +---+---+-------+-------+-----++-----+-------+---+---+-----------+

The type with which the Domesday Book was printed, was destroyed in the dreadful fire which consumed the printing office of Messrs. Nichols in Red Lion Passage, Fleet Street, London, February 8, 1808.

[Illustration: Domesday book abbreviations]

Abbreviations in Domesday Book, from Hutchins’s Domesday Book for the County of Dorset.

[#], _acræ_. [#], _æcclesia_. [#], _archiepiscopus_. [#], _caruca_, _carucata_. [#], _dimidium_. [#], _dominio_. [#], _eadem_. [#], _et_. [#], _est_. [#], _ecclesiam_. [#], _episcopus_. [#], _fratres_. [#], _geldabat_. [#], _hoc_ or _hæ_. [#], _leuca_. [#], _libræ_. [#], _longa_, longitudinem. [#], _lata_, latitudinem. [#], _manerium_, or _manerio_. [#], _molini_. [#], _modo_. [#], _nunquam_. [#], _in paragio_. [#], _prepositus_. [#], _presbyter_. [#], _prati_. [#], _pertinet_. [#], _pro_. [#], _habet_. [#], _propter_. [#], 89. [#], _quæ_. [#], _qui_. [#], _quo_. [#], [#], [#], _quarentenæ_. [#], _quædam_. [#], _reddunt_, _reddit_. [#], _solidi_. [#], _sunt_. [#], _tamen_. [#], _tantum_. [#], _tantundem_. [#], _terciam_. T. R. E. _tempore regis Edwardi_. T. R. W. _tempore regis Willelmi_. [#], _tenet_. [#], _terra_. [#], _volebat_, or _volebant_. [#], _villani_. [#], _virgata_. [#], _unus_. [#], _vero_.

Superior Letters, which are of frequent occurrence in contracted Records, are generally laid in the small capital boxes.

The character & is displaced to make room for [#] and [#] on works using those characters exclusively.

There are various characters, such as [#], [#], [#], [#], [#], [#], and others, that do not frequently occur, which may be kept in the two boxes in the upper case marked “various;” a general box is necessary in every Domesday case.

The characters c̚, g̚, m̚, &c., placed in the figure boxes, are a variation only of c̉ , g̉ , m̉ , &c., and the two sorts are never used together in the same work. _See_ RECORDS.

DONATIONS.

Abstract of the Charitable Donations at the Disposal of the Court of Assistants of the Worshipful Company of Stationers. I have selected those Donations only which relate, directly or indirectly, to Printers.

William Norton, a printer of great note, lived in St. Paul’s Churchyard, who died in 1593. He gave six pounds thirteen shillings and four pence, yearly to his company, to be lent to young men, free of the same Company. The Company in their Abstract of Charitable Donations say “to the Poor of the said Company.”

Mr. Christopher Meredith, in 1655, gave 10_l._ a year, to be paid in quarterly pensions to the poor of the Company.

Thomas Guy, Esq., M.P., an eminent bookseller, and the munificent founder of the hospital which bears his name, gave to the Company, in 1717, 1,000_l._ “to enable them to add 50_l._ a year, by quarterly payments, to the poor members and widows, in augmentation of the quarterly charity.”

Mr. Theophilus Cater, in 1718, gave 1,000_l._ to the Company, on condition of their paying him an annuity of 50_l._ for his own life.--After his death, 40_l._ to be thus disposed of: to the minister of St. Martin’s, Ludgate, for a sermon, 1_l._ 10_s._; to the reader, 5_s._; to the clerk and sexton, 2_s._ 6_d._ each, 5_s._; to fourteen poor freemen of the Company, 14_l._; to ten poor men of St. Martin’s, 10_l._; to ten poor men of Christchurch, 1_l._ each. The remainder, (being 4_l._) towards a dinner for the master, wardens, and assistants.

Mrs. Beata Wilkins, in 1773, gave the picture of Doctor Hoadly, lord bishop of Winchester, now in the Stock-room; and the interest and produce of all the money arising from her forty-pounds share stock (computed at 320_l._) to be distributed, annually, amongst six poor men and six poor widows, not pensioners to the Company, in the month of December, before Christmas.--_Note._ The produce of the share was laid out in the purchase of 358_l._ 11_s._ 4_d._ five per cent. Navy annuities. The yearly dividend is 17_l._ 18_s._ 6_d._ To which the Court add 1_s._ 6_d._ to make the dividend to each annuitant 1_l._ 10_s._

William Bowyer. _See_ BOWYER.

William Strahan, Esq., M. P., in 1784, gave 1,000_l._, one half of the annual interest to be divided in equal shares or proportions to five poor journeymen printers, natives of England or Wales, freemen of the Company; the other half in equal shares or proportions to five poor journeymen printers, natives of Scotland, without regard to their being freemen or being non-freemen of the Company.--_Note._ The yearly dividend of this bequest is 39_l._ 14_s._ 10_d._--to which _5s._ 2_d._ (part of a subsequent donation by Andrew Strahan, Esq.) has since been added, to make the dividend to each annuitant 4_l._

Thomas Wright, Esq., late alderman of London, in 1794, gave 2,000_l._ four per cent. Bank annuities, the dividends to be distributed as follows; upon the first day of January 50_l._ 8_s._ amongst twenty-four poor freemen of the said Company, not receiving any other pension from the Company, 2_l._ 2_s._ each. To the clerk of the Company 3_l._ 3_s._ for his trouble upon this occasion. And 26_l._ 9_s._ residue of such dividends, for providing a dinner for the master, wardens, and assistants, of the Company, upon the day of distribution.

Mr. Richard Johnson, in 1795, gave all the remainder of his property whatsoever, to the Company, upon the following conditions: that they allow his sister, Mary Johnson, 50_l._ per annum, and 10_l._ per annum to his uncle Lockington Johnson, or to his wife, Elizabeth Johnson, during their natural lives. After the deaths of his sister and uncle, and his wife, the whole property to be divided half-yearly, “among five very poor widows, who have seen better days, above the age of sixty, whose husbands were liverymen, and in a good way of business; were either stationers, printers, booksellers, or binders.”

Charles Dilly, Esq., in November, 1803, (being then a member of the Court of Assistants,) transferred 700_l._ three per cent. annuities to the Company, the dividends to be “paid equally to two widows of liverymen of the Company, who have lived in better circumstances, and met unexpected misfortunes, but who, through their conduct and manners in life, are deserving of superior help. And if there should be candidates of sixty years of age, or upwards, I should wish them to have the preference.”

Mrs. Elizabeth Baldwin, widow of Mr. Richard Baldwin a liveryman, gave 250_l._ stock in the three per cents, the dividends to be laid out and expended in the purchase of five great coats, to be annually given to five poor liverymen or freemen of the said Company in the first week of the month of December for ever.--_Note._ Mrs. Baldwin died 19th August, 1809.

Andrew Strahan, Esq., M. P., (first benefaction,) in January 1815, transferred 1,225_l._ four per cent. annuities to the Company, the interest, viz. 49_l._, to be applied as follows, viz.,

“Eight pounds per annum to each of the six pensioners amongst my father’s annuitants who shall have been earliest elected into that list, in lieu of the 4_l._ which they at present enjoy. And whenever any of the pensions of 8_l._ each shall become vacant, the pensioner who shall stand first on the list of my father’s annuitants of 4_l._ to succeed to such vacancy, without troubling the court to make a new election, except for the vacancy occasioned thereby in the annuitants of 4_l._ And as 5_s._ 2_d._ is added by the court to make up the pensions of my late father 4_l._ to each annuitant, I would have the sum of 5_s._ 2_d._ (part of the surplus of 1_l._) applied to that purpose. The remaining 14_s._ 10_d._ I would have given to the beadle of the Company, who has some trouble in receiving the petitions.

“The pensions above given it is my wish should be paid twice in the year; the one half at the same period as the pensions given by my late father, and the other half at midsummer.

“I observe that my father’s pensioners are to be elected annually, which, I believe, may not always have been strictly complied with; but, by being so bequeathed, it enables the court to displace any individual who may at any time after his being elected appear to the court not to be deserving; and it is my wish that the court should have the same power of displacing any of the pensioners of eight pounds who shall appear to them undeserving.”

John Nichols, Esq., transferred to the Company, in June, 1817, 500_l._ four per cent. annuities, “as an addition of a small supplement to the works of my late friend and partner, Mr. William Bowyer,” [_See_ BOWYER.] “to pay the dividends to the persons mentioned in the following list; one of whom has worked for me more than fifty years, another much more than forty, and the others nearly thirty years.

“15_l._ a year to Thomas Bennett, in addition to the annuity he now enjoys.

“5_l._ a year to William Morlis, in addition to what he now enjoys, or may hereafter enjoy.

“On the death of Bennett, his 15_l._ to be divided into three annuities, for James Rousseau, John Meeson, and James Robinson, if then living, otherwise to any other compositor or pressman of good character, not less than forty-five years of age, and who shall have been at least twenty-one years free of the Stationers’ Company.

“On the death of Morlis his five pounds to be added to the person who then stands first on the list; so that eventually there will only be one annuitant of ten pounds, and two of five pounds each.

“The annuitants to be paid at the same times as those of Mr. Bowyer.” J. N.

Andrew Strahan, Esq., M. P., (second benefaction,) transferred in March, 1818, the further sum of 1,000_l._ four per cent. annuities, “to pay the dividends half-yearly in portions of ten pounds to four distressed old printers. No person to be eligible till he be sixty-five years of age: he may be freeman or non-freeman, compositor or pressman, or have been for many years employed regularly as corrector or reader in a printing-office within the Bills of Mortality, and not necessarily one of my late father’s annuitants or of mine.”

Luke Hansard, Esq., (first benefaction,) on the 11th of July, 1818, transferred to the Company 1,000_l._ four per cent. annuities, the interest to be given, in two annuities of 10_l._ a year each, to such objects above sixty-five years of age, free of the Company, and letterpress printers, (compositors or pressmen,) as the court shall judge proper.

The other 20_l._ to be given yearly to four freemen of this Company, printers, booksellers, stationers, warehousemen, or bookbinders, above sixty years of age, at 5_l._ a year each, as the court shall think proper objects of this donation.

Luke Hansard, Esq., (second benefaction,) in September, 1818, transferred to the Company 1,500_l._ three per cent. annuities; in trust to give to every youth bound at their hall, a neatly bound Church of England Prayer-book, as printed by his majesty’s printer in London, bound up with the New Version of Psalms.

The number of Prayer-books thus to be disposed of, are taken at 200, which at a presumed price of 2_s._ 7_d._ each, will cost yearly 25_l._ 16_s._ 8_d._

Then to give yearly to two of his warehousemen (named) 6_l._ 6_s._ each.

Also to “such warehouseman, or binder, or stationer, or other person in the class to whom the court has been accustomed to give such annuities, above sixty years of age,” 6_l._ 6_s._

The residue of 5_s._ 4_d._, and whatever residue may be left from the 200 Prayer-books not being wanted, or from the cost being less, to be applicable for such purposes as the court shall think proper.

Beale Blackwell, Esq., gave, July, 1817, so much Bank stock as at the time of his death would produce the annual sum of 100_l._, to be every year distributed equally amongst twenty deserving journeymen letterpress printers; the first distribution of which took place in October, 1821.

A more detailed account of these charitable donations and benefactions will be found in a pamphlet of 32 pages, printed by order of the court in 1819, and given to each liveryman.

This account is copied from Hansard’s Typographia.

DOTTED QUADRATS,

or dotted leaders. Quadrats with dots on them, similar to full points, at regular distances. They are cast from an en, with one point, to four ems.

In tables of contents, indices, and other similar matter, dotted quadrats are preferred to metal rules, or hyphens, being thought to have a neater appearance.

DOUBLE.

A sheet that is twice pulled and lifted never so little off the form after it was first pulled, does most commonly (through the play of the joints of the tympan) take a double impression: this sheet is said to double. Or if the pressman run in so, as the foreside of the platen print with the first pull into part of the second pull, or the hind edge of the platen print with his second pull into part of his first pull; either of these twice printing is called _Doubling_. Doubling also happens through the loose hanging of the platen, and through too much play the tenons of the head may have in the mortises of the cheeks; and indeed through many wearings and crazinesses that often happen in several parts of the press.--_M._ Moxon’s account of doubling and its causes refer to the two pull wooden presses, but some of them apply equally to iron presses.

In composing, the term is applied when a word, a line, a sentence, or any part of the copy is composed twice; that is, if the compositor’s eye catch a part that he has already composed, and he repeats it.

DOUBLE DAGGER.

This is the technical name of a mark used as a reference, ‡; it is generally placed the third in order,--after the obelisk or dagger.

DOUBLE LETTERS.

Æ, œ, ſt, ſh, and several others cast on one shank, are called double letters: ſ and f have several ascending letters joined to them, because their beaks hanging over their stems would (were they not cast on one shank) ride upon the tops of the stems of the adjoining ascending letters.--_M._

By discarding the ſ, we have lessened the number of our double letters, which are now reduced to the diphthongs æ and œ, and to ff, fi, fl, ffi, and ffl, which are so termed by printers.

DOUBLE NARROW.

A piece of furniture equal in breadth to two narrow quotations. There are different sizes used in making margin, and in imposing, viz., double broad, double broad and narrow, broad and narrow, broad and double narrow.

DOUBLE PICA.

The name of a type, one size larger than Paragon, and one smaller than Two-Line Pica. It is equal in depth to two Small Pica bodies. _See_ TYPES.

DRAW.

When a form is working at press, and any of the letters are loosely justified, or from any other cause are not tight in the form, and the adhesion of the ink and balls or rollers pulls them out, they are said to draw. This accident too frequently occurs; and as it is not always perceived, errors arise which neither the care nor the skill of the reader can prevent; when it is perceived, after an impression or two have been pulled, the pressmen often put the letters into the wrong place, and thus cause an error. They are occasionally left by the ball on the form, and produce a batter, which is a waste of materials, and of time in repairing it. A good compositor guards against this evil by care in justifying his lines, and also in locking up.

DRAWN SHEETS.

In collating books in the warehouse, after they have been gathered, duplicate sheets, and sheets of wrong signatures, are occasionally found; arising, in the one instance, from the carelessness of the gathering boys, in taking up more than one sheet of the same signature; and, in the other, from a lift of another sheet being occasionally taken down and mixed in the heap: in these cases the sheets are drawn out of the book, and laid on one side, and, after some accumulation, are replaced upon their respective heaps, to be gathered again right. These sheets are called _Drawn Sheets_.

DRESS A CHASE,

or, Dress a Form, is to fit the pages and the chase with furniture and quoins. _See_ MARGIN.

DRESSING BLOCK.

Made of pear tree, because a soft wood, and therefore less subject to injure the face of the letter; it is commonly about three inches square, and an inch high.--_M._ Used the same as our planer. _See_ PLANER.

DRIPPING PAN.

Literally so, made of tinned iron, extending the whole length of the press, fixed under the long ribs, to preserve the floor from the droppings of oil.

They are useful articles; for presses to be kept in good working order require to be frequently oiled; and for want of a dripping pan, I have known the oil run through the joints of the floor upon a pile of paper in a room underneath, and spoil a considerable quantity.

DRIVE OUT.

When a compositor sets wide, he is said to drive out or run out. In founding, if letter be cast too thick in the shank, it drives out.--_M._ If copy make more than was calculated on, they say, it drives out; if less, and it is intended that it shall make the precise quantity decided on, they say, you must drive out; that is, it must be branched out in proportion, and not cramped.

DROPPING OUT.

After a form is locked up, and, when it is being lifted from the stone, or being laid upon the imposing stone, or the press, any letters, spaces, or quadrats fall out, it is said something drops out, or something has dropped out; this may arise from some of the lines being badly justified--some of the leads riding--or some of the furniture binding--or similar causes--and frequently produces errors at press by other letters drawing out. _See_ FORM DANCES.

In this case, before the form is put to press, it should be examined to ascertain the cause, and any impediment to its safety should be removed.

DRUM. _See_ WHEEL.

DUBLIN.

[Illustration: Layout of the Dublin case]

Plan of a Lower Case as used at Dublin. The Upper Case is the same as used in London.

+-----+---+---+---+---+---+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+ | en | ! | æ | œ | ’ | j | ||_Thin| k | ; |-- |-- | ? | fl | Rule.| | | | | | || sp._| | | | | | | +-----+---+---+---+---+---+ ++-----+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+ | & | | | | || | | | | [ ] | ff | +-----+ b | c | d | e || i | s | f | g +-------+-------+ | Hair| | | | || | | | | ( ) | fi | | sp. | | | | || | | | | | | +-----+---+---+---+---+---+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+ | ffi | | | | || | | | | | | | +-----+ l | m | n | h || o | y | p | , | w | _en | _em | | ffl | | | | || | | | | |quads._|quads._| +-----+---+---+---+---+---+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+ | z | | | | || | | q | : | | +-----+ v | u | t |_Sp._|| a | r +---+---+ _Quadr._ | | x | | | | || | | . | - | | +-----+---+---+---+---+---+-----++-----+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+

DUCK’S BILL.

A tongue cut in a piece of stout paper, which is pasted on the tympan at the bottom of the tympan sheet, to support the white paper when working, instead of pins; the paper to be printed rests in the slit behind the tongue, and takes a good bearing.

[Illustration: A tool to support paper in the press]

It is seldom used except in the best work, where the paper printed is fine, stout, large, and expensive, when extra precautions are taken to prevent waste.

DUODECIMO.

The size of a book, generally for shortness written 12mo, and hence frequently incorrectly so pronounced. It is formed by folding a sheet of paper into twelve portions or leaves, making twenty-four pages. _See_ IMPOSING.

E.

EAR OF THE FRISKET.

A projecting piece of iron on the near side of the frisket, by taking hold of which the pressman turns down the frisket, and at the same time the tympan; and as it projects a little beyond the tympan, he also raises the sheet off the form by grasping it and the tympan, and by a quick motion quits hold of the tympan, and turns up the frisket by means of the ear. It is sometimes called the _Thumb Piece_.

EASY PULL.

When the form feels the force of the spindle by degrees, till the bar comes almost to the hither cheek of the press, it is called a _Long_, or a _Soaking_, or _Easy Pull_, and is also called a _Soft Pull_; because it comes soft and soakingly and easily down.--_M._

EASY WORK.

With compositors, printed copy, or a fair written hand, and full of breaks, pleases well, and is called good copy, light, easy work: with pressmen, great letter and a small form is called easy work.--_M._

The term is not now generally used: what Moxon describes as relating to compositors would now be termed good copy; and with respect to pressmen it would be called light work, or a light form.

EDINBURGH.

[Illustration: Layout of the Edinburgh case]

Plan of a pair of Cases as used at Edinburgh.

_Upper Case._

+----+---+-----+----+---+---+----++----+----+----+---+---+----+----+ | A | B | C | D | E | F | G || P | Q | R | S | T | V | W | +----+---+-----+----+---+---+----++----+----+----+---+---+----+----+ | H | I | K | L | M | N | O || X | Y | Z | J | U | Æ | Œ | +----+---+-----+----+---+---+----++----+----+----+---+---+----+----+ | A | B | C | D | E | F | G || á | é | í | ó | ú | ¶ | ‡ | +----+---+-----+----+---+---+----++----+----+----+---+---+----+----+ | H | I | K | L | M | N | O || à | è | ì | ò | ù | || | † | +----+---+-----+----+---+---+----++----+----+----+---+---+----+----+ | P | Q | R | S | T | V | W || â | ê | î | ô | û | § | * | +----+---+-----+----+---+---+----++----+----+----+---+---+----+----+ | X | Y | Z | J | U | Æ | Œ || ä | ë | ï | ö | ü | ☞ | ! | +----+---+-----+----+---+---+----++----+----+----+---+---+----+----+ | ff | & | ffl | fl | £ | æ | œ || — | —— |————|[#]|[#]|[ ] | ? | +----+---+-----+----+---+---+----++----+----+----+---+---+----+----+

_Lower Case._

+---+---+-----+-----+------++---+---+---+---+-----+-----+------+------+ | | ’ | k | g | || 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | +---+---+-----+-----+ ++---+---+---+---+-----+-----+------+------+ | z | | | | || | | | | 9 | 0 | +---+ b | c | d | e || i | s | f | w +------+------+ | j | | | | || | | | | ; | () | +---+---+-----+-----+------++-------+---+---+-----+-----+------+------+ | | | | | || | | |_Thin| fi | | | | | | | | || | | | sp._| | _en | _em | | y | l | m | n | h || o | p | , +-----+-----+quad._|quad._| | | | | | || | | |_Thin| ff | | | | | | | | || | | | sp._| | | | +---+---+-----+-----+------++-------+---+---+-----+-----+------+------+ | q | | | | || | | . |_Thin| | | | | | |_Thick|| | | | sp._| | +---+ v | u | t | sp._ || a | r +-----+-----+ _Quadrats._ | | x | | | | || | |_Hair| - | | | | | | | || | | sp._| | | +---+---+-----+-----+------++-------+-------+-----+-----+-------------+

EIGHTEENMO.

Octodecimo, a sheet of paper folded into eighteen leaves; it is usually termed eighteens.

ELECTROTYPE. _See_ GALVANISM.

EMERALD.

The name of a type one size larger than Nonpareil, and one smaller than Minion. It is a size lately introduced.

EMPTY CASE.

When a compositor cannot compose any more out of a case, from many of the sorts being exhausted, it is termed an empty case, or he says, my _Case is Empty_, although there may be a great number of types in it of other sorts.

EMPTY PRESS.

A press that stands by, which no workman works at: most commonly every printing house has one of them for a proof press; viz. to make proofs on.--_M._ The term is now applied to those presses only that are unemployed; the press set apart to pull proofs at is called the Proof Press. _See_ PROOF PRESS.

ENGLISH.

The name of a type, one size larger than Pica, and one smaller than Great Primer. _See_ ALPHABET. TYPES.

ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.

As the method of printing engravings on wood, here described, applies to what is termed fine printing, it may be as well in the outset to define what is meant by this expression, in its application to this subject.

Fine printing, in this point of view, is the art of obtaining impressions from an engraving on wood, of the surface and the surface only, so as to produce the effect which the artist intended, in the highest state of perfection.

There is a material difference between an engraving on wood and one on copper: the first is engraved in relief, that is, the lines are left standing, and the part which in the impression is to appear white is cut away or, technically, blocked out; the lines of the engraving on copper, on the contrary, are cut in the metal, and the part that is to be white in the impression is left untouched in the metal by the engraver.

There is also a material difference in the manner of obtaining impressions: those from an engraving on wood are produced by coating the surface of the lines with ink by beating it with balls or passing a roller over it, and then, with a piece of paper upon it, submitting it to pressure between two parallel plane surfaces, or by a cylinder rolling over it. An engraving on copper is smeared over the whole face with ink, which is worked into the lines; the surplus ink is then wiped off the surface of the plate, on which a piece of paper is laid to receive the impression, and these are passed between two cylinders, which press the paper into the engraved lines by a violent squeeze.

It will easily be perceived by this slight description that the two processes are completely distinct from each other, although the effect produced is nearly the same.

I will now proceed to describe the process of producing impressions from engravings on wood in a superior manner.

After putting a block on the press, the workman ought to be very gentle in the pull for the first impression, to prevent an accident, which has frequently occurred from thoughtlessness in this particular, by making the pull too hard, and crushing some of the lines; by avoiding this he will be safe, and can proportion his pull to the subject. He should also examine, previous to pulling, that there be nothing on the block--no pins that he may have for his tympan sheet, nor any needle with which he may have been taking out a pick.--Such accidents have happened, and caused great trouble to the engraver, as well as loss of time and disappointment; besides entailing a character of carelessness on the printer.

In imposing a single block, where the press is large at which it is to be worked, it will be in danger of springing out of the chase while beating, from the quantity of furniture about it: it is a good remedy to impose it in a job chase, and to impose this chase again in a larger one; this will cause it to lie flatter on the press, and firmer in the beating, as the small chase can be locked up tight in the large one, without having too much furniture, and the large one can be secured firmly on the press by quoins and the corner irons.

Neither the pressure nor the impression in an engraving on wood should be uniformly equal: if they be, the effect that is intended to be produced by the artist will fail; and instead of light, middle tint, and shade, an impression will be produced that possesses none of them in perfection; some parts will be too hard and black, and other parts have neither pressure nor colour enough, with obscurity and roughness, and without any of the mildness of the middle tint, which ought to pervade great part of an engraving, and on which the eye reposes after viewing the strong lights and the deep shades.

To produce the desired effect, great nicety and patience are required in the pressman; a single thickness of thin India paper, which is the paper I would always recommend to be used as overlays for engravings, is frequently required over very small parts, with the edges of it scraped down, for it is advisable that the overlay should never be cut at the edges, but, even where great delicacy of shape is not required, that it should be torn into the form wanted, which reduces the thickness of the edges, and causes the additional pressure to blend with the surrounding parts.

Particular parts of the impression will frequently come up much too strong, and other parts too weak, it will then be necessary to take out from between the tympans a thickness of paper, and add an additional tympan sheet, cutting away those parts that come off too hard, and scraping down the edges; scraping away half the thickness of a tympan sheet in small parts that require to be a little lightened will improve the impression.

The light parts require little pressure, but the depths should be brought up so as to produce a full and firm impression.

If a block be hollow on the surface, underlaying the hollow part will bring it up better than overlaying it, at least so much that it shall only require a thickness or two of paper as overlays. If a block be too low, it is advisable to underlay it, for the purpose of raising it to the proper height, in preference to making use of overlays, for they act in some measure as blankets, being pressed into the interstices, and rendering the lines thicker than in the engraving.

It will be necessary sometimes, when the surface of the block is very uneven, to tear away parts of the paper in the tympan, to equalise the impression where it is too hard.

The pressman will find it convenient to pull a few impressions while he is making ready, on soiled or damaged India paper, for out of these he can cut overlays to the precise shape and size that is wanted, as he will constantly find it necessary to do so in instances where great accuracy is required in overlaying particular portions; and in these instances he cannot well do without a sharp penknife and a pair of good small scissars. A fine sharp bodkin and a needle or two, to take out picks, are also needful; but he should be particularly careful in so using them as that he do no injury. The best way to avoid this is to draw the bodkin or needle point cautiously in the direction of the lines.

Engravings that are in the vignette form require great attention to keep the edges light and clear, and in general it is necessary to scrape away one or two thicknesses of paper, in order to lighten the impression and keep it clean; for the edges being irregular, and parts, such as small branches of trees, leaves, &c. straggling, for the purpose of giving freedom to the design, they are subject to come off too hard, and are liable to picks, which give great trouble, and are difficult to be kept clear of. Bearers letter-high placed round the block, if they can be applied without the balls touching them, will be found advantageous; if they cannot, pieces of reglet, pasted on the frisket in the usual way, and taking a bearing on the furniture, must be substituted, but the high bearer is to be preferred where it can be adopted; these bearers equalise the pressure on the surface of the engraving, and protect the edges from the severity of the pull, which is always injurious to the delicacy of the external lines. They also render the subject more manageable, by enabling the pressman to add to, or diminish, the pressure on particular parts, so as to produce the desired effect.

When great delicacy of impression is demanded in a vignette, it will be found beneficial, after the engraving is beat with ink, to take a small ball without ink, and beat the extremities: this will not only take away any superfluity of ink, but will be a means of preventing picks, and give to the edges lightness and softness, particularly where distances are represented.

If the extremities are engraved much lighter than the central parts, underlays should be pasted on the middle of the block, which will give a firmer impression to those central parts of the subject: it would save trouble to cause the block to be a little rounded on the face, as it would give facility in obtaining a good impression.

When highly finished engravings on wood are worked separately, woollen cloth, however fine, should never be used for blankets, as it causes too much impression; two thicknesses of stoutish hard smooth paper, in lieu of it, between the tympans is better: sometimes even a piece of glazed pasteboard is used inside the outer tympan. The parchments ought to be in good condition, stretched tight, of a smooth surface, thin, and of regular thickness, so as to enable the pressman to obtain an impression as nearly as possible from the surface only of the engraved lines.

It is indispensably necessary that the balls should be in the best order, the same as for the finest work; and the pressman should be very particular in taking ink, distributing his balls, and beating the block well, otherwise he will not obtain clear, uniform, good impressions. If the block be small, and it is worked by itself, he will find that he can take ink more uniformly in small quantities, by first taking ink with a pair of regular sized balls, and distributing, and then taking ink from them to work his cut with; and this more particularly if he be using a pair of small balls. For this work he ought always to have the best ink that can be procured.

A large wood cut left on the press stone all night is very apt to warp; when this happens, a good method to restore it to its original flatness is to lay it on its face upon the imposing stone, with a few thicknesses of damp paper underneath it, and to place the flat side of a planer upon it, and four or five octavo pages of tied up letter; in the course of a few hours the block will be restored to its original flatness. This method is preferable to steeping the block in water, which has been frequently practised; for the steeping swells the lines of the engraving, and consequently affects the impression to a much greater extent than this operation. For retaining the original effect, as it came from the hands of the artist, I would carefully prevent the block ever being wet with water, and, when it had been worked in a form with types, would take it out before the form was washed.

To prevent this warping during the dinner hour or the night, turn the tympan down upon the form, run the carriage in, and pulling the bar handle home, fasten it to the near cheek by the catch, where there is one, or else by a chain or rope, or by a stay to the bar from the offcheek; in iron presses this way is efficacious.

However long a time boxwood may be kept in the log, it will always twist and warp when cut into slices for engraving, on account of fresh surfaces being exposed to the air: large blocks may be restored to their flatness by laying them on a plane surface, with the hollow side downward, without any weight on them, in the course of a night.

When only a few proofs are wanted from an engraving, good impressions may be obtained with little trouble on dry India paper, with about six thicknesses of the same sort of paper laid over it, and pulled without the tympan. This observation applies to small cuts, and those of a moderate size; if proofs are wanted from large ones, it will be found advantageous to put the India paper for a few minutes into a heap of damp paper.

A fine engraving on wood should never be brushed over with lye: the best method that I have found in practice, is to wipe the ink off with a piece of fine woollen cloth damped with spirits of turpentine; and if it should get foul in working, to clean it with a softish brush and spirits of turpentine. It will be found in practice that spirits of turpentine take off the ink quicker, and affect the wood less, than any other article used; and the facility with which the block is again brought into a working state, more than compensates for the trifling additional expense incurred, as nothing more is required than to wipe the surface dry, and to pull two or three impressions on dry waste paper.

The engravers always show an impression when the block is taken home to their employer; and this impression is taken in a manner, where the subject is not of a large size, such as to produce a superior effect to what a printer can with a press, when he has a number to do, which are generally worked in a form with types, and his price so low for printing, as not to enable him to do justice to the subjects. This causes great dissatisfaction to his employer, and he is unable to remedy the grievance; for the engraver’s proof is obtained by means of a burnisher, with one thickness of paper in addition to that printed on, so that he can examine each part to bring it up where it is required, and leave the others as delicate as he pleases: he thus obtains an impression from the surface only, perfect in all its parts, with the best ink that can be procured; while the printer gives dissatisfaction, because he cannot, in the way of trade, perform impossibilities.

Papillon, in his work on Engraving on Wood, published in 1766, complains of a plan nearly similar being adopted by the French engravers, with which he finds great fault. The following is a translation of the passage:--

“Some engravers on wood have the knack of fabricating the proofs of their engravings far more delicately, and in a more flattering manner than they really ought to be; and this is the means they make use of--they first take off two or three, in order to adjust one of them to their fancy, and which they think will favour their imposition; having selected it, they only beat anew the parts of the block charged with shades and the deeper strokes, in such a manner, that the lighter ones, distances, &c. being only lightly covered with ink, in as far as not being touched in the new beating, they retain no more than what was left by the preceding impression; the result is, that the new proof comes off extremely delicate in those places, and appears pleasing to the eye; but when this block is printed in conjunction with letterpress, the impressions then appear in their natural state, and totally different from that which they presented on delivery of the work. The strokes are of one equal tint, hard, and devoid of softness, and the distances are often less delicate than the foregrounds. I shall risk little by saying that all the three Le Sueurs have made use of this trick.”

The pressman will find it an advantage, if it be necessary to do full justice to an engraving, to have a good impression from the engraver, and place it before him as a pattern, and then arrange the overlays, &c., till he produces a facsimile in effect; but the most valuable lesson will be when he can obtain the assistance of the artist at the press side, to direct him in making ready the cut, and I would advise him by no means to be impatient at the tediousness of the operation, as he will obtain more information how to produce a fine impression by this than by any other means. It will also instruct him how to meet the wishes of the draftsman and the engraver, with regard to effect, in a way superior to any other; and will, with care and attention, ultimately lead him to excellence in printing engravings on wood.

An assertion is now generally promulgated, that machine printing is superior to that of the press, even for engravings on wood, and thus misleading publishers and the public. When I come to speak of machines, and of presses, I will endeavour to show that it is incompatible with the principle of a machine that it can equal a press in producing fine work.

ERRAND BOY. _See_ DEVIL.

ERRATA.

A list of errors that have escaped both the author and the printer. It is generally printed in a small type at the end of the work. It should always be kept down, and never brought out in a prominent manner. Some authors seem partial to extend the errata, by noticing the most trifling mistakes, such for instance as a turned letter, and adding corrections of the writing and of misstatements of facts, as well as new facts which may have arisen; and all under the name errata, as if they were entirely the errors of the printer; in this case they ought to be styled Corrections and Additions. In my opinion, there is no occasion to insert in the errata any thing that does not affect the sense. Mr. Beloe, in his Anecdotes of Literature, states that “the book which is distinguished by the greatest number of errata on record, is that containing the works of Pica Mirandula, printed at Strasburgh in 1507, by a printer of the name of Knoblouch. The errata of this volume occupy no less than fifteen folio pages.”

ETHIOPIC.

[Illustration: The Ethiopic Alphabet]

The Ethiopic language is descended from the Hebrew, yet approaching nearer to the Arabic than to any other of the Semitic languages. It observes the order of reading and writing from left to right, in common with the other languages of the same origin. It has twenty-six characters peculiar to itself, of which the order, figure, name, and power are as follow:--

1. ሀ: Hoi. _h_, ה 2. ለ: Lawi. _l_, ל 3. ሐ: Haut. _h_, ח 4. መ: Mai. _m_, מ 5. ሠ: Saut. _ss_, ס 6. ረ: Rees. _r_, ר 7. ሰ: Saat. _ss_, ש 8. ቀ: ’Kaph. _’k_, ק 9. በ: Beth. _b_, ב 10. ተ: Tawi. _t_, ת 11. ኀ: Harm. _h_, ח 12. ነ: Nahas. _n_, נ 13. አ: Alph. _a_, א 14. ከ: Caph. _c_, כ 15. ወ: Wawe. _w_, ו 16. ዐ: Ain. _a_, ע 17. ዘ: Zai. _z_ Fr. ז 18. የ: Jaman. _j_, י 19. ደ: Dent. _d_, ד 20. ገ: Geml. _g_, ג 21. ጠ: ’Tait. _’t_, ט 22. ጰ: ’Pait _’p_, פ 23. ጸ: ’Zadai. _’z_, צ 24. ፀ: ’Zappa. _’z_, צ 25. ፈ: Aph. _f_, פ 26. ፐ: Psa. _p_, פ

Of these ጰ: and ፐ: are used only in words of Greek and Latin origin. In expressing Arabic these seven, ሰ: ተ: ነ: ከ: ዘ: ደ: ጠ:, and in Portuguese and Italian these three, መ: በ: and ለ:, are made use of with the addition of certain horns.

Moreover, none of the above letters are connected, except ገ:, which, in the name of God, sometimes coalesces with ዘ:, in this manner ̛ዘ:, as ለ̛ዘለበሐረ:

The power of the letters approaches nearest to those which have been added, whence it appears that ሀ: ሐ: and ኀ:, also ሠ: and ሰ:, also አ: and ዐ:, and lastly ጸ: and ፀ:, are generally pronounced in the same manner, which causes no small confusion in writing, as one cognate letter is often put for another, so that it should always be borne in mind in looking for a word in the lexicon, that if it is not to be found under one letter, we should continue our researches under the cognate.

These four ቀ:, ጠ:, ጰ:, and ጸ: or ፀ:, have a sound altogether at variance with European custom, and the correct pronunciation can only be learnt by hearing. But one destitute of a preceptor may approach nearer to their genuine sounds, by first prefixing to each the power of the vowel _i_, thus, _ik_, _it_, _ip_, _iz_, and afterwards, having substituted in its place an apostrophe, he may add the vowels, in this manner _’k-a_, _’k-e_, _’k-i_, &c., and similarly with _’t-a_, _’p-a_, _’z-a_, &c.

In Ethiopic the numbers are not represented by the letters, but by certain peculiar figures formed apparently from the Greek letters, and which are included within two small lines, in the following manner:--

[Illustration: Ethiopic numerals]

1. ፩: α’ 2. ፪: β’ 3. ፫: γ’ 4. ፬: δ’ 5. ፭: ε’ 6. ϛ’ 7. ፯: ζ’ 8. ፰: η’ 9. ፱: θ’ 10. ፲: ι’ 20. ፳: κ’ 30. ፴: λ’ 40. ፵: μ’ 50. ፶: ν’ 60. ፷: ξ’ 70. ፸: ο’ 80. ፹: π’ 90. ፺: ϟ’ 100. ፻: ρ’ 200. ፪፻: σ’ 300. ፫፻: τ’ 400. ፬፻: υ’, &c. 1000. ፲፻: because in writing and speaking they say ዐሠረፑ: ምላት: _ten hundreds_.

[Where blanks occur in the Ethiopic, the characters are not in the British founderies.]

The other numbers are compounded from these, the greater being always placed first, as as ፲፩: 11. ፲፪: 12. &c. ፳፩: 21. ፳፪: 22. &c. ፻፩: 101. ፻፪:102.

In Ethiopic the vowels are not expressed by particular letters, as in the European, or by separate points, as in the Oriental languages, but by certain small lines or circles annexed to the top, middle, or bottom of the letters themselves, or by the shortening or lengthening of one of the strokes, which changes are in number seven; whence arise so many orders of letters, or rather of syllables, of which the first is considered as the simple figure, and the remainder as compound, and are read--the first by _a_ short, the second by _u_, the third by _i_, the fourth by _a_ long, the fifth by _e_ long, the sixth by _e_ or _y_ short, and the seventh by _o_; in this manner:

[Illustration: Ethiopic vowels]

+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ | | I. | II. | III. | IV. | V. | VI. | VII. | | | | | | | | | | | | ã. | u. | i. | ā. | ē. |ĕ, y̆.| o. | +-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ | H. | ሀ: | ሁ: | ሂ: | ሃ: | ሄ: | ህ: | ሆ: | | L. | ለ: | ሉ: | ሊ: | ላ: | ሌ: | ል: | ሎ: | | H. | ሐ: | ሑ: | ሒ: | ሓ: | ሔ: | ሕ: | ሖ: | | M. | መ: | ሙ: | ሚ: | ማ: | ሜ: | ም: | ሞ: | | S. | ሠ: | ሡ: | ሢ: | ሣ: | ሤ: | ሥ: | ሦ: | | R. | ረ: | ሩ: | ሪ: | ራ: | ሬ: | ር: | ሮ: | | S. | ሰ: | ሱ: | ሲ: | ሳ: | ሴ: | ስ: | ሶ: | | ’K. | ቀ: | ቁ: | ቂ: | ቃ: | ቄ: | ቅ: | ቆ: | | B. | በ: | ቡ: | ቢ: | ባ: | ቤ: | ብ: | ቦ: | | T. | ተ: | ቱ: | ቲ: | ታ: | ቴ: | ት: | ቶ: | | H. | ኀ: | ኁ: | ኂ: | ኃ: | ኄ: | ኅ: | ኆ: | | N. | ነ: | ኑ: | ኒ: | ና: | ኔ: | ን: | ኖ: | | A. | አ: | ኡ: | ኢ: | ኣ: | ኤ: | እ: | ኦ: | | C. | ከ: | ኩ: | ኪ: | ካ: | ኬ: | ክ: | ኮ: | | W. | ወ: | ዉ: | ዊ: | ዋ: | ዌ: | ው: | ዎ: | | A. | ዐ: | ዑ: | ዒ: | ዓ: | ዔ: | ዕ: | ዖ: | | Z. | ዘ: | ዙ: | ዚ: | ዛ: | ዜ: | ዝ: | ዞ: | | J. | የ: | ዩ: | ዪ: | ያ: | ዬ: | ይ: | ዮ: | | D. | ደ: | ዱ: | ዲ: | ዳ: | ዴ: | ድ: | ዶ: | | G. | ገ: | ጉ: | ጊ: | ጋ: | ጌ: | ግ: | ጎ: | | ’T. | ጠ: | ጡ: | ጢ: | ጣ: | ጤ: | ጥ: | ጦ: | | ’P. | ጰ: | ጱ: | ጲ: | ጳ: | ጴ: | ጵ: | ጶ: | | ’Z. | ጸ: | ጹ: | ጺ: | ጻ: | ጼ: | ጽ: | ጾ: | | ’Z. | ፀ: | ፁ: | ፂ: | ፃ: | ፄ: | ፅ: | ፆ: | | F. | ፈ: | ፉ: | ፊ: | ፋ: | ፌ: | ፍ: | ፎ: | | P. | ፐ: | ፑ: | ፒ: | ፓ: | ፔ: | ፕ: | ፖ: | +-----+------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+

The diphthongs are formed not only by the letters ው: and ይ:, mutes of the sixth order, after a letter of the first or fourth order, as, for instance, አውራኀ: _months_, ተሠይመ _it is appointed_; but also the four letters ቀ: ኀ: ከ: and ገ: with the addition of certain peculiar points, are generally considered to form diphthongs in the first, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth orders, in this manner:

[Illustration: Ethiopic diphthongs]

+-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | I. | III. | IV. | V. | VI. | | | | | | | | | | uă. | ui. | uā | ue. | uy. | +-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | ’K. | ቈ: | ቊ: | ቋ: | ቌ: | | | H. | | ኊ: | ኋ: | ኌ: | | | Q. | ኰ: | | | | ኲ: | | G. | | | ጓ: | ጔ: | ጕ: | +-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

In Ethiopic each separate word is distinguished by two thick points, and the periods by four or more; there are no marks of accentuation.

The preceding observations are extracted from a small treatise on the elements of Ethiopic grammar by George Otho, professor of the Greek and Oriental languages at Marburg in Hesse Cassel, with an acknowledgment of being indebted for his information to Ludolph; and bound in connexion with the “Fundamenta Punctationis Linguæ Sanctæ” of Jacob Alting, printed at Frankfort on the Main, in 2 vols., 1717.

_Ethiopic Types in the British Founderies._

_English._--Oxford University. Thorowgood & Besley. Formerly Bynneman’s.

_Pica._--Caslon & Livermore. Thorowgood & Besley. Walton’s Polyglot; through Andrews’s and James’s founderies to Fry.

ETRUSCAN.

The confines of ancient Etruria bordered closely upon the city of Rome, being separated from it only by the Tyber to the south-east and south. There is proof, indeed, that almost all Italy was at one time under the power of Etruria.

Although the Etrurians seem to have arrived at the highest point of civilization, and even of luxury, at an early period, whilst Rome had as yet no existence, and to have been distinguished in a variety of respects far beyond the people of surrounding nations, we are almost wholly ignorant of their history, and even their origin is involved in the greatest doubt.

The people of Etruria, called by the Romans Etrusci or Tusci, are styled Tyrrheni or Tyrseni by the Greek historians.

The difficulties of the Etruscan question are increased by a difference of statement and of opinion in the accounts recorded on the subject, by Herodotus and Dionysius, two of the greatest antiquaries and historians of ancient times.

Herodotus, who, says Athenæus (lib. xii.), obtained his account from Lydians, gives to the Tyrrheni a Lydian origin, and states that they emigrated under the command of Tyrrhenus, one of the sons of Atys: while Dionysius, partly because Xanthus, an historian of Lydia, is silent respecting this emigration, will not allow the tradition to be true, but imagines them to have come from the north. It is not improbable that both are in part correct: the earlier portion of the Etrurians might have come from the north, while the later colony (who must have been advanced in civilization to have effected the voyage) might have been Lydians; and in all probability these subsequent settlers constituted the dominant portion of the invaders of Etruria.--_Sir William Gell’s Topography of Rome_, 8vo. 1834.

The Etruscan language must have been the same, or nearly so, with the Hebrew and Phœnician. For, whether we consider them as descended from Ashur, Peleg, the Egyptians, Phœnicians, or even Celtes, and from some of these they undoubtedly descended, their language must have been either the same with the Hebrew and Phœnician, or nearly related to them. The first Pelasgic settlements in Etruria could not have been many centuries after the deluge, and very few after the dispersion; and at that time the languages, or rather dialects, of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Celtes, Syrians, Arabs, &c., must have approached extremely near to the Hebrews and Phœnicians, which the learned allow to have been almost the same. With regard to the Canaanites or Phœnicians migrating into Etruria, after the first colonies of the Pelasgi or Tyrsenians settled there, it cannot be denied, that their language had received but little alteration from the primitive Hebrew. So that both sacred and profane history concur to evince the Hebrew, Phœnician, and Etruscan tongues to have been, in the earlier ages, nearly the same.

This likewise farther appears from the letters and manner of writing anciently used in Etruria. The letters are almost the same with those of the earliest Greeks, brought by Cadmus out of Phœnicia. The manner of writing is purely Oriental, the letters being drawn from the right hand to the left, consonant to the practice of the Eastern nations. The former point is rendered indisputably clear by the Eugubian tables, in conjunction with the Sigean inscription, and the latter by a bare perusal of the generality of the Etruscan inscriptions. Nay, the very remote antiquity of the first colonies that settled in Etruria, as well as of the Etruscan language and alphabet, may be easily inferred from those inscriptions. For as the Pelasgic alphabet, that prevailed in Greece before the age of Deucalion, consisted of sixteen letters, the Etruscan or Pelasgic alphabet, first brought into Italy, composed of only thirteen letters, must have preceded the reign of that prince. The high, not to say almost incredible, antiquity of the Etruscan language and alphabet, has been clearly evinced in two dissertations, by Mr. J. Swinton, printed at Oxford in the year 1746.--_Univ. Hist._ 8vo. vol. xvi. 1748.

The author of a “Tour to the Sepulchres of Etruria, in 1839,” in a visit to General Galassi’s museum at Rome, says, “If we had been surprised at Campanari’s exhibition, we were petrified at the general’s. Here we saw an immense breastplate of gold, which had been fastened on each shoulder by a most delicately wrought gold fibula, with chains like those now made at Trichinopoly. The breastplate was stamped with a variety of arabesques and small patterns, as usual in the Egyptian style. The head had been crowned with fillets and circular ornaments of pure gold, and a rich mantle had covered the body, flowered with the same material. In this grave also had been found a quantity of arms, round bronze shields with a boss in the centre which was stamped, spears, lances, and arrows; a bier of bronze, as perfect as if made a year ago; a tripod, with a vessel containing some strange looking lumps of a resinous substance, and which on being burnt proved to be perfumes so intensely strong, that those who tried them were obliged to leave the room. There were many small images, perhaps of lares, or of ancestors, in terra cotta that had been ranged in double lines close to the bier; also some large common vessels for wine and oil, and some finely painted vases and tazze, with black figures upon a red ground, which had been consecrated to the dead. There were wheels of a car upon which the bier had been brought into the sepulchre, and many other things which I do not remember; but the wonder of all these treasures was a sort of inkstand of terra cotta, which had served as a schoolmaster’s A. B. C. On it were the Etruscan letters, first in alphabet, and then in syllables, and both the letters and the syllables are the same as the oldest form of the Greek. It was deciphered by Dr. Lepsius, and is the key to all we at present know, and will be the basis of all we are ever likely to know, of the Etruscan tongue.”----“This humble article is likely to prove to Europe, what the stones of Alexandria and Rosetta have been before it, the dictionary of a lost language, and the interpreter of an extinct race.”

“I noted that upon this inkstand were four alphabets engraved, and after each the syllables,--thus, ba, be, bi, &c., ma, me, mi, and so forth; that one of these is in the oldest or archaic form of the Greek alphabetic letters, and that hence connexion is likely to be traced and demonstrated between the Egyptian, Etruscan, and Pelasgic.”

[Illustration: The Etruscan Alphabet]

_The Primitive Etruscan Alphabet._

+-----------+----++-----------+----+ | [#]. | M. || [#]. | A. | | [#]. | N. || [#]. | E. | | [#]. | P. || [#]. | F. | | [#]. [#]. | R. || [#]. | H. | | [#]. | S. || [#]. | I. | | [#]. | T. || [#]. | K. | | | || [#]. | L. | +-----------+----++-----------+----+

To these letters may be added the four following complex characters [#], [#], [#], and [#].

_Etruscan in the British Founderies._

_Pica._--Caslon and Livermore. Cut by Caslon for the celebrated linguist, the Rev. John Swinton, Oxford, about 1733.

EVEN LINES.

When a piece of printing has to be executed in great haste, a number of compositors are employed on it, and the copy is cut into small pieces for each, to facilitate the making-up, imposing, and the general furthering of the work; if the copy should be in long paragraphs, the compositors have each to begin a line and to make their copy end a line, frequently with great irregularity of spacing; this is termed making even lines. In daily newspapers it is of constant occurrence.

EVEN PAGE.

The second, fourth, sixth, or any other even numbered page is called an even page.

EXCLAMATION, Note of. _See_ PUNCTUATION.

EXERCISING THE PELT.

Frequently currying a pelt, to get it into condition, is termed _Exercising the Pelt_, or _Giving the Pelt Exercise_.

F.

FAC.

Before the introduction of printing into Europe, and its application to the production of books, the Librarii or writers of books, in Rome, were a regular company who had several immunities: their business was a trade, and they were regulated by certain laws. Besides these writers of books, there were artists whose profession was to ornament and paint manuscripts, who were called Illuminators; the writers of books first finished their part, and the illuminators embellished them with ornamented letters and paintings. We frequently find blanks left in manuscripts for the illuminators which were never filled up. Some of the ancient manuscripts are gilt and burnished in a style superior to later times. Their colours were excellent, and their skill in preparing them was very great.

This practice, of introducing ornaments, drawings, emblematical figures, and even portraits into manuscripts, is of great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of seven hundred illustrious Romans, which he enriched with their portraits, as Pliny attests in his Natural History. Pomponius Atticus, the friend of Cicero, was the author of a work on the actions of the great men amongst the Romans, which he ornamented with their portraits, as appears in his life by Cornelius Nepos; but these have not been transmitted to posterity. However there are many precious documents remaining, which exhibit the advancement and decline of the arts in different ages and countries. These inestimable paintings and illuminations, display the manners, customs, habits, ecclesiastical, civil, and military, weapons and instruments of war, utensils and architecture of the ancients; they are of the greatest use in illustrating many important facts, relating to the history of the times in which they were executed. In these treasures of antiquity are preserved a great number of specimens of Grecian and Roman art, which were executed before the arts and sciences fell into neglect and contempt. The manuscripts containing these specimens, form a valuable part of the riches preserved in the principal libraries of Europe. The Royal, Cottonian, and Harleian libraries, as also those in the two Universities in England, the Vatican at Rome, the Imperial at Vienna, the Royal at Paris, St. Mark’s at Venice, and many others.

When the art of printing was first applied in Europe to the production of books, they were in imitation of, and sold as, manuscripts; and blanks were left at the commencement of the respective divisions of the work, for the illuminator to fill in with the proper letters, and ornaments, as was usual in manuscripts, and so close was the imitation that, even in our own time, it has required the assistance of a chemical test to ascertain which was manuscript and which was printed. When the secret of printing was divulged, and the deception could not be continued, ornamental letters of a large size were introduced, and printed with two colours, generally red and blue, the letter being of one colour, and flourishes, extending the whole length of the page, in the other, so as to have the appearance of being done with a pen; then succeeded various grotesque figures, in attitudes to resemble letters; afterwards small Roman Capital Letters, with ornaments round them forming a square design; subsequently the block was pierced so that any letter could be introduced, and the ornamented part could be used for any initial; the next descent was for the letter founders to cast the ornament in type metal, and pierce it for general use, and these cast ornaments for letters were called Facs, as an abbreviation, I believe, for Facsimile. The last descent was to the extreme, to put a plain Roman Capital Letter, frequently extending four or five lines in depth; and this is the substitute for a beautiful coloured drawing.

FACE OF A LETTER.

The surface of that extremity of the type which bears the letter.

FACE OF A PAGE,

or FORM. The superficies of a page or form, where the faces of every letter lie in the same plain.--_M._

FALLING OUT.

The same as DROPPING OUT, which _see_. But this term is more generally applied to a page, a quarter, or a whole form, when any one of them falls out of a chase from the shrinking of the quoins and furniture.

In summer time particularly, forms in chase require to be frequently examined, and the quoins tightened, to prevent this accident, and more especially when they have been imposed in wet furniture. Compositors should neither be negligent, nor forgetful of this, as in the progress of a work the forms are in their charge, and if the whole of a form, or part of it, falls out, they not only have to distribute the pie, but to recompose the matter gratuitously.

FANNING.

This is a term used in the Warehouse, in counting paper. It consists of taking hold of the right hand lower corner of a portion of the paper between the flat side of the fore finger and the end of the thumb, and pinching it tolerably tight; then with a twist of the wrist turning the right hand edge of the paper up, and running the left hand over the surface of the paper, it separates the sheets at the top corner, so as to have somewhat the appearance of a fan, and enables the person to count it with facility.

FAT.

With compositors, short pages, blank pages, and light open matter: with pressmen, light forms, forms that only require one pull at wooded presses; and very small numbers, such as five, ten, fifteen, or twenty copies each, are termed Fat.

FAT. _See_ BEAT FAT.--_M._

FAT FACE,

or FAT LETTER, is a letter with a broad stem. For observations on them and specimens, _see_ TYPE.

FAT FORM. _See_ FAT.

FAT WORK. _See_ FAT.

FEET OF A PRESS.

The frame of a wooden press that lies horizontally on the floor, into which the cheeks and hind posts are inserted by means of mortises and tenons.

FELT.

Pieces of felted hats. This is the best substitute for scaleboard, when there is a deficiency of that article, to use as cards in the head of a press; and even when there is no scarcity of scaleboard, a few pieces put in improve the pull. _See_ CARDS.

FINE PRESSWORK.

This is the technical term for presswork of superior quality; it is in some measure indefinite, for, as presswork is paid a certain price for a given number, and the price advances according to the time and care bestowed on it, that for which the lowest price is paid is termed common work, and after the price has advanced about one half in addition, it is styled fine work; although it may advance gradually to six times the lowest price, or more, it is still called fine work.

In aiming at excellence in printing, it will be found that Presswork deserves particular consideration, as a part on which the beauty of a book so much depends.

It will be necessary, in the first instance, to endeavour to define more particularly what is meant by the term Fine Presswork, for except this be understood, we shall come to no satisfactory conclusion, as workmen vary in their opinions respecting it, and frequently produce sheets of different shades of colour in the same volume, when it is done at different presses, and all under the name of the finest work; and when the same person either actually prints the whole, or superintends it, the work will be executed according to his criterion, without any fixed rule whereby to decide; thus one man shall produce the finest work, according to his opinion, of a pale grey colour, while another will produce it so black and surcharged with colour, that if the ink be not of a very good quality, it will not only smear, but the paper at the edges of the letters, nay, even the whole page, will be tinged with the oil which separates from the colouring matter of the ink, to the entire destruction of all beauty of workmanship.

Fine Presswork is the art of printing perfect impressions from the surface of engravings in relief.

By obtaining perfect impressions, I would be understood that the subject transferred to paper should be an impression from the surface and the surface only of the engraved lines, of such a tone as to produce all the effect of which the subject is capable, without either superfluity or deficiency of colour.

Having thus defined my meaning of the term Fine Presswork, I shall speak of the means by which it is to be produced, which may be of use to those who have not had opportunities of printing splendid books.

The press ought to be in the best condition, otherwise there will be no certainty of the impression being equal, except with great trouble and loss of time. The joints of the tympan should not have any play; if they have, it will affect the register, which being out disfigures the appearance of the book; it also causes a great risk of producing slurs and doubles: the most certain way of having them without play is to construct them on centres, so that if they should work a little loose, they can at any time, with the greatest ease, be tightened by means of the screws on which the centres are formed.

The parchments on the tympans should be thin, and of a uniform thickness, and stretched on the tympans so as not to be flaccid. It is said that the French printers in their finest works used silk on the tympans, on account of its thinness, its smoothness, and uniformity.

The face of the platen ought to be a true plane, and parallel to the press stone, or table. It will be found in practice that an iron platen is superior to a wooden one for producing a sharp clear impression, where fine work is wanted; for, by discarding woollen blankets, the pressure must be increased to obtain this effect, which indents wood, and then requires so many overlays to make a uniform impression, that they produce nearly the same effect as blankets, and it becomes necessary to new face the surface frequently, which is inconvenient and expensive: the iron platen is not subject to this inconvenience; but it is more liable to injure the types, as it will not yield; and should there be any inequality on the surface of the form, owing to it not being well planed down, or to any extraneous matter being upon it or under it, the types must give way, and be destroyed. Generally speaking, the iron platen wears the types more than a wooden one.

The head of the press should be so justified as to produce what is termed a soaking pull; that is, the form should begin to feel the pressure of the platen when about two thirds down; then, when the bar is pulled home, or what is technically called cheeked, which I would always recommend to be done in good work, as it keeps the pull regular and uniform, the power slowly increases, and the paper has time to be pressed gradually on the types, which causes it to receive the ink on all its parts, and produces a clear impression.

This justifying the head relates to wooden presses, where the head and the winter are allowed some play, which is filled up with pieces of scaleboard, called cards, cut to the size of the mortises in the cheeks, and inserted in them upon the tenons of the head, and under the tenons of the winter, allowing the pull to have some elasticity. For my own part, I would have the winter lie solid, and the spring be confined to the head. _See_ WINTER.

In the iron presses constructed on the late Earl Stanhope’s principle, where increased power is produced by means of a compound lever applied to the screw, and where there is no elasticity in the pull, this effect is produced in a greater degree than in a press of the common construction; for, as the platen descends on the form, the power increases considerably, but the motion is slower; thus the effect of the soaking pull is preserved, with a considerable addition of power, owing to the combined action of the screw and the compound lever.

In Ruthven’s press, where the platen is suspended from the head, and brought over the form by means of small wheels with grooves in their edges running on the ribs, the pull is regulated by screws on the locking pieces, and also through the springs by which it rests on the ribs, that bring it nearer to, or remove it from the form.

In Clymer’s Columbian press, where the power is obtained by a compound lever, the pull is regulated by a screw that connects the bar with the lever, and additionally by thin plates of iron placed upon the top of the platen under the bottom of the spindle. It is also regulated in the same way, in the Albion press, as originally constructed by R. W. Cope.

In Sherwin and Cope’s Imperial press the pull is justified by a wedge above the head of the spindle or bolt in the front, which has a screw attached to it with a projecting head, by which the pull is adjusted to the greatest nicety, with ease and facility. Mr. Hopkinson has adopted the same plan in the Albion press since it came under his management on the death of Mr. Cope.

The advantage of having a good press will be unavailing for the production of fine work, if the types are much worn; for it will be found impossible to produce a sharp clear impression if the perfect shape of the letter and the fine lines are rounded and worn away by much use, as, in consequence of this roundness of the letter from wear, it will be necessary to use much blanket in the tympan to bring up the shape of the whole letter, which will produce a gross and indelicate impression of more than the surface.

I have been told that Didot, of Paris, in his most splendid works, never printed more than three sheets from the same fount of letter, when it was sent to the melting pot, and replaced by a new fount.

The colour of the ink must depend on the taste or fancy of the master printer;--but no, I am mistaken, for, unless he prepares his own ink, he is obliged to use that only which is manufactured for general use; and there is little if any choice in purchasing this article, when it is wanted of a superior quality. Leaving the particular shade or tone out of the question, I will state my opinion as to what the qualities of black printing ink ought to be for fine work.

Intenseness of colour.

Impalpability.

Covering the surface perfectly of the type or engraving.

Quitting the surface of the type or engraving, when the paper is pressed on it, and adhering to the paper.

Not smearing after it is printed.

Retaining its first appearance without any change.

Ink ought to be reduced to an impalpable smoothness, either in a mill or on a stone with a mullar; and this is essentially necessary, as the process gives it the next quality--of completely covering the surface of the type, or the lines of the engraving, and that with the smallest quantity; and, with proper care in printing, presents to the eye an impression, in which the edges of the lines are smooth and perfect, and the surface of the impression on the paper is completely covered with ink, without any superfluity; which constitute the perfection of presswork with types.

Another property required in ink is, that it shall not only cover the surface of the lines on the paper printed, but that it shall also quit the face of the type or engraving, and leave it quite clean when the paper is impressed on it, and attach itself to the paper, so as to give a perfect impression of the subject represented, without the colour of the paper appearing through the ink; and that this property, of quitting the type or engraving, and becoming attached to the paper, shall continue the same through any number of impressions, without any accumulation of ink on the surface printed from.

After having obtained these results, and when the printing is as perfect as it can be made by workmanship, still something more is requisite, viz. that the ink shall not smear on being slightly rubbed; and that it shall retain its colour and appearance, without the oil in the ink spreading at the edges, or tinging the paper--in short, that it shall continue unchanged for any length of time, thus preserving and continuing the beauty of the work.

The balls should be in good condition, otherwise the pressman may exert his skill in vain, with a great loss of time and waste of paper, without the intended effect. They are made smaller and stuffed tighter with wool than those used for common work, which enables the pressman to distribute the strong ink that is used with more facility; they also cover the surface with ink better than if they were softer, and are easier for the workman; for large soft balls, used with ink made very strong with varnish and colour, would be almost unmanageable.

The quality of the paper is of great consequence in fine printing, but it is frequently overlooked by the printer’s employers, who are too apt to pay more attention to a showy appearance and a low price, than to quality.

The best paper for receiving an impression, as I have observed in the article Engravings on Wood, is India paper; but as that which comes to England is thin, it is not used for bookwork, neither would it be durable, as it wants toughness to enable it to sustain much wear.

The next best paper for printing is French plate paper, which is superior to English plate paper, as the latter has a good deal of gypsum in its composition, which causes it to be very uncertain in the wetting; for having given it a sufficient quantity of water, judging from appearances and by comparison, and expecting to have it in good condition, the pressman shall find it, when wanted for use, nearly dry, and harsh, and the water unequally diffused; it has then to be wetted again, and particular attention must be paid to the turning and pressing of it, before it is in a proper state for printing on. I attribute this effect to the gypsum, which has had its water of crystallization driven off by fire in preparing it, and the water which it takes up in wetting crystallizes to supply its place. I do not say that all English plate paper is affected in this manner by water, but I have repeatedly experienced it in practice; and in the second wetting, if great care be not taken, the gypsum being already saturated, it will imbibe too much water, which will squeeze out in printing, and prevent the paper from taking the ink uniformly, so as to spoil the impression.

The best English paper for printing on is that which is made of fine linen rags, and moderately sized, without the use of acids in bleaching, and without being adulterated with cotton rags: this paper takes water kindly, is easily got into good condition, receives a good impression, is durable, preserves its colour, and does not act upon the ink.

Messrs. J. Dickinson and Co. have made great improvements in the quality of paper, and manufacture one kind which is admirably adapted for printing, being made by a peculiar process which gives it a particular _affinity_ for the ink. They have also introduced improvements in the manufacture which have superseded the use of French paper with us, and have also nearly done so with the Chinese or India paper.

Having thus spoken of what I mean by fine presswork, and of the materials by which it is to be produced, I shall now proceed to describe the process; for when a printing office is provided with materials of the best quality, and the master of it is desirous of producing superior workmanship, there is something more required--he must resolve to lay in a fund of patience, as well as to submit to a great and continued expense of materials, or else he will never excel.

A good pressman will, as a matter of course, be well acquainted with the whole of the usual routine of presswork; in addition to which, to form his judgment, he should make himself acquainted with the most splendid books, and study them as patterns of workmanship.

In making ready it must be evident, that when a clear sharp impression is wanted, the pressure should be on the surface only, without penetrating into the interstices; of course the tympan ought not to be very soft, neither should any woollen blanket be used: the most perfect impression will be obtained when fine thick paper alone is used in the tympans, and even of this article I would not recommend many thicknesses.

After an impression is printed, the pressman examines if it be uniform throughout; if it be, which is very rarely the case, he goes on with the work; if not, he proceeds to overlay, in order to produce regularity of pressure, and of colour, over the whole form.

To effect this object, he takes thin smooth paper, and wherever the impression is weak he pastes a bit of it, of the size and shape of the imperfect part, on the tympan sheet, and proceeds in the same manner with every part that is imperfect; he then pulls another impression to examine the effect of his overlays, and continues to add to them where wanted, till the pressure of the platen is the same in every part, and the impression is uniformly of one shade of colour.

If the impression come off too strong in parts, or at the edges or corners of the pages, or on the head lines, it will be necessary to cut away the tympan sheet in those parts, and, if that does not ease the pressure sufficiently, to cut away the same parts from one or more of the sheets that are within the tympans.

It is generally preferable to overlay on a sheet of stout smooth paper inside the tympan, and particularly where the same press does the whole or great part of a work: this sheet is cut to fit the interior of the tympan, so as not to slip about, and has overlays pasted on it where wanted, to bring up the impression till it is very nearly equal; in all succeeding sheets it saves the pressman a great deal of time, as he will be certain that when he pulls a sheet of another form of the same work it will be nearly right, and he will only have to place thin overlays on occasional parts to make the impression perfect, with very little trouble. On the same principle, where this method is not adopted, preserving and using the same tympan sheet with its overlays, will be more expeditious than having to repeat the operation with every form.

Where short pages occur in a form, the bottoms of them and the edges of the adjoining pages will print too hard, and not prove a clear impression; it will therefore be necessary to have bearers to protect them, which are generally of double pica reglet pasted on the frisket, so as to bear on some part of the furniture or chase; but high bearers, made to the height of the types, are better, when they can be placed so that the balls do not touch them during the process of beating: in such a case they are liable to tear the frisket, from their closely adhering to it by their inky surface and the pressure. They may be placed where the regular foot of the page would have been had it been a full one, to prevent those hard edges which would otherwise be produced. This principle will hold good in all cases of short pages, blank pages, and the edges of wood cuts; but where it happens that some of the edges, or a particular page of a full form, come off too hard, and where there is not room to place a high bearer, then a piece of double pica reglet pasted on the frisket in the usual way will answer the purpose.

It is not necessary that these bearers should be placed close to the part requiring to be eased; they will produce the same effect if placed at a distance, keeping the direction, so that they take a good bearing on the platen, avoiding the frame of the frisket and the points; in using reglet as low bearers, I would recommend that the flat side of the furniture should be turned uppermost to receive the pressure of the bearers, provided they do not bear upon the chase.

When a high bearer does not ease the pull sufficiently on particular parts, its effect may be increased by pasting slips of stout paper on it, as overlays or underlays, and a bearer of reglet may be amended in a similar manner.

It happens occasionally that the tympan causes the paper to touch the form partially on being turned down, and occasions slurs, and this may occur from the parchment being slack or the paper being thin and soft. To prevent this inconvenience it is customary to roll up a piece of paper, similar to bookbinders headbands, and paste it on the frisket adjoining the part; this roll of paper takes a slight bearing on the furniture, and is a remedy. Many pressmen prefer pieces of cork cut to about the thickness of double pica, and pasted on the frisket.

It is neither customary nor advisable to fly the frisket in the best work, and more particularly when large heavy paper is used; it is a convenience in such cases to have a button screwed on the off side of the frame of the tympan, to confine the frisket flat to the tympan; it keeps the paper in its place, assists it in rising from the face of the form, to which it adheres owing to the strength of the ink; it helps to prevent slurring, and the paper from slipping, which occasions waste when it happens: altogether the button is of consequence in preventing accidents in the impression.

In working the white paper, instead of pins stuck into the tympan, to prevent the paper slipping, a duck’s bill is frequently used: it is pasted to the tympan at the bottom of the tympan sheet, and the tongue projects in front of it, indeed the tympan sheet appears to rest in it. The bottom of each sheet is placed behind this tongue, which supports it while turning down the tympan. _See_ DUCK’S BILL.

In proceeding with the work the balls should be well cleaned, that no dirt or extraneous matter may be on their surface. They should not be too moist, which would prevent the ink distributing equally on them, and would also prevent it lying equally on the surface of the types or engraving; nor should they be too dry, as in that case they will not dispose of the ink so smoothly as to produce a fine impression; neither will they retain particles of dirt on their surface, but part with them to the form, which will cause picks. The moisture ought to be just so much as to make the pelt or composition soft, when the ink will distribute kindly and equally, which will be perceived by their lugging; they will also part with it to the form equally where they touch, so that the impression will be sharp and clear.

The ink ought to be rubbed out thin and regular on the ink block, so that in taking ink it shall at the very first be diffused tolerably smooth on the surface of the balls, which causes a greater probability of producing good impressions. It is likewise advisable to keep rubbing the ink out on the block with the brayer, as also to be almost constantly distributing the balls; the consequent friction produces a small degree of warmth, which is of advantage, particularly in cold weather.

As uniformity of colour is requisite for beauty in printing, I would recommend that the pressman should take ink for every impression where the form is large; this I am aware will be thought too troublesome, but I am decidedly of opinion that it is advantageous in producing regularity of colour: it is unpleasant to the eye to see in a splendid book two pages that face each other, the one of a full black, rather surcharged with ink, the other rather deficient in quantity and of a grey colour; yet this must happen when, as is frequently the case, three or four sheets are printed with one taking of ink.

Beating for fine work should not by any means be slighted. The form ought to be gone over two or three times, not with heavy thumps, but slowly and regularly with a firm hand, just raising the balls each time completely clear of the types, and advancing but a little way, so that in fact each part will be beat five or six times over, or more; the face of the type will then be completely covered with ink: but the pressman should be careful not to beat too far over the edges of the pages, nor, if the margin be wide, to let the balls scrape against the edges of another page, as in both cases ink or extraneous matter will be scraped from the balls, and accumulate about the types at the extremities, and thus cause picks and rough lines.

In splendid books, and particularly where the paper is large and heavy and the type large, set-off sheets are used to interleave the whole impression while working, and are continued in it till the printed paper is taken down from the poles, when they are removed by the warehouseman. These set-off sheets are put in when the white paper is working, and moved from one heap to the other during the working of the reiteration. They prevent the ink from setting off from one sheet to another while they are newly printed, which it would otherwise do from the weight of the paper, and also from fine printing being usually worked of a full colour.

For the uniformity of impression I would advise that the pull should be adjusted in the first instance so as to cause a proper degree of pressure on the form to produce a good impression when the bar is pulled home, and then invariably to cheek the bar, and allow it to rest in that position during a short pause; this is easily done in the Stanhope, the Ruthven, the Columbian, and Sherwin and Cope’s presses, as the increased power is obtained by a compound lever, which is generally so adjusted as that the lever shall come a small portion beyond the centre of the circle it partially describes when the bar is pulled home, and as it has then reached a point beyond its maximum power, it is easily retained in this position to rest on the pull: the same observation applies to all other presses having, what is usually termed, the increased power, which is the application of a compound lever to a press on the common construction; but in a one pull wooden press, instead of this application, which I must acknowledge I never knew to answer well when applied to these presses, I would recommend when fine work is doing a simple contrivance that I adopted in two presses, which answered the purpose uncommonly well, and enabled the pressmen to rest on the pull uniformly, without too much effort to keep the bar to the cheek, which with a heavy form and a large platen becomes very fatiguing to continue through a number of impressions, if not impossible, with the unaided exertion of the arm. _See_ CATCH OF THE BAR.

It will thus be perceived, that to produce presswork of a highly superior character, great expense and much time are required; and that it is requisite to have a good press, and that press to be in good condition; to have new types, or types the faces of which are not rounded by wear; to have good balls, and those balls in good condition; the ink should be strong, of a full black colour, the oil well boiled, to prevent it separating from the colouring matter and tinging the paper, and it should be ground so fine as to be impalpable; the paper should be of the best quality, made of linen rags, and not bleached by means of an acid which has a tendency to decompose the ink; the beating should be carefully and well done, not in a hurried manner, the face of the type should be completely covered with ink, without any superfluity, so as to produce a full colour; and the pull should be so regulated as to have a slow and great pressure, and to pause at its maximum in order to fix the ink firmly upon the paper; these particulars observed, with paper only in the tympans, perfect impressions of the face of the type only will be obtained in the most superior manner, and a splendid book will thus be produced in the best style of printing.

FIRE EATER.

Compositors who are expeditious workmen are styled _Fire Eaters_, and also _Swifts_.

FIRST.

The pressman who has wrought the longest at that press, except an apprentice, for he must allow any journeyman, though new come, that style, is distinguished by the name of _First_, the other his _Second_, these call one another companions: generally the master printer reposes the greatest trust upon the care and curiosity for good work of the First; although both are equally liable to perform it. All the privilege that the First has above the Second is, that the First takes his choice to pull or beat the agreed stint first: and that the Second knocks up the balls, washes the forms, teazes wool, and does the other more servile work, while the First is employed about making register, ordering the tympan, frisket, and points, &c., or otherwise making ready the form, &c.--_M._

At the present day there is no such distinction; both the pressmen are equal, are equally responsible for the work, and take all the respective parts without any distinction; unless one of them be an acknowledged superior workman, and then he will, as a matter of course, take the lead in making ready, but in nothing else.

FIRST FORM.

The form the white paper is printed on, which generally by rule ought to have the first page of the sheet in it.--_M._ This is the reverse of the present custom, which is invariably to lay on the inner form first, viz. the one that has the second page in it; except it is directed to the contrary, for some particular reason. _See_ LAY ON.

FIRST PAGE.

First page of the sheet, which is always placed to the left hand in the first or outer form on the stone, when imposing.--_M._ In Hebrew works it is placed to the right hand, as in books printed in that language the order of the pages is reversed.

FIRST PROOF.

The first impression of any matter after it is composed, for the purpose of comparing it with the copy; it is usually printed on a cheap hard sized paper, that will bear writing ink well, to mark the literal errors, and any variations from the copy that may have occurred, in order to assist their correction in the metal.

FIRST PULL.

In a two pull press of the common construction, the platen only covers half a full form, and to obtain an impression of the whole, the carriage is run in at twice; the first pull prints one half, and the second pull the other half.

FLARING BALLS.

When pelt balls are too soft, from having imbibed too much moisture, and are wanted for immediate use, they are flared; that is, the pressman will take a sheet of waste paper, and having rolled it up slightly, will light it, and holding the face of one of the balls downwards, will pass it backwards and forwards over the flame, and then treat the other ball in a similar manner: this not only evaporates the moisture, but also communicates a small degree of warmth to the balls, which causes them both to take ink and to distribute it better than before the operation.

Composition balls are liable to crack, both in distributing, and also when separating them after they have been left in the rack upon each other, particularly when they are new and soft; to remedy this, they are flared, which, when it is judiciously done, melts the surface of the composition and fills up the cracks. They are also flared when the face begins to fail, which melts the composition, and forms a new and smooth surface.

FLARING A FORM.

In working by candle light, when imposing, correcting, or laying a form on the press, it sometimes happens that melted tallow will be spilt on the pages and choke up the letter. To get rid of this tallow, and clean the form again, the compositor lights a piece of paper and puts it on the grease, to melt it; he then brushes it with the letter brush, and, if necessary, repeats the operation.

FLOWERS.

Types with ornaments cast on their face instead of letters. They are used for borders round jobs, cards, pages, and wrappers of books; and for other embellishments.

Luckombe, in his work on printing, gave many specimens of borders, head pieces, &c. composed of flowers by Mr. Hazard, of Bath; and lately, Mr. Johnson and Mr. Nichols have produced some large and elaborate pieces with this material, by combining an immense number of pieces of different patterns and sizes, to represent pillars and arches; but after all the ingenuity they have displayed, and the patience they have exerted, their productions are inferior to the effect of an engraving; and only tend to prove, in my opinion, that ingenuity and patience are misapplied.

Flowers are cast on bodies from a Pearl up to a Four Line Pica, and of a great variety of patterns. Of late years our letter founders have greatly improved their specimens by the addition of many new designs.

The practice formerly was to cut the pattern perfect on each piece, and many patterns had a line at the foot of each, so that when a border was formed, there was a continual line round the inside. I pointed out to the late Mr. Catherwood, of the firm of Caslon and Catherwood, the inconvenience of both these modes of cutting flowers: in the first case, when the pattern had a solid ground, the flowers joined in that solid part, and, after being used a few times, the angle became rounded, and always showed a separation between each piece; I recommended that the junction should be in the most open part of the design, so that a little rounding of the angle would not be so perceptible: and in the second case, the same cause produced the same effect; for after being used a few times, the angles became rounded, and instead of a continued line, it became a series of short lines, separated from each other by intervals: to remedy this, I suggested to him to discard the line, and that a piece of brass rule should be substituted by the printer, which, being in one piece, would form a continued line, and not be liable to injury from the same cause. He adopted both these plans, and the junction of the flowers that have been subsequently cut has been much improved; but the abolishing of the line has not produced the neat effect I anticipated, for it rarely happens that the printer will take the trouble of placing a rule within the flowers; in consequence, many of the designs present, when printed, a meagre and unfinished appearance.

FLY.

_See_ DEVIL.--_M._ A boy who takes the printed sheets off the tympan as soon as the pressman turns it up, for the sake of despatch: it was most frequently done with newspapers, as they are always pressed for time, and are obliged to work with the greatest expedition. These boys are not now called devils, as in the time of Moxon, but _Flies_, or _Fly Boys_.

FLYING FRISKET.

In working at press, the act of turning down the frisket and the tympan upon the form by the same motion, for despatch; it is always done in the regular way of working, but not in very superior work where the paper is heavy.

FOLDING.

In the warehouse. As the person who collates the books turns them, the gatherings lie ready to be folded, and as they are pushed a little over each other they are readily taken up separately; they are knocked up at the ends and sides, and evenly folded in the back, which is rubbed down with a folder; after this, from a dozen to twenty-five gatherings in thickness are knocked up together and put into the press, which is thus filled and screwed down. After lying a sufficient time in the press, they are taken out and are ready for booking.

Books are never folded across a page; of course some require to be folded the shortest way of the paper, and some the longest way.

FOLIO.

The running number of the pages of a work. When there is no running title, the folios are placed in the middle of the head-line, in Arabic figures, sometimes enclosed in brackets, sometimes in parentheses, but more frequently now without either; when there is a running title, the folios are placed at the outside corners of the pages. The prefatory matter has the folios generally set in Roman lower case numerals, and sometimes the folios of an appendix are done in a similar manner.

A sheet of paper folded in two leaves, is also termed folio; as folio post, folio demy, &c.; but when the size of a book is spoken of, it is styled a post folio, demy folio, &c.

FOLLOW.

_See if it follows_, is a term used as well by the corrector, as by the compositor and pressman. It is used by the corrector and compositor when they examine how the beginning matter of a succeeding page agrees with the ending matter of a precedent page: and how the folios of those pages properly and numerically follow and succeed one another, lest the pages should be transposed. But the pressman only examines that the folio and beginning word of the second page, and signature of the first and third page (when the reiteration is on the press) follow the folio and direction of the first page, and the signature of the third page follows the signature of the first page, orderly according to the volume, lest the form should be laid wrong on the press.--_M._

FOOT NOTES. _See_ BOTTOM NOTES.

FOOT OF THE LETTER.

The break end of the shank of a letter.--_M._

FOOT OF A PAGE.

The bottom or end of a page.--_M._

FOOTSTEP,

is a board nailed upon a piece of timber seven or eight inches high, and is bevelled away on its upper side, as is also the board on its under side at its hither end, that the board may stand aslope on the floor. It is placed fast on the floor under the carriage of the press.--_M._ It is made of elm; and gives the pressman great advantage in pulling when he has a heavy form on the press.

FOOTSTICK.

Footsticks are placed against the foot or bottom of the page: the outer sides of these footsticks are bevelled or sloped from the further to the hither end, which allows the quoins to wedge up the pages within the chase.--_M._ They, as well as sidesticks, which are precisely the same, and used indiscriminately for each other where the length suits, are made of oak; their width is in proportion to their length; for a form of demy octavo the broad end will be about an inch wide, and the narrow end about half an inch; but where a chase is small in proportion to the size of the pages, they are made narrower to allow of quoin room. Their height is the same as that of the other furniture; the outer angle at each end is bevelled off. A careful compositor, when he is making up furniture from the drawer, will cut off the bruised broad end from the old side and footsticks that will suit as to length, and thus economise the furniture, which for jobs and pamphlets will answer every purpose of new.

FORE EDGE.

The fore edge, in making margin, is that edge of a sheet of paper, which, when folded to the proper size of the book, forms its outer edge.

FOREIGN BILLS or NOTES. _See_ FORGERY.

FORESTAY.

An upright support to the fore end of the frame and long ribs on which the carriage runs. It is fastened to the floor, and screwed to the frame.

FORGERY.

1 Geo. 4. c. 92. “An Act for the further Prevention of forging and counterfeiting of Bank Notes.”

“Whereas the Forgery of Bank Notes hath of late very much increased in this Kingdom; and as well for the Prevention thereof, as to facilitate the Detection of the same, the Governor and Company of the Bank of _England_ have, after great Consideration, Labour and Expence, formed a new Plan for printing Bank Notes, in which the Groundwork of each Bank Note will be Black or Coloured, or Black and Coloured Line Work, and the Words “Bank of _England_” will be placed at the Top of each Bank Note, in White Letters upon a Black, Sable, or Dark Ground, such Ground containing White Lines intersecting each other, and the numerical Amount or Sum of each Bank Note in the Body of the Note, will be printed in Black and Red Register Work, and the Back of each Note will distinctly show the whole Contents thereof, except the Number and Date in a reversed Impression: Therefore, for the better Prevention of the Forgery of Bank Notes, and for the Security of the Public; be it enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That from and after the passing of this Act, if any Person or Persons (other than the Officers, Workmen, Servants, and Agents for the Time being of the said Governor and Company, to be authorized and appointed for that Purpose by the said Governor and Company, and for the Use of the said Governor and Company only,) shall engrave, cut, etch, scrape, or by any other Art, Means, or Device make, or shall cause or procure to be engraved, cut, etched, scraped, or by any other Art, Means, or Device made, or shall knowingly aid or assist in the engraving, cutting, etching, scraping, or by any other Art, Means, or Device, making, in or upon any Plate of Copper, Brass, Steel, Iron, Pewter, or of any other Metal or Mixtures of Metal, or upon Wood or other Materials, or any Plate whatsoever, for the Purpose of producing a Print or Impression of all or any Part or Parts of a Bank Note, or of a Blank Bank Note, of the said Governor and Company, of the Description aforesaid, without an Authority in Writing from the said Governor and Company, or shall use any such Plate so engraved, cut, etched, scraped, or by any other Art, Means, or Device made, or shall use any other Instrument or Contrivance for the making or printing any such Bank Note or Blank Bank Note, or Part of a Bank Note of the Description aforesaid; or if any Person or Persons shall, from and after the passing of this Act, without such Authority as aforesaid, knowingly and without lawful Excuse, have in his, her, or their Custody any such Plate or Instrument, or without such Authority as aforesaid, shall knowingly or wilfully utter, publish, dispose of, or put away any such Blank Bank Note, or Part of such Bank Note, of the Description aforesaid, every Person so offending in any of the Cases aforesaid, and being thereof convicted according to Law, shall be adjudged a Felon, and shall be transported for the Term of Fourteen Years.

s. 2. “And whereas divers Frauds have been practised by making and publishing Papers with certain Words and Characters so nearly resembling the Notes of the Governor and Company of the Bank of _England_, as to appear, to ignorant and unwary Persons, to be the Notes of the said Governor and Company; and it is necessary for the Security of the Public, that such Practices, as applied to the Notes of the said Governor and Company of the Description aforesaid, should be prevented; be it therefore further enacted, That if any Person or Persons, from and after the passing of this Act, shall engrave, cut, etch, scrape, or by any other Art, Means, or Device make, or shall cause or procure to be engraved, cut, etched, scraped, or by any other Art, Means, or Contrivance made, or shall knowingly aid or assist in the engraving, cutting, etching, scraping, or by any other Art, Means, or Contrivance making, in or upon any Plate of Copper, Brass, Steel, Iron, Pewter, or of any other Metal or Mixture of Metals, or upon Wood, or any other Materials, or upon any Plate whatsoever, any Line Work, as or for the Ground Work of a Promissory Note, or Bill of Exchange, the Impression taken from which Line Work shall be intended to resemble the Ground Work of a Bank Note of the said Governor and Company of the Description aforesaid, or any Device, the Impression taken from which shall contain the Words “Bank of _England_,” in White Letters upon a Black, Sable, or Dark Ground, either with or without White or other Lines therein, or shall contain in any Part thereof the numerical Sum or Amount of any Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange in Black and Red Register Work, or shall show the reversed Contents of a Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange, or of any Part of a Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange, or contain any Word or Words, Figure or Figures, Character or Characters, Pattern or Patterns, which shall be intended to resemble the Whole or any Part of the Matter or Ornaments of any Bank Note of the Description aforesaid, or shall contain any Word, Number, Figure, or Character, in White on a Black, Sable, or Dark Ground, either with or without White or other Lines therein, which shall be intended to resemble the numerical Sum or Amount in the Margin, or any other Part of any Bank Note of the said Governor and Company, without an Authority in Writing for that Purpose from the said Governor and Company, to be produced and proved by the Party accused; or if any Person or Persons shall, from and after the passing of this Act, (without such Authority as aforesaid), use any such Plate, Wood, or other Material so engraved, cut, etched, scraped, or by any other Art, Means, or Contrivance made, or shall use any other Instrument or Contrivance for the making or printing upon any Paper or other Material, any Word or Words, Figure or Figures, Character or Characters, Pattern or Patterns, which shall be intended to resemble the Whole or any Part of the Matter or Ornaments of any such Note of the said Governor and Company, of the Description aforesaid, or any Word, Figure, or Character, in White on a Black, Sable, or Dark Ground, either with or without White or other Lines therein, which shall be apparently intended to resemble the numerical Sum or Amount in the Margin, or any other Part of any Bank Note of the said Governor and Company; or if any Person or Persons shall, from and after the passing of this Act, without such Authority as aforesaid, knowingly have in his, her, or their Custody or Possession, any such Plate or Instrument, or shall knowingly and wilfully utter, publish, or dispose of, or put away any Paper, or other Material containing any such Word or Words, Figure or Figures, Character or Characters, Pattern or Patterns, as aforesaid, or shall knowingly or willingly have in his, her or their Custody or Possession, any Paper or other Material containing any such Word or Words, Figure or Figures, Character or Characters, Pattern or Patterns as aforesaid, (without lawful Excuse, the Proof whereof shall lie upon the Person accused,) every Person so offending in any of the Cases aforesaid, and being convicted thereof according to Law, shall be adjudged a Felon, and shall be transported for the Term of Fourteen Years.”

11 Geo. 4. & 1 Will. 4. c. 66. “An Act for reducing into One Act all such Forgeries as shall henceforth be punished with Death, and for otherwise amending the Laws relative to Forgery.”

s. 13. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall, without the Authority of the Governor and Company of the Bank of _England_, to be proved by the Party accused, make or use, or shall without lawful Excuse, to be proved by the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Frame, Mould, or Instrument for the making of Paper, with the words “Bank of _England_” visible in the Substance of the Paper, or for the making of Paper with curved or waving Bar Lines, or with the Laying Wire Lines thereof in a waving or curved shape, or with any Number, Sum, or Amount, expressed in a Word or Words in Roman Letters, visible in the Substance of the Paper; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, manufacture, use, sell, expose to sale, utter or dispose of, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Paper whatsoever with the Words “Bank of _England_” visible in the Substance of the Paper, or any Paper with curved or waving Bar Lines, or with the Laying Wire Lines thereof in a waving or curved Shape, or with any Number, Sum, or Amount, expressed in a Word or Words in Roman Letters, appearing visible in the Substance of the Paper; or if any Person, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, shall by any Art or Contrivance, cause the Words “Bank of _England_” to appear visible in the Substance of any Paper, or cause the numerical Sum or Amount of any Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, Blank Bank Note, Blank Bank Bill of Exchange, or Blank Bank Post Bill, in a Word or Words in Roman Letters, to appear visible in the Substance of the Paper whereon the same shall be written or printed; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be transported beyond the Seas for the Term of Fourteen Years.

s. 14. “Provided always, and be it enacted, That nothing herein contained shall prevent any Person from issuing any Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note having the Amount thereof expressed in Guineas, or in a numerical Figure or Figures denoting the Amount thereof in Pounds Sterling, appearing visible in the Substance of the Paper upon which the same shall be written or printed, nor shall prevent any Person from making, using, or selling any Paper having waving or curved Lines, or any other Devices in the Nature of Watermarks, visible in the Substance of the Paper, not being Bar Lines, or Laying Wire Lines, provided the same are not so contrived as to form the Ground Work or Texture of the Paper, or to resemble the waving or curved Laying Wire Lines, or Bar Lines, or the Watermarks of the Paper used by the Governor and Company of the Bank of _England_.

s. 15. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall engrave, or in anywise make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange, or Blank Promissory Note, or Blank Bill of Exchange, or Part of a Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange, purporting to be a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, or Blank Bank Note, Blank Bank Bill of Exchange, or Blank Bank Post Bill, or Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, without the Authority of the Governor and Company of the Bank of _England_, to be proved by the Party accused; or if any Person shall use such Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material, or any other Instrument or Device, for the making or printing any Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, or Blank Bank Note, Blank Bank Bill of Exchange, or Blank Bank Post Bill, or Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid; or if any Person shall, without lawful Excuse, the Proof whereof shall lie on the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any such Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material, or any such Instrument or Device; or if any Person shall, without such Authority to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly offer, utter, dispose of, or put off any Paper upon which any Blank Bank Note, Blank Bank Bill of Exchange, or Blank Bank Post Bill, or Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, shall be made or printed; or if any Person shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any such Paper; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be transported beyond the Seas for the Term of Fourteen Years.

s. 16. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall engrave or in anywise make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Word, Number, Figure, Character, or Ornament, the Impression taken from which shall resemble, or apparently be intended to resemble, any Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, without the Authority of the Governor and Company of the Bank of _England_, to be proved by the Party accused; or if any Person shall use any such Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material, or any other Instrument or Device, for the making upon any Paper or other Material the Impression of any Word, Number, Figure, Character, or Ornament which shall resemble, or apparently be intended to resemble, any Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid; or if any Person shall without lawful Excuse, the Proof whereof shall lie on the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any such Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material, or any such Instrument or Device; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly offer, utter, dispose of, or put off any Paper or other Material upon which there shall be an Impression of any such Matter as aforesaid; or if any Person shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Paper or other Material upon which there shall be an Impression of any such Matter as aforesaid; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be transported beyond the Seas for the Term of Fourteen Years.

s. 17. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall make or use any Frame, Mould or Instrument for the Manufacture of Paper, with the Name or Firm of any Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers (other than and except the Bank of _England_) appearing visible in the Substance of the Paper, without the Authority of such Person or Persons, Body Corporate or Company, the Proof of which Authority shall lie on the Party accused; or if any Person shall, without lawful Excuse, the Proof whereof shall lie on the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any such Frame, Mould, or Instrument; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, manufacture, use, sell, expose to Sale, utter, or dispose of, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Paper in the Substance of which the Name or Firm of any such Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers shall appear visible; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, cause the Name or Firm of any such Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers to appear visible in the Substance of the Paper upon which the same shall be written or printed; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the Discretion of the Court, to be transported beyond the Seas for any Term not exceeding Fourteen Years nor less than Seven Years, or to be imprisoned for any Term not exceeding Three Years nor less than One Year.

s. 18. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall engrave or in anywise make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note for the Payment of Money, or any Part of any Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note for the Payment of Money, purporting to be the Bill or Note, or Part of the Bill or Note, of any Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers (other than and except the Bank of _England_), without the Authority of such Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company, the Proof of which Authority shall lie on the Party accused; or if any Person shall engrave or make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Word or Words, resembling, or apparently intended to resemble, any Subscription subjoined to any Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note for the Payment of Money issued by any such Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, use, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved by the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession, any Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material upon which any such Bill or Note, or Part thereof, or any Word or Words resembling or apparently intended to resemble such Subscription shall be engraved or made; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly offer, utter, dispose of, or put off, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession, any Paper upon which any Part of such Bill or Note, or any Word or Words resembling or apparently intended to resemble any such Subscription, shall be made or printed; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the Discretion of the Court, to be transported beyond the Seas for any Term not exceeding Fourteen Years nor less than Seven Years, or to be imprisoned for any Term not exceeding Three Years nor less than One Year.

s. 19. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall engrave or in anywise make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Bill of Exchange, Promissory Note, Undertaking, or Order for Payment of Money, or any Part of any Bill of Exchange, Promissory Note, Undertaking, or Order for Payment of Money, in whatever Language or Languages the same may be expressed, and whether the same shall or shall not be or be intended to be under Seal, purporting to be the Bill, Note, Undertaking, or Order, or Part of the Bill, Note, Undertaking, or Order, of any Foreign Prince or State, or of any Minister or Officer in the Service of any Foreign Prince or State, or of any Body Corporate, or Body of the like Nature, constituted or recognized by any Foreign Prince or State, or of any Person or Company of Persons resident in any Country, not under the Dominion of His Majesty, without the Authority of such Foreign Prince or State, Minister or Officer, Body Corporate, or Body of the like Nature, Person or Company of Persons, the Proof of which Authority shall lie on the Party accused; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, use, or shall without lawful Excuse, to be proved by the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession, any Plate, Stone, Wood, or other Material upon which any such Foreign Bill, Note, Undertaking, or Order, or any Part thereof, shall be engraved or made; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly utter, dispose of, or put off, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Paper upon which any Part of such Foreign Bill, Note, Undertaking, or Order shall be made or printed; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the Discretion of the Court, to be transported beyond the Seas for any Term not exceeding Fourteen Years, nor less than Seven Years, or to be imprisoned for any Term not exceeding Three Years nor less than One Year.”

FORM.

The pages when they are imposed and locked up in a chase are called a Form; and this term is applied whether it be one page only or any number that are imposed in one chase.

FORM DANCES.

When the lines have not been well justified, or if any thing at the ends prevents them being tight when locked up, so that when the compositor tries if the form will lift, and finds that quadrats, letters, and spaces, or any of them drop down and will not rise, it is said, _the Form dances_.--_M._

This term is more properly applied to a form when, in being lifted from the stone, letters, spaces, or quadrats, will drop lower down than their proper situation, without entirely disengaging themselves from the form; this frequently happens.

FORM LIFTS.

After a form is locked up, and when, on being raised a little from the stone, neither letters, spaces, nor any thing else drops out, it is said, _the Form lifts_.

FORM IN THE SINK.

After a form is laid up, it is frequently left in the sink for a short time to allow the water to drain from it; if another compositor wants to lay up a form before this be removed, he calls out, _Form in the Sink!_ that the person to whom it belongs may take it away.

FORM RISES. _See_ FORM LIFTS.

FORM SPRINGS. _See_ SPRING OF A FORM.

FORMULÆ, CHEMICAL,

are symbols representing the different substances, simple and compound.

For the convenience of those who have occasion to refer to a compound substance containing two atoms of base, (as, for instance, antimonious acid in respect to its carbon,) the weight of two atoms of the base is given after the weight of the single atom.

+-----------------------+----------------+-----------+----------+ | Name. | Formula. | Oxygen | Hydrogen | | | | = 100. | = 1. | +-----------------------+----------------+-----------+----------+ | | | | | | Oxygen | O | 100.000 | 16.026 | | | | | | | Hydrogen | H | 6.2398 | 1.000 | | | 2H | 12.4796 | 2.000 | | | | | | | Nitrogen | N | 88.518 | 14.186 | | | 2N | 177.086 | 28.372 | | | | | | | Phosphorus | P | 196.155 | 31.436 | | | 2P | 392.310 | 68.872 | | | | | | | Chlorine | Cl | 221.325 | 35.470 | | | 2Cl | 442.650 | 70.940 | | | | | | | Iodine | I | 768.781 | 123.206 | | | 2I | 1537.562 | 246.412 | | | | | | | Carbon | C | 76.437 | 12.250 | | | 2C | 152.875 | 24.500 | | | | | | | Boron | B | 135.983 | 21.793 | | | 2B | 271.966 | 43.586 | | | | | | | Silicon | Si | 277.478 | 44.469 | | | | | | | Selenium | Se | 494.582 | 79.263 | | | | | | | Arsenic | As | 470.042 | 75.329 | | | 2As | 940.084 | 150.659 | | | | | | | Chromium | Cr | 351.819 | 56.383 | | | 2Cr | 703.638 | 112.766 | | | | | | | Molybdenum | Mo | 598.525 | 95.920 | | | | | | | Tungstenium | Tu or W | 1183.200 | 189.621 | | | | | | | Antimony | Sb | 806.452 | 129.243 | | | 2Sb | 1612.904 | 258.486 | | | | | | | Tellurium | Te | 806.452 | 129.243 | | | | | | | Tantalum | Ta | 1153.715 | 184.896 | | | 2Ta | 2307.430 | 369.792 | | | | | | | Titanium | Ti | 389.092 | 62.356 | | | | | | | Gold (aurum) | Au | 1243.013 | 199.207 | | | 2Au | 2486.026 | 398.415 | | | | | | | Platina | Pt | 1215.220 | 194.753 | | | | | | | Rhodium | R | 750.680 | 120.305 | | | 2R | 1501.360 | 240.610 | | | | | | | Palladium | Pd | 714.618 | 114.526 | | | | | | | Silver (argentum) | Ag | 1351.607 | 216.611 | | | | | | | Mercury (hydrargyrus) | Hg | 1265.822 | 202.863 | | | 2Hg | 2531.645 | 405.725 | | | | | | | Copper (cuprum) | Cu | 395.695 | 63.415 | | | 2Cu | 791.390 | 126.829 | | | | | | | Uranium | U | 2711.360 | 434.527 | | | 2U | 5422.720 | 869.154 | | | | | | | Bismuth | Bi | 1330.376 | 213.208 | | | 2Bi | 2660.752 | 426.416 | | | | | | | Tin (stannum) | Sn | 735.294 | 117.839 | | | | | | | Lead (plumbum) | Pb | 1294.498 | 207.458 | | | 2Pb | 2588.996 | 414.917 | | | | | | | Cadmium | Cd | 696.767 | 111.665 | | | | | | | Zinc | Zn | 403.226 | 64.621 | | | | | | | Nickel | Ni | 369.675 | 59.245 | | | | | | | Cobalt | Co | 368.991 | 59.135 | | | 2Co | 737.982 | 118.270 | | | | | | | Iron (ferrum) | Fe | 339.213 | 54.363 | | | 2Fe | 678.426 | 108.725 | | | | | | | Manganese | Mn | 355.787 | 57.019 | | | 2Mn | 711.575 | 114.038 | | | | | | | Cerium | Ce | 574.718 | 92.105 | | | 2Ce | 1149.436 | 184.210 | | | | | | | Zirconium | Zr | 420.238 | 67.348 | | 2Zr | 840.476 | 134.696 | | | | | | | Yttrium | Y | 401.840 | 64.395 | | | | | | | Beryllium (glucinum) | Be | 331.479 | 53.123 | | | 2Be | 662.958 | 106.247 | | | | | | | Aluminum | Al | 171.167 | 27.431 | | | 2Al | 342.234 | 54.863 | | | | | | | Magnesium | Mg | 158.353 | 25.378 | | | | | | | Calcium | Ca | 256.019 | 41.030 | | | | | | | Strontium | Sr | 547.285 | 87.709 | | | | | | | Baryum | Ba | 856.88 | 137.325 | | | | | | | Lithium | L | 127.757 | 20.474 | | | | | | | Natrium (sodium) | Na | 290.897 | 46.620 | | | 2Na | 581.794 | 93.239 | | | | | | | Kalium (potassium) | K | 489.916 | 78.515 | | | | | | | Ammonia | 2N 2H^3 | 214.474 | 34.372 | | | | | | | Cyanogen | 2NC | 329.911 | 52.872 | | | | | | | Sulphuretted hydrogen | 2HS | 213.644 | 34.239 | | | | | | | Hydrochloric acid | 2HCl | 455.129 | 72.940 | | | | | | | Hydrocyanic acid | 2HNC | 342.390 | 54.872 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Water | 2H | 112.479 | 18.026 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of nitrogen | 2N | 277.036 | 44.398 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Deutoxide of nitrogen | N | 188.518 | 30.212 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Nitrous acid | 2N | 477.036 | 76.449 | | | | | | | | :.: | | | | Nitric acid | 2N | 677.036 | 108.503 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Hydrosulphuric acid | S | 301.165 | 48.265 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Sulphurous acid | S | 401.165 | 64.291 | | | | | | | | :.: | | | | Hyposulphuric acid | 2S | 902.330 | 144.609 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Sulphuric acid | S | 501.165 | 80.317 | | | | | | | | :.: | | | | Phosphoric acid | 2P | 892.310 | 143.003 | | | | | | | | :.: | | | | Chloric acid | 2Cl | 942.650 | 151.071 | | | | | | | | ::: | | | | Perchloric acid | 2Cl | 1042.650 | 167.097 | | | | | | | | :.: | | | | Iodic acid | 2I | 2037.562 | 326.543 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Carbonic acid | C | 276.437 | 44.302 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Oxalic acid | 2C | 452.875 | 72.578 | | | | | | | | ::: | | | | Boracic acid | 2B | 871.966 | 139.743 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Silicic acid | Si | 577.478 | 92.548 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Selenic acid | Se | 694.582 | 111.315 | | | | | | | | :.: | | | | Arsenic acid | 2As | 1440.084 | 230.790 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Protoxide of chrome | 2Cr | 1003.638 | 160.840 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Chromic acid | Cr | 651.819 | 104.462 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Molybdic acid | Mo | 898.525 | 143.999 | | | | | | | Tunstic, or | ... | | | | wolfram acid | W | 1483.200 | 237.700 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Oxide of antimony | 2Sb | 1912.904 | 306.565 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Antimonious acid | Sb | 1006.452 | 161.296 | | | | | | | | .... | | | | | 2Sb | 2012.904 | 322.591 | | | | | | | | :.: | | | | Antimonic acid | 2Sb | 2112.904 | 338.617 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Oxide of tellurium | Te | 1006.452 | 161.296 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Tantalic acid | 2Ta | 2607.430 | 417.871 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Titanic acid | Ti | 589.092 | 94.409 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of gold | 2Au | 2786.026 | 446.493 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Oxide of platina | Pt | 1415.220 | 226.086 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Oxide of rhodium | 2R | 1801.360 | 228.689 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Oxide of palladium | Pd | 814.618 | 130.552 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Oxide of silver | Ag | 1451.607 | 232.637 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of mercury | 2Hg | 2631.645 | 421.752 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Peroxide of mercury | Hg | 1365.822 | 218.889 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of copper | 2Cu | 801.390 | 142.856 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Peroxide of copper | Cu | 495.695 | 79.441 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of uranium | U | 2811.360 | 450.553 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Peroxide of uranium | 2U | 5722.720 | 917.132 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Oxide of bismuth | 2Bi | 2960.752 | 474.49 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of tin | Sn | 835.294 | 133.866 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Peroxide of tin | Sn | 935.294 | 149.892 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Oxide of lead | Pb | 1394.498 | 223.484 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Minium | 2Pb | 2888.996 | 462.995 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Brown oxide of lead | Pb | 1494.498 | 239.511 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Oxide of cadmium | Cd | 796.767 | 127.691 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Oxide of zinc | Zn | 503.226 | 80.649 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Oxide of nickel | Ni | 469.675 | 75.271 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Oxide of cobalt | Co | 468.991 | 75.161 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Peroxide of cobalt | 2Co | 1037.982 | 166.349 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of iron | Fe | 439.213 | 70.389 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Peroxide of iron | 2Fe | 978.426 | 156.804 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of manganese| Mn | 455.787 | 73.045 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Oxide of manganese | 2Mn | 1011.575 | 162.117 | | | | | | | | .. | | | | Peroxide of manganese | Mn | 555.787 | 89.071 | | | | | | | | :.: | | | | Manganesic acid | 2Mn | 1211.575 | 194.169 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Protoxide of cerium | Ce | 674.718 | 108.132 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Oxide of cerium | 2Ce | 1449.436 | 232.289 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Zirconia | 2Zr | 1140.476 | 182.775 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Yttria | Y | 501.840 | 80.425 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Glucina, or beryllia | 2Be | 962.958 | 154.325 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Alumina | 2Al | 642.334 | 109.492 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Magnesia | Mg | 258.353 | 41.404 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Lime | Ca | 356.019 | 57.056 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Strontia | Sr | 647.285 | 103.735 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Baryta | Ba | 956.880 | 153.351 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Lithia | L | 227.757 | 36.501 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Natron, or soda | Na | 390.897 | 62.646 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Peroxide of sodium | 2Na | 881.794 | 141.318 | | | | | | | | . | | | | Kali, or potassa | K | 589.916 | 94.541 | | | | | | | | ... | | | | Peroxide of potassium | K | 789.916 | 126.593 | | | | | | | | . ... | | | | Sulphate of potassa | KS | 1091.081 | 174.859 | | | | | | | | . ... | | | | Protosulphate of iron | FeS | 940.378 | 150.706 | | | | | | | | ... ... | | | | Persulphate of iron | 2FeS^3 | 2481.906 | 397.754 | | | | | | | Protochloride of iron | Fe2Cl | 781.863 | 125.303 | | | | | | | Perchloride of iron | 2Fe2Cl^3 | 2006.376 | 321.545 | | | | | | | Protochloride | | | | | of mercury | 2Hg2Cl | 2974.295 | 476.666 | | | | | | | Perchloride of mercury| Hg2Cl | 1708.472 | 273.803 | +-----------------------+----------------+-----------+----------+

+---------------+------------------------+-----------+----------+ | | | | | | Ferrocyanide | Fe2NC + 2K2NC | 2308.778 | 370.008 | | of iron | | | | | | . ... ... ... . | | | | Alum | KS + 2AlS^{3} + 24 2H | 5936.406 | 951.378 | | | | | | | | . ... ... ... | | | | Felspar | KSi + 2Al Si | 3542.162 | 567.673 | +---------------+------------------------+-----------+----------+

Berzelius’s Symbols of all the Elementary Substances.

Elements. Symb. Elements. Symb.

Aluminum Al Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg Antimony (Stibium) Sb Molybdenum Mo Arsenic As Nickel Ni Barium Ba Nitrogen N Bismuth Bi Osmium Os Boron B Oxygen O Bromine Br Palladium Pd Cadmium Cd Phosphorus P Calcium Ca Platinum Pl Carbon C Potassium (Kalium) K Cerium Ce Rhodium R Chlorine Cl Selenium Se Chromium Cr Silicium Si Cobalt Co Silver (Argentum) Ag Columbium (Tantalum) Ta Sodium (Natrium) Na Copper (Cuprum) Cu Strontium Sr Fluorine F Sulphur S Glucinium G Tellurium Te Gold (Aurum) Au Thorium Th Hydrogen H Tin (Stannum) Sn Iodine I Titanium Ti Iridium Ir Tungsten (Wolfram) W Iron (Ferrum) Fe Vanadium V Lead (Plumbum) Pb Uranium U Lithium L Yttrium Y Magnesium Mg Zinc Zn Manganese Mn Zirconium Zr

* * * * *

Degrees of Oxidation are indicated by Dots placed over the Symbol.

:.: Nitric Acid N ... Sulphuric do. S

Fluoric do. HF .. Carbonic do. C :.: Phosphoric do. P_

Muriatic Acid HCI ... Boracic do. B :.: Arsenic do. As_ . Water H

Table of the principal Groups of the Isomorphous Substances at present observed by Chemists.

1. Silver Ag

Gold Au

... 2. Arsenious Acid (usual form) A͟ ... Sesquioxide of Antimony Sb͟

... 3. Alumina Al͟ ... Peroxide of Iron Fe͟

:.: 4. Salts of Phosphoric Acid P͟ :.: Arsenic do. A͟

... 5. Salts of Sulphuric Acid S ... Selenic do. Se ... Chromic do. Cr ... Manganic do. Mn

:.:: 6. Salts of Perchloric do. Cl :.:: Permanganic do. Mn͟

. 7. Salts of Potassa K

Ammonia with 1 eq. of . Water H^3N + H

. 8. Salts of Soda Na . Oxide of Silver Ag

. 9. Salts of Baryta Ba . Strontia Sr . Lime (in Arragonite) Ca . Protoxide of Lead Pb

. 10. Salts of Lime Ca . Magnesia Mg . Protoxide of Iron Fe . Manganese Mn . Zinc Zn . Nickel Ni . Cobalt Co . Copper Cu

Lead (in Plumbo . Calcitie) Pb

... 11. Salts of Alumina Al͟

... Peroxide of Iron Fe

... Oxide of Chromium Cr

... Sesquioxide of Manganese Mn

* * * * *

Professor Whewell in an Essay on the Employment of Notation in Chemistry, observes, “I have no hesitation in saying, that in mineralogy it is utterly impossible to express clearly, or to reason upon, the chemical constitution of our substances, without the employment of some notation or other. Every one who makes the trial will find that, without a notation, his attempts to compare the composition of different minerals will be confused and fruitless, and that, by employing symbols, his reasonings may easily be made brief, clear, and systematic.”

After criticising the foreign notation as being grossly anomalous and defective, he adds the following list, which he hopes he has shown to be mathematically consistent and chemically useful. He has used the atomic composition adopted by Dr. Turner in his Chemistry.

_ka_ = potassium _ka_ + _o_ = K = Potassa.

_na_ = sodium _na_ + _o_ = N = Soda.

_li_ = lithium _li_ + _o_ = L = Lithia.

_ba_ = barium _ba_ + _o_ = B = Baryta.

_sr_ = strontium _sr_ + _o_ = S_r_ = Strontia.

_ca_ = calcium _ca_ + _o_ = C = Lime (calcia).

_ma_ = magnesium _ma_ + _o_ = M = Magnesia.

_zi_ = zirconium _zi_ + _o_ = Z = Zirconia.

_gl_ = glucinum _gl_ + _o_ = G = Glucina.

_al_ = aluminium _al_ + _o_ = A = Alumina.

_si_ = silicium _si_ + _o_ = S = Silica.

_mn_ = manganese _mn_ + _o_ = M_n_ = Protoxide.

_mn_ + (3/2) _o_ = M_ns_ = Deutoxide.

_mn_ + 2 _o_ = M_nn_ = Peroxide.

_mn_ + 3 _o_ = M_n`_ = Manganesious Acid.

_mn_ + 4 _o_ = M_n´_ = Manganesic Acid.

_fe_ = iron _fe_ + _o_ = F_e_ = oxide.

_fe_ + (3/2) _o_ = F_es_ = peroxide.

_zi_ = zinc _zi_ + _o_ = Z_i_ = oxide.

_cd_ = cadmium _cd_ + _o_ = C_d_ = oxide.

_sn_ = tin _sn_ + _o_ = S_n_ = oxide.

_sn_ + 2 _o_ = S_nn_ = peroxide.

_ce_ = cerium _ce_ + _o_ = C_e_ = oxide.

_ce_ + (3/2) _o_ = C_es_ = peroxide.

_cb_ = cobalt _cb_ + _o_ = C_b_ = oxide.

_cb_ + (3/2) _o_ = C_bs_ = peroxide.

_ni_ = nickel _ni_ + _o_ = N_i_ = oxide.

_ni_ + (3/2) _o_ = N_is_ = peroxide.

_bi_ = bismuth _bi_ + _o_ = B_i_ = oxide.

_ti_ = titanium _ti_ + _o_ = T_i_ = oxide.

_cu_ = copper _cu_ + _o_ = C_u_ = oxide.

_cu_ + 2 _o_ = C_uu_ = peroxide.

_ur_ = uranium _ur_ + _o_ = U_r_ = oxide.

_ur_ + 2 _o_ = U_rr_ = peroxide.

_pb_ = lead _pb_ + _o_ = P_b_ = oxide.

_pb_ + (3/2) _o_ = P_bs_ = deutoxide.

_pb_ + 2 _o_ = P_bb_ = peroxide.

_hg_ = mercury _hg_ + _o_ = H_g_ = oxide.

_hg_ + 2 _o_ = H_gg_ = peroxide.

_ag_ = silver _ag_ + _o_ = A_g_ = oxide.

_au_ = gold _au_ + _o_ = A_u_ = oxide.

_pt_ = platinum _pt_ + _o_ = P_t_ = oxide.

_pd_ = palladium _pd_ + _o_ = P_d_ = oxide.

_ir_ = iridium

_rh_ = rhodium _rh_ + _o_ = R_h_ = oxide.

_rh_ + (3/2) _o_ = R_hs_ = peroxide.

_om_ = osmium

_cr_ = chromium _cr_ + _o_ = C_r_ = oxide.

_cr_ + (5/2) _o_ = _cr´_ = chromic acid.

_mo_ = molybdenum _mo_ + _o_ = M_o_ = oxide.

_mo_ + 2 _o_ = M_oo_ = deutoxide.

_mo_ + 3 _o_ = _mo´_ = molybdic acid.

_tu_ = tungsten _tu_ + 2 _o_ = T_uu_ = oxide.

_tu_ + 3 _o_ = _tu´_ = tungstic acid.

_cm_ = columbium

_an_ = antimony _an_ + _o_ = oxide.

_an_ + (3/2) _o_ = deutoxide.

_ar_ = arsenic _ar_ + (3/2) _o_ = _ar`_ = arsenious acid.

_ar_ + (5/2) _o_ = _ar´_ = arsenic.

_p_ = phosphorus _p_ + (3/2) _o_ = _p`_ = phosphorous acid.

_p_ + (5/2) _o_ = _p´_ = phosphoric.

_s_ = sulphur _s_ + _o_ = hyposulphurous acid.

_s_ + 2 _o_ = _s`_ = sulphurous.

_s_ + 3 _o_ = _s´_ = sulphuric.

_se_ = selenium _se_ + 2 _o_ = _se`_ = selenious acid.

_se_ + 3 _o_ = _se´_ = selenic.

_te_ = tellurium _te_ + _o_ = oxide.

_b_ = boron _b_ + 2 _o_ = _b´_ = boracic acid.

_c_ = carbon _c_ + _o_ = _c`_ = carbonic oxide.

_c_ + 2 _o_ = _c´_ = carbonic acid.

_n_ = nitrogen _n_ + _o_ = oxide.

_n_ + 2 _o_ = deutoxide.

_n_ + 3 _o_ = hyponitrous acid.

_n_ + 4 _o_ = _n`_ = nitrous acid.

_n_ + 5 _o_ = _n´_ = nitric acid.

_n_ + 3 _h_ = A_m_ = ammonia.

_fl_ = fluorine _fl_ + _h_ = _fl´_ = hydrofluoric acid.

_cl_ = chlorine _cl_ + _h_ = _cl´_ = muriatic acid.

_io_ = iodine _io_ + _h_ = _io´_ = hydriodic acid.

Berzelius represents water (_aqua_) by _Aq_; for the sake of simplicity Whewell says he has used _q_. He also observes, “In the notation of Berzelius, the atoms of oxygen are indicated by dots placed over the symbol of the base. Thus, _[..]fe_, _[...]fe_ are the protoxide and peroxide of iron, which he considers as having two and three atoms of oxygen respectively. This notation is compact and simple, but it is not consistent with algebraical rule, so far as the oxygen is concerned; and I conceive that, if this element be explicitly expressed, it ought to be done in the manner I have recommended, _fe_ + 2 _o_, _fe_ + 3 _o_, &c.”--_Journals of Royal Institution._

I have omitted Professor Whewell’s reasons, which he gives to show the superiority of his notation over those of foreign nations and that of Berzelius, as they are not of practical utility in printing; but I have given his list, which will be useful in printing mineralogical works in cases where the copy may be bad.

FORTY-EIGHTMO.

A sheet of paper folded into forty-eight leaves, or ninety-six pages.

FORTYMO.

A sheet of paper folded into forty leaves, or eighty pages.

FOUL PROOF.

When a proof has many faults marked in it.--_M._ Pressmen are also in the habit of calling the first proof a _Foul Proof_; and frequently they pull it so as to justify the epithet.

FOUL STONE.

After imposing or correcting, if a compositor leave any thing upon the imposing stone, except the mallet, shooting stick, and planer, it is termed a foul stone; which in many houses subjects him to a fine.

FOUNT,

is the whole number of letters that are cast of the same body and face at one time.--_M._ Moxon says this word is properly Fund.

FOUNT CASES.

Cases of larger proportions than those used to compose from, which are kept to contain the surplus sorts of a fount until they are required for use. In these cases they are more accessible than when put into coffins and baskets according to the old plan, and are not so likely to be mislaid.

FRACTIONS.

A fraction is part of a unit, and is written with two figures, one above the other, with a line between them: thus, ¼, ⅚, ⅜. The upper figure is called the numerator, and the lower figure the denominator. The denominator shows how many parts the unit is divided into; and the numerator, how many of those parts the fraction represents. A proper fraction is when the numerator is less than the denominator. An improper fraction is when the numerator is equal to, or greater than the denominator.

A compound fraction is the fraction of a fraction, and is known by the word, of, between the parts; as, ½ of ⅔ of 7/9 of 8/17. A mixed number is composed of a whole number and fraction; as, 8-3/7, 17½. A mixed fraction is when the numerator or denominator has a fractional part; thus, 7⅔/4, 4/7⅔; or, when both of them have fractional parts; as 5⅓/7⅕.

The fractions cast in one piece to a fount are ⅛, ¼, ⅜, ½, ⅝, ¾, ⅞.

Fractions are also cast in two pieces, from Brevier to English; when wanted larger, they may be formed of figures of small proportionate size, with a rule between the numerator and denominator.

This rule in separate fractions is now generally cast on the piece containing the denominator, above the figure, thus, 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅ 7̅ 8̅ 9̅ 0̅; but in improper fractions, where the numerator contains more figures than the denominator, as 3848/21, this rule will not cover the whole of the numerator, therefore it would be necessary, to be able to compose fractions in a perfect manner, to have the rule also cast under the numerator, according to the old plan, so as to meet both cases, otherwise either the proper fraction or the improper fraction must be deficient 21/3848.

FRAGMENTS.

After the body of a work, and the index are composed, the title, preface, contents, &c. are proceeded with. If there be any pages beyond the concluding sheet, they are now imposed together to save presswork, and also warehouse work; and these pages are called _Fragments_.

FRAME.

Made of deal wood, on which the cases are placed to be composed from.

[Illustration: Frame to hold cases]

By the annexed engraving it will be perceived, that the upper and lower cases are placed upon the frame, not in a horizontal, but sloping position, as two inclined planes, the upper case being at a greater angle than the lower, which brings the more distant boxes nearer to the compositor and thus expedites the work: this arrangement occupies less room, and allows a greater number of frames to stand in a given length.

The cases rest on a rail at each end, and in the middle there are generally two rails, six or seven inches apart, for the inside end of each case to rest on. There is frequently a piece of board nailed to the bottom of these rails, which thus forms a depository for page cords, copy that is not in use, and other small matters: this is called a _Well_.

Frames are always placed with one end next the window, so that the compositor when at work may stand with his left hand to the light; thus he enjoys the full benefit of the light in picking up the letters with his right hand. They are usually made to contain two cases in length, which are generally a pair of Roman and a pair of Italic cases, so that the compositor has not to go out of his frame when he wants to compose a few words in Italic.

There is a rather strong nail driven into each end rail and each middle rail for the bottom of the upper cases to rest upon, leaving sufficient room for the lower cases to be lifted out when necessary.

The dimensions of a frame are--height of back, 4 feet 6 inches; height of front, 3 feet 6 inches; width, 1 foot 10 inches; length, 4 feet 10 inches.

In a composing room, where there was plenty of room, I have seen the frames made to contain three cases in length; this is a convenience, as it allows the compositor to have up an additional pair of cases for his notes.

FRENCH RULES.

Pieces of Brass, letter high, of different lengths and thicknesses, on which are filed various dashes, swelling in the middle. They are used to separate parts of a discourse; or are placed after certain lines of capitals in titles and jobs, &c. They are also called _Swell Rules_.

FRENCH WORDS AND PHRASES. _See_ PHRASES.

FRIAR.

When some parts of a ball or roller do not take the ink, so that it does not adhere to the surface, the parts of the form that come in contact with them will be deficient of ink, and the paper when printed will, in those places, be either white or of a pale colour: these white or pale patches are called _Friars_, as the black patches, from too great a quantity of ink on particular places, are called _Monks_.

FRISKET.

A thin iron frame, covered with paper, and connected temporarily with the tympan, by means of joints attached to it and the headband of the tympan, having iron pins to slip into them. The parts that are to be printed are cut out of the paper covering; it turns down upon the paper to be printed, which is laid upon the tympan, keeps it flat to its place, preserves the margin clean, and raises it from the form after it is printed. _See_ FRISKET BUTTON.

Each press in a printing office should have five or six friskets attached to it, of at least three sizes--Demy, as the standard size of paper; a size smaller; and a size sufficient for the largest form the press will print, for it is very inconvenient, and a loss of time, when the pressmen have to cover a frisket and cut it out for every form they lay on: and more particularly when regular work is in the house, and the same frisket will answer for many succeeding forms. It is adviseable, where it is practicable, to have the frisket joints at all the presses of one pattern, so that every frisket may be available at any of the presses.

A pressman should never pull an impression from a form, without being certain that the frisket is large enough, and that it does not rest on the edges of the types, which would be destructive to them.

FRISKET BUTTON.

A button screwed on the offside of the tympan near the bottom, to turn over the frisket and keep it close to the tympan in turning down.

This button is only used when superior work is printing: it prevents the sheet from touching the form partially, and also from slipping, by confining it flat to the tympan, and thus tends to make better work, and prevent waste; but it cannot be used where despatch is required.

FRISKET JOINTS.

Two joints of the simplest construction, by which the frisket is attached to the tympan by means of two pins, made with a head to each, so that they can easily be taken out with the fingers; they are inserted between the joints, and thus the heads face each other.

It is customary to place these joints on the flat part of the headband of the tympan, which, when a large form is on the press, and the rim of the chase is broad, rest upon, and prevent the form receiving the effect of the pull. I have known great inconvenience arise from this cause, in very superior work, where the chase filled the press, and could not be moved to get rid of this grievance. The joints should be taken off, and fixed to the extreme edge of the headband, by which means they will extend beyond the chase, and the evil be completely remedied. Where the frisket is fixed on centres this inconvenience does not exist.

FRISKET PINS.

Two iron pins that pass through the frisket joints and connect it with the tympan. They are made to slip in and out of the joints easily with the fingers, and are put in from the inside of the joints, so that the heads are opposite to each other. It is a common practice with pressmen, when they have occasion to take off the frisket, to lay the pins on the form. This ought never to be done; for I have known an impression pulled under these circumstances, at a good wooden press, without the frisket, and where the pins were forgot. The consequence was, the destruction of types, and the bedding in of the pins into the platen:--there was loss of types--loss of time in replacing them--the platen to be taken off and planed, with the expense of doing it, in addition to which it was reduced in thickness full a quarter of an inch, and the further loss of time while it was doing and hanging again, and justifying the head. They may always be safely laid within the chase between the quoins, where they can do no harm, and cannot roll off.

FRISKET STAY.

A slight piece of wood, generally fastened to the ceiling of the press room, and hanging down to the fore end of each press, for the frisket to rest against when it is turned up.

FROZE OUT.

In winter when the paper is froze, and the letter froze, so as the workmen cannot work, they say, _they are froze out_.--_M._ In consequence of greater care in warming printing offices in winter than in the time of Moxon, the workmen are not now “froze out;” for there would be no excuse admitted for the non-execution of parliamentary work, newspapers, reviews, magazines, and other periodical works.

FRY, EDMUND.

A celebrated type founder, whose foundery was rich in Oriental and other types for foreign languages, the forms of the characters of which varied from the Roman character. Dr. Fry sold the whole of his foundery to Messrs. Thorowgood and Besley, and which is now incorporated with their previously extensive variety of types.

FUDGE.

To execute work without the proper materials, and where the workman is obliged to substitute one article for another, and by contrivance make his work passable: when such cases occur, they show the skill and ingenuity of the compositor or pressman, in making his production look well.

FULL CASE.

A case full of letters, wanting no sorts.

FULL FACED LETTER.

Types, in which the capitals, and the ascending letters of the lower case, fill the whole square of the shank, so that the descending letters project beyond the bottom of the shank. A full faced letter is considerably larger in proportion than a letter of the regular face upon the same body: they are convenient in jobs, as they produce the effect of larger types, and take up less space.

FULL FORM,

or PAGE. A form or page with few or no breaks or white lines.--_M._ In a full form there are no short pages, nor blank pages.

FULL PAGE.

A page containing its full complement of lines.

FULL PRESS.

When two men work at the press, it is called a _Full Press_.--_M._

FURNITURE.

The term furniture includes all those pieces of wood that are used in branching out pages, or jobs; in making margin for the folding of books; and in locking up forms when they are imposed: it is generally classed as reglet, furniture, side sticks, foot sticks, and quoins. The height of it is five eighths of an inch, and ought to be the same as that of quadrats; but the letter founders and the joiners vary them both.

What is usually called furniture is in lengths of a yard each, and commences with narrow, which is equal to a narrow quotation; broad, which is equal to a broad quotation; double narrow; broad and narrow; double broad; broad and double narrow; and narrow and double broad. These are used for gutters, heads, and backs; to branch out large jobs; to fill up with when a chase is too large, and to put round a job when imposing, to keep the letter from the iron of the chase. The bottom and two sides are flat, and the top has a groove planed in it lengthways, the arc of a circle; this groove is said to be designed for carrying the water off when the form is washed, but I cannot see the utility of the groove for this purpose; its more obvious use is to lower that part, so that the balls or rollers shall not touch it in inking the form, which prevents the frisket tearing from its pressure upon the inky furniture and from being continually lifted up.

G.

GAELIC.

The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, u; the rest consonants.--_Stewart’s Gaelic Grammar._ 8vo. 2d. edit. 1812.

“It may be explanatory to mention, that the syllable _Kil_ is supposed to mark the residence (the _Cella_), in ancient times of an ecclesiastical recluse; and that _Kin_, _Ken_ (_Cean_) means head. _Ken_-loch-Spelvie, &c. the Head of Loch Spelvie, &c. The letter _C_ is always pronounced _K_ in Welsh and Gaelic”--_Sixth Report of Commissioners for Building Churches in the Highlands of Scotland. Appendix_, 1831. Note.

GALLEY.

Pieces of thin boards of different sizes, with ledges about three fifth parts of the height of the letter on one end and one side, for the types to rest against; others are made with a slice to slide out, and keep a large page on without disturbing it, the coffin having several slices fitted to it.--_M._ The use of the galley is to receive the matter as it is composed, and to afford a level on which to make up the pages.

Galleys are made of different sizes to suit the different works on which a compositor may be employed; if it be a reprint, page for page, he avoids encumbering his cases with large galleys, but takes one that will hold a page comfortably, completes his page, ties it up, and slips it upon a page paper, and thus proceeds; but if the work be not a mere reprint, and is done in a companionship, then, as each compositor must be setting at random, the work will require different sorts of galleys, which must contain more matter; in the latter case he will take one of the proper width for the page, but that will contain two pages or more, in length, or one double that width with a ledge down the middle, so as to hold two pages in width.

For works in quarto or folio he must have galleys of a greater width, so as to enable him to have a quantity of matter at random till he gets the making up; in doing this, where the page is in folio and large, it is safer to make up on a slice galley, when he draws the slice out with the page on it and places it under his frame, and thus proceeds till he has made up a sheet, when he slides his pages off the slice upon the stone to impose them; he must in this case have four slices at least. The following is a representation of a slice galley:

[Illustration: A slice galley]

For newspaper work brass galleys are employed, the bottoms thin, and the ledges of brass which are on both sides and one end, while the other end has a moveable ledge which fits into mortises in the sides; by this means the compositor is enabled, when a galley full is composed, to put a sidestick and footstick to it and quoin it, and pull a proof in the galley.

Galleys are generally made of mahogany: those made of the old panels of coaches are held to be the best, as the wood, being well seasoned, is less apt to split or bend, and keeping their flat level surface is requisite.

GALLEY SLAVE. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.

GALLOWS.

In wooden presses, a frame made of two pieces of wood and a transverse piece, placed behind the tympans, to support them at a proper angle when they are turned up. The transverse piece is nearly as long as the tympans are wide, so that the frame can rest upon it: they are inclined towards the tympans and form an abutment, and are placed in sockets so as to be easily taken out when necessary.

GALLOWS SOCKETS.

Two pieces of wood with square mortises in them, to receive the ends of the gallows; they are nailed or screwed upon the plank behind the tympans. The mortises are inclined towards the tympans.

GALVANISM.

Another great discovery has been published, in addition to those important ones of Sir Humphry Davy, which he made at the Royal Institution, of the decomposing powers of galvanism, the brilliant effects of which, I well remember, excited wonder and astonishment in the crowded audiences that assembled in the lecture room of that establishment.

The one that is the subject of the present article, promises to be of great utility in the arts, by giving the means of obtaining facsimiles of engraved copper plates, of engravings on wood, of coins, medals, embossings, in short, of any engraved article, whether in cameo or intaglio. The productions by this process have been named _Electrotype_.

This is effected by placing the object to be copied in a solution of any metal, when the galvanic action precipitates the metal from the liquid that held it in solution, upon the engraving that is to be copied. This precipitation or deposition assumes the form of a cake of pure metal, with every line, however delicate, and every inequality, however minute, on its surface, so as to form a matrix or mould in the highest state of perfection.

When the matrix is thus formed, the engraving is withdrawn from the solution of metal, and the matrix substituted; the galvanic action is again renewed; a deposition of the metal upon the matrix now takes place; and the result is, a perfect facsimile of the original.

This is a short sketch of the principle of this discovery. It belongs to chemistry rather than to printing, to explain why the metal is precipitated in a solid mass and not in a fine powder; but such is the fact. The discovery has been applied to the production of facsimiles of engraved copper plates with the most complete success; and as it is now in a state of progress to produce copies of engravings on wood, and pages of types, so as to be applicable to letterpress printing, I will endeavour to give the present state of knowledge with respect to this application of the discovery, the process, and also specimens.

It is said that the discovery of this application of galvanism originated in perceiving a thin deposition of copper at the bottom of a galvanic battery, which, on being removed, displayed on its under surface a perfect cast of the bottom of the cell, and suggested an extended application. Be this as it may, the fact was noticed by Mr. Warren De la Rue, of Bunhill Row, in a communication to the Philosophical Magazine of September, 15, 1836, (vol. 9. p. 484,) where he says, “The zinc plate is always partially covered with a coating of copper, which, however, is not detrimental to the power of the battery: the copper plate is also covered with a coating of metallic copper, which is continually being deposited; and so perfect is the sheet of copper thus formed, that on being stripped off, it has the polish and even a counterpart of every scratch of the plate on which it is deposited.” The discovery of the application is claimed by two persons, M. Jacobi, a Russian, and Mr. Thomas Spencer of Liverpool. The latter presented a pamphlet containing the results of his discovery, and an account of his experiments, to the British Association in 1839, at which time M. Jacobi’s specimens were present and exhibited at the same meeting. Mr. Spencer has since prosecuted his experiments, and liberally given the details and the results to the public, in different publications; so that it is in fact to this latter gentleman that we are indebted for our information on the subject; but as it is now in the hands of a number of persons of ingenuity and ability, who are prosecuting experiments on it, there is little doubt but that it will soon be brought to a state approaching nearly to perfection.

As copper is usually employed for engravings, and is equally applicable to letterpress printing as to that of the rolling press; as it is easily obtained in solution, and is not an expensive article for this purpose, the process as here described is with that metal; other metals have been used for experiments, and it has been stated that articles in silver or gold may be produced with equal facility where facsimiles of them may be required, but the production of them in gold is doubtful.

In the process there are various things to be considered. Among which may be particularly mentioned the fact, that the solidity of the deposited metal entirely depends on the weakness or intensity of the electric action. This action may be regulated by increasing or decreasing the thickness of the plaster of Paris which separates the two metals, and by the coarseness or fineness of the material. Mr. Cooper states, “I made three similar experiments, altering the texture and thickness of the plaster each time, by which I ascertained that if the plaster partitions were thin and coarse, the metallic deposition proceeded with great rapidity, but the crystals were friable and easily separated; on the other hand, if I made the partition thicker, and of a little finer material, the action was much slower, and the metallic deposition was as solid and ductile as copper formed by the usual methods; indeed the action was exceedingly slow. I have made a metallic deposition apparently much harder than common sheet copper; but more brittle.”

A friend of mine used a common garden pot, with a cork in the perforation through the bottom, which answered very well, the copper deposited being fine and tough. I think a wine cooler would be a good vessel for that purpose, being porous; and either may be at hand, when there is not a suitable glass, or any plaster of Paris.

Mr. Crosse has stated, in the account of his experiments on the crystallization of metals, that he succeeded best when the solutions were kept at a boiling temperature; and Mr. Spencer informs us, that by keeping the solutions he employed at a temperature of from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and eighty degrees of Fahrenheit, he was able to abridge the time otherwise required, three or four fold.

In all scientific experiments, care and attention are requisite for a successful result: in this instance, let an uninterrupted circuit be maintained for the electricity, and let the wire have a perfect metallic contact with the plates which it connects; when it is an engraving on wood, bore a hole in the side of the block, and insert the wire in it. The zinc may be with advantage occasionally taken out of the saline solution during the operation, and cleaned in water. In the choice and application of the plates, it is better that they should be, as nearly as possible, of the same size, and it is of importance that the zinc should be as thick as the required deposition of copper, but it is easy when necessary to renew the zinc again and again. That the solution of the sulphate of copper may be continued in the necessary state, crystals of that substance should be occasionally added. When the process is long continued, the solution should be changed, for the sulphuric acid, which is set free by the deposition of the metallic copper, prevents the further action.

This was the first method; the plan now practised, to prevent any stoppage of the galvanic action by an excess of sulphuric acid occasioned by the decomposition of the sulphate of copper and the deposition of its copper in a metallic state, is to put into the acid a piece of copper in connexion with the positive pole, and thus, as the acid is set free by the galvanic action, it forms a new combination with the copper, and continues the supply of the sulphate without the necessity of changing the contents of the vessel.

In obtaining casts by this process, it must be borne in mind, that no metallic deposition can be made by voltaic electricity without the presence of a metallic surface or nucleus upon which to deposit: but this metallic surface should be given only to the part which is to be copied; the sides and bottom of the block may be covered with a varnish composed of shell lac dissolved in spirit of wine, which will prevent any metallic deposition from taking place upon those parts, as also the moisture from penetrating into the wood, and the deposition will in consequence be confined to the engraved surface.

In the management of the simple apparatus which is employed in electrotype, it is necessary to have the binding-screws, wires, and all the metallic surfaces, quite clean and bright, as also to avoid touching with the fingers that part on which the metal is to be deposited.

With regard to the first application of galvanism to the production of facsimiles of engravings on wood, Mr. Spencer states, after the publication of his pamphlet, “The wood engraving being given, take a piece of lead the required size; let its superfice be about one-eighth of an inch larger all round than that of the wood block. The lead must now be planed, just as a piece of soft wood; (the tool termed by a joiner _a try plane_ does best;) a clear bright surface is thus obtained, such as I have been unable to get by any other means. The engraved surface of the wood must now be laid on the planed surface of the lead, and both put carefully in a press; should the engraving have more than two inches of superfices, a copying press is not powerful enough. Whatever press is used, the subject to be copied must be cautiously laid in the centre of the pressure, as a very slight lateral force will in some degree injure the process; the pressure to be applied regularly, and not with a jerk. When the pressure is deemed complete, they may be taken out, and if, on examination, the lead is not found to be completely up, the wood engraving may be neatly relaid on the lead, and again submitted to the press, using the same precaution as before. When the lead is taken out, a wire should be soldered to it immediately, and it should then be put into the apparatus without loss of time, as the less it is subjected to the action of the atmosphere the better: care should also be taken not to touch the surface with the fingers.”

Mr. Spencer also states that plumbers, who have handled lead for the greater portion of their lives, are astonished to find it so susceptible of pressure. On the contrary, wood engravers did not, until now, imagine that their blocks would stand the pressure of a screw press on a lead surface without injury; but such is the fact in both instances. In the manner in which box wood is used for wood engravings, being in horizontal sections, it will sustain a pressure of 8,000 lbs. without injury, provided the pressure is perfectly perpendicular.

Mr. Spencer has omitted to mention the size of the engraving; if it were one inch square, it would have a pressure of 8,000 lbs. on that inch; if it were nine inches square, it would only have a pressure of 100 lbs. on the square inch: with my experience of printing engravings on wood, I would not venture to submit one to a pressure of 8,000 lbs. to the inch for fear of crushing the lines. I mention this as a caution; it may prevent an accident.

This appears to have been the first method tried to produce a facsimile of an engraving on wood by means of galvanism, with a metallic mould obtained by impressing the engraved block upon a piece of lead. This not appearing to be perfectly satisfactory, other persons were induced to endeavour to make the discovery available for letterpress printing without the risk of injury to the engraving, to which this plan seemed liable; and the next advance towards the perfection of the process was an important one, being the introduction of the real object intended to be copied in the stead of the substituted mould, and obtaining a matrix from it at once by means of the galvanic process without resorting to any intermediate measures. This improvement was made by Mr. Robert Murray, who proposed “in January last to cover the surface of the wood with plumbago [black lead], so as to render it a conductor; and then to proceed in the usual manner for obtaining an electrotype copy,” as he informed me in a communication of the 21st of July, 1840. It is but fair to state, that this use of black lead has been objected to by some engravers on wood, as having a tendency to fill up the lines of a delicate engraving, and so to deteriorate the impressions taken from it; but I am now furnishing the public with the means of deciding on this question, by presenting an impression from an electrotype copy, executed by Mr. Murray according to his own ingenious plan, by the side of one from the original wood engraving, and I leave it to bear witness for itself. I cannot perceive any deterioration in the copy, nor any difference between the two impressions: in fact they appear as if they were duplicate impressions from the same engraving.

The following letter, addressed to the editor of the Athenæum, by Mr. Spencer, which appeared in that publication on the 4th of July, 1840, details another method of obtaining a metallic surface for an engraving on wood, &c. for the purpose of inducing the galvanic deposition of copper upon it and obtaining a copper mould, which appears to be free from the objections that have been raised to gilding, bronzing, and to black lead.

“In my pamphlet, printed last September, I there stated I considered the process comparatively incomplete, unless we were able to apply it to the multiplication of models in clay or wood, castings in plaster, wood engravings, &c., as the fact, that galvanic deposition always requires a metallic surface to act on, seemed to set bounds to those branches of its application. I then resorted to various expedients to surmount the difficulty; among others, that of gilding and bronzing the surfaces of such materials to a limited extent: this was successful, but still troublesome and expensive, and, more than all, the sharpness and beauty of the original was necessarily injured. I have since attempted to metallize surfaces by the use of plumbago (suggested to me many months ago by Mr. Parry of Manchester).

“Should I be desirous of obtaining a copper mould or cast from a piece of wood, plaster, or clay, or, indeed, any non-metallic material, I proceed as follows:--Suppose it is an engraved wooden block, and I am desirous of metallizing it, in order that I may be able to deposit copper on its surface (this example will hold good for any other material), the first operation is to take strong alcohol in a corked glass vessel, and add to it a piece of phosphorus (a common phial corked will answer the purpose); the vessel must now be placed in hot water for a few minutes, and occasionally shaken. By this means the alcohol will take up about a 300th of its bulk of phosphorus, and we thus obtain what I would term an alcoholic solution of phosphorus. The next operation is to procure a _weak_ solution of nitrate of silver; place it in a flat dish or a saucer; the engraved face of the block must now be dipped in this solution, and let remain for a few seconds, to allow capillary action to draw it into the wood.

“This operation being performed, a small portion of the alcoholic solution of phosphorus must now be poured in a capsule or watch-glass, and this placed on a sand-bath, that it may be suffered to evaporate. The block must now be held with its surface over the vapour, and _an immediate_ change takes place; the nitrate of silver becomes deoxidized and gives place to a _metallic_ phosphoret of silver, which allows the voltaic deposit to go on with as much rapidity and certainty as the purest silver or copper.

“The whole process may be performed in a few minutes, and with absolute certainty of success. The interior or exterior surface of a plaster or clay mould of a statue, no matter what size, may be thus metallized with equal facility. For the process of vaporizing, and should the material to be acted on not be very large, I prefer fastening it to the top of a bell glass receiver with a bit of pitch or cement, and thus placing it _over_ the capsule on the sand-bath; the phosphoric vapour is by this means equally diffused and not dissipated. An ethereal solution of phosphorus also answers; and a solution of either of the chlorides of gold or platinum may be used. I am inclined to think this process, independent of its uses in galvanic precipitation, may be applicable to other branches of art. I would recommend those curious of testing its effects, to try a small and sharp plaster of Paris medallion: dip its _surface_ in a weak solution of nitrate of silver and _take it out immediately_; fasten it to the bottom of a glass tumbler, and at the same time have a little hot sand ready in a dish; lay the watch glass containing a few drops of the phosphoric solution on it; now place the mouth of the tumbler over all, and the medallion will be observed almost instantly to change colour. The operation is now completed. A piece of pottery ware in the state of biscuit may be acted on in a similar manner.

“_Liverpool, June 27._ THOMAS SPENCER.”

_Apparatus and process._--The annexed figure and explanation will afford an example of the action of a voltaic apparatus, and will be sufficient to render the subsequent details intelligible. A is a vessel filled with a solution of common salt, which is a compound of chlorine and sodium; B is a tube immersed therein, closed at the lower end with a piece of bladder stretched over it and firmly tied; this tube is filled with a solution of blue vitriol, that is, a compound of sulphuric acid and oxide of copper. A plate of copper C, and one of zinc Z, connected by means of the wire W, are immersed in those fluids. The zinc decomposes the salt, with the chlorine of which it unites, forming chloride of zinc, while the sodium of the salt is repelled, and passing through the bladder, enters the solution of sulphate of copper, which it decomposes, uniting with the sulphuric acid and oxygen to form sulphate of soda, and setting free pure copper in the form of beautiful crystals, which are deposited on the plate C. The connecting wire W serves to convey electricity from C to Z, and thus the action is maintained so long as any common salt and sulphate of copper remain undecomposed.

[Illustration: Apparatus for galvanic action]

Mr. Spencer’s first attempt was made with a piece of thin copper plate, which he covered with a cement of beeswax, resin, and Indian or Calcutta red. The plate received its coating while hot, and on becoming cool, the experimenter scratched the initials of his name upon the plate, being careful to clear away all the cement from the scratches, so as to expose the copper below. A piece of zinc was attached to this plate by a copper wire, and the voltaic current was set in action by means of the simple apparatus shown in the adjoining figure.

A may be supposed to represent a glass vessel of convenient form. B a gas glass stopped at the lower end P, by a piece of plaster of Paris, to the depth of three quarters of an inch, Z a plate of zinc, and C a similar piece of copper, a coin or any other metallic substance to be acted upon; and these two are connected by a copper wire, W. The inner vessel may be kept in its place by a cork, or any other means that may happen to be more convenient. A solution of sulphate of soda is poured into the gas glass, and the wire connecting the zinc and copper plates being bent, as shown in the figure, the zinc plate is immersed into the solution of sulphate of soda, and the copper plate into the solution of sulphate of copper.

[Illustration: Another apparatus]

In a few hours Mr. Spencer, in his experiments, found that the portion of the copper rendered bare by the scratches was coated with the pure bright deposited metal, while those portions which were still covered with cement were not acted on. It now became an important inquiry whether the deposition would retain its hold on the plate, and whether it would be of sufficient solidity to bear working from; that is, supposing an etching or engraving to be made, and the lines to be afterwards filled up with copper by the voltaic process, whether such lines could be printed from.

In order to answer this last question, Mr. Spencer coated with cement a piece of copper, and with a steel point endeavoured to draw lines in the form of network, so as to penetrate the cement and expose the copper. After this plate had been exposed to voltaic action, and then heated, so as to get off the covering of cement, the copper network came off with it. This happened many times; but by an accident it occurred to the experimenter to employ nitric acid to the plate, after it had been cemented and engraved on as before. It was then subjected to the voltaic process for forty-eight hours, when the lines were found to be entirely filled with copper. On applying heat, and then turpentine to get off the cement, it was found that the voltaic copper had completely combined with the plate on which it was deposited.

A plate was then coated with cement, and lines worked upon it by an engraver; but these lines were of a wedge-shaped form, leaving only a hair line of the copper exposed at the bottom, and a broad space near the surface; and where the turn of the letters took place, the top edges of the lines were galled and rendered rugged by the action of the graver. All this was objectionable; but another plate, similarly prepared, and engraved on with a sharp point, had the copper deposited on the lines; and this was printed from successfully.

This was an attempt to deposit lines upon a plate of copper by the galvanic action, and thus form an engraving in relief, which I have doubts of being successfully practised with finished subjects.

The application of heat separates the two metals, in consequence of their different expansibility when subjected to its influence.

Mr. Spencer gives the form of another apparatus on a more extended scale, which he recommends, as it may be employed in large works.

[Illustration: Larger scale apparatus]

A is an earthenware vessel to receive the copper plate and the solution of sulphate of copper, in which it is to be exposed. B is another vessel of earthenware or wood, of such a size that it may fit into the outer one, as shown in the drawing; the bottom of this vessel being formed of plaster of Paris, or some other porous substance, which while it retains the solution of common salt may permit the voltaic action to go on without impediment. C is the copper plate to be acted on by the electricity upon which copper is to be deposited. Z is the zinc plate, and the two are united by the wire W, which may either be done in the manner exhibited in the second engraving, or by the use of a binding screw S.

I have been anxious to give specimens of this discovery in its application to letterpress printing, with some account of the process by which copies are obtained from engravings on wood. I am gratified in being enabled to do this, and to give two subjects, by different processes in producing the matrices or moulds.

No. 1. is an impression from an engraving on wood by the late Mr. Branston, which I give for the purpose of comparing the copy with the original. From this engraving Mr. Murray, having metallized the surface with plumbago, according to his method, to induce a deposition of the copper upon it, obtained a copper mould by galvanic action; from this mould No. 2. was produced by the same process, and is an impression from the electrotype copy of No. 1.

No. 3. is an impression from an engraving on wood, from which a matrix was prepared in type metal by the process called _polytype_; this matrix was submitted to the galvanic action by Mr. Murray, and the deposition of copper produced the electrotype copy from which the impression No. 4. is printed.

No. 5. is a polytype copy in type metal from the same matrix as No. 4. These impressions are placed in juxtaposition, for the purpose of giving an opportunity of comparing them, and forming a true estimate of their respective merits.

There have been many attempts in London to obtain an electrotype copy of a page of types, but hitherto, I believe, without success; the difficulty arising from the deposition of copper getting under the projecting parts of the kerned letters, and also penetrating into the interstices between the letters and the words, and thus preventing the mould from being disengaged from the types, without using force and destroying a great number of letters. The following, No. 6., is an imperfect specimen of a page of diamond types, by Mr. Robert Branston, an engraver of eminence in wood, and Mr. Warren De la Rue. There are many difficulties yet to be overcome in the process of obtaining electrotype copies of types; but it will show what has already been accomplished, and I have not the least doubt that the combined skill and perseverance of Mr. Branston and Mr. De la Rue will in a short time overcome those difficulties, and produce perfect copies with ease and certainty.

The method adopted to procure this was as follows:--A mould in plaster of Paris was first obtained, and a stereotype plate was cast in it; high spaces and quadrats were used, to prevent as much as possible the inconvenience before spoken of; a mould was then obtained from the stereotype plate by the polytype process, in type metal, and from that mould, by the galvanic action, the electrotype copy from which the specimen No. 6. was printed.

In the first instance, the plan recommended by Mr. Spencer in the Athenæum of the 4th of July, 1840, of preparing the surface of the mould with silver, was adopted, but the sulphuric acid acted on the plaster of Paris of which it was formed, and rendered it useless.

Since the preceding was written and in print, I have been informed that Mr. Spencer has been more successful than the London experimenters, for, in a letter to me, dated Glasgow, September 17th, 1840, he says, “Had I been at home I should have sent you a copy of the first pamphlet, where you would have seen an octavo page of stereotyping by the Voltaic process.”

In the present early state of electrotyping we find that, as it is formed by the solution in water of a salt composed of sulphuric acid and copper, it is of course thinner and the copper more attenuated than type metal is when in a state of fusion; it will necessarily penetrate into all the delicately engraved parts of a subject more completely than melted metal, and must therefore produce a more perfect facsimile than a casting; I believe this is undeniable, for copies of copper plate engravings of great fineness have been produced in the highest state of perfection as facsimiles. Another point is, that copper is tougher than type metal, and not so liable to have the letters break off and fail in the process of printing, and of consequence will be more durable. But it appears to me that one of its most valuable applications will be to the printing of Bibles, for by obtaining copper matrices of the pages by this process new editions may be multiplied to any extent, and when the plates are much worn they may be renewed at any future time, without incurring the expense of recomposing the book; which is not the case with stereotype plates. But the applicability of the discovery is as yet in its infancy, as these specimens are, I believe, the first that have been published of impressions of letterpress electrotype plates, and the ingenuity of man is at work to extend and improve the discovery.

In giving the foregoing account of experiments that have been made on this discovery of the application of galvanism to the production of copies of the works of art, and more particularly with respect to engravings on wood, as connected with letterpress printing, to which this work is confined, it is evident that the persons making these experiments are not availing themselves of the information which may easily be procured, that is, of ascertaining what are the requisites to enable a printer to make use of these copies in the regular way of business; excepting this be done, the discovery will not be available for general purposes, and will be viewed only as a curiosity: one point, to which I would particularly draw their attention, is the difficulty experienced in separating the matrix from the original, and again of separating the copy from the matrix; in both these cases they have the deposition of copper too thin, and in the act of separation both the matrix and the copy are twisted and distorted; they are then filled in at the back with some soft metal, which is planed in a rough manner, and delivered in this condition, unfit for the press, at which it is almost impossible to obtain a good impression. I would suggest that the deposition of copper should be continued for a longer time, so as to have the metal thicker, both in the matrix and the copy; if any irregularity in the surface then take place in the act of separation, it ought to be reduced before it is filled in with metal at the back; when that is done it should be turned in a lathe, as stereotype plates now are; it would thus be of an equal thickness throughout without any unevenness on the surface or back, and when mounted type-high might be printed without more trouble than wood cuts or stereotype plates are; thus enabling the printer to produce impressions without difficulty that would show the merits of the discovery in a fair manner, which at present cannot be done without great trouble and loss of time.

[Illustration: _No._ 1. _An Impression from an Engraving on Wood._]

[Illustration: _No._ 2. _An Impression from an Electrotype Copy of No._ 1.]

[Illustration: _No._ 3. _An Impression from an Engraving on Wood._

_No._ 4. _An Impression from an Electrotype Copy of No._ 3.

_No._ 5. _An Impression from a Polytype Copy of No._ 3.]

[Illustration: _No._ 6. _An Impression from an Electrotype Copy of a Page of Diamond Types._]

GARTER.

In wooden presses, two flat pieces of iron with a semicircle cut in one end of each, and a projecting part at the other ends; in the projecting parts there is a hole at each end, those in the front piece for a screw to go through, and those in the back piece are tapped to receive a screw.

The hose has a horizontal mortise through it, exactly at the groove in the spindle; this mortise is to receive the garter, which, when driven close up from back and front, clasps the spindle in the groove by means of its semicircular ends, which are made to fit into this groove; and the two parts are kept firmly together by the screws that pass through the projecting ends on two sides of the hose.

Its use is to lift up the platen on the return of the bar, to admit the carriage to be run in and out.

GATHER BOOKS.

Gathering of books is to take one sheet off every heap, beginning at the last sheet first, viz. at the left hand end of the range.--_M._ We now reverse the heaps, and place the first signature where they used to place the last; they then gathered, placing each sheet upon the other: we now gather under each sheet, which is a much quicker way. _See_ GATHERING.

GATHER CORRECTIONS. _See_ CORRECTIONS.

GATHERING.

In making the printed sheets of a work up into copies in the warehouse for delivery, a number of them in orderly succession are folded together, which is called a gathering; a volume may be complete in one gathering, or it may consist of two, three, four, or more.

When there are more than one gathering in a volume, the warehouseman endeavours to have the number of sheets in each nearly equal; and he very rarely puts less than ten, or more than fifteen, in one gathering.

He lays down upon the gathering table a heap of each signature, commencing with B, or whatever signature the body of the work may begin with, following each other in regular order, according to the letters of the alphabet, and as many as he intends to include in the first gathering, with the first page of each to the front of the table. If it be a long number, he seldom lays down more than a bundle of each signature at once, that the top sheets may not be higher than the boys can conveniently reach.

The first signature is placed at the extreme end of the table to the left hand, that if there be any space more than is actually wanted upon the table, it may be at the end where the gathering concludes, to allow the boys to knock up the sheets without crowding each other.

In commencing gathering it is necessary that the boys should have clean hands, otherwise they will dirty many sheets with the end of the right thumb.

A boy wets the end of his right thumb with the tip of his tongue, and pushes up with it the right hand corner of the first sheet, the fingers of his left hand being laid upon the sheet to prevent its slipping away, and he catches it up with the thumb of his left hand underneath it, and draws it upon the next heap; he does the same by this, and so continues drawing the accumulating sheets in his left hand over the successive heaps, and taking one from each, till he gets to the end; he then knocks this gathering up even at the ends and sides, and lays it down at the end of the table, which being what is styled a horse-shoe table, he has only to turn himself round, when he is again facing the first signature, to recommence the operation, always knocking up his gathering, and laying it evenly upon the other, till it accumulates to a pile.

In the regular routine of business, where despatch is necessary, three or four boys are generally put to one gathering table, who follow each other regularly, knocking up their gatherings, and piling them up on the end of the table. Among them there is frequently an inexperienced boy; to prevent delay, this boy is ordered to lay his gathering down at the end, and the next boy knocks it up with his own: if the boy has quickness and spirit, he exerts himself to become expert, and to equal the others.

If the collation of the book is going on at the same time, it prevents the pile of gatherings from accumulating too much; if it be not, the pile must be removed occasionally, to prevent it getting too high for the boys to deposit their gatherings.

They thus proceed till one, or more, of the heaps is exhausted, when the remnant of the others is folded in the middle, each signature by itself, and tied up in a bundle, enclosed in wrappers; but if the book be collating, the drawn sheets are previously laid down, which enables them generally to gather off a few more copies.

In the course of gathering, if a boy perceives that the sheets in any of the heaps are turned the wrong way, he should immediately announce it, that they may be placed right; he should be likewise very particular to take one sheet from each heap, as also to avoid taking two: any of these errors causes a great deal of extra trouble in collating, and of course a consequent loss of time, in addition to making the work unpleasant.

After the gatherings are collated, they are knocked up carefully at the ends and sides, and folded evenly in the middle; folios, quartos, and octavos, in the regular fold of the paper, and twelves the long way in the back; for a gathering is never folded in a page, neither lengthways nor crossways. They are then put into a press, a moderate quantity being placed between each two boards, and the press wrung well down; after having lain in the press a sufficient time, they are taken out, and piled away till the work is completed, and they are wanted for Booking.

If copies of a work are required to be delivered as soon as the last sheet is put to press, which at the present day is commonly the case, the warehouseman should be prepared to meet the wishes of his employer’s customers, by having the book gathered close up to the last gathering; having them all pressed and booked; and as fast as the last sheet is worked off, keep hanging it up very thin in the most favourable part of his poling for drying, and even dry a few by the fire to commence with. He will thus have the last gathering only to put together, and in some cases he may have part of that done; so that if he put his boys to gather, himself to collate, another to fold the gatherings and put them into the press, he may in less than two hours, in a case of emergency, deliver fifty or a hundred copies of a work without difficulty, and obtain credit to the house and to himself for despatch and attention, both of which cannot but be gratifying to him. _See_ BOOKING. COLLATING. LAY DOWN.

GATHERING TABLE.

A table in the warehouse on which the printed sheets are arranged in the order of their signatures, in order to their being gathered into books. It is usually a horse-shoe table, and the boys gather on the inside, so that when they have completed one gathering they have only to turn round and commence again. Where there is space enough in the warehouse it ought to be sufficiently large to hold at least fifteen sheets, with room at the end for the heap and for the knocking up of each gathering.

GAUGE.

A Gauge, to regulate the margin, is used both by compositors and pressmen, in their respective departments.

When a compositor commences a work, or joins a companionship, it is necessary that he cut a gauge to the length of a regular page of his work; to do this he should take a page without any chapter head lines, of the regular number of lines, and cut his gauge to the exact length, including the head and the direction line; a piece of great primer reglet is a convenient thickness, and marking the name of the work on it may prevent errors. Many compositors mark the length of the page upon a piece of furniture, and make it answer for two, three, or four works; but I have known mistakes occur in making-up, from adopting this method, that have caused a great deal of trouble in remaking up the succeeding pages.

In works that are printed with large letter, and have many head lines in the pages, and much white between the lines, I would advise a gauge to be cut on which the situation of each line should be marked; this will enable the compositor to make up his pages, so that, when the sheet is worked off, line shall fall upon line, which will add a beauty to his work, and save a great deal of trouble, by rendering unnecessary any alteration of the whites.

After the first sheet of a work has been imposed, and the margin made right by the person who has the superintendence of this department, a gauge should be cut to the exact width of the back, and another to that of the head; a piece of thin reglet being used for each, marked with the name of the work, and with the words, “back,” and “head;” a hole may be made in each piece that they may be tied together, so as to hang them upon a nail driven into some part of the frame; and a fresh sheet should never be imposed without trying the margin before it is locked-up. I am aware this is being more particular than is the general custom; but, if a compositor adopt the method, he will find that it will not take more than a minute of additional time, and will eventually be a saving by preventing mistakes, and he will thus send each sheet to press in a workmanlike manner.

The pressmen require a gauge in all folio works, in order to keep the head lines of the pages of each sheet precisely at the same distance from the edge of the paper. This head margin is determined by the overseer, or master printer, when the first sheet goes to press; the pressman should then cut his gauge, mark it with the name of the work, and keep it in some secure place, to lay the succeeding sheets on by, so that the work may have a uniform head margin, which, as the bookbinder always makes the head lines range, will prevent the book being reduced in size by cutting, an object of serious consideration in a library.

GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERS.

+ _plus_, or _more_, the sign of addition; signifying that the numbers or quantities between which it is placed are to be added together.

- _minus_, or _less_, the sign of subtraction; signifying that the latter of the two quantities between which it is placed is to be taken from the former.

~ denotes the difference of two quantities when it is not known which is the greater.

× _into_, the sign of multiplication; signifying that the quantities between which it is placed are to be multiplied together.

÷ _by_, the sign of division; signifying that the former of the two quantities between which it is placed is to be divided by the latter.

: _as_, or _to_, :: _so is_, the sign of an equality of ratios; signifying that the quantities between which they are placed are proportional to each other.

= _equal to_, the sign of equality; signifying that the quantities between which it is placed are equal to each other.

√ the _radical sign_; signifying that the quantity before which it is placed is to have some root of it extracted.--_Bonnycastle’s Geometry._ 12_mo._ 1823.

[#] Formerly used to denote _equal to_, but is become obsolete.

△ Triangle; as △ABC = △ADC.

∠ An angle.

⟂ Perpendicular.

▭ Rectangled parallelogram.

⊏ or >, greater than.

⊐ or <, lesser than.

∹ The differences, or excess.

GERMAN.

“It is generally admitted, that the ancient Germans had not the use of letters, before their intercourse with the Romans; the testimony of Tacitus is decisive on this subject. ‘_Literarum secreta viri pariter ac fœminæ ignorant._’ Hence we conclude, that the Teutons, who anciently inhabited the neighbouring coast, and islands of the Baltic Sea, had no letters, till their descendants, who settled in Belgic Gaul, obtained them from the Romans. The Teutonic alphabet is evidently deduced from the Roman, and is nothing more than the Roman varied by the Germans, which, having been much deformed, was improved by _Charlemagne_ in the ninth century, and continued till the twelfth, when this kind of writing was succeeded by the modern Gothic, which prevails in Germany, and in several of the northern countries of Europe at this time.”--_Astle._

[Illustration: The German Alphabet]

_German Alphabet._

+---------------+----------------+-------------+ | Character. | Signification. | Name. | +---------------+----------------+-------------+ | ~A a~ | A a | Au | | ~B b~ | B b | Bey | | ~C c~ | C c | Tsey | | ~D d~ | D d | Dey | | ~E e~ | E e | Ey | | ~F f~ | F f | Ef | | ~G g~ | G g | Gey, or Gay | | ~H h~ | H h | Hau | | ~I i~ | I i | E | | ~J j~ | J j | Yot | | ~K k~ | K k | Kau | | ~L l~ | L l | El | | ~M m~ | M m | Em | | ~N n~ | N n | En | | ~O o~ | O o | O | | ~P p~ | P p | Pey | | ~Q q~ | Q q | Koo | | ~R r~ | R r | Err | | ~S ſ s~ | S ſ s | Ess | | ~T t~ | T t | Tey | | ~U u~ | U u | Oo | | ~V v~ | V v | Fou | | ~W w~ | W w | Vey | | ~X x~ | X x | Iks | | ~Y y~ | Y y | Ypsilon | | ~Z z~ | Z z | Tset | +---------------+----------------+-------------+

In addition to the characters of the preceding alphabet, the Germans make use of three, which are vowels: ~Ae, ä~ or ~á~, expressed by the Roman character ä, and having the sound of _e_ in _where_. ~Oe, ö~ or ~ó~, and in the Roman character ö, which has the sound of _eu_ in the French _heure_. ~Ue, ü~ or ~ú~, having its representative in the Roman ü, and its expression in the thin _u_ of the French in _vertu_.

The Germans also make use of the following double letters in printing:

~ch~ ch ~ck~ ck ~ff~ ff ~fi~ fi ~ffi~ ffl ~fl~ fl ~ll~ ll ~si~ si ~ss~ ss ~ssi~ ssi ~st~ st ~sz~ sz ~tz~ tz

“In the printed alphabet some letters are apt to be mistaken and confounded one with another. To facilitate the discrimination the difference is here pointed out.

“B and V. The latter is open in the middle, the former joined across.

“C and E. ~C~ has a little horizontal stroke in the middle, projecting to the right, which ~E~ has not.

“G and S. These letters, being both of a round form, are sometimes taken for one another, particularly the ~G~ for the ~S~. But ~S~ has an opening above, ~G~ is closed, and has besides a perpendicular stroke within.

“K, N, R. K is rounded at the top, N is open in the middle, R is united about the middle.

“M and W. M is open at the bottom, W is closed.

“b and h. b is perfectly closed below, h is somewhat open, and ends at the bottom, on one side, with a hair stroke.

“f and ſ. f has a horizontal line above.

“m and w. m is entirely open at the bottom, w is partly closed.

“r and x. x has a little hair stroke below on the left.

“v and y. v is closed, y is somewhat open below, and ends with a hair stroke.”--_Noehden’s German Grammar_, 2_d edit._ 12_mo. Lond._ 1807.

_German Types in the British Founderies._

_Two-line English._--Thorowgood and Besley.

_Great Primer._--Thorowgood and Besley.

_Pica._--Caslon and Livermore.

_Long Primer._--Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Brevier._--Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Brevier on Minion body._--Thorowgood and Besley.

_Nonpareil._--Thorowgood and Besley.

_German Text, ornamented._--V. and J. Figgins.

Great Primer, Brevier on Minion body, and Nonpareil. These matrices are from the foundery of Brestkopff and Hartel, of Leipsig.

[Illustration: Layout of the German case]

German Upper and Lower Case, Roman Character. They are made in one Case.

+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | K | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | | | A | B | C | D | E | | | | | | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | | | | | | L | M | N | O | P | | | | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | à | è | ì | ò | ù | á | é | í | ó | ú | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 0 | +---++--++--+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | U | Æ | S | | | +----+---+------+---+ t | u | | | W | Œ | s | | | +----+---+------+---+-------+-----------+ | | X | Æ | h | | | | | | | | | | +----+---+------+---+ m | i | | | Y | k | l | | | | | | | | | | +----+---+------+---+-------+-----------+ | | Z | Œ | c | | _en | +----+---+------+---+ a | quadrats._| | & | ç | & | b | | | +----+---+------+---+-------+-----------+

+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------+--------+ | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | V | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------+--------+ | | | | | | | F | G | H | I | K | | | | | | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-----------------+ | | | | | | | Q | R | S | T | V | | | | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------+--------+ | â | ê | î | ô | û | ä | ë | ï | ö | ü | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------+--------+ | | | | | | U | W | X | Y | Z | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------+--------+ | | x | y | z | j | * | ; | ! | ? | | r +---+---+---+---+---+---+--------+--------+ | | w | v | — | : | ( ) | +-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+ | | | q | , | _Hair | _Thick | | | | | | Sp._ | Sp._ | | n | o +-------+-------+--------+--------+ | | | p | . | _em | | | | | | quadrats._ | +-------+-------+---+---+---+---+-----------------+ | | | fi | fl | ffi | ffl | | | e | d +---+---+---+---+ _Quadrats._ | | | | f | ff | g | | +-------+-------+---+---+-------+-----------------+

GET IN.

Matter is got in in a line, page, sheet, or book, if letter be thinner cast than the printed copy the compositor sets by. Or matter is got in if the compositor sets closer: or if he widens his measure; or puts more lines in a page.--_M._ Also if copy makes less than it was calculated to do, they say, it gets in. _See_ DRIVE OUT.

GIRTHS.

Are thongs of leather, cut out of the back of an horse hide, or a bull’s hide, sometimes an hog’s hide. They are about an inch and an half, or an inch and three quarters broad. Two of them are used to carry the carriage out and in.--_M._ They are sometimes made of Girthweb.

Mr. T. C. Hansard, in his patent for the improvement of presses, &c., enumerates “Girths,” of which he says,--“The girths I form of lines made of any close-formed strong material or substance, but round or narrow, and I particularly prefer cat-gut of about one inch in circumference. Such lines I arrange in pairs, one pair to run the table in, the other pair to run it out; applying them to the wheel after the manner of leather or web girths; except that such lines I place with a small degree of obliquity from either end of the table to the wheel, so that in winding round no one coil shall touch or interfere with the other, but take a spiral direction, one pair giving place by being wound off the wheel as the table is run in or out, to the other pair, which by being then wound round the wheel, causes the table to traverse in the given direction. By these means the rounce or handle will be, in every position or turn of the wheel, equally tight, and no friction or adhesion of the lines can ever take place.”

GIRTH WHEEL, or DRUM. _See_ WHEEL.

GIVING A PELT EXERCISE. _See_ EXERCISING THE PELT.

GIVING OUT PAPER.

When the warehouseman delivers paper to the pressmen, or to the person appointed to wet it, for printing on, it is said, he has given out paper for such a job, or such a sheet of a work.

Paper, for printing on, is received in three different ways from the stationer.

The first and most general way is what is termed _Perfect Paper_; that is, each ream consists of twenty-one quires and a half, making 516 sheets, which enables the printer to deliver full count, and allows for spoiling sheets, which unavoidably happens in wetting, in printing-off, and in the warehouse department.

The second is _Imperfect Paper_; that is, each ream consists of twenty good quires, (termed inside quires,) making 480 sheets; but it is given out to wet for bookwork as perfect paper.

The third is News Paper, which consists of twenty quires of twenty-five sheets each to the ream, making 500 sheets.

Newspaper stamps are always received, given out to wet, and delivered, by the net number, and require great care on the part of the warehouseman and pressmen to prevent waste, as the master printer is responsible for the deficiency.

Paper with outside quires is very rarely sent in to the printer; when it does happen, the warehouseman should look over the outside quires, take out the torn and damaged sheets, and give out as perfect paper: but, perhaps, the best way is to put aside these quires, and return them to the employer, as every sheet is more or less damaged.

The following Tables will be found useful, as they will enable the warehouseman to give out paper with facility and correctness for bookwork, and for jobs, where the numbers are irregular and the sizes vary; and more particularly so, as they include both perfect and imperfect paper.

Those for bookwork are arranged for the regular quantity of perfect paper, commencing with so low a number as 12, and proceeding up to 10,000.

Those for jobs include the same numbers, and are so arranged as to specify the quantity of paper to a sheet for each number, as I did not think it necessary to calculate them to the fractional part of a sheet: thus some of them are exact, and others have a surplus, which in some instances is large where there are many on a sheet; but as jobs are generally delivered without any surplus, I have thought it best to give the quantity of paper that will make the nearest specific number, so that it shall not be less, and leave the surplus to the discretion of the warehouseman, or to the custom of the house.

Where the numbers are small in bookwork, the quantity of paper given out is greater in proportion than when the numbers are larger; of course a ream will not hold out in printing five sheets of one hundred copies each, and still less in smaller numbers; for each sheet at press will require a tympan sheet; and it is more than probable that one or two more will be spoiled in making ready; and in the warehouse department a file copy must always be preserved. I notice this to remind the warehouseman to make a proper allowance in his paper account, otherwise it will appear deficient, when in reality it is not.

TABLES--Showing the proper Quantity of Paper to be given out for any Number from 12 to 10,000, both Perfect and Imperfect.

BOOKWORK.--SHEETS.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 15 12 0 0 15 15 0 1 4 25 0 1 4 28 0 2 6 50 0 2 6 54 0 3 7 75 0 3 7 79 0 4 8 100 0 4 8 104 0 5 9 125 0 5 9 129 0 6 12 150 0 6 12 156 0 7 13 175 0 7 13 181 0 8 14 200 0 8 14 206 0 10 18 250 0 10 18 258 0 12 22 300 0 12 22 310 0 15 0 350 0 15 0 360 0 16 3 375 0 16 3 387 0 17 4 400 0 17 4 412 0 19 6 450 0 19 6 462 1 0 0 500 1 1 12 516 1 4 6 600 1 5 18 618 1 8 14 700 1 10 2 722 1 10 18 750 1 12 6 774 1 13 0 800 1 14 10 826 1 17 4 900 1 18 17 928 2 0 0 1000 2 3 0 1032 2 10 18 1250 2 13 18 1290 3 0 0 1500 3 4 12 1548 3 10 18 1750 3 15 6 1806 4 0 0 2000 4 6 0 2064 6 0 0 3000 6 9 0 3096 8 0 0 4000 8 12 0 4128 10 0 0 5000 10 15 0 5160 12 0 0 6000 12 18 0 6192 14 0 0 7000 15 1 0 7224 16 0 0 8000 17 4 0 8256 18 0 0 9000 19 7 0 9288 20 0 0 10000 21 10 0 10320

BOOKWORK.--HALF-SHEETS.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 8 12 0 0 8 16 0 0 15 25 0 0 15 30 0 1 4 50 0 1 4 56 0 1 16 75 0 1 16 80 0 2 4 100 0 2 4 104 0 2 17 125 0 2 17 130 0 3 7 150 0 3 7 158 0 3 19 175 0 3 19 182 0 4 7 200 0 4 7 206 0 5 9 250 0 5 9 258 0 6 11 300 0 6 11 310 0 7 12 350 0 7 12 360 0 8 1 375 0 8 1 386 0 8 14 400 0 8 14 412 0 9 15 450 0 9 15 462 0 10 18 500 0 10 18 516 0 12 21 600 0 12 21 618 0 15 1 700 0 15 1 722 0 16 3 750 0 16 3 774 0 17 4 800 0 17 4 824 0 19 8 900 0 19 8 928 1 0 0 1000 1 1 12 1032 1 5 9 1250 1 6 21 1290 1 10 18 1500 1 12 6 1548 1 16 3 1750 1 17 15 1806 2 0 0 2000 2 3 0 2064 3 0 0 3000 3 4 12 3096 4 0 0 4000 4 6 0 4128 5 0 0 5000 5 7 12 5160 6 0 0 6000 6 9 0 6192 7 0 0 7000 7 10 12 7224 8 0 0 8000 8 12 0 8256 9 0 0 9000 9 13 12 9288 10 0 0 10000 10 15 0 10320

BOOKWORK.--QUARTER SHEETS.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 4 12 0 0 4 16 0 0 8 25 0 0 8 32 0 0 14 50 0 0 14 56 0 0 20 75 0 0 20 80 0 1 3 100 0 1 3 108 0 1 9 125 0 1 9 132 0 1 16 150 0 1 16 160 0 1 22 175 0 1 22 184 0 2 4 200 0 2 4 208 0 2 17 250 0 2 17 260 0 3 6 300 0 3 6 312 0 3 18 350 0 3 18 360 0 4 1 375 0 4 1 388 0 4 7 400 0 4 7 412 0 4 20 450 0 4 20 464 0 5 9 500 0 5 9 516 0 6 11 600 0 6 11 620 0 7 13 700 0 7 13 724 0 8 2 750 0 8 2 776 0 8 14 800 0 8 14 824 0 9 16 900 0 9 16 928 0 10 18 1000 0 10 18 1032 0 13 11 1250 0 13 11 1292 0 16 3 1500 0 16 3 1548 0 18 20 1750 0 18 20 1808 1 0 0 2000 1 1 12 2064 1 10 18 3000 1 12 6 3096 2 0 0 4000 2 3 0 4128 2 10 18 5000 2 13 18 5160 3 0 0 6000 3 4 12 6192 3 10 18 7000 3 15 6 7224 4 0 0 8000 4 6 0 8256 4 10 18 9000 4 16 18 9288 5 0 0 10000 5 7 12 10320

BOOKWORK.--ONE THIRD OF A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 5 12 0 0 5 15 0 0 10 25 0 0 10 30 0 0 19 50 0 0 19 57 0 1 3 75 0 1 3 81 0 1 11 100 0 1 11 105 0 1 19 125 0 1 19 129 0 2 4 150 0 2 4 156 0 2 12 175 0 2 12 180 0 2 21 200 0 2 21 207 0 3 14 250 0 3 14 258 0 4 8 300 0 4 8 312 0 5 0 350 0 5 0 360 0 5 9 375 0 5 9 387 0 5 18 400 0 5 18 414 0 6 10 450 0 6 10 462 0 7 4 500 0 7 4 516 0 8 14 600 0 8 14 618 0 10 1 700 0 10 1 723 0 10 18 750 0 10 18 774 0 11 11 800 0 11 11 825 0 12 21 900 0 12 21 927 0 14 8 1000 0 14 8 1032 0 17 22 1250 0 17 22 1290 1 0 0 1500 1 1 12 1548 1 3 14 1750 1 5 2 1806 1 7 4 2000 1 8 16 2064 2 0 0 3000 2 3 0 3096 2 14 8 4000 2 17 8 4128 3 7 4 5000 3 11 16 5160 4 0 0 6000 4 6 0 6192 4 14 8 7000 5 0 8 7224 5 7 4 8000 5 14 16 8256 6 0 0 9000 6 9 0 9288 6 14 8 10000 7 3 8 10320

JOBS.--SHEETS.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 12 12 0 0 12 12 0 1 1 25 0 1 1 25 0 2 2 50 0 2 2 50 0 3 3 75 0 3 3 75 0 4 4 100 0 4 4 100 0 5 5 125 0 5 5 125 0 6 6 150 0 6 6 150 0 7 7 175 0 7 7 175 0 8 8 200 0 8 8 200 0 10 10 250 0 10 10 250 0 12 12 300 0 12 12 300 0 14 14 350 0 14 14 350 0 15 15 375 0 15 15 375 0 16 16 400 0 16 16 400 0 18 18 450 0 18 18 450 0 20 20 500 1 0 20 500 1 3 12 600 1 5 0 600 1 7 16 700 1 9 4 700 1 9 18 750 1 11 6 750 1 11 20 800 1 13 8 800 1 16 0 900 1 17 12 900 1 20 4 1000 2 1 16 1000 2 9 2 1250 2 12 2 1250 2 19 12 1500 3 2 12 1500 3 8 10 1750 3 12 22 1750 3 18 20 2000 4 3 8 2000 5 17 12 3000 6 5 0 3000 7 16 4 4000 8 6 16 4000 9 14 20 5000 10 8 8 5000 11 13 12 6000 12 10 0 6000 13 12 4 7000 14 11 16 7000 15 10 20 8000 16 13 8 8000 17 9 12 9000 18 15 0 9000 19 8 4 10000 20 16 16 10000

JOBS.--HALF SHEETS.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 6 12 0 0 6 12

JOBS.--THREE ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 4 12 0 0 4 12

JOBS.--FOUR ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 3 12 0 0 3 12

JOBS.--FIVE ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 3 12 0 0 3 15

JOBS.--SIX ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 2 12 0 0 2 12

JOBS.--EIGHT ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 2 12 0 0 2 16

JOBS.--NINE ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 2 12 0 0 2 18

JOBS.--TWELVE ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 12

JOBS.--SIXTEEN ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 16

JOBS.--EIGHTEEN ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 18

JOBS.--TWENTY ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 20

JOBS.--TWENTY-FOUR ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 24

JOBS.--THIRTY-TWO ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 32

JOBS.--THIRTY-SIX ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 36

JOBS.--FORTY ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 40

JOBS.--FORTY-EIGHT ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 48

JOBS.--SIXTY-FOUR ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 64

JOBS.--SEVENTY-TWO ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 72

JOBS.--NINETY-SIX ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 96

JOBS.--ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY-EIGHT ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total 21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh. 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 128

FRACTIONAL PARTS

Of a Bundle, Perfect, 1032 Sheets.

⅞ 903 ⅘ -- ¾ 774 ⅔ 688 ⅝ 645 ⅗ -- ½ 516 ⅖ -- ⅜ 387 ⅓ 344 ¼ 258 ⅕ -- ⅙ 172 ⅛ 129 1/10 -- 1/12 86

Of a Bundle, Imperfect, 960 Sheets.

⅞ 840 ⅘ 768 ¾ 720 ⅔ 640 ⅝ 600 ⅗ 576 ½ 480 ⅖ 384 ⅜ 360 ⅓ 320 ¼ 240 ⅕ 192 ⅙ 160 ⅛ 120 1/10 96 1/12 80

Of a Ream, Perfect, 516.

⅞ -- ⅘ -- ¾ 387 ⅔ 344 ⅝ -- ⅗ -- ½ 258 ⅖ -- ⅜ -- ⅓ 172 ¼ 129 ⅕ -- ⅙ 86 ⅛ -- 1/10 -- 1/12 43

Of a Ream, Imperfect, 480.

⅞ 420 ⅘ 384 ¾ 360 ⅔ 320 ⅝ 300 ⅗ 288 ½ 240 ⅖ 192 ⅜ 180 ⅓ 160 ¼ 120 ⅕ 96 ⅙ 80 ⅛ 60 1/10 48 1/12 40

Number of Sheets in any given Number of Quires, from one to twenty-one, inclusive.

Quires. Sheets. 1 24 2 48 3 72 4 96 5 120 6 144 7 168 8 192 9 216 10 240 11 264 12 288 13 312 14 336 15 360 16 384 17 408 18 432 19 456 20 480 21 504

GOOD COLOUR.

Sheet printed neither too black nor too white--_M._

GOOD COPY.

Printed copy, or manuscript that is written in a clear and legible hand.

GOOD OF THE CHAPEL.

Forfeitures and other chapel dues are collected for the good of the chapel, viz. to be spent as the chapel approves.--_M._

GOOD WORK,

is called so in a twofold sense: the master printer calls it good work when the compositors and pressmen have done their duty; and the workmen call it good work, if it be light easy work, and they have a good price for it--_M._

GOTHIC, ANCIENT.

The Scythian or Gothic tribes, descended from Magog, were the second source of European population. They entered into Europe from Asia, like the Kelts, about 680 years B. C. In the time of Herodotus they were on the Danube, and extended towards the south. In Cæsar’s time they were called Germans; and had established themselves so far to the westward as to have obliged the Kelts to withdraw from the eastern banks of the Rhine. They became known to us in later ages by the name of Goths.

From this Scythian or Gothic stock sprung the Saxons, who occupied the north-west part of Germany. We may here observe, the terms Kimmerians and Scythian are not to be considered merely as local, but as generic appellations; each of their tribes having a peculiar denomination.

As a distinctive denomination, they prefixed to Goths the name of the country they inhabited or subdued; as, the Mœso-Gothi, Scando-Gothi, Norreno-Gothi, &c. Their chief seat is reported to have been in Gothland, now a part of the Swedish dominions. The Mœso-Goths, as their name imports, were those Goths that inhabited Mœsia, on the frontiers of Thrace. The language of these Goths is not only called Mœso-Gothic, but Ulphilo-Gothic, from Ulphilas, the first bishop of the Mœso-Goths. He lived about A.D. 370, and is said to have invented the Gothic alphabet, and to have translated the whole Bible from Greek into Gothic. These Gothic characters were in use in the greater part of Europe after the destruction of the western empire. The French first adopted the Latin characters. The Spaniards, by a decree of a synod at Lyons, abolished the use of Gothic letters A.D. 1091.--_Bosworth._

The ancient Goths were converted to Christianity by the Greek priests, and they probably introduced their letters with their religion, about the reign of Galienus. Towards the middle of the third century, Ascholius, Bishop of Thessalonica, and a Greek priest named _Audius_, spread Christianity among the Goths; the former of these is much extolled by Basil the Great, and the latter by Epiphanius. The ancient Gothic alphabet consisted of sixteen letters; they are so similar to the Greek, that their derivation cannot be doubted.

Those writers are certainly mistaken, who attribute the invention of the Gothic letters to Ulphilas, Bishop of Mœsia, who lived in the fourth century. The gospels translated by him into the Gothic language, and written in ancient Gothic characters about the year 370, were formerly kept in the library of the monastery of Werden; but this MS. is now preserved in the library of Upsal, and is known among the learned, by the title of the Silver Book of Ulphilas, because it is bound in massy silver. Several editions of this MS. have been printed. See a specimen of it in Hickes’s Thesaurus, vol. i. pref. p. 8. Dr. Hickes positively disallows this translation to be Ulphil’s, but says it was made by some Teuton or German, either as old, or perhaps older than Ulphil; but whether this was so or not, the characters are apparently of Greek original.--_Astle._

[Illustration: The Gothic Alphabet]

_The Mœso-Gothic Alphabet._

+------------+-----------+ | Form. | Sound. | +------------+-----------+ | [#] | A | | [#] | B | | [#] | G[1] | | [#] | D | | [#] | E | | [#] | F | | [#] | G or J[2] | | [#] | H | | [#] | I | | [#] | K | | [#] | L | | [#] | M | | [#] | N | | [#] | O | | [#] | P | | [#] | HW[3] | | [#] | R | | [#] | S | | [#] | T | | [#] | TH | | [#] | U | | [#] | CW[4] | | [#] | W[5] | | [#] | CH[6] | | [#] | Z | +------------+-----------+

[1] And as _n_ before another _g_.

[2] As _j_ in _j_our, or _y_ in _y_our.

[3] _Hw_ in Saxon, or _wh_ in English. The proper sound of these letters can hardly be ascertained; but that which is given appears the most probable. Astle gives this character as Q.

[4] And in middle of words sometimes _c_.

[5] _W_ in the beginning, and _u_ in the middle of a word.

[6] Astle says _ch_ or _x_.

_Gothic in the British Founderies._

_Pica._ Caslon and Livermore. University of Oxford.

GO UP THE FORM.

Beating from the hither towards the farther side, is in pressmen’s phrase called, “_Going up the Form_.”--_M._

GOVERNOR.

The master printer is generally styled Governor, when spoken of by the workmen in the house; as, _The Governor said thus._ _The Governor ordered that._

GREAT NUMBERS.

Above 2000 printed on one sheet are accounted great numbers.--_M._ We now more commonly say long numbers. _See_ LAY ON, and SMALL NUMBERS.

GREAT PRIMER.

The name of a type, one size larger than English, and one smaller than Paragon. _See_ TYPES.

GREEK.

The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four letters, as under.

[Illustration: The Greek Alphabet]

_The Greek Alphabet._

+------------+---------+---------+ | Figure. | Name. | Power. | +------------+---------+---------+ | Α α | Alpha | a | | Β β ϐ | Beta | b | | Γ γ [#] | Gamma | g | | Δ δ | Delta | d | | Ε ε | Epsilon | e short | | Ζ ζ [#] | Zeta | z | | Η η | Eta | e long | | Θ θ ϑ | Theta | th | | Ι ι | Iota | i | | Κ κ | Kappa | k or c | | Λ λ | Lambda | l | | Μ μ | Mu | m | | Ν ν | Nu | n | | Ξ ξ | Xi | x | | Ο ο | Omicron | o short | | Π π ϖ | Pi | p | | Ρ ρ ϱ | Rho | r | | Σ Ϲ σ ς[1] | Sigma | s | | Τ τ [#] | Tau | t | | Υ υ | Upsilon | u | | Φ φ ϕ | Phi | ph | | Χ χ | Chi | ch | | Ψ ψ | Psi | ps | | Ω ω | Omega | o long | +------------+---------+---------+

[1] Ϲ, initial; σ, middle; ς, final.

There are twelve diphthongs or compound vowels, viz.

Six proper--αι, αυ, ει, ευ, οι, ου; and

Six improper--ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ, ηυ, υι, ωυ. The dot below signifies that ι is subscribed.

_Accents._--Accents are nothing more than small marks, which have been introduced into the language, to ascertain the pronunciation of it, and facilitate it to strangers. Wherefore the ancient Greeks, to whom it was natural, never used them, as is demonstrated from Aristotle, old inscriptions, and ancient medals. It is not an easy matter to tell, what time the practice of writing these accents first prevailed, though it is probable not till after the Romans began to be more curious of learning the Greek tongue, and to send their children to study at Athens, that is, about or a little before the time of Cicero.

Accents, by the Greeks called τόνοι, tones, are the rising or falling of the voice in pronouncing: which may be considered either separately in distinct syllables, or conjunctively in the same syllable.

Wherefore there are two sorts of accents; two simple, viz. the acute, οζὺς, figured thus (´), which denotes the elevation of the voice; and the grave, βαρὺς, shaped thus (`), to signify the falling or depression of the voice; and the circumflex, περισπώμενος, which was formed first of these two lines or points joined together thus (^), and afterwards was changed into a round sort of a figure like an inverted Upsilon, thus (⁀), but at length came to be figured like an s drawn crossway (~).--_Bell’s Greek Grammar._

The acute accent raises the voice, and affects one or more of the three last syllables of a word, if it has so many.

The circumflex lengthens the sound, and affects either the last syllable of a word, or the last but one.

The grave depresses the voice, and affects the last syllable only.

There are two spirits, or breathings: the asper (῾), which the Greeks use instead of the letter Η; and the lenis (᾿) which denotes the absence of the asper.

The apostrophe (’), marked at the head of a letter in the end of a word denotes that the vowels α, ε, ι, or ο, and sometimes the diphthongs αι or οι are cut off, the next word beginning with a vowel.

_Accents and Aspirates._

᾿ Lenis. ῎ Lenis acute. ͂ Circumflex. ¨ Diæresis. ῾ Asper. ῍ Lenis grave. ῏ Circumflex lenis. ΅ Diæresis acute. ´ Acute. ῞ Asper acute. ῟ Circumflex asper. ῭ Diæresis grave. ` Grave. ῝ Asper grave.

_Points._--A colon in Greek is a point at the head of a letter; as (·)

An interrogation is a Latin semicolon; as (;)

All other points in Greek are the same as in Latin.

[Illustration: Greek numbers]

The Greeks express their Numbers by Letters, thus:

α’ 1 ι’ 10 ρ’ 100 ‚α 1000

β’ 2 κ’ 20 σ’ 200 ‚β 2000

γ’ 3 λ’ 30 τ’ 300 ‚γ 3000

δ’ 4 μ’ 40 υ’ 400 ‚δ 4000

ε’ 5 ν’ 50 φ’ 500 ‚ε 5000

ϛ’ 6 ξ’ 60 χ’ 600 ‚ι 10,000

ζ’ 7 ο’ 70 ψ’ 700 ‚κ 20,000

η’ 8 ϖ’ 80 ω’ 800 ‚ρ 100,000

θ’ 9 ϟ’ 90 ϡ’ 900 ‚σ 200,000

The first of the above ranks is units, and consists of the eight first letters with the character ϛ’, called στίγμα, which signifies 6, and is therefore ranged in the sixth place.

The second rank consists of tens, and is formed of the eight following letters with this character ϟ’, κόππα, which signifies 90.

The third rank consists of hundreds, and contains eight letters with this character ϡ’, σαμπῖ, which signifies 900.

The accent under each letter in the fourth rank signifies a thousand, and the letter itself expresses the number of thousands signified.

The letters of the three first ranks are marked with a dash on the top to distinguish them from the letters marked with an accent below.

By compounding the above letters any number may be expressed; thus, ι’α’ makes 11; κ’β’, 22; λ’γ’, 33; ρ’δ’, 104; ‚αε’, 1005; ‚αψ’ο’ϛ’, 1776, &c.

Also the Greeks sometimes use these capitals instead of the numbers, of which they are the initial letters, viz. Ι for one, because ΙΑ signifies one (being formerly used instead of μ’ια), Π for five, Δ for ten, Η for a hundred, Χ for a thousand, and Μ for ten thousand. And these letters may be all four times reduplicated (except Π), thus ΙΙ, 2; ΙΙΙ, 3; ΙΙΙΙ, 4; ΔΔ, 20; ΔΔΔ, 30; ΔΔΔΔ, 40, &c. So ΔΙ, 11; ΔΔΙΙ, 22; ΠΙ, 6; ΔΠ, 15, &c.

Sometimes the above initials are enclosed in a great ∏, and then the number is five times repeated, thus |Δ̅| is five times ten or 50; and |Χ̅| is 5000: but Ι is never enclosed.

Fournier, in his Manuel Typographique, gives a great number of Greek ligatures: these I have copied, with additional ones from Fertel, and others from Jones’s Greek Grammar; together they make a more complete list than any that I have met with. Fournier, speaking of the article Greek, says, We see by the multiplicity of the sorts, that the Greek character is the most extensive and complicated of all characters. The founders may not always be able to give the Greek founts thus complete in sorts; but I give the representation, because, as I have before said, the engravers who have worked upon the characters have followed the ligatures which they found in the manuscripts which they imitated. There were never any but the Greek characters engraved by Garamond for Francis the First, which have been complete in all sorts of ligatures. It is this which has obliged me to give in different lines the figures which compose this fount, in which there are still some wanting, which I have been obliged to suppress in order not to multiply them without necessity.

For the classical works in Greek the ligatures or double letters are considerably diminished. I have adopted this usage in the little fount, which contains but the figures most in use.--_Fournier._

I have been induced to give this extended list of Greek ligatures, because the present taste in printing Greek is to discard them entirely, and to use a distinct character for each letter of the alphabet. Under these circumstances, should an old edition of a Greek work be put in hand as copy to be reprinted, it would be mortifying not to be able to decypher the ligatures, nor have any thing to refer to for explanation. I have myself been placed in this situation in a large house, with no person in it who could give me the necessary information, although there were some there that professed themselves good Greek scholars; neither could the editor of the work himself give me any assistance.

_Greek Ligatures._

[Illustration: First page]

[Illustration: Second page]

[Illustration: Third page]

Plan of the Old Greek Upper Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s Offices.

[Illustration: Layout of the old Greek case]

+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++ | Α | Β | Γ | Δ | Ε | Ζ | Η || +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++ | Θ | Ι | Κ | Λ | Μ | Ν | Ξ || +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++ | Ο | Π | Ρ | Σ | Τ | Υ | Φ || +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++ | Χ | Ψ | Ω | ϗ | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ || +---+---+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++ | ος | ει | ς | ου | kern. | kern. | kern. || | | | | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ || +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++ | ού| οὺ| οῦ| οὑ| οὐ| οὕ| οὓ| οὔ| οὒ| oὗ| οὖ| οϋ| οΰ| οῢ|| +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++ | ´ | ` | ῀ | ῾ | ᾿ | ῞ | ῝ | ῎ | ῍ | ῟ | ῏ | ̈ | ΅ | ῭ || +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++

++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ά | ὰ | ᾶ | ἁ | ἀ | ἅ | ἃ | ἄ | ἂ | ἇ | ἆ | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || έ | ὲ | | ἑ | ἐ | ἕ | ἓ | ἔ | ἒ | | | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ή | ὴ | ῆ | ἡ | ἠ | ἥ | ἣ | ἤ | ἢ | ἧ | ἦ | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ί | ὶ | ῖ | ἱ | ἰ | ἵ | ἳ | ἴ | ἲ | ἷ | ἶ | ϊ | ΐ | ῒ | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ό | ὸ | | ὁ | ὀ | ὅ | ὃ | ὄ | ὂ | | | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ύ | ὺ | ῦ | ὑ | ὐ | ὕ | ὓ | ὔ | ὒ | ὗ | ὖ | ϋ | ΰ | ῢ | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ώ | ὠ | ῶ | ὡ | ὠ | ὥ | ὣ | ὤ | ὢ | ὧ | ὦ | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

Plan of the Old Greek Lower Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s Offices.

+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----------++ |kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.| Hair | || | α | η | υ | ω | ου | sp. | σ || +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----------++ | β | ϐ | [#] | γ | δ | ε || +-----+-----+-----+-----+------------+-----------++ | κ | [#] | λ | μ | ν || +-----+-----+-----------+-----+------+-----------++ | | ζ | | | | Thick and || | ξ +-----+ υ | [#] | τ | thin sp. || | | [#] | | | | || +-----+-----+-----------+-----+------+-----------++

++-------+---+---+-------+------------+------------+ || | | | | | | || ς | ρ | φ | ψ | ῥ | ῤ | ++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+ || ι | η | ϑ | θ | φ | χ | ++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+ || ο | π | ϖ | , | ρ |En quadrats.|Em quadrats.| ++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+ || | | ; | : | | || α | ω +---+---+ Quadrats. | || | | . | ̈ | | ++-------+-------+---+---+-------------------------+

Plan of the New Greek Upper Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s Offices.

[Illustration: Layout of the new Greek case]

+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | Α | Β | Γ | Δ | Ε | Ζ | Η || +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++ | Θ | Ι | Κ | Λ | Μ | Ν | Ξ || +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++ | Ο | Π | Ρ | Σ | Τ | Υ | Φ || +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++ | Χ | Ψ | Ω | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ || +-------+-------+-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+---++ | | | | | kern. | kern. | kern. || | | | | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ || +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | || +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++ | ´ | ` | ῀ | ῾ | ᾿ | ῞ | ῝ | ῎ | ῍ | ῟ | ῏ | ̈ | ΅ | ῭ || +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++

2 1 6 4 5 3 8 7 ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ά | ὰ | ᾶ | ἁ | ἀ | ἅ | ἃ | ἄ | ὰ | ἇ | ἆ | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || έ | ὲ | | ἑ | ἐ | ἕ | ἓ | ἔ | ὲ | | | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ή | ὴ | ῆ | ἡ | ἠ | ἥ | ἣ | ἤ | ἢ | ἧ | ἦ | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ί | ὶ | ῖ | ἱ | ἰ | ἵ | ἳ | ἴ | ἲ | ἷ | ἶ | ϊ | ΐ | ῒ | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ό | ὸ | | ὁ | ὀ | ὅ | ὃ | ὄ | ὂ | | | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ύ | ὺ | ῦ | ὑ | ὐ | ὕ | ὓ | ὔ | ὒ | ὗ | ὖ | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ || ώ | ὼ | ῶ | ὡ | ὠ | ὥ | ὣ | ὤ | ὢ | ὧ | ὦ | | | | ++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

Plan of the New Greek Lower Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s Offices.

+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------++ |kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.| Thin || | α | ε | η | ο | υ | ω | Sp. || +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------++ | β | ϐ | γ | δ | ε || +-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++ | κ | λ | μ | ν || +-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++ | | | | | | Thick || | ξ | ζ | υ | | τ | Sp. || | | | | | | || +-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++

++-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+ || σ | ς | ψ | ῥ | ῤ | || | | | | | ++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+ || ι | η | ϑ | θ | φ | χ | ++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+ || ο | π | , | ρ | En | Em | || | | | |quadrats.|quadrats.| ++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+ || | | ; | : | | || α | ω +-----+-----+ Quadrats. | || | | . | ̈ | | ++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+-------------------+

_Greek in the British Founderies._

_Double Pica._--Caslon and Livermore; cut by Martin. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson; Glasgow Homer.

_Great Primer._--Caslon and Livermore; cut by Martin. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley; formerly Byddells. University of Oxford. Wilson.

_English._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson.

_Pica._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley (2). University of Oxford. Wilson.

_Small Pica._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley. Wilson.

_Long Primer._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley, late Fry’s; one fount cut from the MS. of the late Professor Porson. University of Oxford. Wilson; matrices from type cast in which the Elzevirs printed some of their editions.

_Bourgeois._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Brevier._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson.

_Nonpareil._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Pearl._--Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley; formerly Bynneman’s.

_Diamond._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins.

_Alexandrian Greek, Pica._--Thorowgood and Besley, late Fry’s; cut by Jackson, for Dr. Woide’s facsimile edition of the New Testament of the Codex Alexandrinus.

For the allowance of the duty on paper used in the printing of books in the Greek language within the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the Universities of Scotland, and the University of Trinity College, Dublin, _see_ PAPER.

GROOVES.

There is always a groove on the upper surface of the short cross of a chase, at each end, six or seven inches long. Their use is to receive the spur, when working with points, and to allow it to make a hole in the paper, without injury to itself. The grooves in wrought iron chases are of a good form, being cut with a tool tapering to the bottom like a wedge, which enables the spur to make a clean hole in the paper; those in cast iron chases are generally flat at the bottom and too wide, which causes the holes to gull. _See_ GULL.

GUIDE CRAMPS. _See_ CRAMP IRONS.

GULL.

When the points tear the point holes at press, they say, they are Gulled, or the Holes Gull. This may arise from two or three causes--if the point of the spur be turned again, it will cause it--in cast iron chases the groove to receive the spur is generally too wide, this may also cause it--and if the spur does not fall fairly into the groove, this may be another cause: the remedy is not difficult, unless the paper be very tender. In the first case, the spur ought to be filed to a smooth tapering point--in the second, it is usual to wedge a bit of reglet into the groove, to cut it down to the surface of the cross, and to make a hole in it with a bodkin for the reception of the spur--in the last, it is necessary that the spur fall fairly into the groove. If the fault arises from the bluntness and thickness of the spurs, they must be filed smaller and to a point.

GUTTER.

Gutter Sticks are used to set between pages on either side the crosses; they are made of an equal thickness their whole length; but they have a groove, or gutter, laid on the upper side of them, as well that the water may drain away when the form is washed or rinsed, as that they should not print, when, through the tenderness of the tympan, the platen presses it and the paper lower than ordinary.--_M._ We now mean by the term Gutter, the piece of furniture that separates two adjoining pages in a chase, as in an octavo that between pages 1 and 16, in a duodecimo that between pages 1 and 24, and so on. The pieces that are put at the sides of the pages next the cross, are called _Backs_; and those at the tops of the pages next the cross, are called _Heads_. I would recommend that the gutters should be cut a little longer than the page, the heads for each quarter being in two pieces, so that the gutter may be between them; one head will thus project a little over the sidestick, and will form an abutment for it, while the other will project a little over the back; by this method there will be no danger of any of them binding, and the gutters will answer for pages of different lengths.

GUY, THOMAS. _See_ DONATIONS.

GYPSUM.

Earl Stanhope says, “The best burnt gypsum mixes up most conveniently, for stereotyping, in the proportion of seven parts of water to nine parts of gypsum.”

H.

HALF A PRESS.

When but one man works at a press, it is called _Half a Press_.--_M._ It is still termed _a Half Press_. A man is said to be working Half Press.

HALF WORK.

He that works but three days in the week, does but _Half work_.--_M._

HANGS. _See_ LETTER HANGS.--_M._

HANG UP PAPER.

To hang the sheets upon the poles to dry after they have been printed.

For this purpose the warehouseman takes the peel in his hand, and lays it flat upon the heap that is to be hung up, so as to let the paper project beyond the left side of it; he turns over upon it from six to twelve or fourteen sheets of paper, with the wrapper, and then moves the peel two or three inches to the left, and goes on repeating the process, till he has got as many lifts on it as it will conveniently support; he then raises them above the pole on which they are to be placed, and holding the handle slanting the sheets open at the under side, so that when the peel is withdrawn the lifts are left suspended on the pole; he then inserts the end of the peel between the first and second lifts, which are undermost, where he shifted his peel in taking them up, lifts them a little, and moves them farther from each other on the pole, still letting the one overhang a little the other he leaves in its first place, and thus he proceeds till one by one he has separated all he had upon his peel; he then takes another peelful, repeating this process, and so he goes on till the whole heap is hung up.

He is guided by circumstances as to the number of sheets he should take in a lift: if the work is in a great hurry, or his vacant poles are not in a favourable situation for drying, or the weather be rainy and the atmosphere charged with moisture, he will hang the paper up thin; but if he is short of pole-room, and the work is not in a great hurry, if the situation is favourable for drying, and the weather dry and warm, he will make his lifts thicker; but I would caution him not to go to an extreme, as in that case the paper may mildew upon the poles, particularly in the fold.

Houses of extensive business have drying rooms fitted up with pipes, and heated either with steam or hot water, so that they can dry their printed paper expeditiously, without hinderance or drawback.

HANG THE PLATEN.

To tie the platen to the hose hooks, in a wooden press.

To perform this it is usual to lay on the press stone a form of solid type, and to turn the tympans down upon it, to place the platen in its place, square with the press, to pull the bar home, and to keep it in this situation by a letter board placed so as to take a bearing against the shoulder of the bar close to the handle, and also against the off cheek; but I prefer a piece of wide furniture with a notch cut in one end for the bar, and the other end against the off cheek, as it is more secure and less liable to be displaced; then to make a noose on a piece of laid cord, place this on one of the front hose hooks, and take a turn round the corresponding platen hooks, and continue these turns till a sufficient quantity of cord is wound round the hooks; take a hitch round one of the hooks to prevent the cord slipping, then begin to wind the cord round these layers, every two or three turns drawing it tight by taking a turn round a short piece of broad or narrow furniture, by means of which it may be drawn more forcibly, so as to bring the parts together, which makes it so firm that there is no danger of its giving way; the end may then be fastened to one of the hooks. The same process is repeated at the opposite angle, behind the press; then at the two other angles; the platen is then firmly hung, and is ready for work.

The same process is observed in iron presses, with the exception that the platen is not tied with cord; it is attached to the press by means of screws.

HANSARD, LUKE. _See_ DONATIONS.

HARD IMPRESSION.

When there is too much pull in working at press, particularly with engravings, and the lines come off strong which ought to be light and delicate, it is said the impression is hard.

HARD INK.

Ink very well boiled.--_M._ It is now called strong ink.

HARD JUSTIFYING.

If a compositor fills his stick very stiff with letters or spaces, they say it is hard justified.--_M._

HARD PULL.

In justifying the head of a press for a short pull, which is done by putting solid blocks of wood into the mortises of the cheeks, it is called an _Hard Pull_.--_M._ This relates to wooden presses; but, instead of the blocks of wood, scaleboard is now used, additional pieces of which are put into the mortises, by lowering the head, which is again tightly screwed up: in the Stanhope Press, and in Clymer’s, it is accomplished by shortening the coupling bar, by means of a screw; in Cogger’s press, by a screw through the head; and in Cope’s press, by putting pieces of plate iron upon the crown of the platen. In Sherwin and Cope’s Imperial press, by turning a screw attached to a wedge placed in the front, above the spindle; Mr. Hopkinson has adopted the same method in Cope’s press, placed on the near side.

HARD WORK.

With compositors, ill written copy, much Italick, Latin or Greek, or marginal notes, or few breaks, &c. is called _Bad_, _Heavy_, _Hard Work_: with pressmen, small letter and a large form is called _Hard Work_.--_M._ _See_ BAD WORK.

There has been an alteration in the mode of paying for work since Moxon’s time, which is to the advantage of the workman: foreign languages, Greek, and marginal notes are now extra charges; and the Pressman has an additional price for his work, as the type decreases in size and the size of the page increases. _See_ PRICES.

HEAD.

That part of a wooden press in which the nut of the spindle is fixed; it has a tenon at each end which fit into long mortises in the cheeks, not tightly, but sufficiently so to prevent lateral motion; and it is suspended from the cap by two long iron bolts, which go through the head and the cap, above which are iron washers and screws by which to lower the head, or screw it up tighter. The head is usually made of elm. The whole of the pressure in the process of printing is between the head and the winter.

HEAD BAND.

A thin bar of iron that connects the two sides of the tympans at the top: it is made thin, to allow it to run under the platen without impediment. The half of the frisket joints are riveted to the head band. _See_ FRISKET JOINTS.

HEAD BOLTS.

Two long bolts that pass through the head and the cap, in wooden presses, with a screw at the upper end: the head of the press is supported upon the heads of the bolts, and their screw ends pass through the cap, upon which they are secured by washers and female screws that can be tightened by the fingers; these screws are for the purpose of screwing up the head, to justify the pull.

HEAD LINE.

The top line of a page in which is the running title and the folio, but sometimes only a folio: the divisions and subdivisions of a work, when they are set in lines, and chapters, are also called _Head Lines_.

HEAD OF A PAGE.

The top or beginning of a page.--_M._

HEAD PAGE.

The first page of a work, and each page on which a new division of the subject commences, such as parts and chapters, provided they begin the page.

HEAD PIECES.

The same changes have taken place with regard to head pieces that I have described under the article FAC; from the beautiful drawings with which manuscripts and some of the first productions of the press were illuminated, they gradually descended to engravings on wood, which was the first step, then to cast metal ornaments, and then to the types called flowers, which were displayed in every variety of form that they were capable of, or that the ingenuity of the printer could devise; these gave place to a piece of double brass rule, that is now out of fashion; and head pieces at the present day are only spoken of as things that once existed. _See_ FAC.

HEAD STICK.

Pieces of furniture put at the head of pages when a form is imposed, to make the margin at the head of the page; they are called reglets, if they exceed not an English thick.--_M._ _See_ BOLTS.

HEAP.

So many reams or quires as are set out by the warehouse-keeper for the pressman to wet, is called a _Heap_; but then it is called a dry heap, till the pressman have wet it, and then it is indeed called a _Heap_.--_M._

When paper is given out for a work, and wetted, it is called a heap, and retains that name till it is made up into books.

In gathering the printed sheets in the warehouse, all the sheets of each signature are placed upon the gathering table, arranged in their regular order, except it be a long number, and then about a bundle of each; each signature in this situation is called a heap.

HEAP HOLDS OUT.

When it hath its full intended number of sheets.--_M._ At the present time, when accidents and other causes have not reduced the surplus so much as to prevent the warehouseman from delivering the proper number.

HEAVY WORK. _See_ BAD WORK and HARD WORK.

HEBREW.

The Chaldaic letters are derived from the ancient Hebrew or Samaritan, which are the same, or nearly so, with the old Phenicien. The prophet Ezra, is supposed to have exchanged the old Hebrew characters, for the more beautiful and commodious Chaldee, which are still in use.

Hebrew has no capitals; and therefore letters of the same shape, but of a large body, are used at the beginning of chapters and other parts of Hebrew work.

[Illustration: The Hebrew Alphabet]

_The Hebrew Alphabet._

+---------+--------+-------+---------------------------------+-----+ | Names. |Figure. |Simil- | Sound or power of the letters. | Num-| | | Finals.| itude.| | ber.| +---------+---+----+-------+---------------------------------+-----+ | | | | | | | | Aleph | א‎ | | | A _spiritus lenis_, or soft | 1 | | | | | | breathing, indicating the bare | | | | | | | opening of the mouth, and simple| | | | | | | emission of the voice. | | | | | | | | | | Bheth | ב‎ | | ב‎ כ‎ | _bh_, very soft; with dagesh, | 2 | | | | | | ‎בּ‎ _b_ hard. | | | | | | | | | | Ghimel | ג‎ | | ג‎ נ‎ | _gh_, very soft; with dagesh, | 3 | | | | | | ‎גּ‎ _g_ hard. | | | | | | | | | | Dhaleth | ד‎ | | ד‎ ך‎ ר‎ | _dh_, very soft, as in that; | 4 | | | | | | with dagesh, דּ‎ _d_ hard. | | | | | | | | | | He | ה‎ | | ה‎ ח‎ ת‎ | a _spiritus densus_, or thick, | 5 | | | | | | hard breathing. | | | | | | | | | | Vau | ו‎ | | ו‎ ז‎ ן‎ | _v_, or the digamma _vv_. | 6 | | | | | | | | | Zajin | ז‎ | | | _z_ or _s_ between vowels, | 7 | | | | | | as in _miser_. | | | | | | | | | | Hheth | ח‎ | | | _hh_, a very hard or thick | 8 | | | | | | breathing, harder than ה‎, | | | | | | | softer than כ‎, somewhat similar | | | | | | | in sound to the Greek χ _chi_. | | | | | | | | | | Teth | ט‎ | | ט‎ מ‎ | _t_. | 9 | | | | | | | | | Jodh | י‎ | | י‎ ו‎ | _i_ or _j_. | 10 | | | | | | | | | Chaph | כ‎ | ך‎ | | _c_ or _ch_, harder than ח‎ with | 20 | | | | | | a dagesh, it sounds like ק‎ _k_. | | | | | | | | | | Lamedh | ל‎ | | | _l_. | 30 | | | | | | | | | Mem | מ‎ | ם‎ | | _m_. | 40 | | | | | | | | | Nun | נ‎ | ן‎ | | _n_. | 50 | | | | | | | | | Samech | ס‎ | | ם‎ ס‎ | _s_, sounds like the _hissing_ | 60 | | | | | | of a goose or serpent. | | | | | | | | | | Ghnaiin | ע‎ | | ץ‎ ע‎ | sounds like the bleating of a | 70 | | | | | | calf in the absence of its dam. | | | | | | | | | | Phe | פ‎ | ף‎ | | _ph_ or _f_; with a | 80 | | | | | | dagesh, פ‎ _p_. | | | | | | | | | | Tzade | צ‎ | ץ‎ | | _ts_, with a harder _hiss_ | 90 | | | | | | than ז‎. | | | | | | | | | | Koph | ק‎ | | | _k_ or _q_. | 100 | | | | | | | | | Resh | ר‎ | | | _r_, the canine or barking | 200 | | | | | | letter, imitating, by the | | | | | | | quivering of the tongue, the | | | | | | | snarling growl of a dog. | | | | | | | | | | Schin | שׁ‎ | | | _sch_, pointed on the right, | 300 | | | | | | it sounds _sch_ or _sh_, | | | | | | | on the left _s_. | | | | | | | | | | Sin | שׂ‎ | | | _s_. | | | | | | | | | | Thau | ת‎ | | | _th_, as in thief, smith; with | 400 | | | | | | a dagesh תּ‎ _t_, hard. | | +---------+---+----+-------+---------------------------------+-----+

Particular attention should be paid to the letters in the column “Similitude” in the Table of the Alphabet, which are liable to be mistaken, one for the other, on account of their great resemblance one to another.

The vowels properly so called are ten in number, viz.:

_Long._ Kamets בָ‎ _ā_ Tseri בֵ‎ _ē_ Great Chirek בִי‎ _ēī_ Hholem or Cholem וֹ‎ _ō_ Shurek וּ‎ _ū_, or _ōō_

_Short._ Patach בַ‎ _ă_ Segol בֶ‎ _ĕ_ Little Chirek בִ‎ _ĭ_ Kamets Catuph, or short (בֳ‎) בָ‎ _ŏ_ Kybbutz בֻ‎ _ŭ_

Sheva (בְ‎) ‎is sounded like very short _e_. 1. At the beginning of a word. 2. In the middle after a long vowel, or instead of a long vowel. 3. After a companion, _i. e._ another (וְ‎). 4. Under dagesh, also under dagesh understood.

‎(בְ‎) never follows (בְ‎) in the beginning of a word, or in the middle after a perfect syllable; but the first is changed into ‎(בִ‎) ‎(בַ‎) or (בֶ‎) chiefly on account of a guttural and ר‎: very seldom into (בֳ‎).

Dagesh, from the Chaldaic, _he punctured_, is a point in the body of a letter, and is either _lene_ or _forte_.

Dagesh lene removes the aspiration from the six letters ‎בְּגַדכְּפַת‎, and strengthens their pronunciation in some degree.

Dagesh forte doubles the letters in which it occurs. Regularly it follows a short vowel, and only a long one when accented.

Mappik is a point in הּ‎ final only, but vanishes on an increase of the word.

ACCENTS.

Hebrew accents are either mere points, or lines, or circles.

Those which are mere points or dots, consist of one, or two, or three such points, and are always placed above the middle of the accented letter, thus

That consisting of

One, called _rebia_, ב֗‎, i. e. _sitting over_.

Two, called royal _zakeph katon_, ב֔‎, or, _the little elevator_, from its figure which is composed of upright points.

Three, called royal _segolta_, ב֒‎, an inverted (∵).

The lines are either upright, inclined, or transverse.

The upright is either solitary or with points or dots.

The solitary is either

between two words ב׀ב‎, termed _pesick_, or musical pause, and terminating a song.

or under a word

_Metheg_ בֽ‎, or _bridle_, an euphonic accent at the beginning of a word.

Royal _silluk_, בֽ‎, _end_, which is placed before (׃‎) _soph-pasuk_, i. e. towards the end.

With points, namely

two, above the letter, royal _zakeph gadhol_ ב֕‎, _the great elevator_, strains the sound.

one, below the letter, royal _tebhir_, ב֛‎, _broken_ sound, from its figure and tone.

Inclined lines hang either above or below.

Above, towards the right

Leader _pashta_, ב֙‎, _extension_, extends the voice or sound, and is placed above the last letter of the word. Subservient _kadma_, ב֨‎, _antecedent_, to the leader _geresh_; and is placed above the penult or antepenult letter.

Above, towards the left

Leader _geresh_, ב֝‎, _expulsion_, is sung with an impelled voice.

Gereshajim, ב֞‎, _two expellers_, from the figure being doubled.

Below, towards the right--Leader _tiphcha_, ב֖‎, fatigue, from the song, or note.

Below, towards the left

Of subservient _Merca_, ב֥‎, _lengthening out_, from its lengthening out the song or note.

_Merca kephula_, ב֦‎, _a double lengthening_ out from its music and figure.

The transverse line is either right or curved, thus: ‏֮־ ‎.

The right line is placed between two words, connecting them together, thus, ב־ב‎, and is called _maccaph_, i. e. connexion.

The curved, or waved line, ב֮‎, is called leader, _zarka_, or, _the disperser_, from its modulation and figure.

Circles are either entire or semi.

The entire circle is placed always above, and has a small inclined line attached to it.

Either, on the left, when it is placed at the head of the word, ב֠‎, and is called leader _telisha the greater_, or, _the great evulsion_.

Or, on the right, when it is placed at the end, ב֩‎, and is called subservient _telisha the less_.

On both together, ב֟‎, called leader _karne para_, _the horns of the heifer_, from its modulation and figure.

The semicircle is either _solitary_ or _pointed_.

The solitary is either _angular_ or _reflected_.

The angular is on the right

Subservient _hillui_, ב֬‎, _elevated_, from the elevation of the voice.

_Munach_, ב֣‎, _placed below_, from its position.

The angular is on the left

Leader _jethith_, ב֚‎, drawing back, from its figure.

Subservient _mahpach_, ב֤‎, _inverted_, also from its figure.

The reflected is

either single subservient _darga_, ב֧‎, a degree.

or double, leader, _shalsheleth_, ב֓‎, _a chain_, from its figure and modulation.

When joined with other points, it is either above or below the letter.

When above the letter it has a small line attached to it on the left, ‎ב֡‎, leader _paser_, _the dispersor_, from the diffusion of the note.

When below the letter, it is pointed either downwards, ב֑‎, called royal _athnach_, _respiration_, as the voice must rest on it, and respire; or upwards, ב֪‎, subservient, _jerah-ben-jomo_, _the moon of its own day_, from its figure.--_Bythner’s Lyre of David, translated by the Rev. Thomas Dee, A.B._ 8vo. Dublin, 1836.

The following observations are from Buxtorf’s Hebrew Grammar:

The finals are commonly called _Camnephatz_. But they are excepted in four places, namely, Isaiah ix. 6. where the final Mem is in the middle of a word; Nehemiah ii. 13. where the open Mem is at the end; and Job xxxviii. 1. and xl. 6. where נ‎ is at the end.

These seven letters ﬡ‎ ﬢ‎ ﬣ‎ ﬥ‎ ﬦ‎ ﬧ‎ ﬨ‎ are sometimes lengthened, either for the sake of elegance, or for filling out the line, which is never to be finished with a divided word.

The units are compounded with the tens and hundreds, as יא‎ 11, קא‎ 101, and so on: but for יה‎ 15 is סו‎ 9 and 6, lest the sacred name ‎יָה‎ _Jah_ should be profaned.--_Buxtorf._

Hebrew is read from the right to the left. In composing it, the general method is to place the nick of the letter downwards, and when the points are put to the top, to turn the line and arrange those points that come under the letter, taking care to place them in the following order; if the letter has but one leg, the point must be placed immediately under that leg, but otherwise the point must be placed under the centre.

Smith, in his Printer’s Grammar, has the following observations on Hebrew; I have not been able to ascertain upon what authority his reasoning is founded, but I have ascertained the fact of the variation in the types, that he speaks of, by an examination of a Hebrew Bible.

“But we must not pronounce it a fault, if we happen to meet in some Bibles with words that begin with a letter of a much larger Body than the mean Text; nor need we be astonish’d to see words with letters in them of a much less Body than the mean Text; or wonder to see final letters used in the middle of words; for such Notes shew that they contain some particular and mystical meaning. Thus in 2 Chron. I. 1. the word _Adam_ begins with a letter of a larger size than the rest, thereby to intimate, that Adam is the father of all Mankind. Again, in Genes. I. 1. the great Beth in the word _Bereschith_ stands for a Monitor of the great and incomprehensible work of Creation. Contrary to the first, in Prov. XXVIII. 17. the Daleth in the word _Adam_ is considerably less than the Letter of the main text, to signify, that whoever oppresses another openly or clandestinely, tho’ of a mean condition; or who sheds innocent blood, is not worthy to be called Man.

“Sometimes the open or common Mem stands in the room of a final one; as in Nehem. II. 13. where the word _hem_ has an open Mem at the end, in allusion to the torn and open walls of Jerusalem, of which there is mention made; and in Es. VII. 14. where the Prophet speaks of the Conception of the Virgin Mary, the Mem in the word _haalma_, or Virgin, is a close or final letter, to intimate the virginity of the mother of our Saviour. Such are the peculiarities of some Jewish Rabbis in Bibles of their publication; of which we have instanced the above, to caution compositors not to take them for faults, if such mystical writings should come under their hands.”--_Smith._

The following is the date to an Hebrew and Spanish folio Bible, printed by Proops of Amsterdam in 5522 (_i. e._ 1762), showing the date as usual in a sentence, the letters by which the date is computed being larger.

[Illustration: Date of a 1762 Bible in Hebrew]

‎בשנת וׅׄיקראו בספרׅׄ תוׅׄרת אלהיׅׄם מפורשׅׄ לפ׳ק‎

A^o. 5522.

_Rabbinical._--The language or dialect of the Rabbins is divided into two branches; one approaching nearer to the Hebrew, and the other to the Chaldee, yet each agrees with the other in many points, and both are generally used in conjunction in writing.

The letters agree with the Hebrew and Chaldee in regard to their number and power, but they differ as to the form; for although in the Talmudic text of the Holy Scriptures the Hebrew square character is used, yet in commentaries and elsewhere a rounder letter is adopted, better suited to promote facility in writing. Their points of agreement or difference are shown in the subjoined table:--

[Illustration: Hebrew and Chaldean alphabets]

‎א‎ א‎ Aleph. ‎ב‎ ב‎ Beth. ‎ג‎ ג‎ Gimel. ‎ד‎ ד‎ Daleth. ‎ה‎ ה‎ He. ‎ו‎ ו‎ Vau. ‎ז‎ ז‎ Zain. ‎ח‎ ח‎ Cheth. ‎ט‎ ט‎ Teth. ‎י‎ י‎ Jod. ‎כ‎ כ‎ Caph. ‎ל‎ ל‎ Lamed. ‎מ‎ מ‎ Mem. ‎נ‎ נ‎ Nun. ‎ס‎ ס‎ Samech. ‎ע‎ ע‎ Ain. ‎פ‎ פ‎ Pe. ‎צ‎ צ‎ Tzaddi. ‎ק‎ ק‎ Koph. ‎ר‎ ר‎ Resch. ‎ש‎ ש‎ Schin. ‎ת‎ ת‎ Tau.

The finals are the same as in Hebrew, the forms of which they also imitate, in this manner, ך ך‎, ם ם‎, ן ן‎, ף ף‎, ץ ץ‎.

There are no lengthened letters in printed books.

The two letters א‎ and ל‎ are often connected by the Rabbins in this manner, ﭏ; as, הﭏ for הָאֵל‎ _Deus_, ﭏא for אֶלָּא‎ _sed_.

It is also to be remarked that they write the name of GOD in different ways; namely, the Tetragrammaton, or יְיָ‎ with the Targumists, or יי‎, or האם‎ and abbreviated ה׳‎, _nomen illud_, i.e. the most excellent; but in expressing the word אלהים‎, they change the letter ‎ה‎ into ד‎ or ק‎, thus, אלדים‎ or אלקים‎, which agrees with a general superstition of the Jews.

The vowel points are the same as in the Hebrew, but they are rarely expressed, except in books written for the use of students. When they are wanting, they must be gathered from analogy, in which much assistance may be gained from the frequent use and study of the Hebrew; but where conjecture may be difficult, the three letters ‎י‎ ו‎ א‎, which are called _the mothers of reading_, are used in order to assist the reader. Thus ‎(1.) א‎ denotes Kamets in גנשי‎ _turpitudo_, וודאי‎ _confessum_, פדאם‎ _redemit eos_, &c; (2.) Vau denotes Cholem, Kybbutz, and Kamets-catuph; as, לקרוא‎ _vocare_, ‎פוקד‎ _visitans_; כולם‎ for כֻלָּם‎ _omnes illi_, ‎כהוכה‎ for ‎כְהֻכָּה‎ _sacerdotium_, לפותרו‎ for לְפָתְּרוֹ‎ _ad explicandum illud_, &c; (3.) Jod denotes Chirek, Tseri, Segol, and occasionally in the Talmud both simple and compound Sheva; as, תפילה‎ _precatio_, ‎בישר‎ _annunciavit_, איבר‎ _perdidit_; also פירוש‎ for פֵרוּש‎ _explicatio_, ‎אילי‎ for אֵלַי‎ _ad me_, שיני‎ for שֵׁנִי‎ _secundus_, ביה‎ for בֵּהּ‎ _in eo_, בריה‎ for בְרֵהּ‎ _filius ejus_, and so continually to mark the feminine affix בְּרָהּ‎.

The rules for the vowels, and for the Sheva, both simple and compound, and also for the diphthongs, are the same as in the Hebrew and Chaldee.

‎א‎ is often absorbed by crasis, as, מצינא‎ for מָצֵי אֲנָא‎ _possum_, as if it were _potens ego_, ידענא‎ _scio_, also of the feminine by an enallage frequent in this contraction, thus in לית‎ and ליכא‎ for לא אית‎ and ‎לא אינא‎ _non est_. In the same manner ‎ה‎ is omitted by the Jews in ‎תילם‎ for תהילים‎ _psalmi_. But many others are accustomed to be contracted in this manner by the Jews of Jerusalem, viz., א‎ in נילו‎ for ‎כאילו‎ _quasi_, ות‎ for ואת‎ _et tu_, דת‎ for דאת‎ _quod tu_, דנא‎ for ‎דאנא‎ _quod ego_, ‎והיידינו‎ for והיידא דין הוא‎ _quodnam est illud_; ה‎ in לון‎ for ‎להון‎ _illis_; ח‎ in ‎תותי‎ for תחותי‎ _sub_; ד‎ in קם‎, קום‎, or קותי‎, for ‎קודם‎ _ante_.

Apocope is frequent among the Talmudists, as, בי‎ for בית‎ _domus_, or ‎בין‎ _inter_. So in the pronouns both separate and suffixed, אתו‎ for ‎אתון‎ _vos_, נו‎ for נון‎ _vos_, _vester_, הי‎ for הון‎ _illis_, _suis_; also in the feminine, ‎ני‎ for נין‎, הי‎ for הין‎; and in the verbs, as, ‎גרסי‎ for גרסית‎ _docui_, ‎שקלתו‎ _sustulistis_, קאיו‎ _stans_, &c.

Aphæresis also occurs, though seldom, in חד‎ for אחד‎ _unus_, נא‎ for ‎אנא‎ _ego_, נן‎ for אנן‎ _nos_, מר‎ for אמר‎ _dixit_.

They leave the Dagesh, both lene and forte, to be collected from analogy, but where it may be difficult to guess at, as in the preterite Pihel, the letter י‎ indicates the little Chirek as well as the Dagesh forte, as, כיסה‎ for כִסָּה‎ _texit_; and in defectives the letter which had been thrown aside is sometimes restored, as, ‎ינקם‎ for יִקֹם‎ _ulciscetur_, from נקם‎ _ulcisci_.

A point at the end of a letter generally denotes a number, as, א׳‎ _unum_, ב׳‎ _duo_, ג׳‎ _tria_, &c; but at the end of two or more letters it signifies a word cut off by a certain abbreviation, as, ‎את׳‎ for _dixit_, ‎לות׳‎ for לותר‎ _dicere_, ה׳ ית׳‎ for הַשֵׁם ‎יִתְבָרֵךְ‎ _Deus benedictus_, וגו׳‎ for ‎וִגוֹמַר‎ _et cætera_, in an abrupt passage of Scripture, וכו׳‎ for וְכֻלּוֹ‎ _et totum illud_, in sacred or profane use. Also פי׳‎ for פֵרוּשׁ‎ _interpretatio_, or ‎פֵרֵשׁ‎ _interpretatus est_, ר׳‎ for רבי‎ _Rabbi_, _Magister_, שנ׳‎ for ‎שֶׁנִּאֱמַר‎ _quia dictum est_, &c.

A double point affixed to a letter indicates either compound numbers, as, י״ד‎ 14, ט״ו‎ 15, תמ״ד‎ 444; or letters taken materially, as, א״לף‎ _Aleph_, ב״ית‎ _Beth_, גי״מל‎ _Gimel_, &c.; or lastly abbreviations by initial letters alone, denoting entire words, which is called ‎ראשי תיבות‎; the number of these is very great, as אי״ה‎, that is, ‮(יעזור‎) ‎אם ירצה השם‎‬ _si voluerit_ (or _juverit_) _Deus_, א״כ‎ אִם כֵן‎ _si sic_, _si verum est_, ‎אע״פיש‎ for אַף עַל פִי שֶׁ אף על פי ש‎ _etsi_, _quanquam_, ה״בה‎ or הק״בה‎ for הברוך הוא‎ or הקדוש ברוך הוא‎ _Deus benedictus_, _Deus sanctus benedictus_; ‎ה״שו‎ for השם ימברך‎ _Deus benedictus_, ז״ל‎ for ‎זכרונו לברכה‎ _memoria ejus sit in benedictione_, or in the plural number זכרונם לברכה‎ _memoria eorum sit in benedictione_; מ״ו‎ for ‎מס ושלום‎ _parce et pax sit_, that is, _absit_; ״א‎ for יש אמרים‎ _sunt qui dicunt_; ״מ‎ for מפרשים יש‎ _sunt qui interpretentur_; ‎י״ל‎ for יַשׁ לוֹמַר‎ _est dicere_, _respondendum est_; יצר׳‎ for ‎ישמרהו צורו וגואלו‎ _custodiat eum petra ejus, et redemptor ejus_; ‎כ״א‎ for ‎כִּי אִם‎ _sed_, _nisi_; כ״כ‎ for כָל־כַךְ‎ _tantopere_; ‎נ״פ‎ for כָל־פָנִים‎ _omnibus modis_; כ״ש‎ for כָל־שֶׁכֵּן‎ _quantò magis_, _quantò minus_; ל״ש‎ for לְשֵׁם שָׁמַֽיִם‎ _in honorem Dei_; ‎מ״מ‎ for מִכָּל־מָקוֹם‎ _nihilominus_, _tamen_; ע״ד‎ for ‎עַל דֶרֶךְ‎ _more_, _in modum_; ע״ה‎ for השלום‎ _super quo pax_, ע״ז‎ for ‎עבודה ‎זרה‎ _cultus alienus_, _idololatria_; ע״פ‎ for על פי‎ _ad formam_, _modum_; ‎ע״צ‎ for עַל צַד‎ _ad latus_, _juxta_; פ״א‎ for פירוש אקר‎ _expositio alia_; ר״ל‎ for רוצה לומר‎ _vult dicere_. Also ר״אבע‎ _Rabbi Aben-Ezra_, ר״דק‎ _Rabbi David Kimchi_, רל״בג‎ _Rabbi Levi Ben Gerson_, רמ״בם‎ _Rabbi Moses Ben Maiemon_, ר״שי‎ _Rabbi Salomon Iarchi_, or _Isaac_, &c., which are also read abbreviated, and, as it were, figuratively, _Raba_, _Radak_, _Ralbag_, _Rambam_, _Raschi_, &c.

Accents are omitted in Rabbinical books; but in pronouncing words the Hebrew accent is transposed from the last syllable to the penultimate, thus, they read בראשית ברא אלהים‎ _Beréschith bóro Elóhim_, ‎עולם הבא‎ _aúlom hábbo_; for Vau Cholem is generally pronounced as the diphthong _au_, and the vowel Kamets as an _o_.

There are also certain marks of distinction, by which the perfect sense of a sentence is shown; for an imperfect sentence is not pointed off, and often not even a perfect one. But for this purpose there is used, either two perpendicular points, like the Soph-pasuk in Hebrew, but which appears rarely, and indeed not at all in some books; or a single point at the top of the letter similar to the Greek colon; or lastly, a down stroke, either straight, or oblique like the Greek acute accent, which, although the most frequently used, is yet often neglected.

The purer Rabbins commonly use Hebrew words, but they have also some words peculiar to themselves, which are either borrowed from other languages, as, for example, from the Chaldee, אִילָן‎ _arbor_, ‎גַדָּא‎ _fortuna_, חָזַר‎ _rediit_, &c.; from the Greek, אויר‎, ἀὴρ, _aër_, זימן‎, σημεῖον, _signum_, דורון‎, δῶρον, _donum_, ‎הדיוע‎, ἰδώτης, _idiota_, פרהסייא‎, παῤῥησία, בפרהסייא‎ _apertè_, _palàm_, &c.; from the Latin, אושפיזא‎ _hospes_ and _hospitium_, ‎פלעיו‎ and פלעוריו‎ _palatium_, &c.; and even from the Hebrew, but in a Syro-Chaldaic signification, as, פרע‎ _rependit_, _ultus est_, ‎שקל‎ _sustulit_, פרח‎ _volavit_, סמר‎ _destruxit_, &c., or taken evidently in a new sense, as, חין‎ _hæreticus_, טען‎ _argumentando objecit_. Also these three, שמים‎ _cœlum_, המקום‎ _locus_, and גבורה‎ _fortitudo_, are often put for _Deus_, God.

‎קָ‎, from the full particle קָא‎, prefixed to words expletively, and without any increase of signification, seems to be numbered with the serviles by the Talmudists, and which the more vulgar Rabbins, as Rabbi Lipman and the like, who are careless of a correct style, also imitate, as, דקאמר‎ _qui dixit_, מאי קעביד משה‎ _quid fecit Moses?_ ‎לא הווקא מעייליו ליה‎ _non introduxerunt eum_, &c.

The preceding observations are translated from a small treatise intituled “Synopsis Institutionum Rabbinicarum,” by George Otho, Professor of the Greek and Oriental languages at the University of Marburg in Hesse, and who acknowledges to having derived his information from Cellarius, Buxtorf, and Hackspan; and bound in connexion with the “Fundamenta Punctationis Linguæ Sanctæ,” of Jacob Alting, printed at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 2 vols. 1717.

Plan of a Pair of Hebrew Cases, as used in the Queen’s Printing Office.

[Illustration: Layout of the Hebrew case]

_Upper Case._

+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ ‎| אֹ‎ | בֹ‎ | חֹ‎ | דֹ‎ | | טֹ‎ | גֹ‎ ‖ | בֹּ‎ | | דֹּ‎ | | טֹּ‎ | גֹּ‎ | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ ‎| הֹ‎ | יֹ‎ | כֹ‎ | לֹ‎ | מֹ‎ | נֹ‎ | עֹ‎ ‖ ב֗‎ | יֹּ‎ | כֹּ‎ | | מֹּ‎ | נֹּ‎ | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ ‎| פֹ‎ | קֹ‎ | רֹ‎ | סֹ‎ | תֹ‎ | צֹ‎ | זֹ‎ ‖ פֹּ‎ | | | סֹּ‎ | תֹּ‎ | צֹּ‎ | זֹּ‎ | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ ‎| אּ‎ | בּ‎ | | דּ‎ | | טּ‎ | גּ‎ ‖ ב֖‎ | ב֥‎ | ב֞‎ | ב֩‎ | ב֠‎ | ב֡‎ | ב֯‎ | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ ‎| הּ‎ | יּ‎ | כּ‎ | לּ‎ | מּ‎ | נּ‎ | ‖ ב֣‎ | ב֫‎ | ב֒‎ | ב֧‎ | ב֛‎ | ב֓‎ | ב֘‎ | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ ‎| פּ‎ | קּ‎ | | םּ‎ | תּ‎ | צּ‎ | זּ‎ ‖ | | | | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | | | ‖ |broad| | | | | | ‎| וֹ‎ | וּ‎ | | ךָ‎ | ךְ‎ | | ﭏ‎ ‖ | ﬣּ‎ | | שּׁ‎ | שּׂ‎ | שֹׁ‎ | שֹּׁ‎ | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+

_Lower Case._

VOWEL POINTS. /--------------^-----------------\ +------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ / ‎| בָ‎ | בֵ‎ | בַ‎ | בִ‎ | בֶ‎ | בֻ‎ | בְ‎ | בֽ‎ | | +------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | ‎|Quad- | ב‎ | כ‎ | ד‎ | ח‎ | | |rats. | | | | | | | | | | | | Spaces | +------+---+-------+-------+-------+ and | |En | | | | | Quadrats | |quads.| | | | | for < ‎+------+ ל‎ | מ‎ | נ‎ | ה‎ | justifying | |Em | | | | | the | |quads.| | | | | Points. | +------+---+-------+-------+-------+ | |Hair | | | | | | ‎|sp. | ז‎ | ו‎ | ת‎ |Spaces.| | +------+ | | | | | |Sp. | | | | | \ +------+---+-------+-------+-------+

FINAL LETTERS. BROAD LETTERS. /--------^---------\ /--------^---------+ +---+---+---+---+---+---+------+------+ | ‎| ך‎ | ם‎ | ן‎ | ף‎ | ץ‎ | ﬡ‎ | ﬣ‎ | ﬥ‎ | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+------+------+ | ‎| י‎ | ש‎ | ס‎ | ג‎ | ט‎ | ﬦ‎ | | | | | | | +------+ | ‎| | | | | | ﬨ‎ | / +-------+---+---+---+---+------+------+ | | | | | | En | Em | ‎| ע‎ | צ‎ | פ‎ | שׂ‎ | שׁ‎ | quad-| quad-| | | | | | | rats.| rats.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-------+---+---+---+---+------+------+ | | | | | | ‎| | | ק‎ | ׃‎ | Quadrats. | ‎| א‎ | ר‎ +---+---+ | ‎| | | ב֗‎ | ־‎ | | +-------+-------+---+---+-------------+

In the above plans the Hebrew Cases nearly resemble those of the English now in use. The alphabets have been classified and arranged so as to facilitate the composing of it; that is, the three different dotted alphabets in the upper case are quite distinct from each other, being separated by a thicker partition, to lead the eye of the compositor to it with greater certainty. The alphabet, with the dot over the letter, appears first in order, or left hand side of the case; the second alphabet, with the dot in the middle of the letter, under that of the first; and the third alphabet, with the dot over and in the middle of the letter, in the small capital, or right hand side of the case; and underneath, the points and accents required in composing Hebrew with points.

The lower case letters are also arranged as near to the English plan as is possible: the א‎ (a) in the a box; the ב‎ (b) in the b box, &c. so that the compositor can go from a pair of English cases to the Hebrew ones with very little perplexity, and a great saving of time, instead of looking over a wide surface of three cases, as is now the case, without any classification or arrangement whatever.

In composing Hebrew without points the lower case only is required, as the final letters and broad letters are brought into it, and quite under the hand of the compositor, which is desirable.

_Hebrew in the British Founderies._

_Two Line Great Primer._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley. Oxford.

_Two Line Great Primer_, with Points. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Two Line English._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley. Wilson.

_Two Line English_, with Points. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Double Pica._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley. Wilson.

_Double Pica_, with Points. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Great Primer._ Caslon and Livermore. Wilson.

_Great Primer_, with Points. Caslon and Livermore.

_English._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly Bynneman’s. Oxford. Wilson.

_English_, with Points. Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson; this was cut after the classical and elegant type of Attias, for Mr. John Wertheimer of Leman Street, and is employed in printing the prayers of the Sphardim, edited by the Rev. D. A. De Sola. It may be cast on any body from English to Bourgeois.

_Pica._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson.

_Pica_, with Points. Caslon and Livermore.

_Small Pica._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly Bynneman’s. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson.

_Small Pica_, with Points. V. and J. Figgins. This fount of Hebrew was cut for Bagster’s Polyglot Bible.

_Long Primer._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly Bynneman’s. V. and J. Figgins. Oxford. Wilson.

_Bourgeois._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Brevier._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly Bynneman’s. Wilson.

_Minion._ Wilson.

_Nonpareil._ Caslon and Livermore; with points it is equal to a Long Primer body. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson.

_Small Pica_, Rabbinical. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly Bynneman’s.

_Brevier_, Rabbinical. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly Bynneman’s.

_Nonpareil_, Rabbinical. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly Bynneman’s.

HERALDRY.

The colours of the escutcheon, or of its ordinaries and charges, are:--

Yellow (the heraldic name of which is) Or. White Argent. Red Gules. Blue Azure. Black Sable. Green Vert. Purple Purpure. Orange Tenne. Dark Blood-red, inclining to purple Sanguine or Murrey, from mulberry.

The two first being ordinarily represented by gold and silver, are called metals, and named by heralds after the French.

The two last are rarely seen in English coats of arms. The heraldic colours are usually estimated as five,--red, blue, black, green, purple.

HIGH BEARER. _See_ BEARER.

HIND POSTS AND RAILS.

Two upright posts mortised and tenoned into the feet at the back of the wooden press; two rails connect these posts behind; and two rails on the off side and two on the near side connect them with the cheeks, by mortises and tenons; on the top rails a thin deal covering is laid loose, that it may be lifted off, to allow access to the long ribs, and to hang the platen when necessary; it prevents dirt and other matter from falling on the ribs, and serves for a temporary shelf. The ink block is attached to the near rails.

HITHER CHEEK. Same as NEAR CHEEK, which _see_.

HOLDFASTS, for Stereotype Risers. _See_ RISERS.

HOLDS OUT, or HOLDS NOT OUT.

These terms are applicable to the quires of white paper, to wrought-off heaps, to gathered books, and to sorts of letter, &c. If quires of white paper have twenty-five sheets apiece in them, they say, the paper holds out five and twenties. Of wrought-off heaps, the heap that comes off first in gathering is said not to hold out. Of gathered books, if the intended number of perfect books are gathered, they say the impression holds out: but if the intended number of perfect books cannot be gathered off the heaps, they say the impression holds not out. And so for sorts of letter, either when it is in the founding house, or in the printing house.--_M._ There is no paper at the present day with twenty-five sheets in a quire, except that used for newspapers, on account of the stamps.

HOLE.

By a Hole, in printers dialect, is meant and understood a place where private printing is used, viz. the printing of unlicensed books, or printing of other men’s copies. Many printers for lucre of gain have gone into Holes, and then their chief care is to get a Hole private, and workmen trusty and cunning to conceal the Hole, and themselves.--_M._

HOLY-DAYS. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.

HOME.

This is a term used at Press, and means that the bar of the press is pulled over till it touches the near cheek; it is then said the bar is home, or it is cheeked. _See_ CHEEK THE BAR.

HOOK-IN.

In poetry it occasionally happens that a line will not come into the measure, in which case, when it is not allowed to turn a line, if it be possible to avoid it, a syllable, or a word, is taken to the end of the preceding line, or, if that be full, to the end of the following one, and enclosed in a bracket; this is termed _Hooking-in_.

HOOKS OF TYMPAN. _See_ TYMPAN HOOKS.

HOPKINSON, MR. JOHN. The Albion Press. _See_ COPE’S PRESS.

[Illustration: Sloping wooden platform for paper]

HORSE.

Form or bench pressmen set the heaps of paper on. _See also_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.--_M._ In Moxon’s time it appears the pressmen used what was then called a _Horse_, only, for the paper when working, which we now call a _Bank_; we have in addition what is termed a horse, set upon the bank; this horse is made sloping down to the fore edge, and the white paper is placed on it; the pressman is thus enabled to draw the sheets down with the nail of his thumb, or a piece of wood, bone, or ivory, with more facility than if it were laid horizontal, and it is more convenient to remove to the tympan, as the horse is raised near to it, and inclines in the same direction.

HORSE FLESH.

If any journeyman set down in his bill on Saturday night more work than he has done, that surplusage is called _Horse-flesh_; and he abates it in his next bill.--_M._ This surplusage of charge, as Moxon terms it, is now called _Horse_, and it is not always deducted in the next bill.

HORSE RACES.

By the Act of the 13th of George 2. cap. 19.

s. 2. it is enacted, “That from and after the said twenty-fourth Day of _June_ one thousand seven hundred and forty, no Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing, shall be run for by any Horse, Mare or Gelding, or advertised, published or proclaimed to be run for by any Horse, Mare or Gelding, unless such Plate, Prize or Sum of Money shall be of the full, real and intrinsick Value of fifty Pounds, or upwards; and in case any Person or Persons shall from and after the twenty-fourth Day of _June_ one thousand seven hundred and forty enter, start or run any Horse, Mare or Gelding, for any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds, or shall make, print, advertise, publish or proclaim any Advertisement or Notice of any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds as aforesaid, to be run for by any Horse, Mare or Gelding; every such Person or Persons so entering, starting or running such Horse, Mare or Gelding for such Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds as aforesaid, shall forfeit and lose the Sum of two hundred Pounds, to be sued for, recovered and disposed of in such Manner as is herein after prescribed and directed; and every Person or Persons who shall make, print, publish, advertise or proclaim any Advertisement or Notice of any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds aforesaid, to be run for by any Horse, Mare or Gelding, shall forfeit and lose the Sum of one hundred Pounds.”

So much of the act of 13 Geo. 2. c. 19. “as relates to the Subject of Horse Racing,” was repealed by 3 Vict. c. 5. s. 1.

HOSE.

Two upright bars of iron that connected the garter and the hose hooks, and went through the till. There were screws at each end, by which they could tighten the platen cords, if they became slack.--_M._

The hose in wooden presses is now quite different: it is a wooden case for the spindle to work in, made hollow in the inside to fit it, and to which it is connected by the garter; it is square on the outside, and passes through an opening in the till, which it should fit accurately; and is tied to the platen by means of four iron hooks, one at each bottom corner. Its uses are, to guide the platen down to the form in a horizontal position, by its passing through the till; and also to lift the platen from off the form, which it does by the return of the press bar, and its connexion with the spindle by means of the garter.

HOSE HOOKS.

Four iron hooks at the bottom corners of the hose, to which the platen is tied. They are projections from an iron belt that embraces the bottom of the hose, and stand facing the platen hooks.

HOURS.

Pressmen reckon their works by hours, accounting every token to an hours work: and though it be the same effectually with tokens, yet they make their prices of different work by the hour; and it passes current for a token. If two men work at the press, ten quires is an hour; if one man, five quires is an hour.--_M._ The quires of paper at this time always contain twenty-four sheets, at least the inside quires do, which alone are used for bookwork; and a token is ten quires eighteen sheets, which is still called an Hour, whatever the price may be: thus, if two men at a press print twelve tokens of paper in a day, they say, they have done twelve hours; and if it be fine work, at which, through the care bestowed on it, they can only print three tokens, or four tokens, they say, they do three hours, or four hours, in a day; although it takes the same time in performing that the twelve tokens did.

HYDRAULIC PRESS.

This press was invented and introduced to the public by Mr. Joseph Bramah, of Piccadilly, Engineer. Mr. W. Nicholson, in his Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts, vol. 1. April, 1797, gave an account of it, with engravings, from which the following observations are extracted, which will give a brief description of this powerful machine, that is superseding the common book press with a screw in all extensive establishments.

“Its action is as follows: when the lever or pump handle is raised, it brings up the piston, which would leave a vacuum beneath if the pressure of the atmosphere did not force the water in through a side valve. The lever is then to be pressed down, which causes the side valve to shut, and forces the water through a valve at the bottom, whence it passes through a pipe into the cavity of the great cylinder, and raises the piston or pressing rammer. A repetition of the same process forces more water in, and the pressure may in this manner be carried to a great extent.

“There is no difficulty in computing the force of this instrument. If the diameter of the pump barrel be one quarter of an inch, and that of the cylinder one inch, that is to say, four quarters of an inch; one pound lodged upon the piston rod of the pump will be in equilibrio with sixteen pounds lodged upon the table of the press; the weights of the parts of the engine attached to, and moving with each piston, being respectively included. And if the length of the pump lever be fifteen inches, and the distance between the centres of motion and of action be two inches, one pound at the end of the lever will gain an advantage of 7½ times when compared with that at the piston rod. Instead, therefore, of sixteen pounds upon the table being equal in effect to counterpoise this last action, there will be required upwards of 120 pounds. But a man in this action of pumping by a downward pressure, can without difficulty apply his whole weight, and with great ease one third or one fourth of his weight, suppose 50 pounds. In this case the pressure will be equivalent to fifty times 120 pounds, or 6000 pounds, that is to say, nearly three tons.

“To compare this engine with a screw, in theory, we must enquire what fineness of thread and length of lever would afford a purchase of 120 to one. Let us suppose the thread of a screw, substituted in the place of the cylinder, to be one tenth of an inch thick; the distance from the top of one thread to the top of the next will in this case be one fifth of an inch. This is the space through which the weight must rise in one revolution. The power must therefore move through 120 times that space, namely twenty-five inches; but a lever or radius four inches long will describe a circle somewhat larger than this, and consequently such an engine would in theory be equal in power to the hydraulic engine we have been contemplating.

“But when the subject is viewed practically, the difference between the two engines appears to be very remarkable. All practical men know how very large a part of the force operating by means of engines is employed in overcoming frictions. Every one is aware of the extreme friction between solids, and the very slight friction which takes place between the parts of fluids. This is seen in the common expedient of oiling the pivots of wheels, and in the very gradual decay of motion in fluid bodies; while solids moving on each other stop at once, as soon as the force is diminished to a certain degree. The screw is an organ peculiarly liable to friction, and this friction is always much greater than the whole of the reacting force; for there are few instances where a screw will return from extreme pressure, when the agency upon the lever is withdrawn. It is also to be considered, that the whole force of the weight or resistance acts directly upon the face of the screw, at which the motion is required to take place. It has not been appreciated in what degree this resistance or friction increases with the weight. In lighter actions the simple ratio has been inferred; but under more severe pressures the two metallic faces extrude the greater part of the half-fluid matter between them, and appear, by the magnitude of their resistance, to be attached to each other by a process of the nature of cohesive attraction. For these and other reasons, it appears nearly impracticable to form any comparison between two engines so different in principle, but such as shall be deduced from immediate experiment of their effects. I am not in possession of numerical data to indicate the actual power of screw-engines or presses; which are perhaps the less necessary, because those who are the most interested in the success of an improvement like the present, are for the most part able to come at these without difficulty.

“In an engine of this kind, the diameter of the great piston was four inches, and of the smaller three-eighths of an inch; and the advantage given by the lever or handle was twelve to one. Above the piston of the great cylinder was applied a long lever, at one end of which was an axis, and at the other end a large scale to hold weights; it contained twenty hundred weight. The distance between the axis of motion of this lever and the part where it acted on the piston was six inches; and the distance from the same axis to the extremity where the scale was hung was 126 inches. Every hundred weight in the scale consequently pressed upon the piston with a force equal to twenty-one hundred weight; whence the whole pressure was twenty-one tons. It was easy to work the lever briskly with one hand, and each stroke raised the scale near one-third of an inch. Forty-seven pounds hung at the end of the lever, carried it down with a moderate swiftness of working; but a weight of only forty-three pounds remained in equilibrio, and did not descend. Now, as the true weight in theory was thirty-two pounds, it follows that less than one-third of the actual power was employed to give velocity and overcome all friction.

“It may be remarked, that the principal frictions in these machines must be at the circumference of the pistons, and that these do not increase in the simple, but in less than the subduplicate, ratio of the power. For if the diameter of the great cylinder were double, every thing else remaining unchanged, the surface of its piston, and consequently the power, would be quadrupled. But the friction would be only doubled, and that merely at the leathering of the greater piston.

“As the pressure in the experiment last mentioned amounted to 47·040 pounds upon the great piston of four inches in diameter, or sixteen circular inches surface, it amounted to 2940 pounds upon each round inch. But the medium pressure of the atmosphere on a round inch is near twelve pounds, consequently the action was equal to 245 atmospheres: and as each of these corresponds with a column of 34 feet of fresh water at a medium, the water in the cylinder was pressed in the same manner as if the whole column had been 8330 feet, or 1⅔ mile, long.

“Large presses of this construction are made with two pumps of 1¼ inch bore, and a cylinder of seven inches. These have been used in pressing hay and cotton for package; and, as I am informed, are effective in producing a greater condensation on the material with a much less application of moving power and consumption of time.”

The following description and figures are taken from Dr. Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, 8vo. 1839.

[Illustration: _Fig._ 1. _Fig._ 2.]

“The framing consists of two stout cast-iron plates _a_, _b_, which are strengthened by projecting ribs, not seen in the section, _fig._ 1. The top or crown plate _b_, and the base plate _a_, are bound most firmly together by four cylinders of the best wrought iron, _c_, _c_, which pass up through holes near the ends of the said plates, and are fast wedged in them. The flat pieces _e_, _e_, are screwed to the ends of the crown and base plates, so as to bind the columns laterally. _f_ is the hollow cylinder of the press, which, as well as the ram _g_, is made of cast iron. The upper part of the cavity of the cylinder is cast narrow, but is truly and smoothly rounded at the boring-mill, so as to fit pretty closely round a well-turned ram or piston; the under part of it is left somewhat wider in the casting. A stout cup of leather, perforated in the middle, is put upon the ram, and serves as a valve to render the neck of the cylinder perfectly water-tight, by filling up the space between it and the ram; and since the mouth of the cup is turned downwards, the greater the pressure of water upwards, the more forcibly are the edges of the leather valve pressed against the inside of the cylinder, and the tighter does the joint become. This was Bramah’s beautiful invention.

“Upon the top of the ram, the press-plate or table _h_, strengthened with projecting ridges, rests, which is commonly called the follower, because it follows the ram closely in its descent. This plate has a half-round hole at each of its four corners, corresponding to the shape of the four iron columns along which it glides in its up-and-down motions of compression and relaxation.

[Illustration: _Fig._ 3. _Fig._ 4.]

“_k_, _k_, _figs._ 1. and 2., is the framing of a force pump with a narrow barrel; _i_ is the well for containing water to supply the pump. To spare room in the engraving, the pump is set close to the press, but it may be removed to any convenient distance by lengthening the water-pipe _u_, which connects the discharge of the force pump with the inside of the cylinder of the press. _Fig._ 3. is a section of the pump and its valves. The pump _m_, is of bronze; the suction-pipe _n_, has a conical valve with a long tail; the solid piston or plunger _p_, is smaller than the barrel in which it plays, and passes at its top through a stuffing-box _q_; _r_ is the pressure-valve, _s_ is the safety-valve, which, in _fig._ 2., is seen to be loaded with a weighted lever; _t_ is the discharge-valve, for letting the water escape, from the cylinder beneath the ram, back into the well. See the winding passages in _fig._ 4. _u_ is the tube which conveys the water from the pump into the press-cylinder. In _fig._ 2. two centres of motion for the pump-lever are shown. By shifting the bolt into the centre nearest the pump-rod, the mechanical advantage of the workman may be doubled. Two pumps are generally mounted in one frame for one hydraulic press; the larger to give a rapid motion to the ram at the beginning, when the resistance is small; the smaller to give a slower but more powerful impulsion, when the resistance is much increased. A pressure of 500 tons may be obtained from a well-made hydraulic press with a ten-inch ram, and a two and a one inch set of pumps.”

In a Report addressed to the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Woods, Forests, &c., in July 1839, as the result of an inquiry with reference to the selection of stone for building the new Houses of Parliament, it is stated the experiments relating to the cohesive strength of the stones, or their resistance to pressure, were made at the manufactory of Messrs. Bramah and Robinson, with a six-inch hydraulic press, the pump of which was one inch in diameter. According to trials previously made by Messrs. Bramah and Robinson, one pound weight at the end of the pump lever produced a pressure on the face of the cube [two inches square] equal to 2·53 cwt., or to 71·06 lbs. on the square inch; from this datum it may be estimated how immense the pressure is that can be obtained by this press, when the strength of a man is exerted at the pump. I have used the common book press with an iron screw to press printed paper, and I have also used a Hydraulic press of an estimated power of eighty tons: besides the greater expedition in pumping this press up than screwing the other down, I can state from my own observation, that the hydraulic press produced as great an effect upon the paper in three hours as the screw press did in a night, or at least fourteen hours. This may show the great superiority of this press over that which has been in general use in printing offices. The hydraulic press has fully accomplished in practice all that was expected from it, and has established for itself a high character, which it richly deserves.

HYPHEN.

A hyphen, marked thus (-), is employed in connecting compounded words; as, “Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.”

It is also used when a word is divided, and the former part is written or printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the beginning of another. In this case, it is placed at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second.--_Murray._