Part Three
Signers of the Declaration:
Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings
Over the decades that separate present-day America from the early periods of its history, a large number of the structures commemorating those periods have been marred or obliterated. Those relating to the signers of the Declaration of Independence have not been spared. The ravages of war, urbanization, fire, aging, weathering, neglect, and vandalism have destroyed all the residences of 21 of these 56 men and seriously impaired some of those that have survived.
Beyond those factors detrimental to all historic buildings are two special ones that have hampered the marking and preserving of signers’ homes and other sites. For decades following adoption of the Declaration, these individuals were not accorded the reverence bestowed on them in modern times. Secondly, many of them have received only slight historical recognition because they lacked national reputations other than as signers.
Yet among the residences and buildings that remain are many of major significance. As a whole, they reveal much about the way of life of the signers and illuminate the events involved in the creation of the Declaration. Of outstanding significance is Independence National Historical Park, Pa. Within its boundaries the document was written, debated, approved, and signed. The National Park Service administers the park in cooperation with the city of Philadelphia and various private agencies. Three residences of signers are also units of the National Park System: Adams National Historic Site, Mass.; the Floyd House, in Fire Island National Seashore, N.Y.; and the Nelson House, part of Colonial National Historical Park, Va.
Almost half the extant homes of the signers are owned by private individuals, many of whom personally reside in them and a few of whom are descendants of the signers. The rest of the residences are owned and maintained by States, cities, and a wide variety of nongovernmental institutions, such as patriotic-civic organizations, memorial associations, local historical societies, foundations, universities, churches, and corporations and business firms.
Reflecting the dedicated efforts of many of the above individuals and agencies, a considerable number of the buildings and residences provide fine examples of historic preservation and restoration. Unfortunately, some structures have badly deteriorated. But the increased recent interest in the signers has enhanced the identification, renovation, and preservation of pertinent sites and buildings.
In addition to the preservation of sites and buildings, the subject of this book, the signers have been honored in many other ways. Commemoration varies widely, however, from State to State and from signer to signer. Some have been recognized in a major way; others hardly at all.
In the forefront of the groups that have marked extant homes and buildings, as well as the sites of former structures and graves, or otherwise memorialized the signers are: Daughters of the American Revolution; Daughters of the Revolution; Colonial Dames of America; National Society of Colonial Dames of America; Sons of the American Revolution; Sons of the Revolution; and the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, Inc., chartered by Congress in 1907.
A major share of the sites of residences with no physical remains has been marked. The 20 signers for whom no existing homes have been located are: Samuel Adams, Abraham Clark, William Ellery, Benjamin Franklin, Lyman Hall, John Hart, Francis Lewis, Philip Livingston, Thomas McKean, Lewis Morris, Robert Morris, John Morton, Robert Treat Paine, John Penn, George Read, Caesar Rodney, George Ross, Benjamin Rush, Roger Sherman, and James Smith. Another signer, Samuel Chase, is represented in this volume only by a structure (Chase-Lloyd House) that he began building but never resided in.
Monuments and memorials range from simple plaques to the Thomas Jefferson Memorial, D.C., in the National Park System. Statues of several signers are located in the U.S. Capitol. Special monuments have been erected to those from two States. The Founders’ Monument, in Augusta, Ga., is dedicated to the three signers from that State (Gwinnett, Hall, and Walton) and contains the burial places of the latter two. A monument to the three North Carolina signers (Hewes, Hooper, and Penn) at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, in Greensboro, N.C., includes the tombs of Hooper and Penn.
Described in the following pages are the principal buildings associated with the signers of the Declaration. They are comprised of three categories: National Park Service Areas, National Historic Landmarks, and Other Sites Considered.
The principal aim of the National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings is to identify nationally important sites that are not _National Park Service Areas_, but no survey of historic places would be complete without including them. This is particularly true because many of them were designated as National Historic Landmarks before they became part of the National Park System. Further information about a particular area may be obtained by writing directly to the park superintendent at the address listed immediately following the location.
_National Historic Landmarks_ are those sites judged by the Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments to meet the criteria of national significance in commemorating the history of the United States (pp. 270–271). They have been declared by the Secretary of the Interior to be eligible for designation as National Historic Landmarks. Final designation occurs when the owners apply for such status. They receive certificates and bronze plaques attesting to the distinction.
_Other Sites Considered_ consist of those sites deemed by the Advisory Board to possess noteworthy historical value but not national significance. The list of sites included in this category does not purport to be exhaustive; it is merely a representative sampling, all that is possible because of space limitations.
Many sites in the Other Sites Considered category in all phases of history are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, maintained by the National Park Service’s Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. The register consists not only of sites in the National Park System and National Historic Landmarks but also those of State and local significance, nominated through appropriate channels by the various States. It is published biennally and distributed by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402. The latest volume is _The National Register of Historic Places, 1972_, price $7.80.
[Illustration: SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION
HISTORIC SITES OF NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE (map)]
For the convenience of users of this volume, sites and buildings are listed alphabetically by State. The following code indicates site categories:
_Site Categories_
☑ NATIONAL PARK SERVICE AREAS ∆ NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS ⊗ OTHER SITES CONSIDERED
NOTE: _The following descriptions indicate sites that are open to the public. Before visiting any of them, inquiry should be made to the owners or custodians concerning dates and hours of access and admission costs, usually nominal. Special permission should be obtained to visit privately owned sites._
Huntington Birthplace, Connecticut ∆
_Location: Windham County, on the north side of Conn. 14, about 2 blocks west of its junction with Conn. 97, Scotland._
This plain but charming farmhouse on the bank of Merrick’s Brook was the birthplace and home of Samuel Huntington through his boyhood and early manhood. He lived in it from 1731 probably until 1760, the year he moved to Norwich.
The house, built in the period 1700–22, is shaded by huge trees and fronted by a spacious lawn. It is a large, two-story, clapboarded-frame structure of saltbox design. The gable roof slopes steeply at the rear. Exterior windows are topped by projecting cornices; the center door, by a rectangular transom. A one-story kitchen wing with front porch at the northeast end of the house along the main axis was added early in the 19th century.
[Illustration: Huntington Birthplace.]
The floor plan is typical of a central chimney New England dwelling. Behind a short central entrance hall, which contains an L-shaped stairway, is a large stone central chimney with three fireplaces. Two of these heat the parlor and dining room, entered from the hall; a huge third one serves the large original kitchen, which ranges across the rear two-thirds of the house behind the dining room and chimney. A small bedroom is situated back of the parlor alongside the original kitchen, between it and the one-story new kitchen addition. Three additional bedrooms, one of which has a fully paneled fireplace wall, are located upstairs. Wallpaper has been added to some of the rooms, but the fireplaces, wainscoting, and wide-board floors are original.
The privately owned house, which is in good condition and little altered, has never been restored, though some modern conveniences have been installed. It is not open to the public.
Huntington House, Connecticut ⊗
_Location: New London County, 34 East Town Street, Norwich._
Samuel Huntington erected this house in the years 1783–85 and lived in it until his death in 1796. Since that time, the frame dwelling has been extensively modified on both the exterior and interior and a major addition made at the rear.
[Illustration: Huntington House.]
Originally the residence was a large, two-story, rectangular structure with a gable roof, two interior chimneys, tall corner pilasters, and triangular pediments above the first-story windows. By the middle of the 19th century, however, the structure had been remodeled in Greek Revival style, including the construction of a two-story portico across the entire front, or north, side, and in the center of this facade a central two-tiered porch. Later in the century, the portico and the two interior chimneys were removed. Sometime during the century, a large two-story section was added to the rear of the house, and a projecting two-story bay on the west side.
The present two-tiered porch at the entrance is a modern replacement whose design differs considerably from the earlier one. Four large Doric columns support it, and a railing runs around the second-story level. The east entranceway consists of a one-story portico with an elliptical plan and Doric columns. Other modern features include clapboarding and window sash.
The central hall, extending from the entranceway through the rest of the house and rear addition, has always dominated the floor plan, which otherwise has been completely obliterated. Interior partitions have either been removed to create larger rooms or added to make smaller ones. Stairs are located in the front and rear of the hall. Little, if any, of the original interior finish remains.
The house, also known as the Governor Huntington House, in excellent condition, is owned and occupied by a charitable organization and is not open to the general public. Huntington’s remains rest in the adjacent Old Burial Ground.
Williams Birthplace, Connecticut ⊗
_Location: New London County, on the west side of Conn. 87 at the south end of the commons, Lebanon._
William Williams was born in this house in 1731 and lived in it until 1755, when his father gave him a residence elsewhere in Lebanon. Constructed about 1712 by Rev. Samuel Welles, a Congregational minister, it later came into the possession of Rev. Solomon Williams, the signer’s father, and is also known as the Welles-Williams House. Over the years, considerable alteration has occurred.
The rectangular frame structure is two stories high with a gable roof. Exterior louvered shutters flank the windows on both stories. The Greek Revival architrave of the central door was added about 1830. A one-story ell, containing a kitchen and part of the dining room, is located at the rear southwest corner of the house. A barn has been built on the end of the ell. A more recent one-story frame wing extends from the southeast rear corner. The residence was recently covered with clapboard.
[Illustration: Williams Birthplace.]
In modern times the original large central stone chimney has been replaced by a much smaller brick one, which provides a fireplace for the present living room. This has resulted in a major revamping of the typical central chimney floor plan. It once consisted of two tiers of four rooms but today is divided into large living room, dining room, and parlor, plus a bath, and three bedrooms upstairs. Two of the latter originally had fully paneled walls. Only one is paneled today.
The house, a private residence not accessible to the public, is in good condition.
Williams House, Connecticut ∆
_Location: New London County, southeast corner of the junction of Conn. 207 and Conn. 87, Lebanon._
Of the two extant residences of William Williams, this house, where he lived the greater part of his life, is less altered. His father, Rev. Solomon Williams, acquired it in 1748 and 7 years later presented it to William, who resided there until his death in 1811.
The dwelling is a two-story, rectangular frame building. A long, 1½-story service wing extends from the center of the rear of the house. The original clapboard siding, covered with asbestos shingles in the 1930’s, has recently been reexposed. The front entranceway, in the Greek Revival style, was probably constructed about 1830. Other exterior changes to the main house are limited to the lowering of the two original interior chimneys on the back side of the ridge of the gabled roof, the addition of a brick chimney at the north end, and the insertion of a one-story bay window in the living room at the south end.
[Illustration: Williams House.]
The central hall divides each floor into two large rooms. Downstairs, to the north of the hall, which incorporates the original stairway, is a parlor, whose entire fireplace wall is still covered with the old paneling; to the south of the hall is the living room. Its entranceway from the hall has been widened and two columns inserted. Upstairs are two bedrooms with fully paneled fireplace walls. The six original fireplaces, except for the one in the kitchen, have been closed up, but their mantels have been left in place. All the original wide floorboards remain. The rear service wing contains a dining room and kitchen on the first floor and four small bedrooms above.
The well-preserved house is today a private home and is not open to the public.
Wolcott House, Connecticut ∆
_Location: Litchfield County, on the east side of South Street nearly opposite its intersection with Wolcott Avenue, Litchfield._
Oliver Wolcott erected and occupied this residence in 1753, some 2 years after he moved from Windsor to Litchfield, and lived in it until he died in 1797. Except for a major rear addition, it has been only slightly altered.
[Illustration: Wolcott House.]
The two-story, frame structure has a gable roof, a large central chimney, and slight overhangs at the gable ends. Attached to the south end of the house on the main axis is a small, 1½-story frame wing with gambrel roof. A one-story porch, added by Wolcott about 1783, extends across this wing. The roof of the porch is of the coved, or “barrow,” type. The walls of the main house and wing are covered with clapboards, and the windows have louvered shutters. Triangular pediments cap the first-story windows. The center door, topped by a round arch fanlight, is sheltered by a Federal period broken-pediment portico supported by two fluted columns.
Later additions include small bay windows on each side of the chimney in the south end wall of the south wing; a wide dormer in the west, or front, upper story of the wing; and a two-story, frame, clapboard-covered service wing, added in the 1880’s at the northeast corner on the rear of the main house, which gave the structure its present L-shape. The service wing, which cannot be seen from the street, contains the present kitchen and servants’ workrooms and bedrooms.
The floor plan of the main house is the central chimney type. To the rear of the short central hall, which is equipped with the original L-shaped stairway and divides this portion of the house into two tiers of rooms, is the central chimney. On the first floor, to the north of the hall, is the dining room; to the south, the parlor. The fireplace walls in both rooms are fully paneled, and the floors have wide boards. Back of the parlor, a hall leads on the south to the morning room, or bedroom, in the south wing; and on the north, to the original kitchen, which contains a large fireplace. Four bedrooms occupy the second story of the main house, two of them featuring paneled overmantels, and one bedroom is located on the second floor of the south wing.
One of Wolcott’s descendants, who acquired and restored the house about 1920, resides in it today. In excellent condition, it is the oldest extant structure in Litchfield Historic District, a National Historic Landmark relating primarily to colonial architecture. The house is not accessible to the public.
The White House, District of Columbia ∆
_Location: 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW., Washington._
Signers John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the first two occupants of the White House, official residence of our Nation’s Presidents since 1800. It is a national shrine that symbolizes the honor and dignity of the highest office in the land, and has been the scene of many historic events and brilliant social affairs. Like the Nation itself, it bears the influences of successive Chief Executives. Although rebuilt and modernized, it retains the simplicity and charm of its original appearance.
[Illustration: South facade of the White House.]
President George Washington approved the plans for the White House, drawn by Irish-born James Hoban, winner of the prize competition. Maj. Pierre Charles L’Enfant, the French artist-engineer, located the mansion in his plan of the Federal City, in which it and the Capitol were the first public buildings erected. The cornerstone was laid on October 13, 1792. Workmen used light gray sandstone from the Aquia Creek Quarries, in Virginia, for the exterior walls. During the course of construction or soon thereafter, they apparently were painted white. The building was thus unofficially termed the “White House” from an early date, but for many years it was usually referred to as the “President’s House” or the “President’s Palace.”
[Illustration: North facade of the White House in 1807.]
In the Palladian style of architecture, the main facade resembles the Duke of Leinster’s mansion in Dublin. Hoban probably derived the details of other faces and the interior arrangement from other contemporary European mansions. He supervised the original construction; the rebuilding after the burning by British forces, in 1814; and the erection of the north and south porticoes, some years later. Over the course of time, however, various architects modified Hoban’s original plans, notably Benjamin H. Latrobe during and after the Jefferson administration.
President and Mrs. John Adams were the first occupants, in November 1800 when the Government moved from Philadelphia to Washington. The interior had not yet been completed, and Mrs. Adams used the unfinished East Room to dry the family wash. During Jefferson’s administration the east and west terraces, or pavilions, were built. Jefferson, who practiced democratic simplicity in his social life, opened the mansion each morning to all arrivals.
During the War of 1812, British forces captured the city and set the torch to the White House, the Capitol, and other Government buildings in retaliation for the destruction by U.S. troops of some public buildings in Canada. Only the partially damaged exterior walls and interior brickwork of the White House remained in the spring of 1815 when reconstruction began. In 1817 the recently elected President, James Monroe, was able to occupy the structure. In 1824 builders erected the south portico; and in 1829, the large north portico over the entrance and driveway. The west wing, including the President’s oval office, was added during the first decade of the 20th century. The east wing was built in 1942.
Over the years, the White House proper has been extensively renovated and modernized on various occasions. The old sandstone walls have been retained, however. The aim has been to keep the historical atmosphere while providing a more livable home for the President and his family.
Located on the first floor of the main building are the East Room, Green Room, Blue Room, Red Room, State Dining Room, and Family Dining Room. These richly furnished rooms are open to the public on a special schedule. The ground and second floors are restricted to the use of the presidential family and guests. On the ground floor are the Diplomatic Reception Room, Curator’s Office, Vermeil Room, China Room, and Library. The second floor contains the Lincoln Bedroom, Lincoln Sitting Room, Queens’ Bedroom (Rose Guest Room), Treaty Room, Yellow Oval Room, and Empire Guest Room. Neither of the wings, reserved for the President and his staff, are ordinarily accessible to the public.
The simple dignity of the White House is enhanced by the natural beauty of its informal but carefully landscaped grounds.
College Hill, Georgia ∆
_Location: Richmond County, 2216 Wrightsboro Road, Augusta._
In 1795 George Walton built this house on the western outskirts of Augusta on land that had been granted him by the State of Georgia in 1787. He lived in it until his death in 1804.
[Illustration: College Hill.]
The handsome, two-story, frame structure features weatherboarded and clapboarded walls, a gable roof, and a brick chimney at each end. Of special interest is the two-tiered veranda extending across the entire main facade. At its front and sides on both levels are a series of segmental arches supported by delicate square columns on high pedestals. The fine balustrade is composed of delicate, sheaf-like balusters. Central double doors are located on the front of both stories. The doors are framed by pilasters and sidelights and topped by segmental fanlights. The windows have exterior louvered shutters. A one-story kitchen, added in 1898, extends from the southwest rear corner of the house.
The central hall, which contains a U-shaped stairway, divides the main section of the structure into two pairs of rooms. The larger front two are equipped with fireplaces and have original mantels decorated in the Adam style. Behind the main hall is a smaller rear hall. The hall walls are plastered, and the board walls of the principal rooms are covered with paper and wainscoting. Five bedrooms occupy the second floor. The original kitchen was situated in a separate building that is no longer extant.
Known today as the Walton-Harper House, since 1885 College Hill has been owned by the Harper family, descendants of Walton. Little altered but never restored, it is a private residence and is not shown publicly.
Meadow Garden, Georgia ⊗
_Location: Richmond County, 1320 Nelson Street, Augusta._
About 1790 Gov. George Walton moved from Savannah to Augusta, then the capital. At that time, he built Meadow Garden cottage at the northern edge of the city, on confiscated Loyalist lands in his possession. He resided in it until 1795, the year he constructed and occupied a larger home, College Hill, just west of Augusta. He deeded Meadow Garden under trusteeship to Thomas Watkins, who later conveyed it to George Walton, Jr. Over the years, it has been doubled in size and otherwise altered.
[Illustration: Meadow Garden.]
Meadow Garden was originally a modest 1½-story cottage of frame construction built over a high brick basement. The gable roof was pierced by two front dormers and an interior central chimney. Windows were located in the gable ends. An entrance door and hall were situated on the western bay of the south facade, which had three bays. Two rooms on the first floor opened off the east of the hall, and the basement contained two more finished rooms.
Sometime after 1800 the house was enlarged and converted into a central hall type by a major three-bay wide extension to the west of the side hall, which became the central hall. The gable roof of the original building was extended over the new portion, which was also equipped with an interior chimney. About 1903 a single dormer was added to the extension. The two first-floor rooms in the addition, which lacks a cellar, are about two steps lower than the two in the original structure. The second floor of the present house contains four bedrooms. A one-story porch, probably not original, extends across the front, or south, side. Its Doric columns rest on square pedestals and are linked by a light balustrade. About 1903 a one-story kitchen was added to the rear northwest corner of the house.
Many interior features are intact, but the plaster walls are covered with paper. The southwest room, or library, located in the 1800 addition and restored in 1969, contains an excellent late Georgian mantel and overmantel. The building has been roofed with modern material.
The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution acquired the residence in 1900, and the following year opened it to visitors. In 1960 the National Society presented it to the State Society. It is currently operated as a historic house museum by the Augusta Chapter. A caretaker’s residence is located on the grounds.
Tabby Cottage, Georgia ⊗
_Location: Liberty County, on St. Catherines Island, which is located about 10 miles off the Georgia coast southeast of Midway between St. Catherines and Sapelo Sounds._
The original portion of this structure, today an eight-bedroom house and the main building on St. Catherines Island, may have been built by Button Gwinnett in 1765 when he purchased the island, on which he resided until his death in 1777 at Savannah. In 1929 the owner of the island extensively remodeled the gable-roofed building. He retained its basic shape and preserved many of its features, including mantels, stair rail, and wide-board, hand-pegged floors. To the rear at a right angle on one side he added a 1½-story wing, also with gable roof, which more than doubled the floor space. The original, or front, section of the house, also 1½ stories in height, was constructed of “tabby,” a mixture of lime, ground from burned oyster shells, with sand, shells, and water. The wing is of frame with a stucco finish. Both parts of the residence are now roofed with Ludowici tile and feature dormers, interior chimneys, and shuttered exterior windows.
Other tabby structures on the island include seven guest cottages and about a dozen slave quarters, all probably dating from the early 19th century. Many of them are in ruins but some are in good condition. Elsewhere are four present employee residences, as well as several barns and maintenance buildings. Boundaries of old cotton and tobacco fields are discernible, as well as dozens of Indian burial mounds. Of special interest, between Persimmon Point and Wamassee Head, is the undisturbed site of the Mission of Santa Catalina (1566-ca. 1684), a Spanish mission. None of the buildings remain, but potsherds and other surface debris are plentiful.
When this volume went to press, the National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings was making a further study of Tabby Cottage to determine the exact degree of its authenticity in relation to Gwinnett. Privately owned St. Catherines Island, not accessible to the public, has already been accorded National Historic Landmark status because of its associations with Spanish exploration and settlement.
Whipple Birthplace, Maine ⊗
_Location: York County, 88 Whipple Street, Kittery._
William Whipple, a signer from New Hampshire, was a native of Kittery, now in Maine but then in Massachusetts. Born in this house in 1730, he probably lived in it until, like many boys of the locality, he went to sea. About 1760 he abandoned his life as a seaman and took up residence in Portsmouth, N.H.
This handsome frame residence, the only one extant associated with a signer in Maine, occupies a picturesque setting on a small cove along the Piscataqua River. The two-story building has been considerably altered and enlarged over the years, but it is in excellent condition and rests on original foundations. It has been painted red since at least 1873.
[Illustration: Whipple Birthplace.]
In its present form the house is Georgian in style with a central hall plan. The exterior walls are clapboarded. On the east, or front, elevation a round arch window on the second story sits over a pedimented center door. The ell at the rear is a 20th-century addition. A slight overhang on the south end of the house indicates that it may once have been a garrison house, and that the upper story projected over the first. This portion of the house was constructed of hemlock, square-dovetailed at the corners. At some later date, the structure was enlarged, and in the mid-19th century the exterior was completely renovated.
The residence originally featured a center chimney floor plan. In the 19th century the central chimney was removed and a center hall with stairway added, as well as two small interior chimneys with fireplaces, one at each side of the hall. On the first floor, to the south of the hall, is the bedroom where Whipple was born; to the north, a large parlor. The original kitchen is located to the rear, or west, of the center hall and parlor.
Privately occupied, the house is not open to the public.
Carroll Mansion, Maryland
_Location: Anne Arundel County, Duke of Gloucester Street, between Newman and St. Marys Streets, Annapolis._
Charles Carroll III of Carrollton was born in 1737 at this townhouse, which his father had probably built about 1735. Around the age of 11, young Carroll traveled to Europe for an education and did not return to Maryland until 1765. Thereafter, he lived mainly at Doughoregan Manor but utilized his birthplace, which he inherited from his father, when in Annapolis. In 1804, when he retired from public life, he closed it up. In 1870 one of his granddaughters deeded the house and property to the Redemptionist Fathers of St. Mary’s Catholic Church, which had been built in 1858–60 on adjacent lands also donated by the Carrolls.
[Illustration: Carroll Mansion.]
Carroll Mansion, a brick rectangular structure constructed in Flemish bond, rises 2½ stories over a basement. Belt courses mark the first- and second-floor levels on the north and south sides. Segmental arches head the windows. Two massive chimneys penetrate the slate-covered gable roof. They are located at what may have been the original gable ends. Five gabled dormers protrude from the south side of the roof; four from the north. A wood cornice with dentils and modillions extends along the sides and up the gables at the ends.
Exterior alterations include the addition of a one-story basement at the east, or present rear, end of the residence and a one-story porch and entrance at the west end. The front entrance, probably dating from the early or mid-19th century, is highlighted by a rectangular transom and sidelights. The original entrance was apparently located in the center of the north side of the house, where a passageway, erected in 1858, now connects it to St. Mary’s Church.
Interior alterations have practically obliterated the original floor plan. A stair hall occupies a central compartment at the north side, and the stairs appear to be original. Only two major rooms retain some of their original finish. A large one on the south side of the first floor, now used as a chapel, has walls paneled in plaster and a plaster cornice. Another, at the east end, features a plaster cornice, a ceiling divided by triple panels, and a wooden mantelpiece.
The building, in fair condition, is used as a residence by the Redemptionist Fathers and is not accessible to the public. It is part of Colonial Annapolis Historic District.
Carrollton Manor, Maryland ⊗
_Location: Frederick County, on the south side of Manor Wood Road, immediately east of the East Alco Aluminum Company Plant, just west of Buckeystown._
In 1765 Charles Carroll, returning to Maryland after completing his extensive education in Europe, built this home near the mouth of the Monocacy River along Tuscarora Creek on a 10,000-acre tract of land he had acquired from his father. Young Carroll never spent much time at Carrollton Manor. Shortly after he had constructed it, his father died, and he preferred to spend his time at Doughoregan Manor, the ancestral family home in Howard County.
The rectangular manor is constructed of native limestone. It rises 2½ stories above an elevated basement. A pair of chimneys are located at the west end of the gable roof, and a single chimney at the east end. A later one-story addition extends from the east end. The central door, sheltered by a one-story porch on the north, is topped by a rectangular transom and flanked by sidelights, both probably dating from the Greek Revival period. Dating from the same time are the two triple windows in the first story at the rear of the house. A one-story porch that once extended across that elevation has been removed.
[Illustration: Carrollton Manor.]
The house contains four rooms on each floor. East of the front entrance is a stair hall and a spacious dining room; to the west, a library and living room. Large double doors connect the living and dining rooms. The second floor contains four bedrooms; the attic, four more.
Upon Carroll’s death, his descendants inherited the manor. In 1968 an aluminum company bought the property and erected a large office and plant buildings and a spur railroad track to the west of the house. In excellent condition, though never restored, it is today used as a company residence and is not open to visitors. A nearby chapel, erected by Carroll, is still used as a parish church.
Chase-Lloyd House, Maryland ∆
_Location: Anne Arundel County, 22 Maryland Avenue, Annapolis._
Although Samuel Chase began building this house in 1769 while he was a young lawyer, he never resided in it, for he sold it unfinished in 1771 to Edward Lloyd IV, a wealthy Maryland planter and politician. Lloyd immediately engaged architect William Buckland, newly arrived in Annapolis, to continue construction, completed 3 years later with the aid of local architect William Noke.
[Illustration: Chase-Lloyd House.]
The structure, one of the first three-story Georgian townhouses erected in the American Colonies, ranks among the finest of its type in the United States and is one of the major attractions in Colonial Annapolis Historic District. The house rises three full stories over a high basement. Two massive interior chimneys protrude through the broad, low, hip-on-hip roof. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond and adorned by belt courses of rubbed brick at the second- and third-floor levels. An enriched cornice embellishes the roofline. At the front, or east, facade the axial line features a tall, projecting central pavilion and entranceway, an arched window on the third floor, and crowning pediment with a small bull’s-eye window.
Of particular note is the entranceway, in essentially a Palladian motif. The three-section composition was rarely used in Georgian houses before the Revolution. The door is topped by a fanlight and flanked by two panels of sidelights. The three openings are framed by two engaged Ionic columns and two Ionic pilasters which support an entablature that becomes an open pediment over the door. The triple windows on the second floor over the entrance door and the arched windows in the center of the three on the third are also unusual.
The sides of the house lack architectural distinction, but in the rear a large Palladian window within a brick arch ornaments and lights the interior stair landing. The only exterior alterations are a three-story wooden screened porch and adjoining steel fire escape on the south side of the structure near the west corner.
The floor plan is typical of the center hall type of house, with four rooms on each floor, except that lateral halls divide the front and rear rooms. The unusually large center hall is dominated by a magnificent stairway and a pair of free-standing Ionic columns bearing a full entablature. A parlor, large dining room, sitting room, and breakfast room are located on the first floor, which has been only slightly altered. A small back stairway is adjacent to the breakfast room. Ornamentation of the plaster ceilings and doorways is outstanding. The dining room, the most elaborate room, contains an imported Italian mantelpiece that is richly decorated. The second floor is also exquisitely ornamented.
The Lloyd family owned the house until 1847, when Chase’s descendants acquired it. In 1888 one of them bequeathed it to the Protestant Episcopal Church for use as a home for elderly women. It is in excellent condition and is well maintained. The first floor is open to visitors and contains some items that belonged to the Lloyds or to the later Chase owners. The upper two floors are utilized for the ladies’ home.
Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Maryland ⊗
_Location: 800 East Lombard Street, Baltimore._
This was the winter home of Charles Carroll of Carrollton during his twilight years and the site of his death in 1832. Christopher Deshon, a Baltimore merchant, built it in 1811–12, and in 1818 sold it to Richard Caton, husband of Carroll’s youngest daughter, Mary. Carroll spent the winters there with the couple until his demise. The rest of the time, he resided at Doughoregan Manor in Howard County.
The Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, a good example of Classic Revival architecture, is constructed of brick laid in Flemish bond. It stands 3½ stories high. Six pedimented dormers—three each at the south (front) and north elevations—as well as a central chimney and two end chimneys pierce the low gable roof. A belt course at the second-floor line and dentil cornice at roof level, both of sandstone, extend across the north and south elevations. Recessed rectangular panels of wood are inserted between the second- and third-story windows of the south and west elevations. A large semicircular window is located in the west gable of the attic story. The wide-paneled center door at the main entrance to the house is sheltered by an Ionic marble portico surmounted by an iron railing.
[Illustration: Deshon-Caton-Carroll House.]
The central hall plan provides for four large rooms, two on each side of the hallway on each of the first three floors. The front entrance opens into a stair hall, in which an elegant spiral stairway rises in an open well up through the three stories. A counting room for business purposes, family dining room, breakfast room, and study occupy the first floor. The second floor, once used primarily for recreation and formal entertainment, contains a large parlor, formal dining room, music room, and library. Bedrooms occupy the third floor, and the attic at one time contained slave quarters.
The house remained in the Caton family until 1856. During the last quarter of that century, a furniture store occupied the first floor, and the owner divided the upper floors into apartments. In 1914 the city of Baltimore acquired the building, and 3 years later put it to use as the “Carroll Vocational School.” From about 1930 until 1956 the structure served as a recreation center. Subsequently the house faced the threat of demolition, prevented by the efforts of the Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc. In 1963 the mayor of Baltimore decided that the residence should be preserved. Upon completion of restoration and renovation, in 1967, it was placed under the Municipal Museum, a nonprofit corporation. This organization operates it today for the city as a historic house museum.
Doughoregan Manor, Maryland ∆
_Location: Howard County, on the west side of Manor Lane, about 1 mile south of Md. 144 and 8 miles west of Ellicott City._
Charles Carroll III of Carrollton preferred this manor, the ancestral family home, over his other residences. He lived in it for most of the period 1766–1832 rather than at Carrollton Manor or his Annapolis townhouse. In 1717 Charles Carroll I had acquired the 10,000 acres that originally comprised the estate. His son Charles II probably built the main section of the mansion about a decade later. In the 1760’s Charles III inherited it. In the 1830’s, after his death in 1832, it was greatly enlarged. It is still owned and occupied by the Carroll family.
[Illustration: Doughoregan Manor.]
Much changed over the years, Doughoregan Manor is now an architecturally distinguished complex of buildings united into one long structure, about 300 feet in extent. The original manor was a Georgian, 1½-story, brick structure with gambrel roof and two pairs of end chimneys. A kitchen-servants’ quarters and a chapel, both probably one-story and constructed of brick about 1780, stood detached from the house, on the south and north respectively.
In the 1830’s Charles Carroll V undertook a comprehensive expansion in the Greek Revival style that converted the manor to its present five-part composition. He raised the main house to two stories and cut off the gable roof to form a flat deck, which was balustraded and surmounted by an octagonal cupola. At the front (east) center door he added a one-story portico with four Doric columns. To the rear of the residence, he attached another portico, over which he erected a room. Along both sides of the rear portico, he constructed a covered, one-story veranda with iron columns that extended the length of the main house. The heights of the kitchen-servants’ quarters and the chapel were raised and they were connected to the main house by two-story wings, topped by unifying wooden walkways.
Inside the central part of the mansion, an oak-paneled central hall extends from front to rear. The principal stairway is located in a small side hall adjacent to the front of the main hall. On one side of the main hall in the 1727 portion of the house are library and large parlor; on the other, small parlor and dining room. The second-floor bedrooms, remodeled in the 1830’s, were completely renovated and redecorated about 1915. The chapel, refurbished in the 1830’s and again after the Civil War, is in good condition and is still used as a parish church. It is one of the few surviving private chapels in the United States dating from the 18th century. The grave of Charles Carroll III is located next to the altar.
The estate, comprising 2,800 acres, and mansion are well maintained. They are not open to the public.
Habre-de-Venture, Maryland ∆
_Location: Charles County, on the west side of Rose Hill Road, which connects Md. 6 and Md. 225, about 1 mile north of Port Tobacco._
In 1771 Thomas Stone built this plantation house near the busy riverport town of Port Tobacco, Md. He lived in it during his most politically active years, and on his death in 1787 was buried in the adjacent family graveyard.
[Illustration: Habre-de-Venture.]
A Georgian structure of brick and frame, Habre-de-Venture consists of five parts: a central house connected to two wings by two covered passageways, or “hyphens.” The hyphens and wings extend southward to form a semicircle. The main building is a 1½-story structure over an elevated basement. It has a dormered gambrel roof flanked by external end chimneys. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond with glazed headers. Center doors and full-length, one-story porches are located at the front and rear of the house.
A center hall, with stairs set against its west wall, divides the central unit into dining and living rooms. In 1928 the Baltimore Museum of Art removed the elaborate hand-carved paneling in the living room; it was subsequently replaced with a replica. The fireplace wall in the dining room protrudes out into the room, and the flue curves back to the wall and up to the ceiling.
To the west of the central house is the kitchen wing, a low, two-story, gable-roofed structure with brick ends and frame sides. Its second story, added about 1820, contains two bedrooms. The connecting hyphen, originally gabled roof and one story in height and containing a breakfast room, was increased to 1½ stories by the addition of a gambrel roof with dormers to provide bathrooms for the second floor of the main house. The east wing, a gambrel-roofed, low, 1½-story frame structure that has one room on each floor, served as Stone’s law office. A one-story gabled brick hyphen connects it to the main house.
Except for the alterations mentioned above, Habre-de-Venture has changed but slightly through the years. In excellent condition and carefully restored, it now serves as a private residence and is not shown publicly.
Paca House, Maryland ∆
_Location: Anne Arundel County, 186 Prince George Street, Annapolis._
William Paca, a young, newly married lawyer, built this townhouse in the years 1763–65 as his principal residence and occupied it until 1780. At that time, a few months after the death of his second wife, he sold the house and moved to Wye Plantation, a country estate in Queen Annes County he had acquired about 1760.
[Illustration: Paca House.]
The Paca House is a large, five-part Georgian structure, today part of Colonial Annapolis Historic District. Two brick wings (kitchen and office) sit at right angles to the main axis of the central house, to which they are connected by brick passageways, or hyphens. The central unit is a gable-roofed brick structure of 2½ stories over an elevated basement. The front facade is laid in all-header bond, and the ends in Flemish bond. The window arches, of rubbed brick, are flat. A small, one-story frame porch, which is pedimented and done in modified Roman Doric style, provides access to the central entrance.
Large brick chimneys rise from both ends of the central house, and smaller ones from the wings. Three gabled dormers are situated in the front of the main roof and two in the rear. The 1½-story wings are also gable-roofed. The west wing and both of the hyphens had been raised to two stories in the 19th century, but were recently lowered to their original height.
On each side of the center hall in the main house are two rooms. The interior has been greatly altered over the years, and portions of the original wood and plaster finish remain only in the center hall, the stair hall behind it, and the parlor. The main stairway is equipped with the original Chinese Chippendale balustrade.
In 1899 the Paca House became the Carvel Hall Hotel, enlarged in 1906 by rear additions that completely hid the back of the original house. In 1964, when the structure faced demolition, Historic Annapolis, Inc., purchased the Paca House portion. The next year, the State of Maryland acquired the entire property. In 1967–69 it razed the 1906 hotel additions and restored the gardens. Presently, the Maryland Historical Trust, a public agency, holds title to the house, but Historic Annapolis, Inc., retains all the responsibilities and rights of ownership and administration. When this volume went to press, the residence was undergoing an extensive restoration program and was not accessible to the public. Historic Annapolis, Inc., plans to utilize it as a guesthouse for visiting dignitaries, though the first floor will be open to visitors.
Peggy Stewart House, Maryland
_Location: Anne Arundel County, 207 Hanover Street, Annapolis._
Thomas Stone purchased this Georgian residence in 1783 and until his death 4 years later occupied it while in Annapolis, though he maintained his home at Habre-de-Venture in Charles County. The Peggy Stewart House was built sometime between 1761 and 1764 by Thomas Rutland. Its owner in the period 1772–79 was Anthony Stewart, an Annapolis merchant. In 1774 Revolutionaries forced him to burn his ship, the _Peggy Stewart_, when he attempted to land a cargo of tea on which he had paid taxes. Five years later, he fled to England.
[Illustration: Peggy Stewart House.]
Over the years, the rectangular brick house has been substantially modified on both the exterior and interior. Its 2½ stories rest on an elevated basement. At the time of a major alteration in 1894, the gable roof was replaced by the present hip roof, which has a cutoff deck and balustrade, and the chimneys were rebuilt in their current form. Two gabled dormers are located at the front of the roof and one at each side. Highlighting the ends of the house are central pavilions, which have triangular pediments with round center windows. The chimneys cut through the front corners of the pediments. A wooden box cornice with frieze board below extends around the eaves. A large wing at the rear is a later addition.
The front facade of the house is comprised of all-header bond and the sides of English bond. The basement and first-story windows are topped by segmental arches, but the second-story windows have flat ones. The sills are of stone, and louvered shutters flank the first- and second-floor windows. The front entranceway, sheltered by a small wooden porch with a triangular broken pediment, has a paneled door that is surmounted by a rectangular glazed transom.
In 1837 the house had 12 rooms, eight of which were equipped with fireplaces. The original portion of the house, excluding the rear addition, has a center hall floor plan. The stairs are set against the east wall, beyond which is a large living room. A parlor and dining room are situated to the west of the hall. Five bedrooms are located upstairs. The interior of the house has been extensively remodeled in recent times. Only one fireplace, in the southeast front room on the second floor, retains its original mantel.
The Peggy Stewart House, also known as the Rutland-Peggy Stewart House and the Rutland-Stewart-Stone House, is privately owned and is not open to the public. It is part of Colonial Annapolis Historic District.
Adams (John) Birthplace, Massachusetts ∆
_Location: Norfolk County, 133 Franklin Street, Quincy._
This was the original homestead of the Adams family and the birthplace of John Adams. Although not architecturally impressive, it is historically notable as the place where John Adams grew to manhood. It is adjacent to the John Quincy Adams Birthplace.
The original house, a typical New England saltbox structure of frame construction with a massive central chimney, was probably built about 1681. It consisted of two lower and two upper rooms. Extensive alterations were made over the years. The rear lean-to, built at some unknown date in the 18th century, added two downstairs rooms and two small upper ones, separated by a large attic.
In 1720 John Adams’ father, “Deacon” John Adams, purchased the house, where in 1735 young John was born. He lived there until his marriage in 1764. He and his bride moved into a residence next door that he had inherited from his father in 1761 and 6 years later was to be the birthplace of his son John Quincy. In 1774 John bought his birthplace home from his brother. His public duties and legal business kept him away most of the time. By 1783, when he and his family were in Europe, tenants resided in both the John Adams Birthplace and the John Quincy Adams Birthplace. In 1788, when John Adams sailed home, he settled at “Peacefield,” or the “Old House,” now Adams National Historic Site, in another part of Quincy. In 1803 he sold both birthplaces to his son John Quincy.
[Illustration: John Adams and John Quincy Adams Birthplaces.]
The John Adams Birthplace remained in the possession of the Adams family until 1940, when they deeded it to the city of Quincy. In 1896 they had given the Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, permission to restore the residence, which the next year was made accessible to the public. When the Adams Chapter dissolved in 1950, the Quincy Historical Society took over the administration. In excellent condition and still owned by the city, the house is open to the public.
Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Massachusetts ∆
_Location: Norfolk County, 141 Franklin Street, Quincy._
This frame structure was John Adams’ residence and law office during the War for Independence and the birthplace of his son John Quincy. In 1744 “Deacon” John Adams had acquired the residence, the oldest part of which may date from 1663. In 1761 he bequeathed it to young John. At the time of the latter’s marriage 3 years later, he moved into it from his neighboring birthplace so that he could better accommodate his library and set up a law office. In 1767 John Quincy was born in the house.
Shortly thereafter, John’s growing law practice and role in public affairs made it convenient for him to live in Boston most of the time, but his wife and son remained in the Quincy home until after the War for Independence. By 1783, when the family was in Europe, tenants were occupying it. After coming back to the United States in 1788, John Adams took up residence at “Peacefield,” or the “Old House,” now Adams National Historic Site. In 1803 John Quincy purchased both birthplaces from his father, and from 1805 to 1807 lived in his own birthplace.
The John Quincy Adams Birthplace is well preserved. Like the John Adams Birthplace, it is of typical New England saltbox design, originally comprised of two upper and two lower rooms arranged around a huge central chimney, and has been extensively altered. John Adams added a lean-to of two rooms at the back for use as a new kitchen during the time he used the original kitchen as a law office-library.
In 1897 the Quincy Historical Society, aided by Adams heirs, restored and opened the John Quincy Adams Birthplace to the public. In 1940 the Adams family turned it over to the city of Quincy. Administered by the Quincy Historical Society, it is accessible to the public.
Adams National Historic Site, Massachusetts ☑
_Location: Norfolk County, bounded by Adams Street, Furnace Brook Parkway, and Newport Avenue, Quincy; address: 135 Adams Street, Quincy, Mass. 02169._
Featuring the Adams Mansion, this site is a memorial to four generations of the distinguished Adams family, who resided in it from 1788 until 1927.
John Adams (1735–1826), signer of the Declaration of Independence, diplomat, the first Vice President, and the second President, founded a long line of men who were outstanding in politics and intellectual life. John Quincy (1767–1848), his son, won fame as a diplomat, U.S. Congressman, Secretary of State, and sixth President. Charles Francis Adams (1807–86), son of John Quincy, became a U.S. Congressman, diplomat, and author. His four sons—John Quincy II (1833–94), Charles Francis, Jr. (1835–1915), Henry (1838–1918), and Brooks (1848–1927)—made notable marks in politics, literature, and historiography.
[Illustration: Adams Mansion.]
The Adams Mansion, named “Peacefield” by John Adams but known to some as the Vassall-Adams House and later to the Adams family as the “Old House,” was dear and close to all of them. In 1730–31 Maj. Leonard Vassall, a wealthy West Indian sugar planter who had come to Massachusetts some 8 years before, built the oldest part of the building. Comprising the front western section of the present residence, it was a 2½-story frame structure of Georgian design with clapboarded walls and gambrel roof. The first floor contained two rooms separated by a central stair hall; the second floor, two bedrooms and center hall; and the dormered attic, three smaller chambers. The kitchen and servants’ quarters were detached.
John Adams, while still Minister to Great Britain, bought the house in September 1787 from Vassall’s grandson, Leonard Vassall Borland, and on his return the next year took possession. At that time, he apparently attached the 2½-story kitchen and servants’ quarters to the rear, or northwest, corner of the main structure. In 1800, near the end of his Presidency, he doubled the size of the residence by adding a large, 2½-story, L-shaped wing of frame at the east end. It was constructed in the same Georgian style as the original house and contained on the first floor a second entry hall and staircase and the “Long Room” to the east of the hall. Adams’ large study-library was located on the second floor.
Other additions were made in the 19th century. In 1836 John Quincy Adams built the passage along the back, or north, side of the structure connecting the two rear service ells. In 1869 Charles Francis added 30 feet to the kitchen ell for additional servants’ quarters; the following year, a detached stone library overlooking the garden; and in 1873, the stone stable. Brooks constructed the present entrance gates in 1906.
After retiring from the Presidency in 1801, John Adams lived in the house year round until his death in 1826. Subsequently, until Brooks’ death in 1927, other family members resided in it full time or spent their summers there. The furnishings, to which each generation contributed, reveal the continuity of life in the residence and the tastes of the Adams family.
In 1946 the Adams Memorial Society donated the property to the Federal Government. Consisting of almost 5 acres, it includes the well-maintained house, library, garden, and stables. It may be visited from spring until the fall.
Elmwood, Massachusetts ∆
_Location: Middlesex County, 33 Elmwood Street, Cambridge._
This impressive 18th-century mansion, also known as the Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House, was the residence of three men prominent in American history: Andrew Oliver, royal Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (1771–74); Elbridge Gerry, politician, diplomat, Governor of the Commonwealth, signer of the Declaration, U.S. Representative, and Vice President; and James Russell Lowell, author, poet, teacher, and statesman.
In 1767 Andrew Oliver, while serving as royal secretary of Massachusetts, erected the building. An ex-stamp tax collector and a firm Tory, he aroused the hatred of the Whigs, who on at least one occasion attacked his home. He died in 1774 while serving as royal Lieutenant Governor. Some time during the War for Independence, Oliver’s estate including the mansion, was confiscated.
[Illustration: Elmwood.]
In 1787 Elbridge Gerry, who the previous year had retired from business in Marblehead, Mass., moved to Cambridge and purchased the estate. He lived there for the rest of his long career in public service. In March 1813 he took the oath of office as Vice President in his home. Because of heavy debts, on his death in Washington, D.C., in 1814, his Cambridge residence remained his sole real estate holding.
The mansion was also the birthplace and lifelong home of James Russell Lowell (1819–91), one of the most distinguished men of letters of his era, as well as a prominent U.S. diplomat. Except during the period 1877–85, when he served as Minister to Spain and Great Britain, he lived at his birthplace, which he named “Elmwood.”
Elmwood is a large, square, clapboarded-frame structure in Georgian style with brick-lined walls and two interior chimneys. The first- and second-story windows are topped by cornices. Above the foreshortened third-story windows, typical in three-story Georgian houses, runs a boldly modillioned cornice. A balustrade encloses the low-pitched hip roof. The most striking exterior feature, however, is the entranceway, which is flanked by Tuscan pilasters supporting a classic entablature decorated with a frieze. A large window rests on the entablature parapet motif and is flanked by Ionic pilasters and topped by a triangular pediment.
A one-story porch with balustraded roof deck on the north side of the house, as well as a terrace on the south side, are later additions. Located in the rear, at the northwest corner, is a two-story service wing; in the rear, at the southwest corner, a one-story wing. Both of them are of frame construction. All three floors in the main section are bisected into two rooms on either side by a central hall. Portions of the interior have been altered and modernized.
Donated to Harvard University in 1962 and now used as the presidential residence, Elmwood is not open to the public. The house and grounds are in fine condition.
Gerry Birthplace, Massachusetts ⊗
_Location: Essex County, 44 Washington Street, Marblehead._
Elbridge Gerry was born in this framehouse and resided in it until 1787, when he moved to Cambridge, Mass. His father, Thomas, had built it about 1730, and it remained in possession of the Gerry family until 1820.
Architectural evidence strongly suggests that the L-shaped building was originally a two-story Georgian structure. About 1820 the two stories were apparently raised and a third one built underneath. Since that time, changes have been slight. The original interior finish of the first story is entirely 19th century, and the original paneling on the walls of the second story is clearly 18th century.
[Illustration: Gerry Birthplace.]
Today, the exterior is clapboarded. The long arm of the ell faces north toward the street. A central hall divides the first floor of the long arm into two rooms, the east and west parlors, both with 19th century mantels, fireplaces, and flanking arched alcoves. The west parlor opens into the short arm of the ell, which extends southward to the rear and contains the dining room. Attached to the rear of the short arm is a small rear service wing containing an L-shaped, one-story kitchen. A one-story open veranda runs around the east and south elevations of the long side of the ell, and a small porch flanks the dining room on its west side. The second story contains three bedrooms, all displaying the original 18th-century paneling on the fireplace walls. The third floor consists of four bedrooms.
The house and grounds, privately owned and not open to the public, are well maintained.
Hancock-Clarke House, Massachusetts ∆
_Location: Middlesex County, 35 Hancock Street, Lexington._
The only extant residence associated with John Hancock, this was his boyhood home. In 1744, upon the death of his father at Quincy, the 7-year-old boy came to live at this house with his grandfather, Rev. John Hancock. In 1750 the lad joined his childless uncle, Thomas Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant who adopted him.
[Illustration: Hancock-Clarke House.]
By the time of the Revolution, Rev. Jonas Clarke, a relative by marriage of the Hancocks, occupied the house, which had been built as a parsonage by Rev. John Hancock. Clarke encouraged Revolutionaries to use his home as a meetingplace and refuge. On the evening of April 18, 1775, patriot leaders Hancock and Samuel Adams were visiting there. Around midnight, after everyone had gone to bed, Paul Revere and later William Dawes, warning the countryside of the approach of British troops, galloped up and informed the household. A few hours later, Hancock and Adams fled northward to Burlington, Mass. They later moved from place to place, staying away from Boston, until they proceeded to Philadelphia to attend the Continental Congress, which convened the next month.
The Hancock-Clarke House consists of two frame sections, erected by Rev. John Hancock at different times. The original one, built in 1698, presently forms the small rear ell, 1½ stories high with gambrel roof. A living room-kitchen and tiny study are located downstairs and two low-studded chambers upstairs. The 2½-story front, or main, section of the house dates from 1734 and was financed by Thomas Hancock for his father. It has a large central chimney and contains a short center hall and two rooms on each of the two floors.
In 1896, when the building faced demolition, the Lexington Historical Society acquired it and moved it from across the street to its present location. In 1902 the society constructed a rear brick addition containing a fireproof vault to protect its more valuable possessions. Restored to its 18th-century appearance and well maintained, the Hancock-Clarke House is open to the public and serves as headquarters of the society. Recently the society purchased the original site of the house, where foundations are visible.
Bartlett House, New Hampshire ∆
_Location: Rockingham County, on the west side of N.H. 111, opposite the town hall, Kingston._
This is the only extant structure closely associated with Josiah Bartlett. He built it in 1774, after fire consumed his earlier home on the same site, and lived in it until his death in 1795.
[Illustration: Bartlett House.]
The rectangular frame residence is clapboarded and two stories in height. Two interior chimneys pierce the gabled roof. Exterior louvered shutters border the windows. Many of the house’s existing features date from the second third of the 19th century, when it was remodeled in the Greek Revival style. They include the giant corner pilasters; cornices over the first-story windows; the center door with cornice, sidelights, and pilasters; and the one-story porch across the south end of the structure. Another addition, at the southwest corner, was the two-story frame ell, which gave the building its present L-shape. This ell contains a summer kitchen and workroom on the first floor and four bedrooms on the second.
Center halls bisect the rooms on both stories of the main house into pairs. The downstairs hall is divided into two sections, each containing a stairway set against the north wall. To the south of the hall on the first floor are the living room and the dining room, originally the kitchen. These rooms are equipped with the original chimneys and fireplaces. North of the hall is a parlor and behind it a bedroom. Around 1860 the chimney for these rooms and the fireplace in the parlor were rebuilt, and two closets that flanked the parlor fireplace were converted into the existing arched alcoves. The second floor contains four bedrooms, two on each side of the central hall. The original wide floorboards are still in place throughout the residence.
The house, in excellent condition, is still in the possession of Bartlett descendants and is not open to the public. It has never been restored, but is furnished with some original Bartlett pieces, including a medical table and instruments.
Moffatt-Ladd House, New Hampshire ∆
_Location: Rockingham County, 154 Market Street, Portsmouth._
An outstanding example of a late Georgian mansion, this impressive three-story structure was the longtime residence of William Whipple. Ship carpenters constructed it in 1763 for John Moffatt, a sea captain and wealthy merchant. He presented it the following year as a wedding gift to his son, Samuel, a merchant-shipowner. In 1768, after the latter had failed in business and fled to the West Indies to escape creditors, Captain Moffatt reacquired it and lived in it for the rest of his life. Whipple and his wife, Catherine, Moffatt’s daughter, moved into the house the same year as the captain. Whipple resided there until his death in 1785; his wife and apparently his father-in-law, too, survived him.
[Illustration: Moffatt-Ladd House.]
The square, clapboarded building stands on a slight elevation overlooking old Portsmouth Harbor. Noteworthy features of the elaborate exterior include white corner quoins and richly pedimented first- and second-floor windows. The third-story windows, smaller in size, abut the distinctive cornice. Side windows, like those on the third-floor front, lack pediments. Rear windows on the first two stories have flat arches with lengthened keystones. The hip roof, flanked by three end chimneys, is cut off to form a flat deck, or captain’s walk, which is enclosed by an attractive balustrade with urn finials. A delicate fence with large ornamental posts, also topped by urn finials, spans the front of the house, which is approached by a flight of granite steps that lead up to the portico-covered entranceway. Near the front northeast comer of the residence is the countinghouse, or office (1810), a small, square building with a hip roof.
The interior of the house is as highly embellished as the exterior. The outstanding room on the first floor is the unusually spacious entrance hall, one of the finest in New England. Its carved cornice is handsome, and the walls are covered with rare imported French wallpaper of the early 19th century. The beautiful and finely carved flight of stairs is lighted by a roundheaded window in the side wall above the landing. Except for the simple detail in the drawing room, that in other first-floor rooms—dining room and pantry—is rich. Four bedrooms are located on the second floor, and five additional chambers on the third. Three of the second-floor bedrooms have richly carved overmantels.
The carefully restored house and grounds were owned by the Ladd family, descendants of the Moffatts through marriage, until 1969. From 1913 until 1969, they leased the house to the Colonial Dames of America, which maintained it for public display. In 1969 the Colonial Dames acquired full title to the property. The first two floors of the house are furnished in period pieces, and the third floor is not open.
Thornton House, New Hampshire ∆
_Location: Rockingham County, 2 Thornton Street, Derry Village._
Matthew Thornton lived in this residence, which has since been considerably altered, during his medical and most of his political career. He probably acquired it in 1740, the year he moved from Worcester, Mass., to present Derry Village (then a part of Londonderry) to set up his medical practice. He resided in it until about 1780, when he retired as a doctor and moved to a farm near Merrimack, N.H.
The gable roof of the two-story frame structure, of the saltbox type, slopes steeply to the rear, or north, and forms a one-story lean-to. Two interior chimneys sit behind the ridge of the roof. The exterior, remodeled in the Greek Revival style probably in the mid-19th century, features giant pilasters on the front corners and a one-story portico over the center door. The clapboarding is a replacement of the original. All windows, including those in the gable ends, have exterior louvered shutters, and flat cornices surmount those on the first floor. A one-story frame service ell, extending from the northwest corner and giving the house its present L-shape, contains the modernized kitchen and what were once workrooms for servants.
[Illustration: Thornton House.]
Inside the house, a center hall bisects the rooms into two pairs and is divided into two sections, each with its own stairway on the east wall. To the east of the hall are the living room and modern laundry room; to the west, dining room and present family room. The two chimneys, built between the pairs of rooms to provide four fireplaces, one for each room, were rebuilt on a smaller scale in the early 19th century for use with Franklin stoves. Thus none of the original fireplaces and mantels exist any longer, but a 19th-century mantel remains in the dining room. The opposite fireplace in the family room, however, is modern. Features dating from the 18th century include the framing and wide floorboards, visible in all rooms except the family room where they are covered. The second floor contains three bedrooms.
The Thornton House, in fair condition, is used as a private residence and is not open to the public. Its present owner hopes to restore it.
Hopkinson House, New Jersey ∆
_Location: Burlington County, 101 Farnsworth Avenue, Bordentown._
Owned by the Hopkinson family for several generations, this house was the residence of signer Francis Hopkinson from 1774 until his death in 1791. It was built in 1750 by merchant John Imlay (Emley), who used part of it as a store. Sometime before 1768 Joseph Borden, a prominent New Jersey citizen, acquired it. Hopkinson married his daughter at Philadelphia in 1768, and, after a tour as customs collector at New Castle, Del. (1772–74), moved to Bordentown and took up residence with his father-in-law.
Upon Hopkinson’s death, his eldest son, Joseph (1770–1842), inherited the house. He achieved fame as composer, lawyer, judge, and politician. Among his distinguished guests were Irish poet Thomas Moore, Thomas Paine, and Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother. The Hopkinson family retained possession of the property until 1915; since then, it has been owned by the Wells family.
The Hopkinson House is an L-shaped, brick and frame structure with a gambrel, dormered roof. The main 2½-story section is constructed of brick. The center door is topped by a rectangular transom, flanked by sidelights, and sheltered by a segmental hood. A central hall, divided into two sections by means of a wide folding door with an arched fanlight above, bisects the first floor into two large rooms, living room and library. Both of these are currently used by the Bordentown Chamber of Commerce as an office and museum, open to the public. The front portion of the central hall serves as an entrance hall; the rear section, as the stair hall. A narrow hall extends from the stair hall south across the rear of the main house. The second and third floors, each containing four bedrooms, are used as apartments.
[Illustration: Hopkinson House.]
A two-story brick wing extends to the rear from the northeast corner of the main section. Its first-floor dining room and the two bedrooms comprising the second floor form an apartment unit. Attached to this wing at the rear of the brick arm is a two-story frame wing that once contained the kitchen and servant’s bedroom.
The exterior of the house, except for the metal roof, appears to be little altered. Interior features are plastered walls, wide floorboards, and 19th-century mantels. Much of the original woodwork and trim has apparently been replaced, but the basic floor plan has not been greatly changed. The residence is in good condition.
Maybury Hill, New Jersey ∆
_Location: Mercer County, 346 Snowden Lane, Princeton._
Maybury Hill, built about 1725, was the birthplace and boyhood home of North Carolina signer Joseph Hewes. His father leased it from 1730 until 1755.
The house provides a fine example of Georgian architecture. It was originally a small, two-story stone structure with gable roof. A short distance away, at the northeast corner, stood a detached kitchen building. In 1735, following a fire, the main house was rebuilt. In 1753 a major addition was made on the north side connecting it with the kitchen building. This resulted in an L-shaped, two-story structure with gabled roof and three end chimneys. The only alteration of consequence since that time occurred about 1900, when the fieldstone exterior walls were covered with concrete.
Flat brick arches top the windows. Second-story windows have exterior louvered shutters; those on the first, paneled shutters. Today the house has a center hall floor plan. To the south of the hall is the large parlor, which dates from 1725. To the north are the dining and living rooms, added in 1753. Both of them have paneled walls, shell cabinets, and exposed ceiling beams. The kitchen, dating from 1725, is still in the northeast corner of the building. The dining room fireplace is faced with tile. Four bedrooms occupy the upstairs. All the floors are constructed of wide boards.
Little-altered Maybury Hill was renovated in 1920, and is still in excellent condition. A private residence, it is not open to visitors.
[Illustration: Maybury Hill.]
Morven, New Jersey ∆
_Location: Mercer County, 55 Stockton Street, Princeton._
Morven was the birthplace and lifelong home of Richard Stockton (1730–81). In the summer of 1783 it was also the official residence of his brother-in-law Elias Boudinot, President of the Continental Congress, which was then meeting in Princeton. That same year, many Revolutionary leaders gathered at the mansion to celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the War for Independence.
Between 1701 and 1709 Stockton’s grandfather, also named Richard, built the earliest section of Morven. It grew in a series of stages until about 1775, when its exterior appearance approximated that of today. Because fires in 1776, set by the British during the War for Independence, and 1821 necessitated extensive repairs, the interior dates from the late 18th or early 19th century.
[Illustration: Morven.]
A large Georgian mansion of brick, Morven consists of three sections: a main central, two-story section over a raised basement and two lower, attached, two-story wings. The facade of the main section, although basically early Georgian in style, was altered in the 19th century by the addition of a wide, one-story, Greek Revival porch. A central hall divides the section into a large dining room and the Gold Room. Fireplace walls in these rooms are fully paneled. The central hall intersects a stair hall, which runs across the rear of the main portion of the house and connects with the two wings. On the first floor of the east wing are two large family rooms, the Red Room and library. This wing was partially burned by the British. The west service wing includes the kitchen. The only recent change, in 1945–54, was the addition of a solarium, or Green Room, at the rear of the main section; a one-story porch was enclosed to form the new room.
Morven remained in possession of the Stockton family until 1945, when Gov. and Mrs. Walter E. Edge acquired it. Nine years later, they donated it to the State of New Jersey. Since that time, it has been the official residence of the Governor. It is not accessible to the public.
President’s House, New Jersey ∆
_Location: Mercer County, on Nassau Street just northwest of Nassau Hall, on the Princeton University campus, Princeton._
From 1756 until 1879 this house was the official residence of the president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton University after 1896). In 1768, when John Witherspoon emigrated from Scotland to America to assume the presidency, he occupied it. While living there, he represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress and signed the Declaration. In 1779 he moved to his nearby farm, Tusculum. From then until 1794 his son-in-law Samuel S. Smith, vice president of the college, resided in the President’s House. From 1879 until 1968 it was the home of the Dean of the Faculty and was known as the “Dean’s House.” Since 1968, it has been called the Maclean House and has been used by the Princeton Alumni Council.
[Illustration: President’s House.]
The Georgian building was designed and constructed in 1756 by Robert Smith, a master carpenter of Philadelphia. Both on the exterior and the interior, it has changed only slightly throughout the years. It was originally a two-story brick structure, rectangular in shape, with gable roof. A one-story polygonal bay extends westward from the rear southwest comer. Near the same corner, a two-story service wing of brick and stone runs southward. Above the windows of the main facade are flat stone winged arches with keystones. Over the center door is a fanlight surmounted by a triangular pediment. The exterior has retained its original appearance and arrangement except that small double dormers were later inserted in the center of the front and rear roofs to create a third level. Additions in 1868 were a wide one-story frame porch on the front of the residence and a one-story frame, polygonal bay on the east side near the northeast front corner.
The center door opens into a central hall that extends through the house to rear stairs, against the east wall. To the east of the hall are a library and study. The fireplace wall in the library is fully paneled. To the west of the hall are a parlor and dining room. The second floor of the main house contains four bedrooms; the third floor, three additional rooms. Two bedrooms are located on the second floor of the service wing. In excellent condition, the house is open to the public.
Tusculum, New Jersey ⊗
_Location: Mercer County, 166 Cherry Hill Road, Princeton._
John Witherspoon made this his home from 1779 until his death in 1794. In 1773, while serving as president of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University), he acquired some farmland near Princeton and built Tusculum. For several years he leased out the house and farm, but in 1779 he moved from the President’s House to Tusculum.
The two-story Georgian structure of fieldstone with gabled roof and two pairs of end chimneys originally had only one extension, a lower, two-story, stone and frame wing attached to the west end of the house along its main axis. First-story windows of both sections have exterior paneled shutters; second-story windows, louvered shutters. In later years, two additional wings, both of frame and two stories in height, were added to the east and west ends of the structure. Designed in the same style as the rest of the house, they do not seriously alter the original appearance of the front elevation.
[Illustration: Tusculum.]
The stairway is located in an ell at the rear portion of the center hall along the east wall. To the east of the hall lie the living room and study; to the west, a large dining room, which occupies the entire west half of the main house. Four bedrooms are upstairs. The finish in two of them date from about 1825. The original service wing, on the west side, contains a kitchen on the first floor and two bedrooms on the second.
Tusculum has never undergone any major alterations and it is in excellent condition. In 1924 the present owner acquired it. Under his supervision, a Philadelphia firm restored it to its 18th-century appearance. The major changes were the removal of 19th-century porches at the front, or south, and elimination of a partition wall in the dining room. The structure continues to serve as a private residence and is not shown to visitors.
Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), New York ☑
_Location: Suffolk County, 20 Washington Avenue, Mastic, Long Island; address: Fire Island National Seashore, P.O. Box 229, Patchogue, N.Y. 11772._
This farmhouse, which stood on a large estate the Floyd family had acquired in 1718, was the birthplace in 1734 of William Floyd and his residence for the greater part of his life—though he and his family were forced to abandon it in the period 1776–83 and flee to Middletown, Conn. During that time, British troops and Loyalists considerably damaged the estate. In 1803 Floyd presented the house to his son Nicoll and moved to present Westernville, N.Y.
[Illustration: Floyd Birthplace.]
The earliest section of the large, frame Georgian building, which was enlarged several times along its west side during the 18th century, dates from about 1724. The structure now consists of a two-story main section and three wings. The former, entered through a Dutch door, is laid out in central hall fashion. To the west of the hall are a parlor and back of that an office; to the east, a dining room, behind which are a gunroom and pantry side by side. Interesting features on the first floor are exposed ceiling beams and wide floorboards. Seven bedrooms occupy the second floor.
Extending from the rear of the central hall is a two-story north service wing, probably added about 1900. A 1½-story east service wing, with a dormered, gable roof, dates from the 18th century. At the rear, or to the north, of this wing, is a third service wing, 1½ stories high. It contained the original kitchen and was once located at the west end of the main house. Except for this relocation and the addition of the north wing, the main house and east wing are basically unchanged from their 18th-century appearance. The overall structure is in good condition and is furnished with many original pieces belonging to the Floyd family.
In 1965 Floyd descendants donated 613 acres of the estate to the U.S. Government for inclusion in Fire Island National Seashore, but retained use and occupational rights to 43 acres and the house for a period of 25 years. Thus the residence will not be open to the public until 1990.
General Floyd House, New York ∆
_Location: Oneida County, on the west side of Main Street opposite Gilford Hill Road, Westernville._
William Floyd lived in this home from 1803 until his death in 1821. In 1784 he had begun purchasing frontier land near present Rome in western New York, and 3 years later the State granted him 10,240 acres in the same area. During the summers, he visited and developed his tracts. In 1803, nearly 70 years of age, he deeded his residence at present Mastic, on Long Island, N.Y., to his son Nicoll and moved the rest of his family to present Westernville, where he constructed this farmhouse. He spent the remainder of his life farming and improving his wilderness lands.
[Illustration: General Floyd House.]
Constructed of frame, the Georgian-style residence consists of a large, two-story main section with gable roof and a lower, two-story service wing attached to the west end. A center door, flanked by a pair of small windows, opens into a central hall that extends through the house to another door on the north side. The stairs are set against the west wall of the hall. To the east of the hall are two large parlors containing cupboards and paneled fireplace walls. To the west of the hall is a dining room and behind that a study. The rooms have plastered walls and ceilings and wide floorboards. Four bedrooms occupy the second floor, and the attic is unfinished. The service wing, which includes the kitchen, is located to the west of the dining room.
The structure, unaltered except for metal roofs and modern plumbing, is in excellent condition. It remained in the possession of Floyd descendants until 1956. Still privately owned, it is not open to the public.
Iredell House, North Carolina ⊗
_Location: Chowan County, 107 East Church Street, Edenton._
Early in 1798, in a state of extreme mental anguish because of mounting debts brought on by unwise speculation in lands, James Wilson, probably while visiting North Carolina on Federal circuit court matters, took refuge in this house. It was the home of his friend and fellow U.S. Supreme Court Justice James Iredell. Within a few months, Wilson died there.
[Illustration: Iredell House.]
The little-altered Iredell House is a large L-shaped structure. It is constructed of frame and is two stories in height with gable roof. Two-story verandas span the front, or south, and rear elevations of the long arm of the ell. The building was erected in three stages. The earliest, the present short, or east, arm of the ell, was built in 1759 by John Wilkins, with its narrow gable end fronting on the street. In 1776 Joseph Whedbee enlarged the structure by adding to its west side the two easternmost bays of the present five-bay long arm. In 1810 Iredell’s widow extended the arm by three bays to its present size and added the verandas.
The original section of the house contains a living room and one other room on the first floor and two bedrooms on the second. The first floor of the 1776 section consists of the dining room; the second floor, a large bedroom. These two sections are furnished as a historic house museum and are open to the public. The remaining section of the long arm, dating from 1810, serves as the caretaker’s quarters. The State owns and administers the residence.
Nash-Hooper House, North Carolina ∆
_Location: Orange County, 118 West Tryon Street, Hillsborough._
The Nash-Hooper House is the only extant residence that can be associated with William Hooper and is the only surviving home of a signer in the State. It was built in 1772 by Francis Nash, who later attained the rank of brigadier general in the Continental Army and lost his life in the War for Independence. In 1782, after the British had driven Hooper into hiding and destroyed his estate Finian near Wilmington, he moved to Hillsborough, where his family had fled. He purchased the Nash-Hooper House and resided in it until his death in 1790. Subsequently, from 1869 until 1875, it was the home of William A. Graham, former Governor of North Carolina.
The original portion of the rectangular, two-story house was constructed with a braced oak frame that was held together by pegs and pins. It rests on shale foundations over an elevated basement, in which are located two rooms and a center hall. The roof is gabled, with a chimney at each end. A one-story, frame, “sitting room” (later dining room) wing, added in 1819 on a log base, extends from the rear, or north, of the house and creates its present L-shape. Weatherboarded siding covers both sides of the wing and the front of the main section. All the windows are flanked with exterior louvered shutters. The one-story porch spanning the front of the house dates from the late 19th century. A detached kitchen, erected in 1819 just east of the house adjacent to the storeroom and dining room in the north wing, was demolished in 1908. Sometime during the period 1939–59, the dining room in the north wing was converted into the present kitchen, and bathrooms were installed in the residence.
[Illustration: Nash-Hooper House.]
The center hall of the main house is divided into two sections by means of an arch near the rear. West of the hall are a large library and a small study or bedroom; to the east, a large parlor and in the rear corner a narrow, lateral stair hall, with the stairs set against the north wall. Three bedrooms are located on the second floor, and the attic is unfinished. Wide floorboards are exposed throughout most of the main house. An original pine mantel remains in the dining room.
Although the little-altered Nash-Hooper House is structurally sound, it has never been restored, and extensive painting and plastering will be required to return it to good condition. It is privately owned and is not open to the public.
Hooper was buried to the east of his home in the garden. That part of the garden was later absorbed by the town cemetery, behind the Presbyterian Church. In 1894 Hooper’s remains were reinterred at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, N.C., though his original gravestone remains in the Hillsborough cemetery.
Independence National Historical Park, Pennsylvania ☑
_Location: Philadelphia County, in downtown Philadelphia; address: 313 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19106._
This park in the old part of Philadelphia is not only preeminent among the sites associated with the signers of the Declaration of Independence, but also notably commemorates other major aspects of the Nation’s founding and initial growth and many momentous national events. These include meetings of the First and Second Continental Congresses; adoption and signing of the Declaration, which marked the creation of the United States; and the labors of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which perpetuated it. As historian Carl Van Doren has said: “On account of the Declaration of Independence, [Independence Hall] is a shrine honored wherever the rights of man are honored. On account of the Constitution, it is a shrine cherished wherever the principles of self-government on a federal scale are cherished.”
[Illustration: Independence Hall.]
Independence Hall was originally the State House for the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1729 the provincial assembly set aside funds for the building, designed by lawyer Andrew Hamilton. Three years later, construction began under the supervision of master carpenter Edmund Wooley. In 1736 the assembly moved into the statehouse, which was not fully completed until 1756.
As American opposition to British colonial policies mounted, Philadelphia became a center of organized protest. To decide on a unified course of action, in 1774 the First Continental Congress met in newly finished Carpenters’ Hall, whose erection the Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia had begun 4 years earlier. In 1775 the Second Continental Congress, taking over the east room of the ground floor of the statehouse from the Pennsylvania assembly, moved from protest to resistance. Warfare had already begun in Massachusetts. Congress created an Army and appointed George Washington as commander in chief. Yet the final break with the Crown had not come; not until a year later would independence be declared.
On July 2, 1776, Congress passed Richard Henry Lee’s resolution of June 7 recommending independence. The Delegates then turned their attention to Thomas Jefferson’s draft of the Declaration, which had been submitted on June 28. After modification, it was adopted on July 4. Four days later, in Independence Square, the document was first read publicly, to the citizens of Philadelphia. In a formal ceremony on August 2, about 50 of the 56 signers affixed their signatures to the Declaration; the others apparently did so later.
Long, hard years of war ensued. In the late autumn and winter of 1776–77, the British threatened Philadelphia and Congress moved to Baltimore. Again in the fall of 1777 it departed, this time for York, Pa. During the British occupation of Philadelphia that winter and the next spring, the redcoats used Independence Hall as a barracks and as a hospital for American prisoners. In the summer of 1778, the Government returned. On November 3, 1781, Congress officially received news of Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown. Independence practically had been won.
Earlier that same year, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union had gone into effect. Under the Confederation, Congress stayed in Philadelphia until 1783, and later met in other cities. In 1787 the Constitutional Convention also held its highly secret sessions in Independence Hall, in the same chamber in which the Declaration had been adopted.
About the same time that Philadelphia became the second Capital (1790–1800) under the Constitution, after the Government had moved from New York City, Independence Hall acquired three new neighbors in Independence Square: City Hall (1791), on the east; County Court House (1789), on the west; and American Philosophical Society Hall, on the southeast. Beginning in 1790, Congress met in the County Court House (subsequently known as Congress Hall). The following year, after sitting for a few days in Independence Hall, the U.S. Supreme Court moved to City Hall. In 1793 George Washington was inaugurated for his second term as President in Congress Hall, and 4 years later President Adams also took his oath of office there.
In 1799 the State government vacated Independence Hall and moved to Lancaster. The next year, the Federal Government relocated to Washington, D.C. The city of Philadelphia then used City Hall and Congress Hall, and various tenants occupied Independence Hall until the city acquired it in 1818. For example, during the period 1802–27 artist Charles Willson Peale operated a museum there. He and his son painted many of the signers and heroes of the War for Independence. These portraits form the nucleus of the park’s present collection, which is exhibited in the Second Bank of the United States Building; a special room is devoted to the signers.
Stately and symmetrical Independence Hall, a 2½-story red brick structure that has been carefully restored, is the most beautiful 18th-century public building of Georgian style in the United States. The tall belltower, reconstructed along the original lines in 1828 by architect William Strickland, dominates the south facade. Smaller two-story, hip-roofed, brick wings, erected in 1736 and 1739 and restored in 1897–98, one of which serves as a park information center, are connected to the main building by arcades.
[Illustration: Independence Hall in 1778.]
The interior focus of interest in Independence Hall is the Assembly Room, the eastern one on the first floor. Probably no other room in the United States has been the scene of such political courage and wisdom. In this chamber, members of the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention formulated and signed the Declaration of Independence and Constitution. The room is about 40 feet square and 20 feet high. Twin segmental-arched fireplaces along the east wall flank the speaker’s dais. Massive fluted pilasters raised on pedestals adorn the paneled east wall. The other three walls are plastered. A heavy Roman Doric entablature borders the plaster ceiling. The furniture arrangement at the time of the Continental Congress has been duplicated. The only original furnishings are the “Rising Sun” chair and the silver inkstand with quill box and shaker used by the signers of the Declaration and the Constitution.
[Illustration: Restored Assembly Room, Independence Hall, where Members of the Continental Congress adopted and signed the Declaration of Independence.]
The other large room on the ground floor, where the U.S. Supreme Court held sessions for a few days in 1791 and again in August 1796, housed the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania and later other State and local courts. The paneled walls are decorated with massive fluted pilasters of the Roman Doric order. The central hall between this room and the Assembly Room is richly adorned with a Roman Doric order of columns and entablature, fully membered. On the second floor are the Long Room, Governor’s Council Chamber, and Committee Room. These are furnished to represent the activities of the Pennsylvania legislature and government prior to 1775.
The Liberty Bell, a worldwide emblem of freedom, is displayed in the tower stair hall on the south end of the first floor. [When this volume went to press, the bell was scheduled to be moved in the near future to a newly constructed belltower, part of the park visitor center, located 2 blocks from Independence Hall.] The source of the 2,080-pound bell’s name is the “Proclaim Liberty” inscription, engraved on it to commemorate the 50th anniversary of William Penn’s Charter of Privileges (1701). In 1750 the Pennsylvania assembly authorized erection of the Independence Hall belltower, and the next year ordered a bell from England. After it arrived in 1752, it was cracked during testing and was twice recast by local workmen. As the official statehouse bell, it was rung on public occasions. In 1777, before the British occupied Philadelphia, the Government moved it temporarily to Allentown, Pa. Traditionally the bell cracked once again, in 1835, while tolling the death of Chief Justice John Marshall. The exterior appearances of City Hall and Congress Hall have changed little since the 1790’s, when many of the signers served in the Government. The interior of Congress Hall has been restored and refurnished as the meetingplace of Congress in the 1790’s. Exhibits in City Hall describe the activities of the U.S. Supreme Court during the same period of time, and portray Philadelphia life during the late 18th century. Carpenters’ Hall, a block east of Independence Square, is still owned and operated by the Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia. The hall memorializes the First Continental Congress and possesses architectural significance.
The American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin and the oldest learned society in the United States, still maintains its headquarters in Philosophical Hall. Its distinguished membership once included 15 of the signers. The society’s collections also contain furniture and documents associated with them.
In the years 1789–91, the Library Company of Philadelphia (organized in 1731), one of the first public libraries in the United States, erected Library Hall, across from Independence Square on the corner of Library and Fifth Streets. Numbering among the members were 11 signers, including company founder Franklin. Library Hall, reconstructed by the American Philosophical Society, now serves as its library. The Library Company is quartered elsewhere in the city.
In addition to the preceding buildings, numerous sites associated with the signers have also been identified within the park. Many of them have been marked. On some, later buildings now stand. In a few instances, the National Park Service has excavated and stabilized foundations. Outstanding among the sites is that of the Jacob Graff, Jr., House, two blocks from Independence Hall on the southwest corner of Seventh and Market Streets. Jefferson was occupying the second floor of the 3½-story brick house when he wrote the Declaration in June 1776. His rented quarters consisted of a bedroom and parlor. He likely did much of his writing on a portable writing desk of his own design. In 1791 the Graff House was also the residence of signer James Wilson. It was demolished in 1883.
Other sites include those of the home (1766–90) and other structures associated with Franklin, on Franklin Court in the block south of Market Street between Third and Fourth Streets; two adjoining homes (1785–90 and 1790–95) of Robert Morris, on the southeast corner of Market and Sixth Streets, one of which was the unofficial Presidential Mansion (1790–1800), where John Adams resided (1797–1800) while President; Clarke Hall, on the southwest corner of Chestnut and Third Streets, the residence of Samuel Huntington (1779–81) and Thomas McKean (1781); Benjamin Rush’s home (1791–93), on the northwest corner of Walnut and Third Streets; the James Wilson home (“Fort Wilson”) (1778–90), on the southwest corner of the same intersection; and City Tavern, near Walnut and Second Streets, a gathering place for members of the Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention, as well as other Government officials.
In connection with the U.S. Bicentennial commemoration, the National Park Service plans to reconstruct the Graff House and the City Tavern.
[Illustration: Congress Hall, seat of the U.S. Congress from 1790 until 1800.]
The graves and tombs of seven signers are also located in the park. Five (Franklin, Hewes, Hopkinson, Ross, and Rush) are in Christ Church Burial Ground, at the southeast corner of Fifth and Arch Streets; and two (Wilson and Robert Morris) in the yard of Christ Church, on Second Street between Church and Filbert Streets. The graves of Hewes and Ross are unmarked. A rose garden, dedicated in January 1971 to the memory of the signers of the Declaration by the Daughters of the American Revolution, is situated in a plot in the area between Walnut and Locust and Fourth and Fifth Streets.
[Illustration: Carpenters’ Hall, meetingplace in 1774–75 of the First Continental Congress.]
Buildings and sites in the park that are mainly of interest in other themes of history than that treated in this volume include: the First Bank of the United States; the Second Bank of the United States (Old Custom House); New Hall (Marine Corps Museum); the Pemberton House (Army-Navy Museum); the Philadelphia (Merchants’) Exchange; the Bishop White House; the Deshler-Morris House, in Germantown; the Todd House; St. George’s Church; St. Joseph’s Church; St. Mary’s Church; Mikveh Israel Cemetery; and Gloria Dei (Old Swede’s) Church National Historic Site.
[Illustration: The Graff House about 1855. By this time, alterations had rendered it almost completely unrecognizable from its original appearance. Among other changes, it had been joined to an adjacent building and raised a story higher, more than doubling its size.]
The structures and properties in 22-acre Independence National Historical Park, most of which are open to the public, include those owned by the city of Philadelphia, but administered by the National Park Service. These consist of Independence Hall, Congress Hall, City Hall, and Independence Square. In recent years, to enhance the setting of the area, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has created Independence Mall in the three blocks directly north of Independence Hall. Federally owned buildings include the First and Second Banks of the United States; the Deshler-Morris House, administered by the Germantown Historical Society; Todd House; Bishop White House; New Hall; Pemberton House; and the Philadelphia Exchange.
Among those privately owned buildings whose owners have cooperative agreements with the National Park Service are Carpenters’ Hall and Christ Church, both National Historic Landmarks. The American Philosophical Society owns Philosophical Hall, another Landmark and the only privately owned building on the square, but also operates Library Hall, on federally owned land.
In 1948, upon recommendation of the Philadelphia National Shrines Park Commission, Congress created Independence National Historical Park. This act specified the Federal Government’s role in the commemoration of existing historic sites and buildings and the acquisition and management of others. The entire undertaking is guided by an advisory commission of distinguished citizens. Many individuals and private and civic organizations have contributed to the preservation and beautification of the park.
Parsons-Taylor House, Pennsylvania ⊗
_Location: Northampton County, northeast corner of Fourth and Ferry Streets, Easton._
This house, built by William Parsons in 1757, was leased by George Taylor during the last year of his life and was the site of his death in February 1781. His health failing and his iron business declining, he had moved there the previous April from Greenwich Township, N.J.
[Illustration: Parsons-Taylor House.]
The residence, a small, two-story Georgian structure constructed of fieldstone, has a steep gable roof and a pent roof extending along the front at the second-floor level. A single chimney is located in the north sidewall. The front door is surmounted by a rectangular transom; the center door, in the south side, is sheltered by a hood. A frame attachment to the house, probably existing in 1780, no longer stands.
A single large room containing stairs and a fireplace on the north wall make up the first floor. The walls are plastered, and the joists are supported by heavy, exposed beams. Bedrooms occupy the second floor and attic. Restored about 1906, the structure is in fine condition and is owned by the George Taylor Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, which uses it as a meetingplace. It is not usually open to visitors.
Shippen-Wistar House, Pennsylvania ⊗
_Location: Philadelphia County, southwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets, Philadelphia._
Meetingplace of medical and political dignitaries, this townhouse was the residence of three eminent doctors and was visited by some of the signers and other key governmental officials. It was erected about 1750 by Dr. William Shippen, Sr. (1712–1802). A prominent medical man of his day, he also served in the Continental Congress and contributed to Philadelphia’s cultural life. His son, Dr. William Shippen, Jr. (1736–1808), won distinction as a teacher as well as a practitioner, helped found the University of Pennsylvania Medical School, and in the period 1777–81 directed medical services in the Continental Army. He and his father apparently shared the residence part of the time during their careers. Like the Shippens, Dr. Caspar Wistar (1761–1818), who acquired the house in 1798, was distinguished in medical and intellectual circles.
Various signers and other Delegates to the Continental Congress paid visits to the home. Richard Henry Lee, brother-in-law of young Shippen, stayed there. Francis Lightfoot and Arthur Lee likely often made calls. On occasion John Adams and John Witherspoon stopped by. Other notables who did so later were George Washington, while presiding over the Constitutional Convention (1787); Benjamin Rush, before his clash with Shippen, Jr., over medical conditions in the Continental Army; Robert R. Livingston, who had served on the Declaration drafting committee, in the 1780’s; John Adams, while Vice President; and Jefferson, as Secretary of State.
The exterior of the house is in good condition, but the interior has been extensively altered. A 3½-story building in the colonial Philadelphia architectural style, it is constructed in Flemish bond with red bricks and black headers. The windows are shuttered. Notable are a high gable on the Fourth Street side and brick parapet walls on the roof joining the two end chimneys, one on each side of the roof near the peak of the ridge. A garden extends along the Locust Street side at the original rear of the house, which is now entered from that side rather than from Fourth Street. The building is owned and occupied by an insurance company, which has built a passageway between it and the adjacent Cadwalader House on the south. Access to the two structures is limited to the company’s customers.
Summerseat, Pennsylvania ∆
_Location: Bucks County, on Clymer Street in the block bounded by Morris and Hillcrest Avenues, Morrisville._
Summerseat was erected in the 1770’s by Thomas Barclay, a Philadelphia merchant. In 1806 George Clymer acquired it and resided in it until his death in 1813. It is a two-story, brick and stone Georgian structure over an elevated basement. The roof is gabled and slate-covered. The wall of the front, or east, facade is brick; the end walls, probably also of brick, are covered with cement; the rear wall is of fieldstone. Front first- and second-story windows are topped by flat arches of gauged brick; rear windows on both levels and all the basement windows, by segmental arches, also of gauged brick. Exterior solid shutters flank the first- and second-story windows.
A rectangular transom and triangular pediment surmount the front center door. Central halls divide the four rooms on each floor into pairs. Each of the rooms is equipped with a fireplace. The stairs, located at the rear of the hall along the south wall, are lighted by a large window over the landing. The walls, floors, and some of the woodwork appear to be original. Restored in 1931 and renovated 4 years later, the house is owned by the Morrisville School District and is used for educational purposes. It is open to the public only on a restricted basis.
[Illustration: Summerseat.]
Taylor House, Pennsylvania ∆
_Location: Lehigh County, on Front Street, Catasauqua._
In 1768 George Taylor employed Philadelphia carpenters to build this stone residence on the east bank of the Lehigh River, about 15 miles west of Easton at the site of present Catasauqua. The structure was located on a 331-acre tract of land, known as the “Manor of Chawton,” which he had acquired the previous year. In 1771 he leased out most of the manor as a farm, and 5 years later sold the house and land to Philadelphia merchant John Benezet.
The rectangular residence is Georgian in style and consists of two stories over an elevated basement. The thick walls are built of stone masonry rubble faced with a whitish, slaked-lime stucco. Over the windows are flat arches of gauged brick. First-floor windows have exterior solid-panel shutters; those on the second floor, louvered. A heavy, overhanging cornice surrounds the truncated hip roof. The brick chimneys at both ends are symmetrically paired. A two-story stone kitchen wing, dating from about 1800, adjoins the house at the south end.
[Illustration: Taylor House.]
At the center of the front, or west, facade, a flight of marble pyramidal steps lead up to a double door, over which are a rectangular transom and triangular pediment. The central hall, which extends to the rear of the house toward the stairway, is divided by an archway, with fluted pilasters. Situated to the north of the hall are living room and parlor; to the south, dining room and reception, or service, room. Of special interest in the dining room, parlor, and living room are the finely executed door pediments and fully paneled fireplace walls. Other walls in these rooms have paneled wainscots and finely detailed chair rails. The fireplace paneling and mantel in the dining room date from the 19th century and represent the Greek Revival style, but the rest of the first-floor paneling and mantels are original, as are also the wide pine floorboards and iron hardware.
The second floor consists of four bedrooms and two small dressing rooms. The fireplace paneling in the two bedrooms on the front side of the house is almost as elaborate as that downstairs. A 1½-story, brick summer kitchen, near the rear of the house, dates from about 1850.
The slightly altered Taylor House, acquired in 1945 by the Lehigh County Historical Society and restored in 1966–68, is in excellent condition and is open to the public.
Governor Hopkins House, Rhode Island ∆
_Location: Providence County, 15 Hopkins Street, Providence._
Stephen Hopkins bought this framehouse in 1742 and resided in it until his death in 1785. It is the only extant structure closely associated with him. The oldest section, the lower level of the present southwest rear ell, dates from about 1707, when the small dwelling comprised two first-floor rooms and an attic. As soon as he acquired the building, Hopkins enlarged and remodeled it into its present L-shaped, two-story form.
The Georgian building, which has a gabled roof and two chimneys, is clapboarded. Cornices decorate the first-story windows. In 1928, during a major restoration, a reconstructed door, with triangular pediment and pilasters typical of the 18th century, was inserted in place of one of the four windows along the present front elevation. This door, the only major alteration in the house, became the main entrance. It replaced a door on the west side, which opens into the original kitchen and is still extant.
The central hall, along the east wall of which is the main stairway, divides the front of the residence into two rooms, study and parlor. The recessed parlor bookshelves, set in paneling above the hearth, are distinctive. The paneling of the two fireplaces in the study and ell is simpler. A passageway leads from the parlor to the southwest ell, which consists of the original kitchen and in the southeast corner a small bedroom. Five bedrooms, two of which are equipped with fireplaces, are located upstairs. The interior of the house, including stairs, woodwork, floors, and fireplaces, is largely original. The fine garden was designed by a descendant of Stephen Hopkins, the late Alden Hopkins, prominent landscape architect.
[Illustration: Governor Hopkins House.]
The Governor Hopkins House, first located on the northeast corner of Hopkins and South Main Streets, was moved eastward in 1804 along the north side of and about halfway up Hopkins Street. In 1927, to make way for the construction of a new courthouse, the building was again relocated eastward along the same street, to its present site, and the next year was restored. Since that time, the State of Rhode Island has owned the house and maintained the exterior and grounds. The Society of Colonial Dames in the State of Rhode Island maintains and administers the interior as a historic house museum.
Heyward-Washington House, South Carolina ∆
_Location: Charleston County, 87 Church Street, Charleston._
From 1778 until 1794 this townhouse was the principal residence of Thomas Heyward, Jr. During this period, however, he also spent considerable time at White Hall, his country estate near that of his father about 25 miles northeast of Savannah, and in 1780–81 was imprisoned by the British at St. Augustine. In 1770 his father, Daniel, a rice planter, had purchased the lot and a two-story house standing on it. Within 2 years, he probably demolished it and erected the present one. Thomas inherited it in 1777, and moved in the following year, upon completion of his tour in the Continental Congress. In 1780, when the British took Charleston, they captured him and forced his family to flee from the townhouse. For a week in 1791 the city rented it for use of President Washington, who was visiting Charleston while touring the Southern States. Three years later, Heyward sold the property and retired to White Hall.
[Illustration: Heyward-Washington House.]
A slightly altered Georgian structure, the residence is a superb example of a Charleston “double house.” The floor plan is the typical Georgian center hall type, with four rooms on each floor. Two interior chimneys allow for two fireplaces in pairs set back to back on all floors. The first-floor rooms are simple; those on the second, elaborate, for entertaining. The downstairs hall, divided by an arch at midpoint, extends to a rear door. A Palladian window lights the stairway, located at the rear of the hall against the north wall.
The large second-floor drawing room, the most elaborate room in the house, features paneled walls, pedimented doors, interior paneled shutters, an elaborate ceiling cornice, and a fireplace with a magnificent carved mantel. In addition to the drawing room, the second floor contains a smaller parlor and two bedrooms, each of which has a paneled fireplace wall. Four more rooms are located on both the first and third floors. Except for reconstruction in 1929 of one front room and the front of the hall on the first floor, the structure is largely original.
The brick house is square and rises three stories. The hipped roof is pierced by a single front dormer and ornamented by a narrow, denticulated cornice. Brick flat arches head the windows. The upper windows have louvered shutters; those on the first floor, paneled shutters. The center entrance, a reconstruction, consists of a fan-lighted door surmounted by a pediment and flanked by Roman Doric columns. A rear courtyard contains a brick kitchen-laundry with slave quarters above, a carriage house, wood and tool sheds, a necessary, and garden.
Subsequent to Heyward’s ownership, the house passed through several hands until rescued from the threat of demolition in 1929 by the Charleston Museum. After restoration and furnishing with period pieces, it was opened to the public. A collection of china once owned by Heyward is on display, as well as portraits of the Heyward family.
Hopsewee-on-the-Santee, South Carolina ∆
_Location: Georgetown County, on an unimproved road just west of U.S. 17, about 13 miles southwest of Georgetown._
Erected by his father during the 1740’s, this house on the north bank of the North Santee River was the birthplace in 1749 and the boyhood home of Thomas Lynch, Jr. He lived in it until his father sold it in 1763, the year before young Lynch sailed to Europe to continue his education. It is the only surviving residence closely associated with him.
[Illustration: Hopsewee-on-the-Santee.]
The 2½-story framehouse rests on a brick foundation, which is covered with scored tabby. Two front dormers and two interior chimneys protrude from the hip roof. A broad, two-story porch, or piazza, with square columns extends across the front of the building. The frame, comprised of black cypress, is of mortise-and-tenon construction, and the walls are clapboarded. Exterior paneled shutters flank the first- and second-story windows. Except for the present metal roof and the screening of the front porch, the outside of the structure has not been appreciably altered.
The central hall arrangement divides four rooms into pairs on the first two floors. All the rooms are equipped with fireplaces. Throughout, the mantels, wainscoting, cornice mold, and heart pine floors are original and excellently crafted. The full cellar is constructed of brick and divided into rooms. Two one-story, cypress, shingled outbuildings, located to the northeast and northwest of the main house, probably once served as kitchens. About 1948, by which time the house had fallen into decay and the grounds were overgrown, the present owner acquired the property, restored the garden, and repaired the residence. In fine condition, it is privately occupied, but is shown to the public part of the week.
Middleton Place, South Carolina ∆
_Location: Dorchester County, on an unimproved road just east of S.C. 61, about 13 miles northwest of Charleston._
This mansion, of which only the south wing stands today, was the birthplace and lifelong home of Arthur Middleton (1742–87). About 1738 his grandfather had built a 3½-story brick house at the site. Some 3 years later, Arthur’s father began laying out the surrounding gardens that have since won international fame as Middleton Place Gardens. More than 100 slaves labored for a decade to complete the 45-acre gardens and 16-acre lawn. In 1755 the mansion was enlarged by the addition of two two-story brick flankers, or detached wings, on the north and south sides of the original structure, for use respectively as a library-conservatory and guest quarters.
During the War for Independence, British troops pillaged the residence and despoiled the plantation. In 1865, as Union soldiers approached during the Civil War, the slaves set the mansion to the torch, which left only the walls standing. In 1868 William Middleton erected a roof over the south wing, the least damaged section of the three, and reoccupied it. In 1886 an earthquake felled the ruined walls of the north wing and central section.
[Illustration: The south wing (1755) of Middleton Place, the only 18th-century section of the mansion that has survived.]
In the 1930’s the two-story, brick south wing was renovated and enlarged. The major additions, both two-story brick and executed in an 18th-century manner, were a service wing along the main axis of the wing at the south end; and, on the west side, a right-angled entrance wing, containing a vestibule and stairway, and constructed with a stepped and curvilinear gable roof to match those on the ends of the original south wing. A third addition in the 1930’s was a one-story brick porch on the east, or river, elevation. All the brickwork is Flemish bond, the shutters are paneled, and a louvered circular window decorates the gable end of the new entrance wing. The interior chimneys are three in number. A parlor, dining room, and living room are located on the first floor of the original south wing and three bedrooms on the second. The interior finish dates from the mid-19th century, but many of the furnishings are original 18th-century Middleton pieces.
To the east and north of the present house and ruins of the central block and north wing are the famous gardens, which have been enlarged and perfected over the years. They extend from the Ashley River and the paired butterfly lakes at their foot west toward the residence and beyond in sweeping terraces. To the northwest of the house, in another 18th-century formal garden, is the family graveyard, containing the mausoleum of Arthur Middleton.
The estate comprises 7,000 acres and is still owned by Middleton descendants. They occupy the south wing, which is not open to the public, unlike the gardens. According to present plans, about 110 acres, embracing the gardens, burial plot, plantation house, and reconstructed outbuildings, will be donated to a nonprofit organization that will preserve them and keep them open to the public.
Rutledge House, South Carolina ∆
_Location: Charleston County, 117 Broad Street, Charleston._
The residence of Edward Rutledge during his later years, this building is the only existing one that can be identified with him. Unfortunately the construction date and the exact years of his residence cannot be determined, though he was definitely the occupant in 1787.
The large, rectilinear, clapboarded, frame structure is two stories high over a basement. The roof is hipped. A bilevel porch, supported by columns, extends across the west side and around the south, or rear, side of the house. A central modillioned pediment with circular window fronts the main roof and is “supported” by consoles. Exterior louvered shutters flank the corniced windows. The center doorway, once crowned by a cornice, now has a triangular pediment. A small, two-story clapboard wing, added to the front of the east end along the main axis in the late 19th century, is the only definite major exterior alteration. Behind it, runs a two-story porch.
[Illustration: Rutledge House.]
A center hall extends about halfway through the house. On one side are two rooms with fireplaces; on the other, a front stair hall containing a curved stairway. Behind this is a large room, accessible only from the entrance hall. The kitchen, possibly another later addition, is located in a wing that projects from the rear of the house at the southeast corner. The interior woodwork appears to date from the 1880’s, and partition walls now subdivide the large original rooms into smaller ones.
The Rutledge House, known in modern times as the Carter-May House, is now a Roman Catholic home for elderly women. Portions of the first floor may be visited upon request. A large garden is located at the rear of the building.
Berkeley, Virginia ∆
_Location: Charles City County, on the south side of Va. 5, about 8 miles west of Charles City._
In historical interest this fine mansion has few rivals among the James River plantations. It was the birthplace and lifelong home of Benjamin Harrison V (1726–91), signer of the Declaration and three-term Governor of Virginia, as well as the birthplace and boyhood residence of his son, William Henry (1773–1841), ninth President of the United States and grandfather of Benjamin (1833–1901), the 23rd President. William Henry probably wrote his 1841 inaugural address at Berkeley in the room in which he had been born.
[Illustration: Berkeley.]
Benjamin Harrison IV, the signer’s father, built the structure in 1726. In 1781 British troops under Benedict Arnold plundered the plantation, but did not seriously harm the mansion. In the 1790’s one of the Harrisons, probably Benjamin VI, made some architectural alterations and redecorated the interior in the Adam style. By the time of the Civil War, the plantation was known as Harrison’s Landing. In 1862 it served as a supply base and camp for the Union Army of the Potomac following its retreat from the Battle of Malvern Hill, Va., which ended the Peninsular Campaign. Gen. George B. McClellan utilized the mansion as his headquarters. While quartered nearby, Gen. Daniel Butterfield composed the famous bugle call “Taps.”
The early Georgian mansion has been altered somewhat over the years, but retains much of the original structure and character. It is 2½ stories high and has a dormered, gable roof with two tall interior ridge chimneys, and distinctive pedimented gable ends, including modillioned cornice. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond. Gauged brick is employed in the flat window arches, the belt course, and door pediments. The broad-piered central doors on the north and south elevations, with pediments in gauged brick, are reconstructions. Two detached, two-story, brick dependencies, set slightly south of the house on the river side, were built in the 1840’s to replace similar structures that had been erected sometime before 1800.
The center hall plan has been slightly modified. The hall bisects the four rooms on the first floor into pairs. A small stairs in the northwest corner was probably inserted about 1800. Most of the interior finish clearly reflects the Adam alterations of the 1790’s.
By 1915 the mansion was in poor condition. Subsequent owners have reconstructed and restored it to its 18th-century appearance. This included removal of a 19th-century porch on all four sides, replacement of the window sash and exterior door framings, and reconstruction of the center stairs. The upper floors are used as a private residence, but the basement and first floor may be visited. The unmarked grave of signer Benjamin Harrison is located in the family cemetery, a quarter of a mile southeast of the plantation house.
Elsing Green, Virginia ∆
_Location: King William County, on a private road about 1 mile southwest of Va. 632, some 10 miles southwest of King William Court House._
In 1758, while Carter Braxton was visiting in England, his brother George probably built for him this impressive plantation home on a high bluff overlooking the Pamunkey River. Upon his return in 1760, Carter took up residence in it and lived there until 1767. He then moved to a new residence, Chericoke, a few miles to the northwest.
[Illustration: Elsing Green.]
The exterior is original, but about 1800 a fire destroyed the interior. The present 18th-century style woodwork is a 20th-century reconstruction. The Georgian structure of brick, laid in Flemish bond, is U-shaped. Two wings project to the north, or rear, of the central section. The large building is two stories in height and has a hip roof and four tall chimneys. Side doors are centered in each wing, and there are also central doors in the front and rear facades of the main house. The door on the front, or river, facade, with gauged brick triangular pediment, is a reconstruction.
The flat window arches are constructed of splayed brick. The second-floor level is marked by a strong course of gauged brick, unmolded and four courses high. Two old, detached, brick dependencies, 1½ stories high, flank the mansion. The eastern one may date from 1719; the western contains a restored kitchen. A reconstructed smokehouse and dairy rest on their original, symmetrically located, foundations.
An off-center hall extends northward halfway through the main arm of the U from the south, or front, entrance and intersects with an east-west lateral hall running the length of the main mansion. The ends of this long cross hall each contain a stairway set against the south wall. The southeast comer of the residence is occupied by a large parlor; the southwest corner, by a smaller living room; and each of the north wings, by a single large room. Four bedrooms are upstairs, which has the same general plan as the ground floor.
The carefully restored house and well maintained estate, which now includes about 3,000 acres, are in excellent condition but are privately occupied and not open to visitors.
Menokin, Virginia ∆
_Location: Richmond County, on an unimproved road about 1 mile west of County Route 690, some 4 miles northwest of Warsaw._
Menokin, completed in 1769 by Col. John Tayloe of nearby Mount Airy as a wedding gift for his daughter and her husband, Francis Lightfoot Lee, was the home where they spent most of their lives and the one Lee loved best. He died there in 1797.
This late Georgian house, similar in many respects to Mount Airy though much smaller, was likely constructed by the same architect-builder, probably John Ariss. The exterior possesses the qualities of a large mansion, though the actual dimensions are rather modest.
[Illustration: Ruins of Menokin.]
The residence, constructed of local brown sandstone, is two stories high with hip-on-hip roof and two large interior chimneys. Its exterior walls are covered with plaster. The stone trim—quoins, belt courses, and window and door trim—is elaborate. Two stone belt courses, one at the second-floor line and the other at the sill level of the upper windows, divide the main, or north, facade horizontally. The upper course is eliminated on the other three facades. No longer standing are two two-story, gable-roofed, detached, symmetrical service buildings, a kitchen to the east and office to the west, which once stood in the forecourt at right angles to the main house. They undoubtedly heightened the impression of the mansion’s large size.
A center hall extends halfway through the first floor, which contains dining room, living room, kitchen, and bedroom. Four bedrooms, divided into pairs by a central hall, are located on the second floor.
Unoccupied for many years, Menokin is in ruinous condition. The roof and walls on the southeast side have collapsed. The yard and grounds, part of a 590-acre farm, are overgrown with vegetation and small trees. The owner has removed and stored the original interior paneling. Extensive reconstruction would be required to restore the structure to its original condition. It is not open to the public.
Monticello, Virginia ∆
_Location: Albemarle County, just off Va. 53, about 2 miles southeast of Charlottesville._
“Monticello,” Italian for “Little Mountain,” is an enduring tribute to the genius and versatility of Thomas Jefferson, who personally designed and supervised erection of the splendid mansion. He resided in it for many years of his long life, his spirit lives on in its architectural perfection and the ingenious devices with which he equipped it, and he is buried nearby. Sitting amid pleasant gardens and lawns on a hilltop, the residence overlooks Charlottesville; the University of Virginia, which Jefferson founded and some of whose buildings he designed; and the green rolling hills of the surrounding countryside. Especially after his retirement from public life in 1809 until his death, at the age of 83 on July 4, 1826, the prominent men of his age made pilgrimages to Monticello. To this day it is visited by the humble, as well as the great—all who admire Jefferson’s character and accomplishments.
[Illustration: Monticello.]
In 1757 Jefferson’s father died and passed on the property, 2,750 acres, to him. Eleven years later, he began leveling the hilltop. To make all parts of it accessible, he built paths, or roundabouts, as he called them, on its slopes at four different levels; remains of these are visible today. In 1770 fire destroyed Jefferson’s modest residence, his birthplace Shadwell, and he moved to Monticello, where he had already begun building a mansion. The first part of it completed was the small southwest pavilion, which Jefferson occupied as a bachelor’s quarters until January 1772, when he brought his bride, Martha Wayles Skelton, to share it with him. It is still known as “Honeymoon Cottage.”
The first Monticello, vastly different from the present one, was probably completed in 1775. Constructed of brick with cut-stone trim, it consisted of a central two-story unit, with pedimented gable roof running from front to rear and one-story gabled wings, set perpendicularly to the central block. The chief architectural accent was the main two-story portico, Doric below and Ionic above. Small polygonal bays projected from the ends of the wings. Jefferson made numerous alterations and major changes after the War for Independence. The present two-wing structure, built between 1793 and 1809, incorporates the rooms of the original house at its rear. It also reflects a shift in architectural preference in the United States from Georgian to Roman Revival—elements of both of which are represented. Jefferson was almost entirely responsible for starting the Roman Revival.
The mansion consists of 2½ stories over a basement and contains 35 rooms. The dominating feature is the central dome, over an octagonal room. The house is furnished largely with Jefferson belongings, including a replica of the small portable desk on which he probably wrote the Declaration of Independence. Some of the clever devices in the residence are a 7-day calendar-clock and a dumbwaiter. One room contains one of the first parquet floors in the United States. The upper levels, accessible only by narrow staircases, are not shown to the public.
Before Jefferson built Monticello, every plantation had a group of small outbuildings such as the laundry, smokehouse, dairy, stable, weaving house, schoolhouse, and kitchen. Jefferson sought to render these as inconspicuous as possible and increase the efficiency of the facilities they provided by constructing two series of rooms for these purposes beneath the outer sides of two long L-shaped terraces extending from the house. Below the south terrace, beyond the angle of the ell, are the kitchen, the cook’s room, servants’ rooms, room for smoking meat, and the dairy. At the end of this terrace, stands “Honeymoon Cottage.” Under the far side of the north terrace are the stables, carriage house, icehouse, and laundry. Jefferson used the small building terminating this terrace, adjacent to which is the paddock, as an office. An underground passageway—containing storage rooms for wine, beer, cider, and rum—connects the basement of the main house with the series of service rooms along the outer sides of the ells. Jefferson is buried in the family graveyard, which is adjacent to the road leading from the house.
Upon Jefferson’s death in 1826, his daughter Martha inherited Monticello, but was soon forced to sell it, to the first of a series of private owners. In 1923 the newly organized Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation purchased the estate, the following year opened it to the public, and has retained ownership to the present day.
Mount Airy, Virginia ∆
_Location: Richmond County, on the north side of U.S. 360, about 1½ miles west of Warsaw._
Francis Lightfoot Lee resided in this beautiful mansion for a short time in 1769, while its owner, his new father-in-law, Col. John Tayloe, completed building Menokin nearby as a residence for him and his bride.
Mount Airy, which sits on a ridge overlooking the Rappahannock Valley, is one of the finest late Georgian mansions to be erected in America. Built in the years 1758–62, it is attributed to noted Virginia architect John Ariss, and is considered to be his best work. It was the first residence in the English Colonies to carry out completely a full five-part Palladian villa plan: a main house connected to two dependencies by quadrant passageways that partially enclose a forecourt. The massive main section, standing over an elevated basement, and the two dependencies are two stories high and of dark brown sandstone construction trimmed in light-colored limestone. The one-story passageways curve from the main house to the dependencies and enclose a semicircular forecourt on the north, or entrance, facade.
[Illustration: Mount Airy.]
Prominent characteristics of the main building are front and rear central projecting pavilions of rusticated limestone, both having loggias, three windows in the second story, and crowning triangular pediments; limestone belt course; rusticated angle quoins; and two pairs of interior chimneys near the ridge of the hip roof, which was rebuilt after a fire in 1844 and may have replaced a hip-on-hip roof. The four square piers gracing the front loggia are faced with Roman Doric pilasters. The rear loggia has three round arches topped with heavy, marked, voussoired keystones.
The two dependencies have hip roofs and central chimneys, and their corner quoins match those of the main house. The connecting passageways, also of stone, are covered with shed roofs concealed from the front. At the point where they connect with the main house, which rests on an elevated basement, they are stepped up to allow entrance to the first floor.
Fire destroyed the probably fine wooden interiors in 1844, but the original floor plan was retained in the reconstruction. A magnificent central hall extends through the house between the front and rear loggias. Full-height windows flank both central entrance doors. The elliptical stairway in the front northwest corner room, in which there is also a pantry, dates from the 19th century, but the original stairs may have been in the present cross hall between the two east drawing rooms, lighted by the central arch of a Palladian window in the east end wall. In the southwest corner is a large dining room.
Mount Airy, in good condition, is still used as a residence by Tayloe descendants and is not open to the public. Francis Lightfoot Lee is buried with his wife in the Tayloe family cemetery, located about 300 yards northwest of the mansion.
Nelson House (Colonial National Historical Park), Virginia ☑
_Location: York County, northwest corner of Main and Pearl Streets, Yorktown; address: Colonial National Historical Park, P.O. Box 210, Yorktown, Va. 23490._
Thomas Nelson, Jr., may have been born in this house in 1738, resided fulltime in it from 1767 until 1781, and probably stayed in it on occasion during the following 8 years prior to his death. During the latter period, he was living in partial retirement at his Hanover County estate, Offley Hoo.
The probable builder, between 1732 and 1741, was Thomas (“Scotch Tom”) Nelson, Sr., the signer’s grandfather. Thomas Jr.’s father, William, lived in the residence until about 1738, the year of his marriage, when he moved to his own house across the street. Thomas, Jr., could have been born at either place. After “Scotch Tom” died, in 1745, his widow continued in residence. Upon her death in 1766, Thomas, Jr., who since his marriage 4 years earlier had apparently lived with his father, acquired her home and moved in the next year.
[Illustration: Nelson House.]
According to family tradition, the Nelson House served as the second headquarters of Gen. Charles Cornwallis during the siege of Yorktown (September-October 1781), and with Nelson’s permission American artillery shelled and hit the house. The historical record indicates that both British and French military personnel likely used it, but their identities cannot be definitely ascertained. And the southeast face of the residence does show evidence of damage from cannon fire. The Marquis de Lafayette, who revisited the United States in 1824–25, was quartered there when in the former year he attended the celebration of the anniversary of the Battle of Yorktown, in which he had played a key role.
The Nelson House is an impressive specimen of early Georgian architecture, though the four south and five north dormers added in the 1920’s detract from the original design. The broad roof is gabled and pedimented at the ends, with two massive interior chimneys and strongly dentiled cornice. The Flemish bond brickwork includes gauged belt course, water table, and flat window arches with segmental soffits. Corner quoins, as well as the window sills and lintels and their tall keystones, are of stone. The quoins and two levels of tall windows give the house a strong vertical effect. The north center door has simple gauged and molded brick piers that are topped by a brick pediment. Destroying the symmetry of the south facade is the off-center door, enclosed in a vestibule. A more elaborate door on the west side is modern, replacing an original untrimmed service opening.
On one side of the off-center hall are two small rooms, with a lobby and service stairs between them; on the opposite side of the hall, are two larger rooms, divided by a tiny one, probably a pantry. The general plan is repeated upstairs, where there are four bedrooms. Most of the original interior woodwork, highlighted by the first-floor wall-to-ceiling paneling, is still intact. From a decorative standpoint, the most striking chamber is the northeast drawing room. All the fireplaces in the residence are apparently reconstructions, as are also the balusters and handrails of the stairs.
The house remained in possession of the Nelson family until 1914. In 1920–21 its owners rehabilitated and restored it and renamed it York Hall. In 1968 the National Park Service acquired it. When this volume went to press, an extensive research and restoration program was being carried out preparatory to opening the building to the public.
Poplar Forest, Virginia ∆
_Location: Bedford County, on the east side of County Route 661, about 6½ miles west of Lynchburg._
In 1806–19 Thomas Jefferson designed and built this architecturally significant octagonal house on his 4,000-acre Bedford County plantation as a summer home and retreat. He occupied it intermittently until his death in 1826.
The plantation came into the possession of Jefferson through Martha Wayles Skelton, whom he married in 1772. For many years, whenever he visited it to superintend its management, he resided in a two-room cottage, the only dwelling. In June 1781, just after abdicating the governorship and narrowly escaping capture with a group of legislators during a British raid on Charlottesville, he temporarily moved his family to the cottage. Before the month was out, a horse threw and injured him. During his recuperation, he wrote _Notes on the State of Virginia_, a study of social and political life in 18th-century Virginia. In 1806–19 he erected Poplar Forest, whose completion coincided with his retirement from public office. When visitors became too numerous at Monticello or the fancy struck, he took up residence at his retreat for a month or two, usually twice a year. As the years went on, he refined the structure.
[Illustration: Poplar Forest.]
In 1845 a fire destroyed the roof and interior, leaving only the four chimneys, the brick walls, and possibly the portico columns. That same year, the present unadorned roof, octagonal and hipped like its predecessor, and dormers were added. Prior to the fire, there was a skylight and balustraded deck at the edge of the roof, with a Tuscan cornice below that extended around the building. The one-story brick building is set over a high basement. Because of the sloping ground on the rear side, the structure is two stories high there. One- and two-story tetrastyle Tuscan porticoes are attached to the front and rear of the house respectively. The front one is pedimented; the unpedimented rear one is built over a one-story arcade.
The original interior plan is unchanged. Four elongated octagonal rooms are grouped symmetrically around the present dining room, a square central room that was once lighted from above by the central skylight, not replaced in 1845. No aboveground traces remain of a flat-roofed office wing, referred to by Jefferson, but a kitchen and smokehouse still stand.
Poplar Forest, in good condition, is a private residence and is not open to the public.
Stratford Hall, Virginia ∆
_Location: Westmoreland County, just north of Va. 214, about 1 mile northeast of Lerty._
This architecturally outstanding mansion along the Potomac River was the ancestral home of the Lee family. It was the birthplace and boyhood home of two signers of the Declaration of Independence, Richard Henry and Francis Lightfoot Lee, as well as their three distinguished brothers, Arthur, William, and Thomas Ludwell. A later resident was Col. Henry “Lighthorse Harry,” hero of the War for Independence. His son, Robert E., Confederate leader during the Civil War, was born in the house in 1807.
[Illustration: Stratford Hall.]
Thomas Lee—planter, merchant, shipowner, and politician—built the mansion in the years 1725–30 on his 16,000-acre plantation. Upon his death in 1750, the residence passed to his eldest son, Philip Ludwell. Meantime, Richard Henry had been born there in 1732 and Francis Lightfoot 2 years later. They maintained residence until 1757 and 1758 respectively, when they moved to their own estates. In 1782 Philip Ludwell’s oldest daughter, Matilda, wife of “Lighthorse Harry,” her cousin, inherited the mansion. In 1790 she died, and 3 years later her husband remarried. One of his sons by that union was Robert E. Lee, who lived in the house only 3 or 4 years, at the end of which his parents moved to Alexandria.
Stratford Hall is a magnificent and rare example of an H-shaped residence and illustrates the transition from the 17th-century William and Mary style of architecture to early Georgian. The mansion is one story high over an elevated basement and has a hip roof. Variations in color and size between the Flemish bond brickwork in the basement and upper story soften the austerity of the bold mass of the house. In the central connecting arm, the flights of stone steps leading up to the north and south entrances, which diminish in width as they ascend to the main floor level and are flanked by ponderous balustrades, are conjectural reconstructions, erected in 1929. Twin sets of four huge chimney stacks are centered over the east and west wings. The stacks are connected by arches and encompass balustraded roof decks, from which the Lees could view navigation on the Potomac River.
“Lighthorse Harry” Lee made many changes. By 1800 he had altered or replaced the exterior stairs and changed most of the interior trim, except that in the central block’s great hall, to the Adam style. The floor plan is unusual in colonial dwellings. The two wings each have four rooms, divided laterally by a central hallway on the main floor. The connecting central block consists of the fully paneled great hall, or salon—one of the most formal and monumental rooms of the early Georgian period in the English Colonies. The basement contains service rooms and some bedrooms; the main floor, living quarters and bedrooms. In the east wing’s dining room is a service alcove, common in Virginia mansions. The 18th-century stairway was removed during the 1929 restoration. The only access between floors is now a small stairway in the east wing.
The mansion is built in the center of a square parterre, a service building being located at each corner of the square. Flanking the entrance forecourt are the kitchen and library, 1½-story brick structures with jerkin-head roofs. At the rear corners are a school and office, with hip roofs. Outside the square are balanced brick buildings: a stable on one side and smokehouse on the other. Seven of the 12 original structures that were still standing in 1929 have been restored. They provide an excellent picture of plantation life in the 18th century. Farther removed from the house, near the wharf on the river, is the reconstructed mill.
In 1929 the Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., acquired the mansion and 1,100 acres. Besides reconstructing the exterior stairs, the foundation restored the library and library closet in the west wing, as well as the dining room and service alcove in the east wing, to their 18th-century appearance. The east and west corridors, parlor in the west wing, Robert E. Lee’s birthplace room, and an adjoining bedroom in the east wing were left as they appeared about 1800. The formal garden, just east of the mansion, has also been restored. The foundation today operates Stratford Hall as a historic house museum.
Tuckahoe, Virginia ∆
_Location: Goochland County, on the south side of Va. 650, about 13 miles west of Richmond._
Tuckahoe, situated along the James River, was the boyhood home of Thomas Jefferson for 7 years and the place where he obtained his elementary education. The mansion, outbuildings, and surrounding gardens and lands constitute an outstanding example of a Southern colonial plantation.
[Illustration: Tuckahoe.]
The land on which Tuckahoe stands was patented in 1695 by William Randolph. His son Thomas inherited the plantation and built the north wing of the mansion about 1712. Sometime between 1730 and 1745, William Randolph II enlarged the residence to its present proportions. When Randolph died in 1745, Peter Jefferson moved his family, including 2-year-old Thomas, from Shadwell to Tuckahoe to fulfill a promise Peter had made to Randolph, his wife’s cousin, to act as guardian of his son, Thomas Mann Randolph. In 1752 the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell.
Like Stratford Hall, the house is an outstanding and rare example of an H-shaped structure of early Georgian style in the Colonies. It is a large, two-story frame structure lined with brick nogging and exterior weatherboarded walls, except for the two solid brick ends of the south wing. Two long gabled wings are connected by a broad central block. Tall slender chimneys accentuate the narrow gable ends and the marked verticality of the structure, which is further enhanced by the high brick foundations. The chimneys in the frame ends of the north wing project, but those in the south brick ends are flush with the walls. The second-floor level is marked by a wooden belt course and the roofline by a modillioned cornice.
The central doorways on the north and south sides have low porches with square posts supporting gable roofs. The south porch is approached by a long flight of stone steps, splayed but lacking a balustrade; the north porch is near ground level. The doors in the center block, on the east and west elevations, are sheltered by pedimented hoods. All four exterior doors, one in each wing and two in the central block, are original, as are also the weatherboarding and sash.
On the first floor of each of the wings are two rooms, divided by a center cross hall. The north wing contains two parlors; the south, a dining room and “children’s” room. The central connecting block contains one large room, or salon. The second floor repeats the plan of the first floor except that, of the original five bedrooms, the one in the central block has been modernized and subdivided into several rooms.
The interior decoration and trim, of the finest workmanship, is remarkably unaltered and in fine condition. All the walls are covered with simple paneling. The original wide floorboards remain throughout the structure. The hall stairways, especially the north one, with elaborately turned and spiraled balusters, are outstanding examples of early Georgian style. Mantels throughout the house date from the 19th century, but the marble fireplace facing in the west bedroom of the north wing is original.
East of the mansion is the small, one-room, brick, one-story schoolhouse attended by Jefferson, as well as fine boxwood gardens. A short distance to the west of the main house is a plantation street, containing a complex of eight early 18th-century buildings, all in excellent condition and little altered. They include kitchen, tobacco house, three slave quarters, smokehouse, and barn.
Since Tuckahoe passed out of the possession of the Randolph family in 1830, a succession of individuals have owned it. It is still a private residence, not open to the public.
Wythe House, Virginia ∆
_Location: On the west side of the Palace Green, between Duke of Gloucester and Prince George Streets, Williamsburg._
This house in Colonial Williamsburg is a superb example of a Georgian brick house. It was the residence of George Wythe from around 1755 until 1791, a period that spanned some of his most active years in politics and jurisprudence. His father-in-law, the noted Virginia architect Richard Taliaferro, designed and built it for him and his second wife about 1755. When Taliaferro died two decades later, Wythe inherited it and resided in it until 1791, when he moved to Richmond. A decade earlier, the house had served as Gen. George Washington’s headquarters prior to the siege of Yorktown.
The outstanding aspects of the little-altered early Georgian structure are its good lines and fine brickwork, in Flemish bond. It is two stories high over a basement and has a hip roof and two interior chimneys. Smaller windows on the upper level create an illusion that the modestly sized house is larger than it actually is. The simple facade is enriched mainly by the broad muntins and wide frames of the windows and a fine paneled double door with rectangular transom. The flat window arches are constructed of gauged brick. Windows, doors, and house corners have rubbed dressings, and a modillioned cornice decorates the eaveline.
[Illustration: Wythe House.]
Each floor consists of four rooms bisected into pairs by a central hall. Chimneys between each of the pairs afford fireplaces for all eight rooms. The handsome but unpretentious stairway contains the only elaborate woodwork. Plaster dadoes, however, are found in every room, with chair rails on plasterboard, and single molded cornices. On the first floor are study, parlor, students’ room, and dining room; on the second, four bedrooms. The existing mantels are replacements. Furnishings are of the late 18th century or earlier and represent American craftmanship. Extending behind the house is the formal garden; along the north, the kitchen, smokehouse, laundry, lumberhouse, and stable.
In 1926, when Bruton Parish acquired the residence, it was in poor condition. By 1931 the parish had repaired and restored it, and utilized it as a parish house for 6 years. Colonial Williamsburg then acquired it, and in 1939–40 accomplished additional restoration. Today the building is one of the main attractions at Colonial Williamsburg and is part of Williamsburg Historic District, a National Historic Landmark.
Appendix
The Declaration and Its History
_Text of the Declaration_
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776.
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.——That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.——That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.——Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
_He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good._
_He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them._
_He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only._
_He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures._
_He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people._
_He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within._
_He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands._
_He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers._
_He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries._
_He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance._
_He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures._
_He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power._
_He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:_
_For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:_
_For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:_
_For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:_
_For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:_
_For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:_
_For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:_
_For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:_
_For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:_
_For suspending our own Legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever._
_He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us._
_He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people._
_He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation._
_He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands._
_He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions._
_In every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people._
_Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends._
=We, therefore=, the Representatives of the =united States of America=, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be =Free and Independent States=; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.
And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
_History of the Document_
The best known of all the copies of the Declaration of Independence is the parchment copy, engrossed by Timothy Matlack. This one, signed by 56 Delegates of the Continental Congress on and after August 2, 1776, is displayed today in Exhibition Hall at the National Archives Building. Jefferson’s final draft of the Declaration, known as the “rough draft,” cumulatively bearing the corrections, amendments, and deletions of the drafting committee and of Congress as a whole, as well as Jefferson’s marginal and textual notes, is preserved among the Jefferson Papers at the Library of Congress. The revised draft, adopted by the Delegates on July 4, 1776, and signed only by John Hancock and Charles Thomson, President and Secretary of the Continental Congress, is known as the broadside copy. It was sent to the printer and has never been located. Sixteen copies of the printed broadside have survived. In addition to the “rough draft,” as least six other handwritten contemporary copies of the Declaration, one fragmentary, have survived and are in various archival collections. Five were made by Jefferson and one by John Adams.
The history of the parchment copy of the Declaration is fascinating. From 1776 until 1789, along with other important national papers, it was safeguarded by Secretary of Congress Thomson, who carried it with him as Congress, at first to escape British troops and later for other reasons, convened in various cities: Philadelphia, Baltimore, Lancaster, York, Princeton, Trenton, Annapolis, and New York.
When the Constitution took effect in 1789 and Thomson left office, he relinquished the Declaration to the newly created Department of State, which was under the temporary stewardship of Acting Secretary John Jay. Its offices were in New York’s old City Hall (Federal Hall). The next March, Thomas Jefferson became the first Secretary of State and custodian of the instrument he had created. Later that year, Philadelphia became the seat of the Federal Government and the Declaration returned to its birthplace. There it remained for a decade, until 1800, when the Government moved to the new national Capital of Washington.
Secretary of State John Marshall apparently at first stored the Declaration in his Department’s temporary offices in the old Treasury Building, at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., and possibly then at Seven Buildings, 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. After a few months, likely in 1801, the document was transferred to the War Office Building, at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., where the Department of State moved its offices. The Declaration remained there until the summer of 1814, during the War of 1812, when British troops invaded the Capital. Shortly before they arrived, Secretary of State James Monroe packed the instrument and other state papers in linen sacks and sent them by wagon to a barn on the Virginia side of the Potomac 2 miles above Chain Bridge for one night, and then to a clergyman’s home in Leesburg, Va. Within a few weeks, after the British threat had subsided, the documents were brought back to Washington and probably temporarily kept in various structures because of the burning of the War Office Building by the British.
In 1820 the Department of State moved the Declaration to its headquarters at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. Stored for years in scroll fashion, the document had already been damaged by numerous unrollings, other handling, and frequent moves. In the period 1820–23 the use of a “wet” copying process to produce a facsimile apparently divested the parchment of some of its ink, especially that of the signatures.
Subsequently the Declaration remained relatively undisturbed until 1841, when Secretary of State Daniel Webster, concluding that it should be on public view, ordered that it be mounted, framed, and moved to the newly constructed Patent Office, in the block bounded by Seventh, Ninth, F, and G Streets NW. The Patent Office was then part of the Department of State. Placed beside George Washington’s commission as commander in chief of the Continental Army in a large frame on a wall of the second floor hall opposite a window, for 35 years the Declaration endured exposure to glare, summer heat, and winter cold. The text retained its legibility, but the parchment faded and yellowed, cracked and warped. Many of the signatures had faded, some becoming blurred or almost invisible.
The Federal Government in 1876 lent the Declaration to the city of Philadelphia, site of the national Centennial Exposition. On July 4 Richard Henry Lee, grandson of the signer, read it publicly. It was then exhibited in a fireproof safe behind a plate glass window and seen by more people than ever before. Philadelphians, deploring its condition, fought to retain it and only reluctantly returned it to Washington. Heeding the outcry of those who had viewed the timeworn parchment, a Government commission studied the possibility of restoration and in time concluded that such an attempt might be damaging.
Meantime, in 1877, as a safeguard the Declaration was moved from the Patent Office to a more fireproof building at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. shared by the State, War, and Navy Departments. It had narrowly escaped destruction, for only a few months later fire gutted the Patent Office. Finally, in 1894, for protection from the light, State Department officials sealed the 118-year-old sheet between two glass plates and locked it in a safe in the basement. There it lay, except for rare occasions, in darkness and unobserved for more than a quarter of a century.
In 1921 the Department of State, responding to the recommendation of a special commission, relinquished custodianship of the Declaration to the Library of Congress. The transfer was made personally by Herbert Putnam, the Librarian, using a library mail truck, a Model T Ford. At first he kept the document in his office. In 1924, however, he placed it together with the Constitution, on public exhibition in a bronze-and-marble shrine on the second floor. At this time, the Declaration was encased between heavy glass panes specially treated to keep out harmful rays of light.
The Declaration and the Constitution remained there until the outbreak of World War II. On December 26, 1941, just 19 days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, they left Washington under heavy guard by train en route to Fort Knox, Ky., where they arrived the following day. Specialists took advantage of the opportunity and cleaned and restored the Declaration to the maximum degree. In 1944 both it and the Constitution were taken back to the Library of Congress. They remained there until 1952, at which time a tank under military escort carried them to Washington’s National Archives Building, repository of the Nation’s permanent records, which are under the jurisdiction of the National Archives and Records Service of the U.S. General Services Administration.
[Illustration: Constitution Avenue entrance of the National Archives Building, Washington, D.C.]
[Illustration: This marble shrine at the rear center of Exhibition Hall, National Archives Building, contains the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.]
* * * * *
Still enshrined there today, along with thousands of other priceless national records, is the parchment copy of the Declaration. The massive bronze doors at the Constitution Avenue entrance to the building lead to the circular Exhibition Hall. At its rear center stands a marble shrine containing the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. They are sealed in helium-filled bronze and glass cases, screened from harmful light rays by special filters, and can be lowered within seconds into a large fireproof, shockproof, and bombproof vault.
The hall also features a “Formation of the Union” exhibit, a collection of documents illustrating the evolution of the U.S. Government from 1774 until 1791. They include the Articles of Association (1774), the Articles of Confederation (1777), the Treaty of Paris (1783), and Washington’s inaugural address (1789). Above the exhibits are two murals. In one, Jefferson is presenting the Declaration to John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress; in the other, James Madison is submitting the Constitution to George Washington, President of the Constitutional Convention.
Suggested Reading
BECKER, CARL L. _The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas._ New York: rev. ed., Harcourt, Brace, 1942. A classic and scholarly study, originally published in 1922, that analyzes the Declaration in terms of its political background, philosophical origins, and literary merit, and discusses subsequent reaction to it.
BOYD, JULIAN P. _The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution of the Text as Shown in Facsimiles of Various Drafts by Its Author, Thomas Jefferson._ Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1945. This valuable work is a revised edition of a study published by the Library of Congress in 1943 in connection with the bicentennial celebration of Jefferson’s birth. Examines the nature and evolution of the various drafts.
BURNETT, EDMUND C. _The Continental Congress._ New York: Macmillan, 1941. Although written in a cumbersome style, this book remains one of the best on its subject. Includes chapters dealing with the events surrounding adoption of the Declaration.
DUMBAULD, EDWARD. _The Declaration of Independence and What It Means Today._ Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950. Phrase-by-phrase study of the contents of the document and differences in the several drafts. Also treats the underlying intellectual and political influences.
MALONE, DUMAS. _The Story of the Declaration of Independence._ New York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Enhancing this readable account of the early phases of the Revolution and biographical sketches of the signers is a fine collection of illustrations assembled by Hirst Milhollen and Milton Kaplan.
McGEE, DOROTHY H. _Famous Signers of the Declaration._ New York: Dodd, Mead, 1955. One of a series oriented to young readers, this volume presents biographies of selected signers.
NATIONAL ARCHIVES. _The Formation of the Union._ Washington: National Archives and Records Service (Pub. No. 70-13), 1970. A handsome but moderately priced brochure that consists of a brief history of the period 1774–91 and facsimiles of key documents.
WHITNEY, DAVID C. _Founders of Freedom in America: Lives of the Men Who Signed the Declaration of Independence and So Helped to Establish the United States of America._ Chicago: J. G. Ferguson, 1964. This superbly illustrated work is one of the best popular versions of the events of the Revolutionary period and those associated with the signing. Includes biographies of the signers and patriots Patrick Henry and James Otis.
Criteria for Selection of Historic Sites of National Significance
=A.= National significance is ascribed to buildings, sites, objects, or districts which possess exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting the historical (history and archeology) heritage of our Nation, such as:
1. Structures or sites at which events occurred that have made a significant contribution to, and are identified prominently with, or which outstandingly represent, the broad cultural, political, economic, military, or social history of the Nation, and from which an understanding and appreciation of the larger patterns of our American heritage may be gained.
2. Structures or sites associated importantly with the lives of persons nationally significant in the history of the United States.
3. Structures or sites associated significantly with an important event that outstandingly represents some great idea or ideal of the American people.
4. Structures that embody the distinguishing characteristics of an architectural type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style, or method of construction; or a notable structure representing the work of a master builder, designer, or architect.
5. Objects that figured prominently in nationally significant events; or that were prominently associated with nationally significant persons; or that outstandingly represent some great idea or ideal of the American people; or that embody distinguishing characteristics of a type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style, or method of construction; or that are notable as representations of the work of master workers or designers.
6. Archeological sites that have produced information of a major scientific importance by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light upon periods of occupation over large areas of the United States. Such sites are those which have produced, or which may reasonably be expected to produce, data affecting theories, concepts, and ideas to a major degree.
7. When preserved or restored as integral parts of the environment, historic buildings not sufficiently significant individually by reason of historical association or architectural merit to warrant recognition may collectively compose a “historic district” that is of historical significance to the Nation in commemorating or illustrating a way of life in its developing culture.
=B.= To possess national significance, a historic or prehistoric structure, district, site, or object must possess integrity. For a historic or prehistoric _site_, integrity requires original location and intangible elements of feeling and association. The site of a structure no longer standing may possess national significance if the person or event associated with the structure was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s history and the association consequential.
For a historic or prehistoric _structure_, integrity is a composite quality derived from original workmanship, original location, and intangible elements of feeling and association. A structure no longer on the original site may possess national significance if the person or event associated with it was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s history and the association consequential.
For a historic _district_, integrity is a composite quality derived from original workmanship, original location, and intangible elements of feeling and association inherent in an ensemble of historic buildings having visual architectural unity.
For a historic _object_, integrity requires basic original workmanship.
=C.= Structures or sites which are primarily of significance in the field of religion or to religious bodies but are not of national importance in other fields of the history of the United States, such as political, military, or architectural history, will not be eligible for consideration.
=D.= Birthplaces, graves, burials, and cemeteries, as a general rule, are not eligible for consideration and recognition except in cases of historical figures of transcendent importance. Historic sites associated with the actual careers and contributions of outstanding historical personages usually are more important than their birthplaces and burial places.
=E.= Structures, sites, and objects achieving historical importance within the past 50 years will not as a general rule be considered unless associated with persons or events of transcendent significance.
Acknowledgments
_Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments (1971)_
Durward L. Allen, _Purdue University_. Hon. E. Y. Berry, _Rapid City, S. Dak._ Anthony A. Buford, _Clayton, Mo._ Loren C. Eiseley, _University of Pennsylvania_. Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson, _Stonewall, Tex._ Peter C. Murphy, Jr., _Springfield, Oreg._ Nathaniel A. Owings, _San Francisco, Calif._ Melvin M. Payne, _National Geographic Society_. Linden C. Pettys, _Ann Arbor, Mich._ Steven Rose, _Arcadia, Calif._ William G. Shade, _Lehigh University_. Elisha Walker, Jr., _New York, N.Y._ James W. Whittaker, _Seattle, Wash._
_National Park Service_
Edwin C. Bearss, _Historian, Historic Preservation Project (East), Denver Service Center_.
S. Sydney Bradford, _Chief, Plans and Grants, National Register of Historic Places_.
George S. Cattanach, Jr., _Program Coordinator, National Register of Historic Places_.
Henry A. Judd, Chief, _Park Historic Architecture, Division of Historic Architecture_.
Herbert E. Kahler, _Chief (retired), Division of History and Archeology_.
Ronald F. Lee, _Special Assistant to the Director_.
John Luzader, Historian, _Historic Preservation Project (East), Denver Service Center_.
Warren A. McCullough, _Management Assistant, Independence National Historical Park, Pa._
John D. McDermott, _Assistant Executive Secretary, Advisory Council on Historic Preservation_.
Thomas W. Mullen, _Student Research Assistant (Northeastern University), Division of History_.
Denys Peter Myers, _Architectural Historian, Division of History_.
John D. R. Platt, _Historian, Independence National Historical Park, Pa._
Charles W. Porter III, _Chief Historian (retired), Division of History_.
Charles W. Snell, _Historian, Division of History_.
Martin I. Yoelson, _Supervisory Interpretive Specialist, Independence National Historical Park, Pa._
_Other Individuals_
Roland A. Block, _Regional Director, Taconic State Park Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y._
Jerry M. Bloomer, _Secretary-Registrar, R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport_.
Edwin Cox, _President, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond_.
Alonzo T. Dill, _West Point, Va._
Educational Programs Staff, _National Archives and Records Service, U.S. General Services Administration_.
Ms. Constance M. Greiff, _Vice President, Historical Society of Princeton, N.J._
Ms. Virginia Gunter, _Curator, New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord_.
Edgar R. Lafferty, Jr., _Elsing Green, King William, Va._
Charles H. McCormick, _Assistant Professor of History, Fairmont State College, Fairmont, W. Va._
Ms. Mildred Steinbach, _Librarian, Frick Art Reference Library, New York_.
E. Berkeley Tompkins, _Director, Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Department of State, State of Delaware, Dover_.
Art and Picture Credits
The National Park Service gratefully acknowledges the assistance of agencies and individuals furnishing illustrations and granting permission to reproduce them.
_Page_
ii Oil (1817) by John Trumbull, after his earlier painting of the same name (1786–95). Color separations courtesy United States Capitol Historical Society and Eastern National Park and Monument Association. Of the 48 individuals in the painting, 44 are signers. The likenesses were the basis for many later portraits by other artists.
4 Oil (date unknown) by Allan Ramsay. Library of Congress.
5 Engraving (1770) by Paul Revere. Library of Congress.
6 Lithograph (1830) by either William or John Pendleton, after a cartoon (1774) published in London. Library of Congress.
7 Lithograph (1846) by Nathaniel Currier. Library of Congress.
8 Engraving (1775) by Amos Doolittle. National Park Service.
9 Detail from broadside, publisher unknown. National Park Service.
10 Engraving (ca. 1776) by an unknown artist. Library of Congress.
11 Library of Congress.
12 Oil (ca. 1858) by Bass Otis, after George Romney. Independence National Historical Park.
13 Mezzotint (1778) by an unknown artist, after Corbutt. Library of Congress.
14 Oil (ca. 1782) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
17 Library of Congress.
19 Engraving (1823) by William Stone. Library of Congress.
21 Library of Congress.
22 Engraving (1859) by John C. McRae, after Johannes A. S. Oertel. Library of Congress.
23 Oil (date unknown) by Xavier D. Gratta. Valley Forge (Pa.) Historical Society.
28 Oil (before 1897) by an unknown artist, after Thomas Sully. Independence National Historical Park.
29 Oil (date unknown) by W. Trego. Valley Forge (Pa.) Historical Society.
30 Engraving (ca. 1725–26) by William Burgis. Library of Congress.
33 Oil (ca. 1791–94) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
36 Oil (1873) by Nahum B. Onthank, after John S. Copley. Independence National Historical Park.
39 Oil (1871) by Caroline Weeks, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
41 Oil (1901) by Albert Rosenthal, after a miniature by an unknown artist. Independence National Historical Park. In 1913 Charles H. Hart, an authority on historical portraits, maintained that this likeness was not Carter Braxton but was that of his brother George.
43 Oil (1823) by Charles Willson Peale, after Rembrandt Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
45 Oil (1819) by Charles Willson Peale, after his 1773 painting. Independence National Historical Park.
47 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
48 Wood engraving by an unknown artist, after F. O. C. Darley, from Henry Howe, _Life and Death on the Ocean_ (1855). Library of Congress.
49 Oil (1872) by Edward D. Marchant, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
50 Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from _Magazine of American History_ (September 1880). Library of Congress.
51 Oil (1876) by Samuel B. Waugh, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
53 Oil (1874) by Edward L. Henry, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.
55 Oil (date unknown) by David Martin. Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.
57 Engraving (1859) by Robert Whitechurch, after Christian Schussele. Library of Congress.
59 Oil (1861) by James Bogle, after John Vanderlyn. Independence National Historical Park.
62 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress. The detail is a conjectural representation; no portrait or reliable likeness of Button Gwinnett is known to exist.
63 Lithograph, probably by an artist named Ferris, from William Brotherhead, _The Book of the Signers_ (1861). Library of Congress.
65 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.
67 Oil (1816) by Samuel F. B. Morse, after John S. Copley. Independence National Historical Park.
70 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
71 Oil (ca. 1884) by Herman F. Deigendisch, after Henry Bryan, Jr. Independence National Historical Park. Some authorities have questioned the authenticity of this likeness.
73 Oil (before 1893) by an unknown artist, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
74 Engraving by James B. Longacre, after Charles Willson Peale, from James Herring and James B. Longacre, _The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans_ (1836). Library of Congress.
75 Oil (before 1851) by Charles Fraser, after Jeremiah Theus. Independence National Historical Park.
77 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
79 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park. According to one authority, Trumbull based his likeness on the features of Hopkins’ eldest son, Rufus, who bore a close resemblance to his father.
81 Oil (before 1854) by Dubois (probably Samuel T.), after Robert E. Pine. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.
83 Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
85 Oil (1791) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
87 Library of Congress.
89 Engraving (1826) by Benjamin Tanner. Library of Congress.
90 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.
92 Oil (1784) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
94 Oil (1906) by Albert Rosenthal, after an engraving from John Sanderson, _Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence_ (1824). Independence National Historical Park.
96 Oil (ca. 1770) probably by Abraham Delanoy, Jr. Frick Art Reference Library, New York City, and Taconic State Park Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y.
97 Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from _Magazine of American History_ (December 1885). Library of Congress.
99 Oil (1875) by Anna Lea, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
100 Oil (1797) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
103 Oil (1872) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. Independence National Historical Park.
104 Oil (1873) by Charles N. Flagg, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
106 Oil (ca. 1872) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
107 Engraving by William Birch, from _The City of Philadelphia_ (1800). Independence National Historical Park.
109 Watercolor (ca. 1765) by Pierre Eugene Du Simitière. The R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.
110 Oil (ca. 1876) by William L. Sheppard, after Mason Chamberlin. Independence National Historical Park.
112 Oil (date unknown) by Louis E. Lami. Hangs in the Virginia State Capitol. National Park Service.
113 Oil (date unknown) by Francis B. Mayer, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
115 Oil (1876) by Richard M. Staigg, after Edward Savage. Independence National Historical Park.
116 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.
118 Oil (1860) by Thomas Sully, after Robert E. Pine. Independence National Historical Park.
120 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.
122 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. Independence National Historical Park.
123 Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. The Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Gift of Mrs. Julia B. Henry.
125 Engraving (1799) by William Birch & Son. Library of Congress.
127 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after James Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.
129 Oil (1874–75) by Thomas Hicks, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.
130 Lithograph by an unknown artist, from William Brotherhead, _The Book of the Signers_ (1861). Library of Congress.
132 Watercolor (ca. 1760) by an unknown artist. The R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.
133 Oil (1873) by George W. Conarroe, after John Wollaston. Independence National Historical Park.
135 Library of Congress.
137 Oil (1912) by Laura J. Schneider, probably after George T. Pool. Independence National Historical Park.
139 Oil (date unknown) by an unknown artist. New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord.
140 Oil (1874) by Samuel B. Waugh, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
142 Oil (1888) by Ulysses D. Tenney, after John Trumbull. Hangs in the Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth, N.H. Photographer, Douglas Armsden, Kittery Point, Maine.
144 Oil (1873) by James J. Sawyer, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
145 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after a miniature attributed to James Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
146 Sketch (date unknown) by C. A. Poulson. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.
149 Oil (ca. 1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
150 Engraving by Henry Dawkins, after W. Tennant, from _An Account of the College of New Jersey_ (1764). Library of Congress.
152 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.
154 Oil (1876) by John F. Weir, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
164 National Park Service (Tony P. Wrenn).
165 National Park Service (Wrenn).
167 National Park Service (Wrenn).
168 National Park Service (Wrenn).
169 National Park Service (Wrenn).
171 National Park Service (Abbie Rowe).
172 Aquatint by an unknown artist, from Charles W. Janson, _The Stranger in America_ (1807). Library of Congress.
174 National Park Service (Charles W. Snell).
175 National Park Service (John O. Littleton).
178 National Park Service (Wrenn).
179 National Park Service (Littleton).
181 National Park Service (Snell).
182 National Park Service (Littleton).
184 National Park Service (Snell).
185 National Park Service (Snell).
187 Photographer, William L. Klender.
188 National Park Service (Littleton).
190 National Park Service (Littleton).
192 Engraving (date unknown) probably by Stephen A. Schouff. Library of Congress.
194 National Park Service (Joseph L. Winn, Jr.).
196 National Park Service (Wrenn).
197 National Park Service (Wrenn).
198 National Park Service (Snell).
200 National Park Service (Wrenn).
201 National Park Service (Wrenn).
203 National Park Service (Snell).
205 National Park Service (Snell).
206 Historical Society of Princeton, N.J. Photographer, Constance Greiff.
207 National Park Service (Snell).
208 Department of Public Information, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.
210 National Park Service (Snell).
211 National Park Service (Snell).
212 National Park Service (Snell).
213 National Park Service (Snell).
215 National Park Service (Snell).
216 National Park Service (Ralph H. Anderson).
219 Engraving by an unknown artist, from Columbian Magazine (July 1787). Library of Congress.
220 National Park Service.
223 National Park Service.
224 National Park Service (Jack E. Boucher).
225 National Park Service.
227 National Park Service (Snell).
229 National Park Service (Snell).
230 National Park Service (Snell).
232 National Park Service (Wrenn).
233 National Park Service.
235 National Park Service (Snell).
236 Photographer, Jesse Gibbes.
238 National Park Service (Snell).
239 National Park Service (Snell).
241 National Park Service (Littleton).
242 National Park Service (Littleton).
244 National Park Service (Snell).
246 National Park Service (Snell).
248 National Park Service (Snell).
250 National Park Service (Snell).
251 National Park Service (Littleton).
253 National Park Service (Snell).
256 National Park Service (Snell).
265 National Archives.
266 National Archives.
— FRONT END PAPER: Engraving (1776) by John C. McRae. Independence National Historical Park.
— REAR END PAPER: National Park Service sketch.
Index
“A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in General Congress Assembled,” _see_ Declaration of Independence
_A Summary View of the Rights of British America_ (tract), 86, 87
Abingdon, Md., 113
Abolition of slavery, _see under_ Slaves
Academies and academic affairs, _see_ Education
Adam architectural style, 174, 239–240, 251–253
Adams, Abigail, _see_ Adams, Mrs. John
Adams, Brooks, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194, 195
Adams, Charles Francis, grandson of signer, 33, 194, 195
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
Adams, “Deacon” John, father of signer, 191–192, 193
Adams, Henry, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
Adams, John (signer) (“Atlas of American Independence”), career of and sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 27, 29, 30, _33–35_, 37, 38, 58, 59, 61, 68, 74, 75, 88, 90, 93, 115, 124, 128, _170–173_, _191–195_, 218, 222, 228, 262
Adams, John Quincy, son of signer and sites associated with, 30, 33, 35, _191–195_
Adams, John Quincy II, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
Adams, Mrs. John (Abigail Smith), wife of signer, 34, 35, 191–192, 193
Adams, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, 37
Adams, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, 37
Adams, Samuel (signer) (“Firebrand of the Revolution”), career of and sites associated with, 12, 27, 31, _36–39_, 59, 60, 68, 69, 160, 199
Adams (John) Birthplace, Mass., _191–192_
Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Mass., 191, _192–193_
Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 192
Adams (John) family and descendants, 33, 34, 191–195 _passim_
Adams Mansion, _see_ Adams National Historic Site
Adams Memorial Society, 195
Adams National Historic Site (Adams Mansion; “Old House”; “Peacefield”; Vassall-Adams House), Mass., 160, 192, _193–195_
Admiralty boards, courts, and judges: civil, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs; naval, _see_ Continental Navy
Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments, 161, 272
Age of signers: at time of death, compared, 28–29, 43, 45, 52, 62, 98, 99, 109, 199; at time of signing, compared, 28–29, 55, 79, 99, 123, 127. _See also specific signers._
Agencies of U.S. Government, _see under_ United States
Agricultural Society of S.C., 76
Agriculture, _see_ Farms and farming
Alamance, Battle of, N.C., 78
Albany, N.Y., 96, 153
Albany Congress (1754) and Albany Plan of Union, 56, 79, 80
Albemarle County, Va., 86
Alcoholic beverages, 51
Alexandria, Va., 136, 252
Alison, Rev. Francis, educator, 101, 118, 132
Allen, Md., 45
Allentown, Pa., 221
Almanacs, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
America and Americans, _see_ United States; _and appropriate topics throughout this index_
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 116
American Philosophical Society, 126, 221, 222, 226
American Philosophical Society Hall (Philosophical Hall), Pa., 218–226
American Revolution, _see_ War for Independence; _and appropriate topics throughout this index_
American Revolution, Daughters of the, _see_ Daughters of the American Revolution
American Revolution, Sons of the, _see_ Sons of the American Revolution
Amesbury, Mass., 39
Ammunition, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
Ancestry of signers, compared, 27–28 (_and see particular signers_)
Anglican Church, 43–44, 45, 56, 62, 77, 113, 122, 136. _See also_ Christianity and religion.
Anglo-Saxon origin of signers, 27
Annapolis and Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., 43, 44, 45, 46, 100, 113, 147, 170–191 _passim_, 263
Annapolis Convention (_1786_), 46, 48, 108, 119
Antifederalists and Antifederalism, 61, 94
Antislavery movement, _see under_ Slaves
Aquia Creek Quarries, Va., 171
Archeologists and archeological excavation, 177
Architects, architectural styles, and architectural features, _see specific architects, architectural styles, and buildings and residences_
Archives: Federal, _see_ National Archives and Records Service; non-Federal, and Declaration of Independence, 262
Ariss, John, architect-builder, 242, 246
Aristocrats and aristocracy, 31, 37, 41, 61, 66, 76, 77, 79, 97, 99, 147
Arlington, Mass., 60
Armies, standing, 60. _See also especially_ Continental Army; _and various wars, battles, and nations_.
Arms, ammunition, and ordnance, 9, 22, 38, 42, 84, 103, 106, 111, 137, 138, 248
Army-Navy Museum, Pa., 224
Army of the Potomac (Civil War), 239
Arnold, Gen. Benedict, British officer, 239
Arson, and historic sites, 40
Art and artists, 81–83, 85, 134, 218, 234, 267 (_and see_ Museums _and illustrations throughout this volume_)
Articles of Association (_1774_), 267
Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union: debated, drafted, adopted, and signed, 29, 36, 39, 59, 71, 76, 81, 84, 90, 91, 93–94, 100, 106, 110, 117, 129, 131, 136, 145, 149, 151, 218; document exhibited, 267; signers of Declaration who also signed, 29, 36, 39, 59, 76, 90, 93–94, 100, 106, 117, 129, 149. _See also_ Continental Congress.
Ashley River, 103, 237
Assemblies, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in independence movement, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; signers serve in, _see specific signers_. _See also individual colonies/States._
Assembly Room (Independence Hall, Pa.), _219–221_
Athens, Ga., 142
Attorneys and attorneys-general, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Augusta, Ga., 67, 141, 142, 161, 173, 175, 176
Augusta (Ga.) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 176
Authors, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts; Literature and literary figures; _and particular authors_
_Autobiography_, of Benjamin Franklin, 58
Bachelor signers, 29, 73, 120
Back River, 154
Baltimore, Md., 45, 46, 50, 124, 183, 184, 185, 187, 217, 263
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 44
Baltimore County, Md., 46
Baltimore Municipal Museum, 183
Baltimore Museum of Art, 187
Bank of England, 46
Bank of North America, 108, 147
Bank of the United States, First and Second, 218, 224, 226
Banks and banking, governmental and private, 46, 108, 147, 218, 224, 226. _See also_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing; Currency and money; Speculators and speculation.
Barbados, 59
Barclay, Thomas, merchant, 229
Bartlett, Josiah (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, _39–41_, _199–201_
Bartlett, Mrs. Josiah, wife of signer, 40
Bartlett descendants, 201
Bartlett House, N.H., _199–201_
Battles, _see under name of battle_
Bedford County, Va., 249
Beith (town), Scotland, 149
Benezet, John, merchant, 230
Bennington, Battle of, N.Y., 40
Berkeley (Harrison’s Landing) (estate), Va., 70, 71, _239–240_
Bible, _see_ Christianity and religion
Bicentennial, U.S., 222
Bill of Rights, U.S., _see under_ United States Constitution
Birthplaces of signers, _see specific signers_
Bishop White House, Pa., 224, 226
Blacks, _see_ Slaves
Bonaparte, Joseph, Napoleon’s brother, 204
Bonaparte, Napoleon, French ruler, 204
Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts: favor or oppose U.S. Constitution, 94, 125; on astronomy, 130; on monetary theory, 130; on religion, 149; signers write, 33, 35, 55–56, 58, 86, 87, 94, 125, 126, 130, 145, 146, 149, 150; support Revolutionary cause, 9, 11, 12, 15, 33, 35, 86, 87, 145, 146, 150. _See also_ Libraries; Literature and literary figures; _and particular works_.
Borden, Joseph, father-in-law of signer, 204
Bordentown, N.J., 82, 204, 205
Bordentown (N.J.) Chamber of Commerce, 205
Borland, Leonard Vassall, and Adams National Historic Site, 194
Boston and Boston Harbor, Mass., 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 33–34, 36, 37–39, 53–54, 59–60, 68, 69, 77, 93, 115, 116, 120, 143, 193, 199. _See also entries immediately following._
Boston (Mass.) Latin School, 36, 68, 77, 115
Boston Massacre, 5, 34, 37, 68, 115
Boston Port Act, 111
“Boston Tea Party,” 7, 38
“Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering,” (The) (cartoon), reproduced, 6
Boudinot, Annis, marries signer, 134
Boudinot, Elias, brother-in-law of signer, 207
Boyhood homes of signers, _see specific signers_
Braintree, Mass., _see_ Quincy
Brandywine, Battle of, Pa., 50
Braxton, Carter (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29, _41–42_, 70, 71, 135, _240–242_
Braxton, George, brother of signer, 41, 240
Braxton, Mrs. Carter, first wife of signer, 41
Braxton, Mrs. Carter, second wife of signer, 41
Bridgeport, Conn., 65
Bristol, England, 62
Britain, British, British Isles, British Empire, and British Commonwealth of Nations, _see_ Great Britain
Broadside copies of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
Bronx, N.Y., 105. _See also_ New York City and New York Harbor.
Brookhaven and Brookhaven Township, N.Y., 53
Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights, N.Y., 97, 98. _See also_ New York City and New York Harbor.
Brothers, among signers, 92
Brown University, R.I., 80
Bruton Parish, Va., 256
Buckland, William, architect, 181–182
Bucks County, Pa., 137, 138
Builders, buildings, and building materials, _see specific builder-architects, buildings, and residences_
Burgesses, House of, _see_ Virginia House of Burgesses
Burgoyne, Gen. John, British officer, 40, 143, 153
Burial places and burial grounds, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places
Burke County, Ga., 67
Burlington, Mass., 199
Burlington and Burlington County, N.J., 148
Business and businessmen, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Butterfield, Gen. Daniel, and “Taps,” 240
Byberry (“The Homestead”), Pa., 124
Byfield (plantation), Del., 120, 121
Cadwalader House, Pa., 228
Calvinists and Calvinism, 116, 149. _See also_ Christianity and religion; Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church.
Cambridge, Mass., 9, 60, 68, 196, 197
Cambridge University (England), 99, 103, 111
Canada, 44, 46, 173
Canals, 44
Cape Fear region of N.C., 77
Capital cities: national, _see_ United States Capitals; State, _see particular cities_
Capital punishment, 50, 126
Capitol (U.S.), _see_ United States Capitol
Carlisle, Pa., 146
Carolinas, 115. _See also_ North Carolina; South Carolina.
Caroline County, Va., 117
Carpenters, 114, 201, 217, 221
Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia, 217, 221
Carpenters’ Hall, Pa., 8, 217, 221, 224, 226
Carroll, Charles I, grandfather of signer, 185
Carroll, Charles II, father of signer, 43, 185
Carroll, Charles III, of Carrollton (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, 28, 31, 35, _43–45_, 46, 52, 114, _179–181_, _183–186_
Carroll, Charles V, grandson of signer, 186
Carroll, Father John, cousin of signer, 44
Carroll, Mary, daughter of signer, 45, 183
Carroll (Charles) American Heritage Association, Inc., 185
Carroll family and descendants, 43, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185
Carroll Mansion, Md., 43, _179–180_
“Carroll Vocational School,” Md., 184
Carrollton Manor, Md., 43, _180–181_, 185
Carskerdo, Scotland, 145
Carter, Robert “King,” grandfather of signer, 41
Carter-May House, S.C., _see_ Rutledge House
Carvel Hall Hotel, Md., 189
Catasauqua, Pa., 230
Catholic Church, _see_ Roman Catholic Church
Caton, Mary Carroll, daughter of signer, 45, 183
Caton, Richard, son-in-law of signer, 45, 183
Caton family, 184
Cecil County, Md., 118, 124
Cemeteries and burial places, of signers, marked, 160 (_and see specific signers_)
Centennial (U.S.) Exposition, 264
Chain Bridge, 263
Chancery courts, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Channing, William Ellery, descendant of signer, 52
Chantilly (estate), Va., 92, 94
Chapels and chaplains, _see_ Christianity and religion
Charitable organizations, 166
Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc., 185
Charles City and Charles City County, Va., 70
Charles County, Md., 135–136, 189
Charleston and Charleston Harbor, S.C., 65, 76, 103, 104, 127, 128, 129, 233
Charleston County, S.C., 99
Charleston “double house,” 233–234
Charleston (S.C.) Museum, 234
Charlestown, Mass., 9
Charlottesville, Va., 88, 89, 243, 250
Charter of Privileges (_1701_), 221
Chase, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, 45, 46
Chase, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, 46
Chase, Samuel (signer) (“Demosthenes of Maryland”), career of and sites associated with, 16, 29, 44, _45–46_, 113, 114, 136, 161, _181–182_
Chase family and descendants, 183
Chase-Lloyd House, Md., 161, _181–183_
Chatham County, Ga., 67
“Chawton Manor,” Pa., 230
Chemistry education, 123, 124
Chericoke (estate), Va., 42, 240
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company, 44
Chester and Chester County, Pa., 50, 101, 109, 110, 118, 137, 138
Chestertown, Md., 114
Chew, Benjamin, lawyer-jurist, 82
Chilbury Hall, Md., 113
Children of signers, number and careers of, compared, 29–30, 41 (_and see individual signers_)
Christ Church, Christ Churchyard, and Christ Church Burial Ground, Pa., 58, 75, 83, 108, 123, 126, 148, 224, 226
Christ Episcopal Church, Del., 121
Christianity and religion, and historic sites, 160, 181, 186, 199; and signers, 28, 31, 33, 43, 45, 65, 68, 73, 77, 88, 90, 95, 97, 115, 116, 122, 149–150, 181, 186; freedom in, 88, 90, 97; in Colonies, 55–56; in public education, 126; in Scotland, 149–150; in Va., 90, 93, 263; theologian prominent in, 52. _See also specific denominations and churches._
Churches and church affairs, _see_ Christianity and religion
Circuit courts and judges, U.S., _see_ United States Judiciary
Cities, towns, and villages: and committees/councils of correspondence, _see_ Committees of correspondence; and committees/councils of safety, _see_ Committees of safety; and historic preservation, 160; and signers, _see particular signers_. _See also individual cities, towns, and villages._
City Hall, old, New York City, _see_ Federal Hall
City Hall (Philadelphia), 218, 221
City Tavern (Philadelphia), 222
Civic affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific signers_
Civic organizations, and historic preservation, 160
Civil War (U.S.), 186, 236, 239, 251
Clark, Abraham (signer), career of and sites associated with, _47–48_, 160
Clarke, Rev. Jonas, relative of signer, 199
Clarke Hall (Philadelphia), 222
Classical and Classic Revival architectural style, 183–184. _See also_ Greek Revival architectural style.
Classics, studied, _see under_ Education
Clay, Henry, law student, 154, 156
Clergymen, _see_ Christianity and religion
Clymer, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29, _49–51_, 134, _229_
Cobblers, 129
Codes, legal, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Codfish, 59
College Hill (Walton-Harper House), Ga., 142, _173–175_
College of Charleston, S.C., 104
College of New Jersey, _see_ Princeton University
College of Philadelphia, 82, 113, 124, 126, 146, 148
College of William and Mary, Va., 41, 70, 86, 154–156
Colleges and universities, and historic sites, 160; chemistry education in, 123, 124; classical education in, 154, 156; legal education in, 154–156; medical education in, 123–126; signers aid, head, and serve, 67, 123–126, 142, 146, 148, 150–151, 154–156; signers attend, 30 (_and see particular signers_). _See also_ Education; and _specific colleges and universities_.
Colonial and colonial Philadelphia architectural style, 172, 228, 246, 252
Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., _see_ Annapolis and Colonial Annapolis Historic District
Colonial Dames of America, 160, 202
Colonial National Historical Park, Va., 160, 247–249
Colonial Park Cemetery, Ga., 64
Colonial Williamsburg, Va., _see_ Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic District, and Colonial Williamsburg
Colonies, Thirteen (British-American): and British Empire, 147, 156; and signers, _see_ Signers of the Declaration _and individual signers_; architecture in, _see particular styles_; confederations of, actual and proposed, 16, 34, 56, 79, 80 (_and see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union); constitutions, legislatures, and governments of, 9, 15 (_and see specific colonies/States_); cultural heritage of, 8; foreign nations recognize independence of, 35; government and diplomacy of, _see_ Continental Congress; heroes and prominent men in, 27, 31, 34, 37, 43, 55, 56, 68, 115; independence movement in, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash, Declaration of Independence, _and_ Independence resolution; meetings and congresses of, 56, 79, 80, 93, 132; proprietary, 43, 56–57, 113, 120, 122, 136; publications popular in, 15, 55–56, 81; regions and trade of, 30, 62; status of Ga. in, 15, 64, 89; territory added to, 3; wars in, _see specific wars_. _See also_ Continental Congress; States; War for Independence; _individual colonies/States and regions_; _and appropriate topics throughout this index_.
Columbia University (King’s College), N.Y., 97
Commerce, trade, and manufacturing: and colonial protest, 97; and historic sites, 160, 181, 228; and signers, 27, 31 (_and see specific signers_); Britain-Colonies, 4, 8, 9, 37–38, 62, 68; Continental Congress regulates, 49, 52, 95; embargoes and restrictions on, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; France-Colonies, 147; in slaves, _see_ Slaves; in various colonies, 36, 52, 55, 80, 101, 120, 184, 202; Indian-Colonies, 4; individuals other than signers in, 51, 59, 62, 68, 106, 111, 115, 184, 204, 251; treaties deal with, 35, 58, 88–89. _See also_ Banks and banking; Merchant marine and maritime affairs; Taxes and taxation.
Commissions and commissioners, _see individual commissions, governmental bodies, and topics_
Committee of fifty-one, 95, 98
Committee of one hundred, 98
Committee of sixty, 95, 98
Committees, _see particular agencies, governmental bodies, topics, and entries immediately preceding and following_
Committees of correspondence, 7–8, 37–38, 40, 44, 45, 59, 70, 72, 73, 78, 81, 93, 106, 113, 130, 136, 138, 146, 150
Committees of safety, 9, 10, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 54, 60, 68, 72, 76, 103, 106, 114, 122, 131, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 145
Common Ground Cemetery, R.I., 52
Common schools, _see_ Education
_Common Sense_ (pamphlet), 11, 12, 15, 124
Community affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific signers_
Companies, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Composers, musical, _see_ Music and musicians
Concord and Battle of Concord, Mass., 8, 9, 10, 12, 38, 42, 60, 68
Confederacy (Civil War), 251
Confederations: of Colonies, actual and proposed, _see under_ Colonies; of Thirteen States, _see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union; Continental Congress
Conferences, _see particular agencies, governmental bodies, and topics_
Confiscation of lands, _see under_ Land
Congregationalists and Congregational Church, 65, 68, 77, 144, 150, 166. _See also_ Christianity and religion.
Congresses, colonies/States, _see individual colonies/States_; Continental, see Continental Congress; intercolonial, _see under_ Colonies; U.S., _see_ United States Congress
Congress Hall (County Court House), Pa., 218, 221, 223, 226
Congressional Cemetery, D.C., 62
Connecticut (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16, 18, 24, 53, 72, 83–84, 123, 129–131, 133, 143, 144–145, 152–153, 164–170, 211
Connecticut (Great) Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, 131
Conservatives and conservatism, political, 14, 16, 18, 22–23, 37, 41, 42, 45–46, 56, 70, 71, 72, 73, 79, 80, 88, 94, 96, 101, 113, 114, 118, 119, 128, 135, 136, 141–142, 145, 147; religious, 56, 65
_Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament_ (tract), 146
Constitutional conventions and constitutions: British, _see under_ Great Britain; colonies/States, _see specific colonies/States_; U.S., _see_ United States Constitution _and_ United States Constitutional Convention
Continental Army, and signers, 27, 34, 40, 60, 99–100, 107, 111; battles and campaigns of, _see_ War for Independence; Continental Congress regulates, 34, 49, 60, 71, 84, 91, 98, 101, 105, 115, 143, 145, 147, 151; created, 14, 217; Declaration distributed to, 22; financed, 14, 60, 106–108; inspected, 134; leadership of, 14, 29, 34, 41, 69, 74–75, 217, 264; medical service and conditions in, 40, 125, 228; recruiting poster of, reproduced, 10; recruitment-enlistment for, 60, 121; supplied, 14, 60, 84, 95, 106–108, 137, 138; veterans of, 60, 114. _See also_ Militia.
Continental Association, 9, 66, 103 Continental Congress (First and Second), adjourns and convenes, 7–8, 9, 14, 38, 93; and Adams (John), 18, 33–35, 38; and Articles of Confederation, _see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union; and Bank of North America, _see_ Bank of North America; and Colonies, _see_ Colonies; and committees of correspondence and safety, _see_ Committees of correspondence _and_ Committees of safety; and Cornwallis’ surrender, 218; and Declaration of Independence, _see_ Declaration of Independence; and Halifax Resolves, 74; and Hancock, 69; and independence from Britain, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash _and_ Independence resolution; and Indians, _see_ Indians and Indian affairs; and maritime matters, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs; and Olive Branch Petition, 14; and signers, _see particular signers_; and U.S. Constitution, _see_ United States Constitution; book on, 268; Delegates and delegations to, _see individual Delegates and colonies/States and under_ Counties and parishes; diplomatic program of, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy; father-son team in, 100; fiscal problems and policies of, 31, 49–50, 60, 71, 106–108, 111, 117, 131, 141, 143, 151; gathering place for members of, 222; key days in, 18; meetingplaces of, _front endpaper_, 8, 14, 50, 217, 219–221, 224, 263; memorialized, 221; officials of, 22, 24, 39, 52, 67, 69, 84, 92, 94, 101, 117, 136, 207, 262–263, 267; organization and committees/commissions of, 8, 15, 16, 34, 40, 44, 49–50, 52, 54, 71, 74, 81, 84, 91, 95, 98, 105, 110, 115, 131, 138, 141, 143, 147, 151; profiteering in, 31, 46, 106–107; prominent men not Delegates to, 27; regulates commerce, 49, 52, 95; representation and voting procedures in, 8, 15, 18, 24, 27, 39, 66 (_and see individual colonies/States_); sectional rivalries in, 74; temper and range of political opinion in, 8–9, 14–15, 16, 18, 34, 88, 135, 136, 141, 147. _See also entries immediately preceding and following, specific colonies/States, and appropriate topics throughout this index._
Continental currency, 31, 49, 69
Continental Loan Office, 52
Continental Navy, 15, 34, 52, 74–75, 81, 82, 108
Continental Navy Board, 82. _See also_ Continental Navy.
Convention of Saratoga, _see_ Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga
Conventions, _see individual conventions, colonies/States, and appropriate topics_
Conway, Thomas, and Conway Cabal, 60, 95, 125
Coopers, 83
Corbin, Richard, father-in-law of signer, 42
Cornwallis, Gen. Charles, British officer, 218, 248
Corporations, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Correspondence, committees/councils of, _see_ Committees of correspondence
Coton (estate), Va., 91
Cotton planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
Councils, _see particular councils, cities, towns, colonies/States, and appropriate topics_
Councils of correspondence, _see_ Committees of correspondence
Councils of safety, _see_ Committees of safety
Counties and parishes, and committees/councils of correspondence and safety, _see_ Committees of correspondence _and_ Committees of safety; militia of, _see_ Militia; offices in and affairs of, role of signers in, _see specific signers_; send Delegates to Continental Congress, 54, 66, 141. _See also individual colonies/States and counties/parishes._
Counting rooms and houses, 36, 184, 202
County Court House, Pa., _see_ Congress Hall
Courts, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Coventry Forge, Pa., 137
Criteria of eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic Landmark status, 161, 270–271
Crown, British, _see_ Colonies; Great Britain
Crown Point, N.Y., 115
Cumberland County, Pa., 122
Currency and money, and Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental Congress; British problems with, 3; Continental, 31, 49, 69; signers raise to further Revolutionary cause, 31, 49; speculation in, _see_ Speculators and speculation; status of signers regarding, _see_ Wealth and financial status of signers; theory on, 130. _See also_ Banks and banking.
Customs laws, collection, and officials, British and American, 3, 4, 6, 34, 37, 52, 68, 82, 101
Dana, Richard Henry, Sr., grandson of signer, 52
Dartmouth College, N.H., 40, 84
Daughters of signers, _see particular signers_
Daughters of the American Revolution, 160, 176, 192, 224, 227
Daughters of the Revolution, 160
Dawes, William, patriot, 10, 199
“Dean’s House,” N.J., _see_ President’s House
Deaths of signers: age at, compared, 28–29; earliest, 62, 98, 109, 199; latest, 35, 43; on anniversary of adoption of Declaration, 35, 90. _See also specific signers._
Debts and economic reversals of signers, 36–37, 46, 63–64, 69, 73, 78, 89–90, 107–108, 112, 132, 146, 148, 196, 213
“Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in General Congress Assembled” (A), _see_ Declaration of Independence
Declaration of Independence, and Adams (John), 16, 18, 20, 33–34; and Va. constitution, 20; anniversary of, 35, 90, 264; author of, _see_ Jefferson, Thomas; books on, 268–269; broadside copies of, 22, 69, 262; building, residence, and rooms involved in creation of, 18, 159–160, 217, 222, _rear endpaper_; celebrated and read publicly, 22, 217, 264; contents and style of, analyzed, 20, 22; debated, altered, adopted, and signed, 3, 18, 20, 22, 23–24, 28, 33, 34, 67, 69, 71, 72, 76, 81, 82, 88, 90, 93, 95, 100, 106, 110, 117, 120, 123, 124, 129, 136, 159–160, 217, 219–220, 222, 262 (_and see individual signers_); desk written on, 222, 245; displayed, in various places, 3, 262–267; displayed, photo of, 266; drafted, 14, 16, 18, 33, 34, 55, 57–58, 88, 90, 93, 129, 130, 217, 228, 245, 262, 263; drafting committee of, illus. of, ii; historical background and origins of, 3–24; history of document, 262–267; Jefferson presents to Hancock, in mural, 267; misconceptions concerning, 23–24; newspapers describe and publish, 21; parchment copy of, 23–24, 69, 262–267; parchment copy of, facsimile of, reproduced, 19; political philosophy of, 20; preamble of, 20; predicted, 78, 82; presented to Continental Congress, illus. of, ii; printed and distributed, 22, 23–24, 262; reflects unanimity, 23; revised draft of, 262; rough draft of, illus. of first page of, 17; rough drafts of, 17, 18, 20, 262; signatures on, order and nature of, 23–24, 39, 60, 67, 93, 100, 139, 140, 153, 155, 217, 262; signers of, _see_ Signers of the Declaration _and specific signers_; significance and influence of, 3, 20; text of, reprinted, 259–262; titles of, 23; traditions concerning, 52, 58, 69, 79. _See also_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; Independence resolution.
“Declaration of Independence” (The) (painting), reproduced, ii
“Declaration of Rights,” 20. _See also_ Rights.
Degrees, academic and honorary, signers earn, _see individual signers_
Deists, 28
Delaware (Three Lower Counties) (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16, 18, 24, 27, 100–102, 118–121, 122, 135. _See also_ Pennsylvania.
Delaware County, Pa., 109
Delegates, _see particular legislative bodies and appropriate topics_
Democracy, 3. _See also appropriate related topics throughout this index._
Democratic-Republicans and Democratic-Republican Party, 52, 61–62, 85, 89, 102. _See also_ Jeffersonians.
Departments of U.S. Government, _see appropriate departments following_ United States
Derry Village, N.H., 139, 203
Descendants of signers, achieve distinction, 29–30; and historic sites, 160. _See also specific signers and individuals_.
Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, Inc., 160
Deshler-Morris House, Pa., 224, 226
Deshon, Christopher, merchant, 183
Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Md., 45, _183–185_
Dickinson, John, lawyer-legislator, 18, 69, 93, 110, 119, 146
Dickinson College, Pa., 126
Dinwiddie, Robert, British official, 154
Diplomats and diplomacy, 15, 16, 29, 33, 35, 44, 46, 55, 58, 61, 71, 85, 88, 93, 95, 98, 128, 136, 143, 151, 193–196
Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers, _see
## particular signers_
District courts, U.S., _see_ United States Judiciary
District of Columbia, _see_ Washington, D.C.
Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals, 31, 39–40, 56, 65, 66, 67, 97, 98, 121, 123–127, 139–140, 152, 201, 203, 218, 228. On the health of individual signers, _see specific signers._
Dorchester, Mass., 129
Dorchester, S.C., 65
Doric architectural style, 166, 176, 186, 244
“Double house,” 233–234
Doughoregan Manor, Md., 43, 45, 179, 180, 183, _185–186_
Dover, Del., 18, 101, 119, 120, 121
Down Hatherly (village), England, 62
Drafting, of Articles of Confederation, _see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union; of Declaration, _see_ Declaration of Independence; of key State documents, _see individual States_; of U.S. Constitution, _see_ United States Constitution
Drafts, various, of Declaration, _see_ Declaration of Independence
Dublin, Ireland, 118, 172
Duels, 62, 63, 64, 117
Duke of Leinster, 172
Dunmore, Lord John M., British official, 42, 111
Durham Furnace, Pa., 137, 138
Dutch, _see_ Holland
Duties, _see_ Customs laws, collection, and officials
East Cemetery, Conn., 153
East River, 97
East Windsor, Conn., 153
Eastern Shore, _see_ Maryland
Easton, Pa., 137, 138, 230
Easton Cemetery, Pa., 138
Economic matters, _see mainly_ Banks and banking; Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Economic status of signers, _see_ Wealth and financial status of signers
Edenton, N.C., 73, 78, 148
Edge, Gov. (N.J.) and Mrs. Walter E., and Morven, 208
Edinburgh, Scotland, 134, 149
Education, and Jefferson, 85, 86; and Lowell, 195–196; classical, 39, 45, 154; in chemistry, 123, 124; in various colonies/States, 84, 102, 229, 245, 252, 255; legal, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence; medical, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals; of signers, compared, 27, 28, 30 (_and see specific signers_); reform of, 126; religious, in public schools, 126 (_and see_ Christianity and religion); signers further as teachers, professors, and administrators, 33, 56, 65, 67, 80, 85, 115, 142, 154–156. _See also_ Colleges and universities.
Elections and elective officials, _see particular legislative bodies, offices, individuals, and colonies/States_
Electors, presidential, _see under_ United States Presidents and Presidency
Elementary schools, _see_ Education
Eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic Landmark status, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
Elizabeth City County, Va., 154
Ellery, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, _51–52_, 160
Elmwood (Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House), Mass., _195–197_
Elsing Green (estate), Va., 41, 42, _240–242_
Emancipation of slaves, _see_ Slaves
Embargoes, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
Emley, John, _see_ Imlay, John
England and Englishmen, _see_ Colonies; Great Britain
English language and literature, _see_ Literature and literary figures
Epidemics, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals
Esopus, N.Y., 98
Essays and essayists, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
_Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philosophical_ (book), 126
Essex County, N.J., 47
Eton (school), England, 99
Europe, and _Poor Richard’s Almanac_, 55–56; architecture in, 172; capital from, 148; colonists from, and western lands, 148; culture of, 88; medical students from, 126; signers visit and study in, 30, 43, 88, 92, 95, 103, 179, 180, 192, 193, 235; U.S. diplomats in, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy. _See also specific countries._
Excavation, archeological, 177
“Exceptional value,” sites and buildings of, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
Excise taxes, _see under_ Taxes and taxation
Exeter, N.H., 143
Exhibition Hall (National Archives Building, D.C.), 262, 266, 267
Exports, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Facsimiles of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
Fairfax County, Va., 91
Families of signers, suffer during War for Independence, 31, 47, 54, 71–72, 94–95, 104–105, 110. _See also specific signers and families._
Farms and farming: and signers, 31, 45, 47, 53, 72, 80, 83, 85, 101, 109, 110, 117, 124, 129, 134, 140, 164, 203, 209, 210–211, 212–213; in various areas, 33, 76, 101, 117, 138, 140, 164, 166, 230, 255. _See also_ Planters and plantations.
Farmville, Va., 141
Federal, _see United States entries and those immediately following_
Federal City, _see_ Washington, D.C.
Federal Hall (old City Hall), New York City, 263
Federal period architecture and literature, 81, 170
Federalists and Federalist Party, 35, 44, 46, 52, 61, 89, 102, 108, 116, 119, 128, 131, 156. _See also_ Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians.
Ferries, 140
Financial matters, _see_ Currency and money; Wealth and financial status of signers
Finian (estate), N.C., 77, 78, 79, 214
Finns and Finland, 109
Fire Island National Seashore, N.Y., 160, 210–212
Fires, and historic sites, 40, 86, 97, 159, 199, 207, 247, 250, 263
First Bank of the United States, _see_ Bank of the United States
First Bank of the United States Building, Pa., 224, 226
First Baptist Church, N.J., 72
First Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress
First Presbyterian Church Cemetery, Pa., 133
First South Carolina Regiment of Continentals, 99
Fiscal matters, _see_ Currency and money
Floor plans, _see specific houses_
Florida (region and State), 76, 104, 128, 233
Floyd, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, 53
Floyd, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, 54
Floyd, Nicoll, son of signer, 54, 211, 212
Floyd, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, _53–54_, _210–213_
Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), N.Y., 53, 54, 160, _210–212_
Floyd family and descendants, 54, 210–213
Floyd (General) House, N.Y., _see_ General Floyd House
Flushing, N.Y., 95
Food shortages, 147
Foreign affairs, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy
Foreign born signers, 27–28 (_and see particular signers_)
“Formation of the Union” exhibit, 267
Fort Knox, Ky., 265
Fort Oswego, N.Y., 95
Fort Stanwix, N.Y., Second Treaty of (_1784_), 153
“Fort Wilson” (residence), Pa., 146, 147, 222
Foundations, historic, and historic sites, 160
Founders’ Monument, Ga., _see_ Signers’ Monument
France, and Democratic-Republicans, 61; and signers, 35, 43, 58, 95, 100, 145, 147; and War for Independence, 145; artist-engineer from, 171; cedes land to Britain, 3, 4; commerce of, 147; diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, 35, 55, 58, 61, 88; fortress of, 139; loans money to Continental Congress, 108; revolution in, 35, 88–89; undeclared war of, with U.S., 35, 61; wallpaper from, 202; wars of, _see specific wars_. _See also_ New France.
Franklin, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 27, 28, 29, 35, 44, _55–58_, 79, 82, 88, 110, 124, 128, 147, 160, 221, 222, 224
Franklin, James, half-brother of signer, 55
Franklin College, Ga., 67, 142
Franklin stoves, 204
Frederick and Frederick County, Md., 43, 135
French and Indian War, 3, 56, 95, 97, 115, 144
French language, 44
French Revolution, 35, 88–89
Friends Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., 51
Frontier and frontiersmen, 4, 54, 56, 78, 85, 86, 108, 141, 147, 148, 212
Fulling mills, 72
Furniture and furnishings, associated with signers, collectively, 219, 221. _See also individual sites._
Gadsden, Christopher, legislator, 128
Gage, Gen. Thomas, British officer-official, 10
Galloway, John, Loyalist, 138
Gardens, famous, 236–237. _See also specific sites._
Garrison house, 178
General Floyd House, N.Y., 54, _212–213_
General Services Administration (U.S.), _see_ United States General Services Administration
George II, King of England, 68
George III, King of England, 4, 8, 15, 22, 24, 68
George Taylor Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 227
Georgetown and Georgetown County, S.C., 99
Georgia (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 51, 54, 56, 62–67, 76, 138, 140–142, 148, 161, 173–177
Georgia State Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, 176
Georgian architectural style, 176–178, 181–183, 185–191, 194–198, 201–202, 206–213, 218–219, 226–227, 229–234, 239–249, 251–256
German Evangelical Lutheran Church, Pa., 138
Germans and Germany, 40
Germantown and Battle of Germantown, Pa., 23, 151, 224
Germantown (Pa.) Historical Society, 226
Gerry, Elbridge (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 29, _59–62_, _195–198_
Gerry, Mrs. Elbridge, wife of signer, 61–62
Gerry, Thomas, father of signer, 197
Gerry Birthplace, Mass., _197–198_
Gerry family, 197
“Gerrymander,” 61
Gifford (village), Scotland, 149
Glamorganshire, Wales, 95
Glasgow, Scotland, 149
Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’) Church National Historic Site, Pa., 226
Gloucestershire, England, 62
“God save the King” (British national anthem), 76
“God save the thirteen States” (song), 76
Goochland County, Va., 86
Governor Hopkins House, R.I., _231–232_
Governor Huntington House, Conn., _see_ Huntington House
Governors, _see specific colonies/States and individuals_
Grace Episcopal Church, Va., 112
Graff, Jacob, Jr., House, Pa.: and Declaration of Independence, 18, 222; illus. of, 225, _rear endpaper_
Graham, Gov. (N.C.) William A., and Nash-Hooper House, 214
Grammar schools, _see_ Education
Granville County, N.C., 117
Graves, graveyards, and gravestones, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places
Great Britain, agents of various American colonies in, 56; and Federalists, 61; and Ga., 15, 64, 89; and Liberty Bell, 221; and signers, 28, 31, 41, 56, 62, 64, 68, 76, 82, 88, 95, 99, 103, 106, 109, 111, 113, 115, 127, 136, 143, 240; and slave trade, 20; Army of, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash _and specific wars_; Bank of England in, 46; clashes with American Colonies, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash _and_ War for Independence; colonies of, _see_ Colonies; Commonwealth of Nations of, 147; “conspiracy” in, 3–4; constitution of, 15; creditors in, 4, 78; debtors in, 78; diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, 35, 194, 196; Empire of, and Colonies, 155; financial problems of, 3; France cedes lands to, 3, 4; grants lands, 95; kings of, _see specific kings_; national anthem of, 76; navy of, 64, 98, 141; Parliament of, _see under_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; people of, and Declaration of Independence, 20; recognizes U.S. independence, _see_ Treaty of Paris; reorganization of imperial structure of, 147; Revolutionary tracts circulate in, 81, 146; rights of citizens of, 8–9; ties of, to American Colonies, 8; trade of, 8, 9, 31, 37, 46; treasury of, 3; wars of, _see specific wars_. _See also_ Irish, Ireland, and Scotch-Irish; Scots, Scotland, and Scotch-Irish; Wales and Welshmen; _and other appropriate topics throughout this index_.
Great Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, 131
Greek language, 39, 156
Greek Revival architectural style, 164–165, 166, 168, 180, 185–186, 199–201, 203–204, 207–208, 231
Greenland, 115
Greensboro, N.C., 79, 118, 161
Greenwich Forge and Greenwich Township, N.J., 138, 226
Grievances, colonial, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
Grist mills, 72
Grove Street Cemetery, Conn., 131
Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, N.C., 79, 118, 161, 216
Guns and gunpowder, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
Gwinnett, Button (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27–28, _62–64_, 65, 67, 98, 140, 161, _176–177_
Gwinnett, Mrs. Button, wife of signer, 62
H-shaped buildings, 251–253, 253–255
Habre-de-Venture (estate), Md., 136, _186–188_, 189
Hackney School, England, 103, 111
Haddington (town) and Haddington Presbytery, Scotland, 149
Hague (town), Va., 94
“Hail Columbia” (song), 81
Halifax Resolves, 74
Hall, Lyman (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, 64, _65–67_, 140, 141, 160, 161
Hall, Mrs. Lyman, first wife of signer, 65
Hall, Mrs. Lyman, second wife of signer, 65
Hall, Rev. Samuel, uncle of signer, 65
Hall family, 66
Hall’s Knoll (estate), Ga., 66, 67
Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians, 35, 89. _See also_ Federalists and Federalist Party.
Hamilton, Andrew, lawyer-architect, 217
Hampton, Va., 154
Hancock, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 12, 22, 24, 34, 37, 38, 39, 59, 60, _67–69_, 115, 116, _198–199_, 262, 267
Hancock, John George Washington, son of signer, 69
Hancock, Rev. John, grandfather of signer, 199
Hancock, Thomas, uncle of signer, 68, 199
Hancock-Clarke House, Mass., _198–199_
Hancock family, 199
Hanover County, Va., 42, 112, 247
Harford County, Md., 113
Harper family, 175
Harrison, Benjamin IV, father of signer, 239
Harrison, Benjamin V (signer) (“Falstaff of Congress”), career of and sites associated with, 30, 69, _70–71_, _239–240_
Harrison, Benjamin VI, son of signer, 239
Harrison, Benjamin, great-grandson of signer and President, 30, 70, 239
Harrison, Joseph H., legislator, 114, 136
Harrison, Mrs. Benjamin V, wife of signer, 70
Harrison, William Henry, son of signer and President, 30, 70, 239
Harrison family, 70, 71, 240
Harrison’s Landing, Va., _see_ Berkeley
Hart, John (signer) (“Honest John”), career of and sites associated with, _71–72_, 160
Hart, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 72
Harvard College and University, Mass., 30, 33, 36, 51, 59, 68, 77, 115, 144, 197
Hayes Plantation, N.C., 148
Health of signers, _see specific signers_
Henry, Patrick, career of, 27, 28, 42, 70, 71, 86, 88, 92, 93, 111
Heraldic emblems, 82
Hessians, _see_ Germans and Germany
Hewes, Joseph (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29, _73–75_, 116, 117, 161, _206_, 224
Heyward, Daniel, father of signer, 233
Heyward, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., first wife of signer, 76
Heyward, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., second wife of signer, 76
Heyward, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, _75–76_, 99, 104, 127, 128, _233–234_
Heyward family, 76, 234
Heyward-Washington House, S.C., _233–234_
Higher education, _see_ Colleges and universities
Hills, The (estate), Pa., 108
Hillsborough, N.C., 79, 214
Historians and historiography, 33, 194. _See also entries immediately following_.
Historic Annapolis, Inc., 189
Historic Districts, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
Historic foundations, and historic sites, 160
Historic Places, National Register of, _see_ National Register of Historic Places
Historic preservation activities and problems, 159–162. _See also entries immediately preceding and following_.
Historic sites and buildings of national significance, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
Historical societies, State and local: and historic preservation, 160
Historiography, _see_ Historians and historiography
Hoban, James, architect, 171, 172
Holland (Dutch Republic; Netherlands), 35, 96, 211
Homes of signers, _see_ Residences of signers
“Homestead” (The), Pa., _see_ Byberry
“Honeymoon Cottage,” Va., 244, 245
Hooper, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 77
Hooper, Rev. William, father of signer, 77
Hooper, William (signer) (“Prophet of Independence”), career of and sites associated with, 31, _77–79_, 116, 117, 161, _214–216_
Hopewell, N.J., 72
Hopkins, Alden, descendant of signer, 232
Hopkins, Esek, brother of signer, 80, 81
Hopkins, Mrs. Stephen, first wife of signer, 80
Hopkins, Mrs. Stephen, second wife of signer, 80
Hopkins, Stephen (signer), career of and sites associated with, 51, _79–81_, _231–232_
Hopkins (Governor) House, R.I., _see_ Governor Hopkins House
Hopkinson, Francis (signer), career of and sites associated with, _81–83_, _204–205_, 224
Hopkinson, Joseph, son of signer, 81, 204
Hopkinson, Mrs. Francis, wife of signer, 82
Hopkinson family, 204
Hopkinson House, N.J., _204–205_
Hopsewee-on-the-Santee (plantation), S.C., 99, _234–236_
Horses, 101, 121, 134
Hospitals, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals
House of Burgesses, _see_ Virginia House of Burgesses
Howard County, Md., 43, 180, 183
Howe, Lord Richard, British admiral, 98, 128, 136
Howe, Sir William, British officer, 13, 128
Humanitarians and reformers, 50, 80, 97, 123–126
Humphreys, Charles, legislator, 110
Hunterdon County, N.J., 72
Huntington, Mrs. Samuel, wife of signer, 83
Huntington, Samuel (signer), career of and sites associated with, _83–84_, _164–166_, 222
Huntington Birthplace, Conn., _164–165_
Huntington House (Governor Huntington House), Conn., _165–166_
Illnesses of signers, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers
Imlay (Emley), John, merchant, 204
Immanuel Episcopal Churchyard, Del., 119
Impeachment, 46, 102, 148
Imports, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Imprisonment, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war
Inaugurations and inaugural addresses of U.S. Presidents, _see under_ United States Presidents and Presidency
Indentured servants, 31, 137
Independence Day (U.S.), 76
Independence Hall (State House for the Province of Pennsylvania), Pa., _front endpaper_, 14, 18, 22, 216, _217–226_
Independence Mall, Pa., 226
Independence movement (U.S.) and British-colonial clash: and Adams (John), 18, 33–34; and Adams (Samuel), 36–38; and British Parliament, 8, 9, 14, 15, 38, 42, 56, 57, 59, 72, 81, 86, 93, 134, 146, 155; and Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress; and R.I., 15; and Va., 15; British actions and postures during, 3–156 _passim_, 199; colonial grievances, protests, and actions during, 3–156 _passim_, 189–190, 195, 199, 217, 259–262; fathers of, 33, 67; fruition and celebration of, 15, 22, 218; outcome of, predicted, 78, 82; public attitudes toward, 22–23; range of reaction to, _see_ Conservatives and conservatism, Loyalists and Tories, Moderates, _and_ Radicals and radicalism; results in war, _see_ War for Independence; signers’ role in, _see individual signers_; timing of, 8, 16, 217. _See also_ Declaration of Independence; Independence resolution; _specific colonies/States_; _and appropriate topics throughout this index_.
Independence National Historical Park, Pa., 159–160, _216–226_
Independence resolution (U.S.), background, introduction, and adoption of, 14, 15–18, 22, 27, 34, 39, 44, 46, 60, 67, 72, 74, 92, 93, 95, 98, 100, 101, 106, 109, 110, 111, 114, 118, 119, 120–121, 122, 127, 128, 134, 135, 136, 147, 153, 217. _See also_ Declaration of Independence; Independence movement and British-colonial clash.
Independence Square, Pa., 217, 221, 222, 226
Indians and Indian affairs, 4, 51, 84, 89, 98, 105, 115, 122, 131, 138, 141, 147, 152–153, 177
Indigo, 66
Indigo Society School, S.C., 99
Individuals, and historic preservation, 160 (_and see particular sites_); rights of, _see_ Rights
Inflation, 147
Insane and insanity, 126
Intellectuals and intellectual life, 43, 55, 85, 145, 194, 228
Intercolonial affairs, _see_ Colonies
Interstate disputes, _see under_ States
Inventors and invention, 55, 85
Ionic architectural style, 182, 184, 197, 244
Iredell, James, U.S. Supreme Court Justice, 78, 148, 213
Iredell, Mrs. James, and certain signers, 79, 214
Iredell House, N.C., _213–214_
Irish, Ireland, and Scotch-Irish, 43, 101, 118, 127, 132, 137, 139, 146, 171, 172, 204
Iron and iron manufacturing, 31, 132, 137, 226
Iroquois (Six Indian Nations) Indians, 138, 153
Italy and Italians, 88, 113, 183, 243
Jacob Graff, Jr., House, Pa., _see_ Graff, Jacob, Jr., House
Jails, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war
James River, 239, 253
Jasper County, S.C., 75
Jay, John, diplomat, 35, 58, 263
Jefferson, Martha, daughter of signer, 245
Jefferson, Mrs. Thomas, wife of signer, 88, 244, 249
Jefferson, Peter, father of signer, 86, 254
Jefferson, Thomas (signer and author of Declaration), career of and sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35, _85–90_, 93, 124, 154, 155, _170–173_, 217, 222, 228, _243–245_, _249–251_, _253–255_, 262, 263, 267, _rear endpaper_. _See also_ Jeffersonians.
Jefferson family, 245
Jefferson (Thomas) Memorial, D.C., 161
Jefferson (Thomas) Memorial Foundation, 245
Jefferson Papers, 262
Jeffersonians, 35. _See also_ Democratic-Republicans and Democratic-Republican Party.
_Jersey_ (ship), 48
Jesuits, _see_ Roman Catholic Church
John Adams Birthplace, Mass., _see_ Adams (John) Birthplace
John Quincy Adams Birthplace, Mass., _see_ Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace
Johnson, Thomas, lawyer, 114, 136
Jones, John Paul, naval officer, 74–75
Judges, judicial matters, and jurisprudence, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Kent County, Del., 120, 121
King and Queen County, Va., 41
King George’s War, 139, 152
King William County and King William Courthouse, Va., 41
Kings, denounced, 15 (_and see specific kings_)
King’s Attorneys, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
King’s College, N.Y., _see_ Columbia University
Kingston, N.H., 39, 41
Kingston, N.Y., 98
Kittery, Maine, 143, 177
Ladd family, 201–202
Lafayette, Marquis de, visits U.S., 248
Lake George, 144
Lancaster, Pa., 122, 132, 218, 263
Land, and signers, 31, 47, 61, 63, 66, 67, 95, 102, 108, 119, 133, 138, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 148, 175, 212, 213; interstate disputes over, 119, 133, 143, 153; Loyalist, confiscated, 61, 67, 103, 138, 142, 175; major grants of, 54, 63, 95, 102, 212; speculation in, 108, 147, 148, 213
Landmarks, National Historic, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
Languages, _see specific languages_
Latin language, 39, 146, 156
Latrobe, Benjamin H., architect, 172
Laurel Hill Cemetery, Pa., 102
Laurens, Henry, legislator, 117
Laws and lawyers, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Learned societies, 80, 116, 126, 218–226 _passim_
Lebanon, Conn., 144–145, 166
Lee, Arthur, brother of signers, 35, 90, 228, 251
Lee, Francis Lightfoot (signer), career of and sites associated with, _90–91_, 92, 93, 228, _242–243_, _246–247_, _251–253_
Lee, Henry (Col. “Lighthorse Harry”), relative of signers, 251–252
Lee, Matilda, niece of signers, 251–252
Lee, Mrs. Francis Lightfoot, wife of signer, 91, 242, 246
Lee, Mrs. Richard Henry, first wife of signer, 92
Lee, Mrs. Richard Henry, second wife of signer, 92
Lee, Philip Ludwell, brother of signers, 91, 92, 251
Lee, Richard Henry (signer and sponsor of independence resolution), career of and sites associated with, 15–16, 18, 22, 24, 27, 28, 44, 46, 71, 74, 86, 90, 91, _92–94_, 111, 128, 147, 217, 228, _251–253_
Lee, Richard Henry, grandson of signer, 264
Lee, Robert E., Confederate officer, 251–253
Lee, Thomas, father of signers, 91, 92, 251
Lee, Thomas Ludwell, brother of signers, 251
Lee, William, brother of signers, 90, 251
Lee family, 91, 94, 251–253
Lee (Robert E.) Memorial Foundation, Inc., 253
Leesburg, Va., 91, 263
Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence: admiralty, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs; and colonial protests, 97; and slaves, 80; codes for, State, compiled and revised, 88, 101, 120, 131, 148, 155; famous trials in, 34; Federal, _see_ United States Judiciary; impeachment in, 46, 148; individuals other than signers practice, 97, 101, 113, 117, 118, 122, 132, 134, 135, 141, 204, 217, 232; political partisanship in, 46; schools teach, 43, 154–156; signers study and practice, _see specific signers_. _See also particular laws._
Legislatures, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in independence movement, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; signers serve in, _see individual signers_. _See also specific colonies/States._
Lehigh County (Pa.) Historical Society, 231
Lehigh River, 230
Leinster, Duke of, 172
L’Enfant, Maj. Pierre Charles, artist-engineer-architect, 108, 171
“Letters of the Federal Farmer to the Republican,” 94
Lewis, Francis (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, _94–96_, 160
Lewis, Mrs. Francis, wife of signer, 31, 94, 95
Lexington and Battle of Lexington, Mass., 12, 38, 42, 60, 68
Lexington (Mass.) Historical Society, 199
Liberty Bell, 221
Liberty County, Ga., 65–66
Libraries, public and private, 56, 80, 134, 151, 176, 186, 193, 195, 207, 209, 222, 236, 253, 262, 264–265. _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts.
Library Company of Philadelphia, 222
Library Hall, Pa., 222, 226
Library of Congress, 90, 262, 264–265
Linlithgo, N.Y., 96
Litchfield, Litchfield Historic District, and Litchfield County, Conn., 152, 153, 169
Literature (English and American) and literary figures, 8, 18, 33, 36–37, 45, 52, 55, 81–83, 86, 115, 123–126, 134, 146, 156, 194, 195–196, 204. _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts.
Liverpool, England, 106
Livingston, Mrs. Philip, mother of signer, 96
Livingston, Mrs. Philip, wife of signer, 96–97
Livingston, Philip, father of signer, 96
Livingston, Philip (signer), career of and sites associated with, _96–98_, 160
Livingston, Robert R., helps draft Declaration, 14, 16, 18, 20, 228
Livingston Manor, N.Y., 96, 98
Llandaff (city), Wales, 95
Lloyd, Edward IV, planter-politician, 181
Lloyd family, 183
Local affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific signers_
Local groups and historical societies, and historic preservation, 160
Locke, John, British political philosopher, 20
London, England, 43, 46, 55, 56, 68, 76, 99, 103, 113, 124
Londonderry, N.H., 139, 140, 203
Long Island, Long Island Sound, and Battle of Long Island, N.Y., 53, 54, 95, 98, 212
Longevity of signers, _see_ Age of signers
Lord North, British official, 82
Loudoun County, Va., 91
Louisbourg (fortress), Nova Scotia, 139
Lowell, James Russell, career of, 195–196
Lower Counties, Three, _see_ Delaware
Loyalists and Tories: activities of, in various colonies/States, 7, 22–23, 40, 46, 53–54, 66, 77, 95, 104, 105, 119, 121, 122, 134, 138, 211; criticized, 127; forgiven, 79; lands and property of, confiscated, 61, 67, 103, 138, 142, 175, 195; legally defended, 147; punishment of, recommended, 103, 143; ridiculed, 82
Ludowici tile, 177
Lutwyche’s Ferry, N.H., 140
Lynch, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., wife of signer, 99, 100
Lynch, Thomas, Sr., father of signer, 99, 100, 128
Lynch, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, _99–100_, 127, _234–236_
Lynchburg, Va., 89
Maclean House, N.J., _see_ President’s House
McClellan, Gen. George B., Union officer, 239–240
McIntosh, Gen. Lachlan, and signer Gwinnett, 63, 64
McKean, Mrs. Thomas, first wife of signer, 101
McKean, Mrs. Thomas, second wife of signer, 101
McKean, Thomas (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18, 24, _100–102_, 119, 120, 121, 160, 222
Madison, James, President, 61, 85, 89, 267
Magistrates, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Mail service, 56, 57, 264
Maine (region and State), history of and historic site in, 139, 143, 177–178. _See also_ Massachusetts.
Malvern Hill, Va., Battle of, 239
Manhattan, _see_ New York City and New York Harbor
Manor houses, 185–186, 230
“Manor of Chawton,” 230
Manufacturing, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Marblehead, Mass., 59, 196
Marine and maritime matters, _see_ Continental Navy; Merchant marine and maritime affairs; United States Navy; _and foreign navies_
Marine Corps Museum, Pa., _see_ New Hall
Marital status of signers, compared, 29 (_and see_ Bachelor signers _and individual signers_)
Marshall, John, Supreme Court Justice and Secretary of State, 46, 154, 155, 221, 263
Maryland (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 9, 16, 18, 24, 43–46, 106, 113–114, 118, 124, 134, 135–136, 179–191
Maryland Historical Trust, 189
Mason, George, and Declaration of Independence, 20
Masonboro Sound, N.C., 77
Massachusetts (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, 18, 24, 30, 33–39, 53–54, 55, 56, 59–62, 67–69, 77, 93, 115–116, 119, 129, 139, 140, 160, 177, 191–199, 203, 217. _See also_ Maine.
Mastic, N.Y., 53, 54, 212
Mathematics, 47, 109
Matlack, Timothy, and Declaration of Independence, 262
Mattaponi River, 41
Maybury Hill (estate), N.J., 73, 206
Meadow Garden (cottage), Ga., 142, _175–176_
_Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind_ (book), 126
Medicine, medical practice, and medical societies, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals
Memorials and monuments to signers, 161. _See also specific signers._
Menokin (estate), Va., 91, _242–243_, 246
Menotomy, Mass., 60
Merchant marine and maritime affairs, 20, 28, 31, 42, 52, 59, 64, 68, 70, 71, 73, 74, 80, 82, 84, 91, 95, 98, 99, 100, 114, 119, 121, 123, 136, 142–143, 147, 177, 201–202, 251. _See also_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing.
Merchants and mercantile firms, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Merchants’ Exchange, Pa., 224, 226
Meredith family, 49
Merrick’s Brook, Conn., 164
Merrimack, N.H., 140, 203
Merrimack River, 140
Middle Colonies, 4, 16, 30, 134, 150
Middleton, Arthur (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, 99, _103–104_, 127, 128, _236–237_
Middleton, Henrietta, sister of one signer and wife of another, 127
Middleton, Henry, father of one signer and father-in-law of another, 104, 127, 128, 234
Middleton, Mrs. Arthur, wife of signer, 103
Middleton, William, and Middleton Place, 236
Middleton family and descendants, 103, 237
Middleton Place (estate), S.C., 103, 104, _236–237_
Middleton Place Gardens, S.C., 236–237
Middletown, Conn., 54, 211
Midway (town) and Midway District, Ga., 66
Midway Congregational Church, Ga., 64
Mikveh Israel Cemetery, Pa., 226
Military affairs, _see_ Continental Army; Militia; _specific nations and individuals_; _and other appropriate topics throughout this index_
Militia, of various colonies/States and counties: activities of, 9, 10, 12, 22, 38, 40, 42, 53, 54, 64, 69, 76, 111, 146; signers aid and serve in, 18, 27, 31, 40, 53, 54, 69, 75, 101, 103, 104, 105, 110–112, 114, 120–121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 132, 133, 138, 139, 140–141, 142–143, 145, 152–153
Mills, 72, 253
Ministers, diplomatic, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy; religious, _see_ Christianity and religion
Mint, U.S., _see_ United States Mint
Mission of Santa Catalina, Ga., 177
Moderates, political, 8, 16, 42, 69, 98, 110, 119, 127, 128, 138, 147
Moffatt, Catherine, marries signer, 202
Moffatt, John, father-in-law of signer, 201–202
Moffatt, Samuel, merchant-shipowner, 201
Moffatt family, 201–202
Moffatt-Ladd House, N.H., _201–202_
Mohawk River, 54
Monarchs and monarchy, _see_ Kings
Monetary theory and money, _see_ Currency and money
Monmouth County, N.J., 134
Monocacy River, 180
Monroe, James, President, 85, 154, 155, 173, 263
Monticello (“Little Mountain”) (estate), Va., 86, 88, 90, _243–245_, 250
Montreal, Canada, 46
Monuments to signers, _see_ Memorials and monuments to signers
Moore, Thomas, Irish poet, 204
Morality, in Scotland, 149
Morris, Gouverneur, and Mrs. Robert Morris, 108
Morris, Lewis (signer), career of and sites associated with, _104–105_, 160
Morris, Mrs. Lewis, wife of signer, 105
Morris, Mrs. Robert, wife of signer, 106
Morris, Robert (signer) (“Financier of the Revolution”), career of and sites associated with, 18, 27, 28, 29, 50, _106–108_, 110, 129, 147, 160, 222, 224
Morris (Lewis) family, 105
“Morris’ Folly” (house), Pa., 107, 108
Morrisania (estate), N.Y., 105
Morrisville and Morrisville School District, Pa., 51, 229
Morton, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 98, _109–110_, 147, 160
Morton, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 109
Morton, Sketchley, son of signer, 109
Morven (estate), N.J., 134, 135, _207–208_
Moultrie, Gen. William, Army officer, 76, 128
Mount Airy (estate), Va., 91, 242, _246–247_
Mount Vernon (Va.) Conference (_1785_), 46, 136
Municipal affairs and municipalities, _see_ Cities, towns, and villages
Museums, 183, 187, 205, 218, 224, 234. _See also specific historic house museums._
Music and musicians, 81–83, 85, 204
“My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free” (song), 82
Nash, Francis, and Nash-Hooper House, 214
Nash-Hooper House, N.C., _214–216_
Nassau Hall (Princeton University), 150, 151
National affairs, signers lack reputation in, 27, 39, 51, 71, 113, 116–117, 122, 137, 138, 139, 144, 154, 159; signers later take major part in, 29
National Archives and Records Service, 265
National Archives Building, D.C., 3, 262, 265–266
National Historic Landmarks, described individually, 164–165, 168–175, 181–183, 185–189, 191–193, 195–209, 212–216, 229, 247, 249–256; mapped, _facing page_ 163; nature, eligibility, and designation of, 161–163, 226, 256, 270–271. _See also_ National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings.
National origins of signers, compared, 27–28 (_and see individual signers_)
National parks, National Park Service, and National Park System: and historic-archeological preservation, 159–162; sites considered for inclusion in, 161; sites in, described individually, 193–195, 210–212, 216–227, 247–249; sites in, in National Register, 162; sites in, mapped, _facing page_ 163. _See also_ National Register of Historic Places; National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings; Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation.
National Register of Historic Places, 162
_National Register of Historic Places, 1972_, 162
National significance of historic sites and buildings, _see_ National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings
National Society of Colonial Dames of America, 160
National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, _see_ Daughters of the American Revolution
National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, purpose and procedures of, 161–162. _See also_ National Historic Landmarks; Other Sites Considered.
Nativity of signers, _see_ National origins of signers
Navies, _see_ Continental Navy; United States Navy; _and specific nations_
Negroes, _see_ Slaves
Nelson, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., wife of signer, 111
Nelson, Thomas (“Scotch Tom”), Sr., grandfather of signer, 247–248
Nelson, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, 88, _110–112_, _247–249_
Nelson, William, father of signer, 247–248
Nelson family, 249
Nelson House (York Hall), Va., 112, 160, _247–249_
Netherlands, _see_ Holland
New Bern, N.C., 78
New Castle and New Castle County, Del., 82, 101, 118, 119, 120, 122, 204
New England and New England architectural style, 20, 28, 30, 66, 68, 69, 74, 81, 115, 139, 144, 164, 191, 193, 202, 203. _See also specific colonies/States._
_New England Courant_ (newspaper), 55
New France, 139, 152
New Hall (Marine Corps Museum), Pa., 224, 226
New Hampshire (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 9, 15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 39–41, 76, 128, 139–140, 142–143, 177, 199–204
New Hampshire Medical Society, 40
New Haven, Conn., 130, 131
New Jersey (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16, 18, 24, 47–48, 56, 71–72, 81–83, 101, 121, 124, 133–135, 149–151, 204–210
New Jersey, College of, _see_ Princeton University
New London and New London Township, Pa., 101, 118, 132
New London County, Conn., 84
New Milford, Conn., 129
New York (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 6, 9, 14, 16, 18, 22, 23, 24, 44, 53–54, 94–98, 104–105, 110, 115, 119, 134–135, 143, 144, 148, 153, 160, 210–213. _See also entries immediately following._
New York Chamber of Commerce, 97
New York City and New York Harbor, N.Y., 22, 95–98, 135, 218, 263. _See also_ Bronx; Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights; Staten Island.
New York Hospital, 97
New York Society Library, N.Y., 97
Newark, N.J., 134
Newburyport, Mass., 140
Newington Plantation, Va., 41
Newport, R.I., 51, 52, 69, 80, 143
Newspapers, 20, 22, 37, 43, 55, 81, 124, 125, 127, 145
Newton, Mass., 129
Noke, William, architect, 182
Nonimportation agreements and measures, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
North, Lord, British official, 82
North America, Bank of, _see_ Bank of North America
North Bridge, Mass., 8
North Burial Ground, R.I., 81
North Carolina (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 73–75, 77–79, 99, 116–118, 161, 206, 213–216. _See also_ Carolinas.
North East (town), Md., 118
North Santee River, 99, 234
Northampton County, Pa., 137, 138
Northern United States, 28. _See also specific colonies/States._
Norwich, Conn., 83, 84, 164
_Notes on the State of Virginia_ (book), 250
Nova Scotia, Canada, 139
Occupations of signers, _see_ Vocations of signers
Octagonal houses and rooms, 245, 249–251
Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, National Park Service, programs and activities of, 162
Offices, political, various local, State, and National, held by signers, _see individual signers_
Offley Hoo (estate), Va., 112, 247
Ohio (State), 153
Old Burial Ground, Conn., 84, 166
Old Custom House, Pa., 224
Old Granary Burying Ground, Mass., 39, 69, 116
“Old House,” Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site
Old House Plantation, S.C., 75, 76
Old St. Paul’s Cemetery, Pa., 110
Old Swedes’ Church, Pa., _see_ Gloria Dei Church National Historic Site
Olive Branch Petition, 14
Oliver, Andrew, British official, 195
Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House, Mass., _see_ Elmwood
Orators and orations, and signers, 45, 52, 71, 78, 85, 86, 90, 92, 122, 136, 150, 151
Ordnance, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
Orphans, 49, 95, 120, 141
Other Sites Considered, described individually, 165–167, 175–181, 183–185, 189–191, 197–198, 209–210, 213–214, 220–228; nature of, 161–162
Otis, James, lawyer-radical leader, 77
Oxford, Md., 106
Paca, John, son of signer, 114
Paca, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, 113
Paca, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, 114
Paca, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, 44, 46, _113–114_, 136, _188–189_
Paca family, 114
Paca House, Md., 113, _188–189_
Paine, Mrs. Robert Treat, wife of signer, 115
Paine, Robert Treat (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, _115–116_, 160
Paine, Robert Treat, son of signer, 115
Paine, Robert Treat, great-grandson of signer, 115
Paine, Thomas, author-patriot, 12, 15, 107, 124, 204
Painters and painting, _see_ Art and artists
Paisley (town), Scotland, 149, 150
Palladian architectural style, 172, 182, 183, 234, 246, 247
Pamphlets, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
Pamunkey River, 41, 240
Parchment copy of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
Parents of signers, _see specific signers_
Paris, France, 43, 88, 124. _See also_ Treaty of Paris
Parishes, political, _see_ Counties and parishes; religious, _see_ Christianity and religion
Parliament, British: and Colonies, _see under_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
Parsons, William, and Parsons-Taylor House, 226
Parsons-Taylor House, Pa., _226–227_
## Parties, political, _see particular political parties and individuals_
Patent Office, D.C., 264
Patowmack (Potowmack) Company, 44
Patriotic-civic organizations, and historic sites, 160
Patriots and patriotic movement, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
Peace negotiations and treaties, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy; Indians and Indian affairs; _and specific treaties_
“Peacefield,” Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site
Peach Tree Plantation, S.C., 99, 100
Peale, Charles Willson, artist, 218
_Peggy Stewart_ (ship), 189–190
Peggy Stewart House (Rutland-Peggy Stewart House; Rutland-Stewart-Stone House), Md., _189–191_
Pemberton House (Army-Navy Museum), Pa., 224, 226
Penal matters, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war
Pendleton, Edmund, lawyer-patriot, 88, 111, 117, 155
Peninsular Campaign (Civil War), 239–240
Penn, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, _116–118_, 160, 161
Penn, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 117
Penn, William, and Charter of Privileges, 221
Penn (John) family, 118
Penn (William) family, 56
Pennsylvania (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 8–9, 14, 15, 16, 18, 24, 27, 30, 44, 49–51, 55–58, 82, 93, 100–102, 106–110, 118, 122–126, 132–133, 137–138, 143, 145–148, 153, 159–160, 216–231. _See also_ Delaware.
_Pennsylvania Gazette (The)_ (newspaper), 55
Pennsylvania Hospital, 125, 126
Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, 58, 126
Pennsylvania State House, _see_ Independence Hall
Persimmon Point, Ga., 177
Perth Amboy, N.J., 134
Philadelphia, Pa., 3, 8, 9, 14–24 _passim_, 38, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49–50, 51, 52, 55–56, 57, 58, 64, 73, 82, 83, 95, 100–133 _passim_, 138, 146–148, 159–160, 172, 199, 204, 209, 210, 216–226, 228, 230, 263–264. _See also entries immediately following._
Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts, 51
Philadelphia Agricultural Society, 51
Philadelphia architectural style, 228
Philadelphia Bank, 51
Philadelphia Bible Society, 126
Philadelphia College of Physicians, 126
Philadelphia Dispensary, 126
Philadelphia (Merchants’) Exchange, 224, 226
Philadelphia Medical Society, 126
Philadelphia National Shrines Park Commission, 226
Philanthropists and philanthropy, 55, 56, 96, 97, 115
Philosophical Hall, Pa., _see_ American Philosophical Society Hall
Philosophical Society of Newport, R.I., 80
Physicians, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers; Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals
Piscataqua River, 177
Plainfield Academy, Conn., 84
Planters and plantations, 4, 28, 31, 41, 42, 43, 62, 63–64, 65, 66, 70, 75–76, 86, 94, 99, 103, 104, 106, 110, 111, 113, 120, 129, 135, 177, 186, 194, 233, 236–237, 239–256 _passim_. _See also_ Slaves; _and specific plantations._
Poets and poetry, _see_ Literature and literary figures
Politics, politicians, political parties, and political theory, _see
## particular political parties, colonies/States, signers, other
individuals, and appropriate topics throughout this index_
Poll taxes, _see under_ Taxes and taxation
_Poor Richard’s Almanac_, 55–56
Poplar Forest (retreat), Va., 89, _249–251_
Port Royal Island, S.C., 76, 128
Port Tobacco (town), Md., 136, 186
Portland, Mass., 115
Portraits of signers: collection of, discussed, 218; collective, reproduced, ii; individual, reproduced, _see specific signers_
Portsmouth and Portsmouth Harbor, N.H., 143, 177, 202
Post offices and postal officials, _see_ Mail service
Potomac, Army of the (Civil War), 239
Potomac River and Potomac River Valley, 44, 92, 251, 263
Potowmack Company, _see_ Patowmack Company
Poughkeepsie, N.Y., 98, 105
Powell, Thomas, newspaper publisher, 127
Poynton Manor, Md., 135
Prehistory and prehistoric sites, 177
Presbyterian Cemetery, N.J., 48
Presbyterian Cemetery, N.Y., 54
Presbyterian Church, N.C., 216
Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church, 48, 54, 56, 149–151, 216. _See also_ Calvinists and Calvinism; Christianity and religion.
Presidential electors, _see under_ United States Presidents and Presidency
Presidents, of Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental Congress; U.S., _see_ United States Presidents and Presidency
“President’s House,” D.C., _see_ White House
President’s House (Dean’s House; Maclean House) (Princeton University), N.J., 150, 151, _208–209_
President’s Lot, Princeton (N.J.) Cemetery, 151
“President’s Palace,” D.C., _see_ White House
Press, _see_ Newspapers
Primogeniture, 120, 135
Prince George County, Va., 154
Prince George’s Parish, S.C., 99
Princess Anne (town), Md., 45
Princeton Alumni Council, 208
Princeton and Battle of Princeton, N.J., 23–24, 72, 73, 134, 135, 207, 263. _See also_ Princeton University.
Princeton Cemetery, N.J., 151
Princeton University (College of New Jersey), 84, 124, 134, 149, 150–151, 208–209
Printing and publishing industry, 55. _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts; Newspapers.
Printing of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war, 31, 48, 50, 75, 76, 94, 103, 107, 108, 126, 128, 132, 134–135, 140–141
Private individuals, groups, and agencies: and historic preservation, 160
Private schools, _see_ Education
Privateers and privateering, 60, 97
Professions of signers, _see_ Vocations of signers
Profiteering among signers, 31, 46, 59, 60, 106–107
“Progressive” party, in Va., 88
_Prophecy (The)_ (essay), 82
Proprietary colonies, _see under_ Colonies
Prospect Hill Cemetery, Pa., 98
Protestant Episcopal Church, 183. _See also_ Christianity and religion.
Protestants and Protestant Church, 28, 183. _See also_ Christianity and religion.
Protests, colonial, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
Providence and Providence County, R.I., 79–81
_Providence Gazette and Country Journal_ (newspaper), 81
Psychiatry, _see_ Insane and insanity
Public libraries, _see_ Libraries
Public schools, _see_ Education
Public service, role of signers in, 29, 31 (_and see specific signers_)
Public speaking, _see_ Orators and orations
Publishers and publishing, _see_ Printing and publishing industry
Puritans, 65–66
Putnam, Herbert, and Declaration of Independence, 264
Quakers, 56, 73. _See also_ Christianity and religion.
Queen Annes County, Md., 113, 188
Quincy (Braintree), Mass., 33, 34–35, 68, 192, 193
Quincy (Mass.) Historical Society, 192, 193
Radicals and radicalism, 16, 18, 34, 37–38, 45, 49, 71, 77, 78, 80, 88, 98, 103, 119, 130, 141, 147, 155
Rahway, N.J., 48
Raleigh’s Tavern, Va., 93
Randolph, Peyton, legislator, 42
Randolph, Thomas, relative of signer, 254
Randolph, Thomas Mann, relative of signer, 86, 254
Randolph, William, relative of signer, 86, 254
Randolph, William II, relative of signer, 254
Randolph family, 86, 255
Rappahannock Valley, 246
Read, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27, 29, 101, _118–119_, 120, 121, 135, 160
Read, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 118
Reading, Pa., 146
Redemptionist Fathers, 179, 180
Reform and reformers, _see_ Humanitarians and reformers
Regulators, of North Carolina, 78
Relatives of signers, _see individual signers_
Religion, _see_ Christianity and religion
Representation, political, and representative government, _see specific governmental bodies, colonies/States, and appropriate topics throughout this index_
Republicans and republicanism, 61, 79, 128, 145, 147
Residences of signers, condition and status of, 31 (_and see
## particular residences_)
Retirement of signers, _see individual signers_
Revere, Paul, patriot and artist, 5, 10, 68, 199
Revolution, Daughters of the, 160
Revolution, Daughters of the American, _see_ Daughters of the American Revolution
Revolution, Revolutionaries, and Revolutionary movement, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; War for Independence; _specific Revolutionaries_; _and appropriate topics throughout this index_
Revolution, Sons of the, 160
Revolution, Sons of the American, 160
Revolutionary War (U.S.), _see_ War for Independence
Rhode Island (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 51–52, 79–81, 143, 231–232
Rhode Island College, 80
Rice planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
Richmond, Va., 42, 86, 88, 156, 255
Richmond Academy, Ga., 142
Richmond County, Va., 91
Ridley Township, Pa., 109
Rights: Bill of, U.S., _see under_ United States Constitution; declarations of, by colonies/States, 20; of Englishmen, and Colonies, 8–9; of man, and Declaration of Independence, 20; of States, 123
“Rights of the Colonies Examined” (The) (article-pamphlet), 81
Rising Sun (town), Md., 124, 134
“Rising Sun” chair, 219
Risks and sacrifices of signers, 22, 23–24, 31–32 (_and see individual signers_)
Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., 253
Rodney, Caesar (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18, 29, 101, _120–121_, 160
Roman Catholic Church, 28, 43, 44, 179, 180, 238. _See also_ Christianity and religion.
Roman Doric and Roman Revival architectural style, 189, 219, 221, 234, 245, 247
Rome, N.Y., 54, 212
Roselle, N.J., 47, 48
Rosney Cemetery, Ga., 142
Ross, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 118, _122–123_, 160, 224
Ross, John, stepbrother of signer, 122
Ross, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 122
Rough draft of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
Royalists, _see_ Loyalists and Tories
Royalty, _see_ Kings
Rush, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27, 31, _123–126_, 134, 160, 222, 224, 228
Rutland, Thomas, and Peggy Stewart House, 189
Rutland-Peggy Stewart House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House
Rutland-Stewart-Stone House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House
Rutledge, Edward (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18, 28, 31, 99, 104, _127–129_, 135, _237–238_
Rutledge, John, brother of signer, 127, 128
Rutledge, Mrs. Edward, first wife of signer, 127
Rutledge, Mrs. Edward, second wife of signer, 129
Rutledge (Carter-May) House, S.C., _237–238_
Sacrifices of signers, _see_ Risks and sacrifices of signers
Safety, committees/councils of, _see_ Committees of safety
St. Andrews (city), Scotland, 145
St. Andrew’s Society, 97
St. Ann’s Church, N.Y., 105
St. Augustine, Fla., 76, 104, 128, 233
St. Catherines Island, Ga., 63, 64, 176–177
St. George’s Church, Pa., 224
St. Helena’s Parish, S.C., 75
St. James Parish, S.C., 99
St. John’s Episcopal Church, Va., 156
St. John’s Parish, Ga., 64, 65–66, 67, 141
St. Joseph’s Church, Pa., 224–226
St. Luke’s Parish, S.C., 75
St. Mary’s Catholic Church, Md., 179–180
St. Mary’s Church, Pa., 226
St. Paul’s Cemetery, Md., 46
St. Paul’s Cemetery, Old, Pa., 110
St. Philip’s Episcopal Church, S.C., 129
Salem, Mass., 68
Salem, N.J., 82
Saltbox architectural style, 164, 191, 193, 203
Santa Catalina Mission, Ga., 177
Santee River, North, 99, 234
Santee River, South, 99
Saratoga (Schuylerville) and Battle of Saratoga, N.Y., 40, 143, 153
Savannah, Ga., 63, 64, 66, 67, 76, 140–142, 175, 176, 233
Savannah River, 67
Sawmills, 72
Schools, _see_ Education
Schuylerville, N.Y., _see_ Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga
Schuylkill River, 108
Science and scientists, 55, 56, 80, 85, 89, 116, 130
Scituate (city) and Scituate Township, R.I., 80
Scots, Scotland, and Scotch-Irish, 74, 77, 96, 101, 122, 124, 134, 139, 145, 146, 149–150, 208. _See also_ Great Britain.
Scotland (city), Conn., 83
Seamen, _see_ Continental Navy; Merchant marine and maritime affairs; United States Navy; _and various nations_
Second Bank of the United States, _see_ Bank of the United States
Second Bank of the United States Building, Pa., 218, 226
Second Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress
Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix (N.Y.), 153
Secondary education, _see_ Education
Secretaries, of Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental Congress; of U.S. Government Departments, _see following_ United States; of various other bodies, signers as, _see individual signers_
Senate, U.S., _see_ United States Senate
Servants, 31, 137, 186, 194, 195, 203. _See also_ Slaves.
Seven Buildings, D.C., 263
Shadwell (plantation), Va., 86, 244, 254
Shell Bluff Plantation, Ga., 67
Shenandoah River Valley, 44
Sherman, Roger (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 29, 106, _129–131_, 160
Ship carpenters, 201
Shippen, Dr. William, Sr., and Philadelphia, 228
Shippen, Dr. William, Jr., brother-in-law of signers, 125, 228
Shippen-Wistar House, Pa., 228
Shippensburg, Pa., 132
Ships, shippers, and shipping, _see_ Continental Navy; Merchant marine and maritime affairs; United States Navy; _and various nations_
Sickness of signers, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers
Signers of the Constitution (U.S.), _see_ United States Constitution
Signers of the Declaration: age of, at time of signing and death, compared, _see_ Age of signers; biographical analysis and comparison of, collective, 27–32; biographical sketches of, individual, 33–156; books on, 268–269; early (formal signing), 23, 67, 217, 262; furniture and items associated with, collectively, 219, 221; honored and commemorated, ii, 159–160, 224; interest in, increases, 160; largest number of, from one State, 30; late, 23, 24, 60, 93, 100, 139, 140, 153, 155, 217, 262; nationally famous, 34; one of, prominent in affairs of two States, _see_ McKean, Thomas; one of, votes against independence, 27, 118, 121; painted, ii, 218, _and see individual portraits_, 33–156 _passim_; prominent patriots who were not, 27, 28, 29; reflect regional and colonial attitudes, 30; remarks of, on signing, 52, 58, 79; replace opponents of independence, 27, 47, 72; residences and sites associated with, collective, status of, 31, 159–163, 216 (_and see particular residences and sites_); subsequent careers of, 29, 31 (_and see individual signers_); traditions regarding, 24, 52, 58; tragic life among, 99; way of life of, 28–29, 159; who also signed Articles of Confederation, 29, 36, 39, 59, 76, 90, 93–94, 100, 106, 117, 129, 149; who also signed Articles of Confederation and Constitution (U.S.), 29, 106, 129; who also signed Constitution (U.S.), 29, 49, 50, 55, 58, 106, 129; who did not vote for or take a stand on independence, 27, 106, 118–119; who were non-natives of States they signed for, 30, 39, 55, 62, 65, 72, 73, 77, 82, 95, 101, 106, 116, 118, 122, 129, 132, 137, 139, 140, 143, 145, 149. _See also_ Declaration of Independence; _specific signers_; _and appropriate topics throughout this index._
Signers’ Monument, Ga., 67, 142, 161
Six Indian Nations, _see_ Iroquois Indians
Skelton, Martha Wayles, marries signer, 86, 244, 249
Sketchley, John, stepfather of signer, 109
Slaves, and Congress, 58; and Declaration of Independence, 20; and Ga. economy, 66; and New England shippers, 28; British capture, 76; burn estate, 236; emancipated, 156; in N.Y., 53; institution of, opposed and condemned, 20, 28, 58, 80, 92, 123, 126, 156; labor in gardens, 236; laws on, 80; quarters for, 177, 184, 234, 255; signers own and trade, 28, 53, 63, 90, 110. _See also_ Servants.
Smith, Abigail, _see_ Adams, Mrs. John
Smith, James (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, _132–133_, 160–161
Smith, Rev. Samuel S., son-in-law of signer, 151, 208
Smith, Robert, carpenter, 209
Smugglers and smuggling, 34, 68
Social status of signers, _see_ Aristocrats and aristocracy; _and individual signers_
Society of Colonial Dames in the State of Rhode Island, 232
Songs, _see_ Music and musicians
Sons of Liberty, 37, 45, 95, 97
Sons of signers, careers of, 30 (_and see particular signers_)
Sons of the American Revolution, 160
Sons of the Revolution, 160
Sourland Mountains, 72
South Carolina (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16, 18, 24, 64, 66, 75–76, 99–100, 103–104, 117, 127–129, 135, 233–238. _See also_ Carolinas.
South Santee River, 99
South Windsor, Conn., 152
Southern United States, 28, 30, 70, 74–75, 140–141, 233. _See also_ Planters and plantations; _and specific colonies/States._
Spain and Spaniards, 59, 115, 177, 196
Speaking, public, _see_ Orators and orations
Speculators and speculation, 4, 108, 143, 147, 148, 213
Spoils system, 102
Spotsylvania County, Va., 154
Staffordshire, England, 62
Stamp Act, Stamp Tax, Stamp Act Congress, and Stamp Act agitation, 34, 37, 45, 56–57, 68, 70, 91, 93, 95, 97, 101, 106, 110, 119, 120, 134, 146, 155, 195
Stark, Gen. John, Army officer, 40
State Department, _see_ United States Department of State
State House for the Province of Pennsylvania, _see_ Independence Hall
Staten Island, N.Y., 98, 128. _See also_ New York City and New York Harbor.
States (U.S.), and historic preservation, 160; and National Register of Historic Places, 162; economic and financial problems of, 107–108; governmental bodies and other agencies of, _see individual colonies/States_; honor and maintain homes of signers, 160, 161; land disputes among, 119, 133, 143, 153; large and small, and U.S. Constitution, 131; militia of, _see_ Militia; receive taxes, 117; rights of, _see_ States’ rights; role of, in Revolution, _see particular States and appropriate topics_; seals of, 155; signer prominent in affairs of two, _see_ McKean, Thomas; signers non-natives of those they signed for, 30, 39, 55, 62, 65, 72–73, 77, 82, 95, 101, 106, 116, 118, 122, 129, 132, 137, 139, 140, 143, 145, 149; signers’ role in affairs of, _see specific States and signers_. _See also_ Continental Congress; _and individual States._
States’ rights, 123
Statues of signers, 161
Stewart, Anthony, merchant, 189
Stewart (Peggy) House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House
Stockton, Julia, wife of one signer and daughter of another, 124
Stockton, Mrs. Richard, wife of signer, 134
Stockton, Richard, grandfather of signer, 207
Stockton, Richard (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, 33, 124, _133–135_, _207–208_
Stockton family, 134, 208
Stone, Mrs. Thomas, wife of signer, 136
Stone, Thomas (signer), career of and sites associated with, _135–136_, _186–188_, _189–191_
Stonington, Conn., 72
Stony Brook Quaker Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., 135
Stores, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Stoughton, Mass., 129
Stovall (town), N.C., 117
Stratford Hall (estate), Va., 91–92, _251–253_
Strickland, William, architect, 218
Students, _see_ Education
Suffolk County, N.Y., 53, 54
Suffolk Resolves, 38
Sugar Act, 37
Sugar planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
_Summary View of the Rights of British America (A)_ (tract), 86, 87
Summerseat (estate), Pa., 51, _229_
Sunbury, Ga., 63, 64, 66
Superior Courts, State, _see individual States_
Supreme courts, of colonies and States, _see specific colonies/States_; of United States, _see_ United States Judiciary
Surgeons, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals
Surveyors and surveying, 47, 80, 86, 109, 130, 132
Susquehanna River, 132
Sussex County, Del., 101, 121
Swedes and Sweden, 109
Tabby construction material, 177, 235
Tabby Cottage, Ga., 63, _176–177_
Taliaferro, Richard, father-in-law of signer, 255
“Taps” (bugle call), 240
Tariffs, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Taunton, Mass., 115
Taverns, 222
Taxes and taxation, and British-colonial conflict, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; and signers, 37, 56, 131; excise, on alcoholic beverages, 51; in Boston, 36; on stamps, _see_ Stamp Act, Stamp Tax, Stamp Act Congress, and Stamp Act agitation; on sugar, _see_ Sugar Act; on tea, _see_ Tea and Tea Act; poll, 113, 114, 136; States receive, 117. _See also_ Customs laws, collection, and officials.
Tayloe, Col. John, father-in-law of signer, 91, 242, 246
Tayloe, Mrs. John, mother-in-law of signer, 91
Tayloe, Rebecca, marries signer, 91, 242, 246
Tayloe family and descendants, 91, 247
Taylor, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, 31, _137–138_, _226–227_, _230–231_
Taylor, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 137, 242
Taylor (George) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 227
Taylor House, Pa., 137–138, _230–231_
Tea and Tea Act, 7, 38, 49, 53–54, 189–190
Teachers and teaching, _see_ Education
Temperance, 123, 126
“Temple of Minerva” (opera), 82
“The Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering” (cartoon), reproduced, 6
“The Declaration of Independence” (painting), reproduced, ii
The Hills (estate), Pa., 108
“The Homestead,” Pa., _see_ Byberry
_The Pennsylvania Gazette_ (newspaper), 55
_The Prophecy_ (essay), 82
“The Rights of the Colonies Examined” (article-pamphlet), 81
“The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America,” _see_ Declaration of Independence
Theology, _see_ Christianity and religion
Thirteen Colonies, _see_ Colonies
Thomas Jefferson Memorial, D.C., 161
Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, 245
Thomson, Charles, and Declaration of Independence, 22, 69, 262
Thornton, Matthew (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 28, 31, _139–140_, _203–204_
Thornton House, N.H., _203–204_
Thornton’s Ferry and Thornton’s Ferry Cemetery, N.H., 140
Three Lower Counties, _see_ Delaware
Tobacco planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
Todd House, Pa., 224, 226
Tombs and tombstones, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places
Tories, _see_ Loyalists and Tories
Townhouses, 43, 50, 76, 96, 97, 107, 108, 120, 179, 185, 188, 228, 233
Towns, _see_ Cities, towns, and villages
Townshend Acts (_1767_), 37, 93, 120
Tracts, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
Trade and traders, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
Traditions regarding signing of Declaration, 24, 52, 58
Treasury, British, _see under_ Great Britain; U.S., _see_ United States Treasury Department
Treasury Building (old), D.C., 263
Treaties, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy; Indians and Indian affairs; _and specific nations and treaties_
Treaty of Fort Stanwix, Second, 153
Treaty of Paris (_1783_), 24, 35, 58, 207, 267
Trenton and Battle of Trenton, N.J., 23–24, 51, 72, 263
Trials, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
Trinity Church, N.Y., 96
Trumbull, John, artist, painting by, reproduced, ii
Trumbull, Jonathan, father-in-law of signer, 144–145
Trumbull Cemetery, Conn., 145
Tryon, William, British official, 77, 153
Tuckahoe (estate), Va., 86, _253–255_
Tuscan architectural features, 196, 250
Tuscarora Creek, Md., 180
Tusculum (home), N.J., 151, 208, _209–210_
Tutors and tutorial system, _see_ Education
U-shaped buildings, 240, 242
“Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America” (The), _see_ Declaration of Independence
Union Army, _see_ Civil War
Union Cemetery, N.H., 143
Unitarians and Unitarianism, 52, 116. _See also_ Christianity and religion.
United First Parish Church, Mass., 35
United Kingdom, _see_ Great Britain
United States, and Declaration of Independence, 3, 32; architectural and historical heritage of, 32, 159–160, 216–217, 218, 245; early antislavery law in, 80; early chapel in, 186; early chemistry education in, 124; early legal education in, 155–156; early libraries in, 222; early medical practice and hospitals in, 123–126; early music in, 82; famous families in, 33, 91, 193; famous writer in, 83; first banks in, 108; founding and early growth of, 3, 216–217; major literary and political figures of, 194; oldest learned society in, 221. _See also various colonies/States, regions, entries immediately following, and appropriate topics throughout this index._
United States, Bank of the, _see_ Bank of the United States
United States Bicentennial, 222
United States Bill of Rights, _see under_ United States Constitution
United States Capitals, 50, 124, 217, 263, 264
United States Capitol, D.C., ii, 161, 171, 173
United States Centennial Exposition, 264
United States circuit courts and judges, _see_ United States Judiciary
United States Congress, 29, 30, 33, 40, 44, 46, 48, 50–51, 53, 54, 58, 61, 81, 106, 118, 160, 194, 218, 221. _See also_ Continental Congress; United States Government; United States House of Representatives; United States Senate; _and specific Congressmen_.
United States Constitution, and Connecticut (Great) Compromise, 118, 131; and Pa. constitution, 148; and signers of Declaration, 29, 39, 40, 44, 46, 50, 55, 58, 92, 106, 129, 144, 145–148; Bill of Rights of, 48, 61, 71, 92, 94; Bill of Rights of, displayed, 266, 267; Bill of Rights of, displayed, photo of, 266; debated, drafted, adopted, and signed, 50, 106, 129, 145–148, 218–221; displayed, 264–265, 267; displayed, photo of, 266; favored and advocated, 40, 51, 61, 69, 125; history and protection of document, 264–267; Madison presents to Washington, mural of, 267; opposed, 39, 46, 48, 61, 69, 71, 79, 84, 92, 94, 102, 105, 114, 119, 125, 131, 144, 148, 151, 153, 156; room adopted and signed in, 218–221; signers of, who also signed Declaration, 29, 49, 50, 55, 58, 106, 129; significance of, 217; takes effect, 263. _See also_ United States Constitutional Convention.
United States Constitutional Convention, and signers of Declaration, 39, 44, 48, 61, 94, 108, 118, 119, 131, 136, 142, 145–148; compromise at, 118, 131; leader in, 228; membership, deliberations, and actions of, 29, 49, 50, 55, 58, 61, 131, 145–148, 154, 156, 217, 218, 222, 267; room held in, 218–221. _See also_ United States Constitution.
United States courts, _see_ United States Judiciary
United States Declaration of Independence, _see_ Declaration of Independence
United States Department of State, 33, 85, 88, 194, 228, 263–264
United States Department of the Interior, and historic preservation, 161. _See also_ National parks, National Park Service, and National Park System.
United States Department of War, 263, 264
United States General Services Administration, 265
United States Government, and Declaration, 264; and historic sites and buildings, 195, 212, 226; buildings of, 173; capitals of, _see_ United States Capitals; first official document of, _see_ Declaration of Independence; formation of, exhibit on, 267; Jefferson sells library to, 90; permanent records of, 265, 267; role of signers in, 29, 60 (_and see specific signers_). _See also_ Colonies; Continental Congress; _entries immediately preceding and following_; _and appropriate topics throughout this index_.
United States House of Representatives, 48, 50–51, 54, 131, 195. _See also_ United States Congress.
United States Judiciary, 29, 45, 46, 114, 145, 148, 213, 218, 219, 221
United States Mint, 125
United States Navy, 264. _See also_ Continental Navy.
United States Presidents and Presidency, and John and John Quincy Adams, 29, 30, 33, 35, 193, 194, 195, 218, 222; and Mrs. John Adams, 34; and signers, 29, 30, 85, 89, 239; dignity of, 171; electors for, 54, 84, 128, 142; inaugurations and inaugural addresses of, 239, 267; official residence of, _see_ White House; unofficial residence of, 222. _See also specific Presidents._
United States Secretary of State, _see_ United States Department of State
United States Secretary of the Interior, _see_ United States Department of the Interior
United States Secretary of the Treasury, _see_ United States Treasury Department
United States Senate, 40, 44, 62, 92, 94, 106, 108, 118, 119, 131, 142. _See also_ United States Congress.
United States Supreme Court, _see_ United States Judiciary
United States Treasury Department, 106, 108, 152
United States Vice Presidents, 29, 33, 35, 59, 61, 85, 88, 193, 195, 196, 228
United States War Department, 263, 264
United States War for Independence, _see_ War for Independence
Universalist Church, N.H., 41
Universities, _see_ Colleges and universities
University of Edinburgh, Scotland, 124, 134, 145, 149
University of Georgia, 67, 142
University of Glasgow, Scotland, 145
University of New York, 105
University of Pennsylvania, 82, 113, 126, 228
University of Pennsylvania Medical School, 228
University of St. Andrews, Scotland, 145
University of the State of Pennsylvania, 126
University of Virginia, 89, 90, 243
Urbanization, and historic preservation, 159
Valley Forge, Pa., 29
Van Brugh, Catherine, and signer, 96
Van Doren, Carl, historian, quoted, 217
Vandalism, and historic sites, 50, 159
Vassall, Maj. Leonard, and Adams National Historic Site, 194
Vassall-Adams House, Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site
Vermont (colony and State), 153
Verse, _see_ Literature and literary figures
Vice Presidents, U.S., _see_ United States Vice Presidents
Villa architectural plan, 246
Villages, _see_ Cities, towns, and villages
Virginia (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 7, 9, 15, 16, 18, 20, 24, 41–42, 70–71, 74, 75, 85–94, 110–112, 117, 135, 136, 141, 154–156, 160, 239–256, 263. _See also entries immediately following._
Virginia Association, 42, 93
Virginia House of Burgesses, 38, 41–42, 70, 86, 91, 92, 93, 111, 155
Virginia Resolves, 42
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, 88, 90
Vocations of signers, compared, 31. _See also individual signers._
Wakefield Academy, England, 92
Wales and Welshmen, 53, 62, 118
Wallingford, Conn., 65, 130
Walton, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, 50, 64, 65, 66, 138, _140–142_, 161, _173–176_
Walton, George, Jr., son of signer, 175
Walton, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 141
Walton descendants, 175
Walton-Harper House, Ga., _see_ College Hill
Wamassee Head, Ga., 177
War for Independence (U.S.), and Declaration of Independence, 3, 23–24, 217; and Loyalists, _see_ Loyalists and Tories; battles and campaigns, land and naval, and course of, 3–156 _passim_, 207–218 _passim_, 228, 233, 236, 239, 248, 263, 264; begins, 12, 38, 42; ends, _see_ Treaty of Paris; feared, 134; financed, _see_ Continental Congress, fiscal problems and policies of; generated, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; heroes of, 75, 251; heroes of, painted, 218; impact of, on signers and their families, _see_ Risks and sacrifices of signers; Iroquois Indians neutral during, 153; peace negotiations during, 35, 58, 98, 128, 136; verge of, 9; won, 24. _See also appropriate topics throughout this index._
War of _1812_, 172, 173, 263
War Office Building, D.C., 263
Ward, Samuel, politician, 80
Warren (town), R.I., 80
Wars, and historic sites, 159. _See also specific wars._
Warwick Furnace, Pa., 137
Washington, President George, career of and sites associated with, 14, 23–24, 27, 29, 34, 35, 42, 46, 52, 60, 69, 75, 95, 98, 104, 107, 108, 114, 124, 125, 148, 171, 217, 218, 228, 233, 255, 264, 267
Washington, D.C., history of and historic sites in, 3, 62, 108, 161, 170–173, 218, 263–266 _passim_
Washington College, Md., 114
Watkins, Thomas, and Meadow Garden, 175
Wealth and financial status of signers, compared, 27, 28–29, 30, 31, 43. _See also_ Debts and economic reversals of signers; _and individual signers._
Weapons, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
Webster, Daniel, Secretary of State, 264
Welcome (village), Md., 135
Welles, Rev. Samuel, and Williams Birthplace, 166
Welles-Williams House, Conn., _see_ Williams Birthplace
Wells family, 204
West, Benjamin, artist, 82
West Indies, 100, 194, 202
West Nottingham Academy, Md., 124, 134
Westchester County, N.Y., 105
Western Reserve (in present Ohio), 153
Western United States, _see_ Frontier and frontiersmen
Westernville, N.Y., 54, 211, 212
Westminster School, England, 95
Westmoreland Association (_1766_), 93
Westmoreland County, Va., 91, 92
Westward expansion, _see_ Frontier and frontiersmen
Whedbee, Joseph, builder, 214
Whigs (patriots) and Whig Party, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
Whipple, Joseph, brother of signer, 143
Whipple, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 143, 202
Whipple, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, _142–143_, _177–178_, _201–202_
Whipple Birthplace, Maine, _177–178_
White Hall Plantation, S.C., 76, 233
White (Bishop) House, Pa., 224, 226
White House (“President’s House”; “President’s Palace”), D.C., 34, 85, _170–173_
White Plains, N.Y., 105
Whitestone, N.Y., 95
Widowers, signers as, 35, 41, 46, 54, 148
Widows of signers, _see_ Wives and widows of signers
Wilkins, John, builder, 214
William and Mary, College of, _see_ College of William and Mary
William and Mary architectural style, 252
Williams, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 144
Williams, Rev. Solomon, father of signer, 166, 168
Williams, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, _144–145_, _166–169_
Williams Birthplace (Welles-Williams House), Conn., _166–167_
Williams House, Conn., _168–169_
Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic District, and Colonial Williamsburg, Va., 15, 42, 86, 93, 111, 154–156, 255–256
Willing, Charles, shipper, 106
Willing, Thomas, shipper-legislator, 106, 110
Wills, 67, 120, 156
Wilmington, Del., 119
Wilmington, N.C., 77, 78, 214
Wilson, James (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, 29, 110, 125, _145–148_, _213–214_, 222, 224
Wilson, Mrs. James, first wife of signer, 146
Wilson, Mrs. James, second wife of signer, 148
Windham, Windham County, and Windham district, Conn., 83, 144
Windsor, Conn., 152, 169
Winyaw, S.C., 99
Wiscasset, Maine, 139
Wistar, Dr. Caspar, and Philadelphia, 228
Witherspoon, James, son of signer, 151
Witherspoon, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, 31, 124, 134, _149–151_, _208–210_, 228
Witherspoon, Mrs. John, first wife of signer, 124, 134, 149, 150
Witherspoon, Mrs. John, second wife of signer, 151
Wives and widows of signers, last to survive, 62 (_and see particular signers and individuals_)
Wolcott, Oliver (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 31, _152–153_, _169–170_
Wolcott, Oliver, son of signer, 152, 153
Wolcott, Roger, father of signer, 152, 153
Wolcott descendants, 170
Wolcott House, Conn., _169–170_
Wolverhampton, England, 62
Wooley, Edmund, carpenter, 217
Worcester, Mass., 33, 139, 203
World War II, 265
Writers and writing, _see_ Literature and literary figures
Wyandotte Indians, 153
Wye Hall, Wye Island, and Wye Plantation, Md., 113, 114, 188
Wyoming Valley land dispute, 133, 143
Wythe, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 86, 88, _154–156_, _255–256_
Wythe, Mrs. George, first wife of signer, 154
Wythe, Mrs. George, second wife of signer, 154–155, 255
Wythe, Thomas, brother of signer, 154
Wythe House, Va., _255–256_
XYZ affair, 61
Yale College, Conn., 65, 84, 96, 105, 130, 152
Yeoman farmers, 86
York and York County, Pa., 98, 132, 133, 218, 263
York County, Va., 111
York Hall, Va., _see_ Nelson House
Yorkshire, England, 92
Yorktown and Battle (siege) of Yorktown, Va., 108, 111, 112, 218, 248, 255
☆ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 O-477-940
[Illustration: Sketch of proposed reconstruction of the Graff House, where Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.]
Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed.
For compatibility with various display devices, the symbols for Site Categories beginning on page 163 are slightly different from the ones used in the original book.
Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.