Part 2

8. _Angles._ One of the Low Germanic tribes that later settled in Britain, and from whom the name England is derived. Their original home was in the modern Schleswig-Holstein. _Eormanric._ See v. 88, below, and _Deor's Lament_, v. 21. He was a king of the Goths. After his death, about 375 A.D., he came to be known as the typical bad king, covetous, fierce, and cruel. According to the Scandinavian form of the story, the king sends his son and a treacherous councillor, Bikki (the Becca of v. 19) to woo and bring to the court the maiden Swanhild. Bikki urges the son to woo her for himself and then betrays him to his father, who has him hanged and causes Swanhild to be trampled to death by horses. Her brothers revenge her death and wound the king. At this juncture the Huns attack him, and during the attack Eormanric dies.

11. The proverb, or "gnomic verse," is very common in Old English poetry.

14. _Hwala_ appears in the West Saxon genealogies as son of Beowi, son of Sceaf (see _Beowulf_, vv. 4, 18).

15. _Alexander_ [_the Great_]. The writer speaks of many celebrities who were obviously too early for him to know personally. This passage is usually considered to be an interpolation.

18. _Becca._ See note to v. 8. The _Banings_ are not definitely identified. The _Burgundians_ were originally an East Germanic tribe. During the second and third centuries they were neighbors of the Goths and lived in the modern Posen. Later they moved west, and finally threatened Gaul, where in the middle of the fifth century they were defeated by the Roman general, Aetius. Shortly afterward they were defeated by the Huns. The remnant settled in Savoy, where they gradually recovered, and by the middle of the sixth century became an important nation. _Gifica_ (or Gibica) was traditionally spoken of as an early king who ruled over the Burgundians while they were still in the east, living as neighbors of the Goths on the Vistula.

20. _Cæsar_, was the name given to the Emperor of the East--the "Greek Emperor." The Finns were at that time located in their present home in Finland.

21, 22. _Hagena, Heoden, Wada._ These heroes all belong to one myth-cycle, which was told in Europe for many centuries. It is difficult to reconstruct the story as it was known at the time _Widsith_ was written, for it has received many additions at the hands of subsequent writers. The essential parts of the tale seem to be these: Heoden asks his servant, the sweet-singing Heorrenda, for help in wooing Hild, the daughter of Hagena. Heorrenda, enlisting the services of Wada, the renowned sea-monster (or sea-god) goes to woo Hild. By means of Wada's frightful appearance and skill in swordsmanship they attract Hild's attention, and Heorrenda then sings so that the birds are shamed into silence. They then woo Hild and flee with her from her father's court. Hagena pursues, and Heoden, after marrying Hild, engages him in battle. Each evening Hild goes to the battlefield and by magic awakens the warriors who have fallen, and they fight the same battle over day after day without ceasing. _Heorrenda_, the sweet singer of the Heodenings (i.e., of the court of Heoden) is mentioned in _Deor's Lament_, vv. 36 and 39. _Wada_ is a widely-known legendary character. He had power over the sea. He was the father of Weland, the Vulcan of Norse myth (see _Deor's Lament_, and _Waldhere_, A, v. 2). The _Holm-Rugians_ and the _Hælsings_ were in the fourth century on the Baltic coast of Germany. The _Glommas_ are unknown.

24. _Theodoric_, son of Chlodowech, king of the Franks, is meant, and not the famous Gothic king. Cf. v. 115, below.

25. _Breoca_: the same as Breca, prince of the Brondings, the opponent of Beowulf in his famous swimming match (_Beowulf_, vv. 499-606).

27, 28. _Finn Folcwalding_ was the traditional hero of the Frisians. For fragments of the stories connected with him, see _Beowulf_, vv. 1068-1159, and the fragmentary poem, _The Fight at Finnsburg_ (p. 34, below). _Hnæf_, son of Hoc (hence ruler of the _Hocings_) also figures in the Finn story. Hnæf's sister marries Finn. For a summary of the story see the Introduction to _The Fight at Finnsburg_.

30. _Thuringians._ These people dwelt near the mouths of the Rhine and the Maas.

31. _Ongentheow_, the king of Sweden, is frequently mentioned in _Beowulf_ (e.g., vv. 2476 and 2783). _The Secgans_ are unknown, but they are mentioned in v. 62, below, and in _The Fight at Finnsburg_, v. 26.

32. The ancient home of the _Longobards_ (or Lombards) was between the Baltic and the Elbe.

35. _Offa_: a legendary king of the Angles, while they still lived on the continent toward the end of the fourth century. Legends of him are found in Denmark and in England. Chambers concludes that the Danish form is perhaps very near that known to the author of _Widsith_. Offa, the son of the king, though a giant in stature, is dumb from his youth, and when the German prince from the south challenges the aged king to send a champion to defend his realm in single combat, Offa's speech is restored and he goes to the combat. The fight was held at Fifeldore, the River Eider, which was along the frontier between the Germans and the Danes. Here Offa fought against two champions and defeated them both, thus establishing the frontier for many years. Note that the author of _Widsith_, who is of the Myrging race, is here celebrating the defeat of his own people.

44. _Swabians_ probably refers to the Myrgings, who were of the stock of the Suevi.

45. _Hrothwulf and Hrothgar._ See _Beowulf_, vv. 1017 and 1181 ff. Hrothgar is Hrothwulf's uncle, and they live on friendly terms at Heorot (Hrothgar's hall). Later it seems that Hrothwulf fails to perform his duties as the guardian of Hrothgar's son, thus bringing to an end his years of friendliness to Hrothgar and his sons. The fight referred to is against Ingeld, Hrothgar's son-in-law who invaded the Danish kingdom. (See _Beowulf_, vv. 84, 2024 ff.)

57. See v. 18, above.

58. The _Geats_ were probably settled in southern Sweden. They were the tribe to which Beowulf belonged.

60. The _Gepidæ_ were closely related to the Goths and were originally located near them at the mouth of the Vistula River. The _Wends_ were a Slavonic tribe who finally pressed up into the lands vacated in the great migrations by the Germans between the Elbe and the Vistula.

61. _Angles._ See vv. 8 and 44, above. _Swæfe._ See line 44, above.

62. The _Saxons_, who with the Angles and Jutes settled Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries, lived originally near the mouth of the Elbe.

63. The _Heatho-Raemas_ dwelt near the modern Christiania in Norway. See _Beowulf_, line 518, in which Breca in the swimming match reaches their land.

65. _Burgundians._ See v. 19.

66. _Guthhere_ was a ruler of the Burgundians (v. 19). He was probably at Worms when he gave the jewel to Widsith. Guthhere, because of his great battle with Attila and his tragic defeat, became a great legendary hero. (See _Waldhere_, B, v. 14.)

67. The _Franks_ and the _Frisians_ are spoken of together in _Beowulf_ (vv. 1207, 1210, 2917), where they together repulse an attack made by Hygelac. The Frisians probably dwelt west of the Zuider Zee.

68. The _Rugians_ and the _Glommas_. See note to v. 21, above.

70. _Ælfwine:_ (otherwise known as Alboin), the Lombard conqueror of Italy. He was the son of Audoin (Eadwine).

75-87. Most scholars agree that these lines are interpolated, since they do not fit in with the rest of the poem.

75. _Serings:_ possibly Syrians.

78. _Welsh:_ a term applied to the Romans by the Old English writers.

79. The _Scride-Finns_ were settled in northern Norway--not in Finland, where the main body of Finns were found. They are perhaps to be identified with the modern Lapps.

80. _Lidwicingas:_ the inhabitants of Armorica. _Longobards._ See v. 32.

81. The _Hundings_ are also mentioned in line 23.

84, 85. _Myrging._ See line 4.

86. _East Thuringians._ Probably those Thuringians dwelling in the sixth century east of the Elbe.

87. _Istians._ Probably the Esthonians mentioned in the _Voyage of Wulfstan_. (See p. 194, line 151, below.) The _Idumingas_ were neighbors of the Istians. Both were probably Lettish or Lithuanian tribes.

88. _Eormanric._ See note to v. 8, above.

93. _Eadgils_ was king of the Myrgings.

97. _Ealhhild._ See note to v. 5, above. She was (v. 98) daughter of Eadwine, King of the Lombards (v. 74). The meaning here is not absolutely clear, but Chambers makes a good case for considering her the wife of Eormanric. He thinks that she followed her husband's gift to Widsith by a gift of another ring, in return for which Widsith sings her praises.

112, 113. _Emerca_ and _Fridla_, the _Harlungs_, were murdered by their uncle, Eormanric. _East-Gota_, or Ostrogotha, the king of the united Goths in the middle of the third century, was a direct ancestor of Eormanric.

115. _Becca._ See note to v. 8. _Seafola_ and _Theodoric_: probably Theodoric of Verona and his retainer, Sabene of Ravenna. On the other hand, the references may be to Theoderic the Frank. (See v. 24.)

116. _Sifeca:_ probably the evil councillor who brought about the murder by Eormanric of his nephews, the Harlungs. (See vv. 112, 113, note.)

117-119. These names are all very obscure.

120. _Hrædas:_ the Goths.

121. The struggle between the Goths and the Huns did not actually occur in the Vistula wood, but after the Goths had left the Vistula.

124, 130. _Wudga_ and _Hama_. The typical outlaws of German tradition. Hama appears in _Beowulf_ (v. 1198) as a fugitive who has stolen the Brising necklace and fled from Eormanric. Wudga, the Widia of _Waldhere_ (B, vv. 4, 9) came finally to be known for his treachery. He was connected with the court of Theodoric and received gifts from him, but he is later represented as having betrayed the king. The traditions about both of these men are badly confused.

135-143. One of the passages that give us a definite impression of the scop, or minstrel, and his life. It serves very well for the conclusion of a poem descriptive of the life of a minstrel.

DEOR'S LAMENT

[Critical text and translation: Dickins, _Runic and Heroic Poems_, Cambridge University Press, 1915, p. 70.

Alliterative translation: Gummere, _Oldest English Epic_ (1910), p. 186.

The metrical arrangement of this poem into strophes with a constant refrain is very unusual in the poetry of the Anglo-Saxons, though it is common among their Scandinavian kinsmen. This fact has led some scholars to believe that we have here a translation from the Old Norse. Professor Gummere, however, makes a good case against this assumption.

The first three strophes refer to the widely known story of Weland, or Wayland, the Vulcan of Norse myth. The crafty king, Nithhad, captures Weland, fetters him (according to some accounts, hamstrings him), and robs him of the magic ring that gives him power to fly. Beadohild, Nithhad's daughter, accompanied by her brothers, goes to Weland and has him mend rings for her. In this way he recovers his own ring and his power to fly. Before leaving he kills the sons of Nithhad, and, stupefying Beadohild with liquor, puts her to shame.]

To Weland came woes and wearisome trial, And cares oppressed the constant earl; His lifelong companions were pain and sorrow, And winter-cold weeping: his ways were oft hard, 5 After Nithhad had struck the strong man low, Cut the supple sinew-bands of the sorrowful earl. That has passed over: so this may depart!

Beadohild bore her brothers' death Less sorely in soul than herself and her plight 10 When she clearly discovered her cursed condition, That unwed she should bear a babe to the world. She never could think of the thing that must happen. That has passed over: so this may depart!

Much have we learned of Mæthhild's life: 15 How the courtship of Geat was crowned with grief, How love and its sorrows allowed him no sleep. That has passed over: so this may depart!

Theodoric held for thirty winters The town of the Mærings: that was told unto many. 20 That has passed over: so this may depart!

We all have heard of Eormanric Of the wolfish heart: a wide realm he had Of the Gothic kingdom. Grim was the king. Many men sat and bemoaned their sorrows, 25 Woefully watching and wishing always That the cruel king might be conquered at last. That has passed over: so this may depart!

Sad in his soul he sitteth joyless, Mournful in mood. He many times thinks 30 That no end will e'er come to the cares he endures. Then must he think how throughout the world The gracious God often gives his help And manifold honors to many an earl And sends wide his fame; but to some he gives woes. 35 Of myself and my sorrows I may say in truth That I was happy once as the Heodenings' scop, Dear to my lord. Deor was my name. Many winters I found a worthy following, Held my lord's heart, till Heorrenda came, 40 The skillful singer, and received the land-right That the proud helm of earls had once promised to me! That has passed over: so this may depart!

1. _Weland_, or Wayland; the blacksmith of the Norse gods. He is represented as being the son of Wada (see _Widsith_, v. 22, note).

8. _Beadohild_ was violated by Weland, and this stanza refers to the approaching birth of her son Widia (or Wudga). (See _Widsith_, vv. 124, 130, and _Waldhere_, B, vv. 4-10.)

14. The exact meaning of the third strophe as here translated is not clear. To make it refer to the story of Nithhad and Weland, it is necessary to make certain changes suggested by Professor Tupper (_Modern Philology_, October, 1911; _Anglia_, xxxvii, 118). Thus amended, this stanza would read: "Of the violation of (Beadu)hild many of us have heard. The affections of the Geat (i.e., Nithhad) were boundless, so that sorrowing love deprived him of all sleep." This grief of Nithhad would be that caused by the killing of his sons and the shame brought on his daughter. Thus the first three stanzas of the poem would refer to (1) Weland's torture, (2) Beadohild's shame, and (3) Nithhad's grief.

18. Strophe four refers to Theodoric the Goth (see _Widsith_, v. 115, and _Waldhere_, B, v. 4, note). He was banished to Attila's court for thirty years.

19. _Mærings:_ a name applied to the Ostrogoths.

21. _Eormanric_ was king of the Goths and uncle to Theodoric. He died about 375 A.D. He put his only son to death, had his wife torn to pieces, and ruined the happiness of many people. For an account of his crimes see the notes to _Widsith_, v. 8.

36. See, for the connection of the _Heodenings___ and the sweet-singing _Heorrenda_, the note to _Widsith_, v. 21.

WALDHERE

[Critical text and translation: Dickins, _Runic and Heroic Poems_, p. 56.

Date: Probably eighth century.

Information as to the story is found in a number of continental sources. Its best known treatment is in a Latin poem, _Waltharius_, by Ekkehard of St. Gall, dating from the first half of the tenth century. Ekkehard's story is thus summarized in the _Cambridge History of English Literature_: "Alphere, king of Aquitaine, had a son named Waltharius, and Heriricus, king of Burgundy, an only daughter named Hiltgund, who was betrothed to Waltharius. While they were yet children, however, Attila, king of the Huns, invaded Gaul, and the kings seeing no hope in resistance, gave up their children to him as hostages, together with much treasure. Under like compulsion treasure was obtained also from Gibicho, king of the Franks, who sent as hostage a youth of noble birth named Hagano. In Attila's service, Waltharius and Hagano won great renown as warriors, but the latter eventually made his escape. When Waltharius grew up, he became Attila's chief general; yet he remembered his old engagement with Hiltgund. On his return from a victorious campaign he made a great feast for the king and his court, and when all were sunk in their drunken sleep, he and Hiltgund fled laden with much gold. On their way home they had to cross the Rhine near Worms. There the king of the Franks, Guntharius, the son of Gibicho, heard from the ferryman of the gold they were carrying and determined to secure it. Accompanied by Hagano and eleven other picked warriors, he overtook them as they rested in a cave in the Vosges. Waltharius offered him a large share of the gold in order to obtain peace; but the king demanded the whole, together with Hiltgund and the horses. Stimulated by the promise of great rewards, the eleven warriors now attacked Waltharius one after another, but he slew them all. Hagano had tried to dissuade Guntharius from the attack; but now, since his nephew was among the slain, he formed a plan with the king for surprising Waltharius. On the following day they both fell upon him after he had quitted his stronghold, and, in the struggle that ensued, all three were maimed. Waltharius, however, was able to proceed on his way with Hiltgund, and the story ends happily with their marriage."

Both our fragments, which are found on two leaves in the Royal Library at Copenhagen, refer to a time immediately before the final encounter. The first is spoken by the lady; the second by the man. We cannot tell how long this poem may have been. What we have may be leaves from a long epic, or a short poem, or an episode in a long epic.]

A

. . . . . . . . . . she eagerly heartened him: "Lo, the work of Weland shall not weaken or fail For the man who the mighty Mimming can wield, The frightful brand. Oft in battle have fallen 5 Sword-wounded warriors one after the other. 6 Vanguard of Attila, thy valor must ever Endure the conflict! The day is now come, 9 When fate shall award you one or the other: 10 To lose your life or have lasting glory, Through all the ages, O Ælfhere's son! No fault do I find, my faithful lover, Saying I have seen thee at sword-play weaken, Yield like a coward to a conqueror's arms, 15 Flee from the field of fight and escape, Protect thy body, though bands of the foemen Were smiting thy burnies with broad-edged swords; But unfalt'ring still farther the fight thou pursuedst Over the line of battle; hence, my lord, I am burdened 20 With fear that too fiercely to the fight thou shalt rush To the place of encountering thy opponent in conflict, To wage on him war. Be worthy of thyself In glorious deeds while thy God protects thee! Have no fear as to sword for the fine-gemmed weapon 25 Has been given thee to aid us: on Guthhere with it Thou shalt pay back the wrong of unrighteously seeking To stir up the struggle and strife of battle; He rejected that sword and the jewelled treasure, The lustrous gems; now, leaving them all, 30 He shall flee from this field to find his lord, His ancient land, or lie here forever Asleep, if he . . . . . . . ."

1. The speaker is Hildegyth (the Old English form for Hiltgund).

2. _Weland:_ the blacksmith of Teutonic myth. See _Deor's Lament_, introductory note, and notes to vv. 1 and 8.

3. _Mimming_ was the most famous of the swords made by Weland.

28. Waldhere had offered Guthhere a large share of the treasure as an inducement for him to desist from the attack, and Guthhere had refused it.

B

" . . . . . . . . a better sword Except that other, which also I have Closely encased in its cover of jewels. I know that Theodoric thought that to Widia 5 Himself he would send it, and the sword he would join With large measure of jewels and many other brands, Worked all with gold. This reward he would send Because, when a captive, the kinsman of Nithhad, Weland's son, Widia, from his woes had released him-- 10 Thus in haste he escaped from the hands of the giants." Waldhere spoke, the warrior brave; He held in his hand his helper in battle, He grasped his weapon, shouting words of defiance: "Indeed, thou hadst faith, O friend of the Burgundians, 15 That the hand of Hagena had held me in battle, Defeated me on foot. Fetch now, if thou darest, From me weary with war my worthy gray corselet! It lies on my shoulder as 'twas left me by Ælfhere, Goodly and gorgeous and gold-bedecked, 20 The most honorable of all for an atheling to hold When he goes into battle to guard his life, To fight with his foes: fail me it will never When a stranger band shall strive to encounter me, Besiege me with swords, as thou soughtest to do. 25 He alone will vouchsafe the victory who always Is eager and ready to aid every right: He who hopes for the help of the holy Lord, For the grace of God, shall gain it surely, If his earlier work has earned the reward. 30 Well may the brave warriors then their wealth enjoy, Take pride in their property! That is . . . ."

1. The opening of the second fragment finds the two champions ready for the final struggle. Guthhere is finishing his boast, in which he praises his equipment.

3. The meaning of this passage is obscure, but the translation here given seems to be the most reasonable conjecture. He probably refers to a sword that he has at hand in a jewelled case ready for use.

4. Stopping thus to give a history of the weapon calls to mind many similar passages in the Homeric poems. The particular story in mind here is the escape of Theodoric from the giants. He loses his way and falls into the hands of one of the twelve giants who guard Duke Nitger. He gains the favor of Nitger's sister, and through her lets his retainers, Hildebrand, Witige, and Heime know of his plight. They defeat the giants and release him. Witige and Heime are the Middle High German forms for the old English _Widia_ (see _Deor's Lament_, v. 8, note), or Wudga and Hama (see _Widsith_, vv. 124, 130, note).

14. _Friend of the Burgundians:_ a usual old English expression for "king." Guthhere was king of the Burgundians in the middle of the fifth century (see _Widsith_, vv. 19, 66, notes).

15. Hagena is now the only one of Guthhere's comrades that has not been killed by Waldhere. Cf. _Widsith_, v. 21.

THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURG

[Edition used: Chambers, _Beowulf_, p. 158. See also Dickins, _Runic and Heroic Poems_, p. 64.

Alliterative translation, Gummere, _Oldest English Epic_, p. 160.

The manuscript is now lost. We have only an inaccurate version printed by Hickes at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Many difficulties are therefore found in the text. For a good discussion of the text, see an article by Mackie in _The Journal of English and Germanic Philology_, xvi, 250.