CHAPTER XIX
OTHER POINTS OF VIEW
The effects of the immigration movement upon the countries of source are in a way much more simple than the effects upon the United States. None of the problems of race mixture, assimilation, varying racial inheritances, etc., are involved. They are confined principally to the three questions of the effect of the removal of parts of the population, the effect of the remittances from America, and the effect of the returned immigrant. But while simpler, these effects are perhaps none the less subtle than those in the United States, nor any less difficult of prediction—for in Europe, as in America, the effects of this great movement must be largely in the future.
It is one of the corollaries of the Malthusian theory of population that a steady, regular emigration from a country has no power to check the rate of increase of population in that country. This opinion has been accepted by many leading students of social subjects from Malthus’ day down to the present. In fact, the general idea was expressed as early as 1790 by an anonymous writer in that quaint old magazine, the _American Museum_. He says: “When a country is so much crowded with people that the price of the means of subsistence is beyond the ratio of their industry, marriages are restrained: but when emigration to a certain degree takes place, the balance between the means of subsistence and industry is restored, and population thereby revived. Of the truth of this principle there are many proofs in the old counties of all the American states. Population has constantly been advanced in them by the migration of their inhabitants to new or distant settlements.”[367] John Stuart Mill believed that a steady emigration was powerless to cure the ills of overpopulation.[368] Roscher and Jannasch maintain that not only will emigration not decrease population, but may actually make the increase of population greater than it would otherwise be.[369] Réné Gonnard, the French writer, says that the fact of emigration gives a stimulus to the birth rate, and cites Adam Smith, Malthus, Garnier, Roscher, and De Molinari in support of the view.[370] Robert Hunter also expresses his adherence to this opinion.[371]
With the laws of population in mind we can easily understand how this condition may result—in fact, how it must result theoretically. Every society, in the course of its development, reaches a balance between the means of subsistence and the desire for reproduction. This balance is represented by the standard of living. In a society where the desire for reproduction greatly overbalances the desire for comforts and luxuries, the standard of living will be low, and the rate of increase of population high. In a society where the appetite for material welfare is strong, the opposite conditions will prevail. Changing conditions present the possibility of change either in the rate of reproduction or in the standard of living. As we have already observed, the former is the more flexible of the two. Particularly in static societies, such as exist in European countries, where social positions have become thoroughly stratified, any gradual amelioration in circumstances is much more likely to result in an increased rate of population growth than in an improved standard of living.
Emigration, by _temporarily_ relieving congestion to a certain extent, offers a chance of betterment. But in general, if the emigration is moderate, this chance is seized by the reproductive power rather than by the standard of living. The rate of increase of population rises until the drain of emigration is offset, while the standard of living remains unaltered, and the total population continues virtually the same. The very fact of emigration gives a sense of hopefulness to the people, and the knowledge that there is an ever ready outlet for redundant inhabitants causes the population of the country to multiply more rapidly than it otherwise would. This is the result which must reasonably be expected to follow all regular and gradual emigration movements.
On the other hand, while the withdrawal of a more or less uniform number of inhabitants, year by year, has no power to reduce population, and may actually tend to increase it, the opposite result may be achieved where there is such a sudden and extensive removal of people from a country, that those who remain feel a definite and profound lightening of pressure. This must be sufficiently immediate and widespread to produce a sudden and significant rise in wages or fall in prices. In such a case it may occur that, before the forces of population have had time to fill the breach, the people may have become accustomed to a somewhat higher standard of living, which thereafter they may be able and inclined to maintain.
The peculiar sex distribution of modern emigration probably has the effect of increasing the possibility of reducing the population in the countries of source, out of proportion to the actual number of emigrants, just as it lessens the likelihood of increasing population in the country of destination.
Such is the theoretic argument as regards the effect of emigration upon the population of a country. It may be summed up in the words of John Stuart Mill, “When the object is to raise the permanent condition of a people, small means do not merely produce small effects, they produce no effects at all.”
There is no lack of authoritative opinions to support this view. In addition to those already cited, the following may be noted. Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, in his pamphlet on “Emigration” dated 1806, expresses his belief that emigration does not reduce population, and cites the Isle of Skye as a case in point. The population of this island in 1772 was about 12,000. Between this date and 1791, 4000 people emigrated, and at least 8000 more moved in a more gradual and less conspicuous way to the Low Country of Scotland. Yet the population more than kept even.[372]
Mr. Whelpley says, “There is no hope of an exhaustion of supply, for the most prolific races are now contributing their millions, and yet increasing the population of their own countries. There is no hope of an improvement in quality, for the best come first and the dregs follow.”[373] Professor Mayo-Smith says, “Emigration does not threaten to depopulate the countries of Europe. Had there been no emigration during this century (the nineteenth) it is not probable that the population of Europe would have been any greater than it is. The probabilities are all the other way.”[374]
Professor Taussig, while not stating this opinion in so many words, appears to adhere to it when he says that without emigration Sweden and Italy would have had—not a larger population—but either a higher death rate or a lower birth rate.[375]
If we seek for a statistical demonstration of the foregoing argument we are confronted with the same impossibility of securing it which has become so familiar in the course of this work. These matters do not adjust themselves with clocklike regularity, but operate over long periods, and are complicated by innumerable other factors. Even though two phenomena are shown to operate harmoniously, it is not always possible to prove which is cause and which effect. The declining birth rate has been a common phenomenon in almost all European countries during the last forty years, and particularly during the last twenty years of the nineteenth century.[376] An opponent of the view we are considering could point to this fact as a contradiction of the claim, while one on the opposite side could assert that the decline would have been equally rapid and perhaps more so without any emigration at all. Neither could prove his case. Even if it could be demonstrated that the countries which experience the largest emigration also manifest the highest rate of increase in population, it might be easily maintained that it was the extreme growth of population that accounted for the large emigration, rather than the reverse. About all that can be shown is that a large emigration and a high rate of increase of population may go together. Examples of this state of affairs are numerous.[377]
Of the opposite case, where a sudden and extensive emigration has cut down population, there have been a few historical examples, notably that of Ireland. The population of Ireland diminished from 8,100,000 in 1841 to 6,500,000 in 1851, and 5,700,000 in 1861. Since then it has steadily declined to 4,456,000 in 1901.[378] The fact that the beginning of this decline was coincident with the great exodus to America has made it customary to explain the decreasing population by emigration. But even in this case, it is a question whether it would not be more accurate to assign the decrease in population in Ireland in the middle of the nineteenth century to the famine, rather than to emigration. The famine was the primary fact, and had passed the death sentence upon a large proportion of the people; emigration—to carry out the figure—merely commuted that sentence to exile. It furnished an outlet to thousands who were otherwise doomed to die. It has been claimed that Norway has lost a greater part of her population by emigration to America than any other European country except Ireland.[379]
The obvious effect of the remittances from America is a beneficial one, inasmuch as it increases the purchasing power of those of the peasant class who remain at home. The immigrant in the United States who sends money back to Europe is earning in a country where the price level is high and spending in a country where it is low, which is a manifest advantage. Even though his real wages are the same as he might command at home, as long as there is a margin of saving his family benefits financially by the arrangement. But in so far as this money sent home results in an increase of the monetary circulation in the European country, its desirability is more questionable. The Immigration Commission notes an increase in wages in some immigrant-furnishing sections of southern and eastern Europe. If this were accompanied by a corresponding rise in prices, there would of course be no real gain. Something of this sort has actually occurred in Greece. Several forces, among which the remittances from America stand prominent, have within the last few years brought the exchange between paper and gold down nearly to par. The result has been to diminish seriously the purchasing power of the income of the ordinary workingman. For while large payments are made in gold, ordinary purchases are made in paper, so that while both money incomes and prices have remained approximately the same, the workman who gets his gold piece changed finds that he now has only 108 paper drachmas or so to make his purchases with, where ten years ago he had 160 or so.[380]
Even where no such disadvantageous effects can be observed, it is a question whether it is a healthy state of affairs for any nation to be largely supported by money earned in another land, and sent back in a form which gives it the nature of a gift in the eyes of the common people.
As to the effect of the returned immigrant upon his native country, opinions again differ. Some observers see a great advantage accruing to European countries from the better habits of life, the more advanced knowledge of agricultural and other industrial methods, and the more independent and self-reliant spirit, which the returned immigrants bring back with them. To them, the returned emigrant appears as a disseminator of new ideas and higher culture, and a constant inspiration to more effective living. There are others in whose opinion the evil influences exerted by the returned immigrant largely outweigh the good. While they build better houses, and wear better clothes, they are idle and egoistical. They take no active interest in the life of those around them, and make no effort to spread among their fellows the advantages of what they have learned in America. Their example arouses feelings of discontent and restlessness among their neighbors, and leads to further emigration, rather than to the betterment of conditions at home. They are misfits in the old environment.
There is undoubtedly much of truth in both of these opinions, and numerous cases might be found to illustrate either. A very helpful idea of the two-sided aspect of this matter may be gained by studying a concrete case, furnished by a single country. For this purpose, excellent material is furnished by the careful study of “The Effect of Emigration upon Italy” made by Mr. Antonio Mangano,[381] who has gone into all the divisions of his subject in an admirable way.
This author finds that emigration, great as it has been, has not decreased the population of Italy, which, on the contrary, is larger than ever. He does not say that the rate of increase has been as great as it would have been without emigration, nor could this be proved. It is certain that some sections of Italy have been seriously depopulated, though the population of the country as a whole has increased. It is quite possible that emigration from Italy at the present time approaches the sudden and sweeping type sufficiently so that it may actually check the rate of increase of population.
As to the effects of the money sent home, and the returned immigrants, he finds contrary opinions, and facts on both sides of the case. Among the beneficial results of emigration he finds that wages have increased fifty per cent, so that the peasants who remain have benefited by the departure of others. Farm machinery has been introduced, usury has almost disappeared, and the percentage of violent crimes has been reduced. The returned immigrant carries himself better, dresses better, and has a greater spirit of independence, which he communicates to others. There has arisen a growing demand for rudimentary education. Many peasants have been enabled to buy land.
But on the other side there are many evil results to be reckoned with. The ignorant peasant has been cheated in the quality and price of the land he has bought, and after two or three years of unsuccessful effort learns that he cannot make even a living from it, and sells it at a great loss, sometimes to the very landlord from whom he purchased it. The southern provinces are losing their working population, so that the production, which was inadequate before, has become even more insufficient. Carefully cultivated and terraced land is being laid waste through neglect. As a result there has been a notable increase in prices and in the cost of living, which nearly or entirely offsets the higher wages of the peasants, and brings a disproportionately heavy burden on the salaried and clerical classes. Women have been driven to take up hard labor in the fields, to the extent that a physical injury to the rising generation is already observable. As a consequence of the breaking up of families, there has been a tendency toward moral degeneracy, not only on the part of the men who have emigrated, but of the women who are left. Prostitution, illegitimacy, and infanticide have increased. Children are growing up without salutary restraint. Tuberculosis, almost unknown in Italy before emigration, is spreading rapidly. Only a few of the returned emigrants are willing to settle down permanently in the old country, and work for its uplift, and there is no assurance that the money which has been sent to Italy for safe keeping will be ultimately spent there. Many of the young men who return, bring back vices with them, and serve as a demoralizing example while they remain.[382] From the governmental point of view, there is an alarming deficiency of recruits for the army. Even the new houses, built with American money, are not always an improvement on the old, as no new ideas come in with the remittances.
A comparison of these two categories emphasizes the fact that the favorable effects are, in general, the more obvious and immediate ones. They are the ones which catch the eye of the traveler or the superficial observer. They are the ones which appear to have particularly impressed the Immigration Commission, as evidenced by their seemingly hasty review of conditions on the other side.[383] It is upon these that Professor Steiner, with his warm fellow-feeling for the immigrant lays special stress. Even Miss Balch gives prominence to this class of effects. The injurious results of such a movement as emigration are likely to be of such a nature as makes them slow of development, and difficult to observe and calculate. Physical and moral degeneracy are slower to appear than high wages and new houses, but at the same time they are more important. Taking everything into account, it seems probable that, for Italy at least, emigration under the present conditions will prove at least as much of a curse as a blessing.
Conditions in Greece resemble in many respects those in Italy, though the depopulation of the country seems even more imminent. Not only has the emigration been very sudden, but it is almost exclusively male, so that there seems a real danger of a serious diminution of population in the kingdom. Although the emigration movement is so recent in Greece that effects can hardly yet be looked for, yet here, as in Italy, the immediate favorable results of better houses, a reduction of the rate of interest, mortgages cleared from the land, higher wages and lower rates of interest are already manifest. The darker side, too, is beginning to show in the assumption of hard labor by the women, the lack of laborers in certain sections, the increase of immorality among the women, and the introduction of a demoralizing example by returned young men. Prices and the cost of living have increased. The returned immigrant, instead of serving as an uplifting example of intelligent industry, is likely so to conduct himself as to add to the already prevalent scorn for hard work, and increase the prevailing unrest and discontent which leads to further emigration.[384]
The general conclusion in regard to the effects of emigration upon European countries, which the facts appear to justify, is that the movement is at least of doubtful benefit to the countries of source.[385] The obvious beneficial results are partially if not wholly offset by certain undesirable consequences, insidious and persistent in their nature, and likely to make themselves more manifest with the passage of years. The attitude of European governments serves as a verification of this conclusion. It is certain that the advantages of emigration do not sufficiently outweigh its drawbacks in the eyes of most of these governments to lead them to regard it otherwise than with disfavor, although none of them now practically forbid it.[386] Nor is that attitude due to the military interest alone.
The question of the effects of immigration upon the immigrants is perhaps the most difficult of all to determine. It is manifest that it must affect all of their life interests, in their own generation and for many generations to come. And particularly, if it is desired to ascertain whether the immigrant gains or loses in the long run by his undertaking, the effort involves the attempt at evaluation of almost every human activity, in order that a balance may be struck between the good and the bad.
On the face of it, it seems that there must be some gain to the immigrants from immigration. It is inconceivable that such a movement should continue year after year unless those directly concerned in it were profiting thereby. It is true, to be sure, that there is a vast deal of misinformation, and false hope, on the part of the immigrants. Those who are interested in their coming strive to paint the future in the brightest possible colors, and to minimize the drawbacks. The example of one or two eminently successful acquaintances is likely to wholly outweigh that of many who only scrape along or fail altogether. Nevertheless, making all allowances, it seems necessary to believe that there is a net margin of advantage in the long run. It is perhaps possible that this advantage may often be more specious than real, and that the immigrant may believe himself the gainer when, if he could balance true values, he would find himself in a more pitiable case than before.
The great gain of the immigrant is to be looked for in the field of wealth, or material prosperity. There can be little doubt that on the average the immigrant is able to earn and save more, not only of money, but of wealth in the broader sense, than he could at home. This is the great underlying motive of modern immigration, and if it were illusory, the movement must soon fail. A comparison of economic conditions in Europe and America, as far as this can be made, seems to bear this out. Both wages and prices are lower, on the whole, in the countries which send us most of our immigrants than they are in the United States. But wages appear to be proportionally lower than prices. The money sent from America is a very real and tangible thing, and represents a great economic advance on the part of a large proportion of the immigrants.
Doubtless, there is also somewhat of gain in independence and freedom for many of the immigrants. The growth of class distinctions in the United States has not yet proceeded so far that the immigrant from Austria-Hungary or Italy does not feel an improvement in his social status. To be sure, the classes of population with which the immigrant establishes this social equality in the United States are not such as to do him the greatest conceivable good, but a sense of heightened self-respect and self-reliance does undoubtedly develop, nevertheless.[387]
Many of the immigrants, of course, forge ahead, either because of unusual ability or exceptional good fortune, and attain a position of advancement in every way which would have been utterly inconceivable in their old home. There are countless instances of prosperous business men, eminent and respected citizens, invaluable servants of society in this country, who could never have been anything but humble peasants in their home land. These shining examples attract much attention here and abroad, and serve as valuable illustrations of what may be accomplished under favorable circumstances.[388]
But for the bulk of the ordinary immigrants the economic and other advantages are offset by terrible hardships and losses. As one thinks of the broken and separated families, often never reunited; of the depressing, and degrading group life of men in this country; of religious ideals shattered and new vices acquired in the unwonted and untempered atmosphere of American liberty; of the frequent industrial accidents and unceasing overstrain of the Slavs in mine and factory, upon which they reckon as one of the concomitants of life in America, and which sends them back to Europe in a few years, broken and prematurely aged, but with an accumulation of dollars;[389] of the tuberculosis contracted by Italians in the confined life to which they are unaccustomed, and by Greek boot-blacks in their squalid quarters and their long day’s labors;[390] of the sad conditions of labor in the sweatshops and tenement workrooms;[391] of the child labor in the cranberry bogs of Massachusetts and New Jersey;[392] of the destruction of family life by the taking of boarders, and the heart-breaking toil of the boarding-boss’s wife;[393] of the unremitting toil and scant recreation, of the low wages and insufficient standard of living, of the unsparing and niggardly thrift by which the savings are made possible—as one thinks of these things, which are all too common to be considered exceptional, and compares them with the conditions which characterize peasant life in Europe, where many æsthetic and neighborly circumstances tend to offset the poverty, one cannot help wondering how large a proportion of our immigrants finally reap a net gain in the things that are really worth while.
It is useless for any individual to undertake to answer this question categorically for immigrants in general. The answer rests too much upon personal opinion and estimation of relative values. The point that needs to be emphasized in this connection is that against the evident and unquestioned economic gain of most, and the general social and intellectual gain of many, there must be set off a long list of serious, though not always obvious, evils which result for a large proportion of the immigrants under present conditions.
The question of the desirability of immigration from the point of view of humanity as a whole, as previously stated, is a summation of the aspects of the problem from the point of view of the United States, the countries of source, and the immigrants. This balance must be struck by every student for himself. The effort has been made in the foregoing pages to set forth the facts which condition this great movement at the present time, as a groundwork upon which reasonable conclusions may be based. It has appeared that for the United States there is at present no real need of further immigrants, and that the most that can be said is that they do no harm. On the other hand, it seems likely that the evil effects from the movement as at present conducted—effects to be developed mainly in the future rather than existent at the present time—will overbalance any good that may result. From the point of view of European countries, while the advantages are obvious, it appears that there are also fundamental drawbacks which may in the end more than offset the gain. For the immigrant there is an undoubted net margin of advantage on the average; but this advantage is less general and real than is often supposed, and is qualified by many weighty considerations. In striking this balance it is important to bear in mind the influence of emigration and immigration upon total population. If it is true that immigrants in a large measure are supplanters of native population, rather than additions to population, it then becomes a question whether the immigrants as a body are happier than the native population would have been, which would otherwise have filled their places.
In regard to national prosperity and welfare, moreover, it must ever be remembered that the effects of immigration upon all countries concerned,
## particularly upon the receiving country, are scarcely more than in the
embryo. Such a tremendous movement as this must inevitably have significant and far-reaching results. But only a prophetic vision could state with assurance what those results will be.
One thing, however, seems certain—that the movement is not accomplishing all the good that it might. Many of the foregoing statements in regard to immigration have been qualified by the phrase “as at present conducted.” The peculiar circumstances which have given rise to the immigration movement certainly contain possibilities of great advantage to the human race. It ought to be possible so to utilize them as to bring about a great and permanent uplift for the whole of mankind. There is no assurance that our present policy, adopted in its main features at a time when conditions were radically different,[394] guarantees this uplift in its maximum degree. What, then, ought to be done about it? This is the real kernel of the immigration problem for the statesman and the practical sociologist.
One of the great difficulties with which sincere social workers have to contend in almost every field of their efforts is that practical economics has advanced so much more rapidly than practical sociology. Our knowledge of the technique of production and transportation, and of the industrial arts, has made phenomenal strides in the past century. The growth of cities, the development of the factory system, easy means of communication between all countries, the growth of the world market, advances in agricultural methods which have made the soil much more productive per unit of labor, have coöperated to introduce a new set of social conditions and problems with which we have not yet learned to grapple. Our knowledge of how to produce satisfactory social relations is far behind our knowledge of how to produce wealth. This is strikingly evident in the matter of immigration. If transportation conditions and means of communication had remained as they were at the time of the Revolution, our present immigration situation could never have arisen. There would have been a natural barrier which would have prevented too large increments of European population from entering the new country while it was working out its problems and gradually finding itself. The problems of immigration which presented themselves would have been of sufficiently moderate dimensions so that they could have been dealt with as they arose. As it is, the recent rapid development of communication has made the ease of immigration so great that we have been overwhelmed by the resulting problems. The movement of millions of people from one region to another is a phenomenon of prodigious sociological import. Modern mechanical progress has made this movement possible, before the nations or the individuals concerned have advanced far enough in social science to know how to make the most of it.
Granting that there is an immigration problem, and granting that there is a desire to grapple with it, there are two methods of attack. The first is, to pick out the obvious evils, and apply a specific to them one by one. The other is to endeavor to determine the underlying principles and to devise a consistent and comprehensive plan which will go to the root of the matter, relying upon established sociological laws. The first method is much the simpler. It is the one which has hitherto been followed out in our immigration legislation. One by one certain crying evils have been met by definite measures. After half a century of protest, paupers and criminals were refused admission. A little later contract laborers were debarred. Certain diseased classes, growing more comprehensive with the years, have been excluded. The principle of deportation has been introduced and gradually enlarged. Steamship companies have been made responsible for the return of nonadmissible aliens. The net result of these measures has unquestionably been beneficial. This type of remedy, if wisely administered, is always valuable, and should be adopted, in the absence or delay of the other kind of solution.
Certain other improvements of this general type readily suggest themselves. The steerage should be abolished, and United States inspectors placed on all immigrant-carrying vessels. If possible, better provisions should be adopted for turning back inadmissibles early on their journey. Immigrant banks and lodging houses should receive stricter supervision. The padrone system and the unrestricted contract labor system should be abolished. Tenement houses should be supervised in the strictest way possible. Every remedial agency designed to better the lot of the alien in this country should be encouraged.
It appears that many of the ills of immigration are due to faulty distribution and the lack of efficient contact between aliens and the better classes of Americans. Consequently, the need of better distribution, and various schemes for securing it, are constantly urged in the press, and in other writings on the subject. Yet we are warned to be on our guard against pinning too much faith to this solution of the problem. There are many evils which distribution alone cannot remedy, and there is competent authority for the statement that much of the agitation for better distribution emanates from interests which profit by a large immigration, and which hope in this way to blind the eyes of the American people to the more deep-seated evils, and to hush the cry for some restrictive measures. Some think, also, that if there ever was a time when any scheme of distribution would have been effective, it is now long since past.[395]
In such ways as the foregoing, great good may be accomplished, and many of the more obvious evils avoided or mitigated. It does not seem possible, however, that in such a manner can the greatest possible good be derived from the immigration movement. This can be achieved only through the operation of some far-reaching, inclusive plan of regulation, based on the broadest and soundest principles, in which all countries concerned will concur. The formulation of such a plan requires the greatest wisdom of which man is capable. It is possible that we have not yet advanced far enough in social science to make the construction of such a plan feasible. In such a case, it might be the part of wisdom and honor to radically restrict the numbers of immigrants until such a plan can be devised and put into operation. Otherwise, the peculiar situation of the United States among nations may disappear, and the possibilities of gain to the race be lost forever, before the maximum advantage has been secured. One of the strongest arguments for restriction at the present time is that the United States is not yet qualified to accept the responsibility of admitting unlimited numbers of eager seekers for advantages, and giving them in fullest measure those things which they desire, and which their earnest efforts merit.
One thing, meanwhile, must be remembered—the problem will not solve itself. If there are evils connected with immigration, there is no prospect that in the natural course of events they will disappear of themselves. The history of immigration has been a history of successive waves of population, from sources ever lower in the economic, if not in the social, scale. If it has seemed at any time that the country was about to adjust itself to a certain racial admixture, a new and more difficult element has presented itself. And the process will go on. As General Walker pointed out long ago, immigration of the lowest class “will not be permanently stopped so long as any difference of _economic level_ exists between our population and that of the most degraded communities abroad.”[396] Under present conditions a diminution in the immigration stream should not be interpreted as a cause of congratulation, but rather deep consternation. For, except to the extent that restriction is actually accomplished by our laws, a cessation of the stream of immigration to the United States can only mean that economic conditions in this country have fallen to so low a pitch that it is no longer worth while for the citizens of the meanest and most backward foreign country to make the moderate effort to get here.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NOTE. A bibliography on Immigration might be extended almost indefinitely. Nearly every book written on any social question,
## particularly in America, contains material on immigration. The magazine
articles on the subject are legion. By no means all the works which may profitably be consulted, nor all those cited in the foregoing pages, are included in the following list.
GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS
_Books_
ADDAMS, JANE: Newer Ideals of Peace, 1907; Twenty Years at Hull-House, 1910.
ANDERSON, W. L.: The Country Town, 1906.
BLODGET, SAMUEL: Economics: A Statistical Manual for the United States of America, 1806.
BRANDENBURG, BROUGHTON: Imported Americans, 1904.
BROMWELL, WILLIAM J.: History of Immigration into the United States, 1856.
BUSHEE, F. A.: Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston, American Economic Association, 3d Series, 4:2, 1903.
BYINGTON, MARGARET F.: Homestead: The Households of a Mill Town, 1910.
CHICKERING, JESSE: Immigration into the United States, 1848.
COMMONS, JOHN R.: Races and Immigrants in America, 1908.
DONALDSON, THOMAS: The Public Domain, 1881.
EDWARDS, RICHARD H.: Immigration, 1909.
ELLWOOD, CHARLES A.: Sociology and Modern Social Problems, 1910.
ENDICOTT, WILLIAM C., JR.: Immigration Laws, State and National, in Commercial Relations of the United States, 1885–1886. Appendix III, 1887.
EVANS-GORDON, W.: The Alien Immigrant, 1903.
GONNARD, RÉNÉ: L’Émigration européenne au XIX Siècle, 1906.
GROSE, HOWARD B.: Aliens or Americans? 1906.
HALL, PRESCOTT F.: Immigration, 1906.
HENDERSON, C. R.: An Introduction to the Study of the Dependent, Defective, and Delinquent Classes, 1893.
HUNTER, ROBERT: Poverty, 1904.
Immigration Commission: Report, Authorized, 1907.
JENKS, JEREMIAH, and LAUCK, W. JETT: The Immigration Problem, 1911.
KAPP, FRIEDRICH: Immigration and the Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New York, 1870.
KENNGOTT, GEORGE F.: The Record of a City, 1912.
LINCOLN, JONATHAN T.: The City of the Dinner Pail, 1909.
MACLEAN, ANNIE M.: Wage-Earning Women, 1910.
MARTINEAU, HARRIET: Society in America, 1837.
MAYO-SMITH, RICHMOND: Emigration and Immigration, 1890.
New York Bureau of Industries and Immigration: First Annual Report, 1911.
New York Commission of Immigration: Report, 1909.
VON RAUMER, F. L.: America and the American People, 1846.
RAUSCHENBUSCH, WALTER: Christianity and the Social Crisis, 1910.
RIIS, JACOB: How the Other Half Lives, 1890; The Making of an American, 1901.
ROBERTS, PETER: Anthracite Coal Communities, 1904; The New Immigration, 1912.
ROSCHER, WILHELM, and JANNASCH, ROBERT: Kolonien, Kolonialpolitik, und Auswanderung, 1885.
SEYBERT, ADAM: Statistical Annals of the United States, 1789–1818, 1818.
SPILLER, G.: Interracial Problems, 1911.
STEINER, EDWARD A.: On the Trail of the Immigrant, 1906; The Immigrant Tide, 1909.
STELZLE, CHARLES: The Working Man and Social Problems, 1903.
SUMNER, WILLIAM G.: Folkways, 1907; War and Other Essays, 1911.
TAUSSIG, F. W.: Principles of Economics, 1911.
TROLLOPE, MRS. T. A.: Domestic Manners of the Americans, 1832.
United States Bureau of the Census: Census Reports; A Century of Population Growth, 1909.
United States Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization: Commissioner General of Immigration, Annual Reports; Immigration Laws (Pamphlets).
United States Bureau of Statistics: Immigration into the United States from 1820 to 1903, 1903; Special Report on Immigration, by Young, Edward, 1871.
United States Congress: Documents, Reports, etc.
United States Library of Congress: A List of Books (with references to periodicals) on Immigration, 1907.
WALKER, F. A.: Discussions in Economics and Statistics, 1899.
WATSON, JOHN F.: Annals of Philadelphia, 1830.
WHELPLEY, JAMES D.: The Problem of the Immigrant, 1905.
WILKINS, WILLIAM H.: The Alien Invasion, 1892.
WOODS, ROBERT A., and others: Americans in Process, 1902; The City Wilderness, 1898.
_Magazine Articles, etc._
AINSWORTH, F. H.: Are We Shouldering Europe’s Burden? Charities, 12:134, 1904.
American Museum: 1:13; 2:213; 5:109; 7:87, 233, 240; 8:124; 10:114, 221; 12:112; 13:196, 263, 268, 1787–98.
BARROWS, W.: Immigration; Its Evils and their Remedies. New Englander, 13:262, 1855.
BRANDENBURG, BROUGHTON: The Tragedy of the Rejected Immigrant, Outlook, 84:361, 1906.
Chambers’ Journal: Warning to Emigrants, 50:644, 1873.
CHAMBERS, W.: Emigrant Entrappers, Chambers’ Journal, 23:141, 1855.
COMMONS, JOHN R.: Social and Industrial Problems of Immigration, Chautauquan, 39:13, 1904.
DE BOW’S REVIEW: Sources from which Great Empires Come, 18:698, 1855.
DEVINE, EDWARD T.: The Selection of Immigrants, The Survey, Feb. 4, 1911.
EVERETT, A. H.: Immigration to the United States, North American Review, 40:457, 1835.
GOLDENWEISER, E. A.: Immigrants in Cities, The Survey, Jan. 7, 1911.
HALL, PRESCOTT F.: The Future of American Ideals, North American Review, 195:94, 1912.
HART, A. B.: The Disposition of Our Public Lands, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1:169, 251, 1887.
HAZARD, SAMUEL: Register of Pennsylvania, 1:25; 6:266; 8:31, 27, 33, 54, 88, 108, 116; 11:361, 416; 15:157, 1828–35.
LEE, JOSEPH: Conservation of Yankees, The Survey, Oct. 28, 1911.
Monthly Anthology: Letter from a French Emigrant, 6:383, 1809.
Niles’ Register: 11:359; 13:35, 378; 17:38, 63; 20:193; 22:155, 310; 23:305; 24:113, 411; 25:232; 34:411; 40:74, 130, 273; 41:356; 43:40, 391; 44:131, 233; 45:2; 46:1, 218, 244, 398; 49:62, 69; 52:250, 1816–38.
North American Review: Review of von Fürstenwärther, M., Der Deutsche in Nord-Amerika, 11:1, 1820; Figures of Immigration, 1812–21, 15:301, 304, 1822; Review of Schmidt and Gall on America, 17:91, 1823; Quotations from Hodgson’s Remarks on America, 18:222, 1824.
RIPLEY, WILLIAM Z.: Races in the United States, Atlantic Monthly, 102:745, 1908.
ROSSITER, W. S.: A Common-Sense View of the Immigration Problem, North American Review, 188:360, 1908.
SATO, S.: History of the Land Question in the United States, Johns Hopkins Studies, 4:259, 1886.
SHALER, N. S.: European Peasants as Immigrants, Atlantic Monthly, 71:646, 1893.
TOBENKIN, ELIAS: Immigrant Girl in Chicago, The Survey, Nov. 6, 1909.
WILLIS, H. PARKER: Review of Findings of the Immigration Commission, The Survey, Jan. 7, 1911.
GENERAL MIGRATION
_Books_
BRADLEY, HENRY: The Story of the Goths, 1888.
HODGKIN, THOMAS: Theodoric the Goth, 1891.
JORDANES: The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, English version by Mierow, Charles C., 1908.
KELLER, ALBERT G.: Colonization, 1908.
LEROY-BEAULIEU, PAUL: De la Colonisation chez les Peuples Modernes, 1908.
MERIVALE, HERMAN: Lectures on Colonization, 1861.
VON PFLUGK-HARTTUNG, JULIUS: The Great Migrations, translated by Wright, John Henry, 1905.
_Magazine Articles, etc._
BRYCE, JAMES: Migrations of the Races of Men Considered Historically, Contemporary Review, 62:128, 1892.
MASON, OTIS T.: Migration and the Food Quest, American Anthropologist, 7:275, 1894.
COLONIAL PERIOD
_Books_
Archives of Maryland.
ARMSTRONG, EDWARD: Correspondence between William Penn and James Logan and Others, 1870–72.
BITTINGER, LUCY F.: The Germans in Colonial Times, 1901.
COBB, S. H.: The Story of the Palatines, 1897.
DEXTER, F. B.: Estimates of Population in the American Colonies, 1887.
DIFFENDERFFER, F. R.: The German Immigration into Pennsylvania through the Port of Philadelphia, 1700–75, 1900.
Documents relating to the Colonial History of New York.
FISKE, JOHN: Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, 1897.
GEISER, K. F.: Redemptioners and Indentured Servants in the Colony and Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 1901.
Massachusetts Election Sermons, 1754.
MITTELBERGER, GOTTLIEB: Journey to Pennsylvania in 1750, translated by Eben, C. T., 1898.
New Jersey Archives.
North Carolina Colonial Documents.
Pennsylvania Colonial Records.
PROPER, E. E.: Colonial Immigration Laws, Columbia College Studies, 12:2, 1900.
Rhode Island Colonial Records.
RACIAL STUDIES
_Books_
ANTIN, MARY: The Promised Land, 1912.
BALCH, EMILY G.: Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens, 1910.
BENJAMIN, G. G.: The Germans in Texas, 1909.
BERNHEIMER, CHARLES S.: The Russian Jew in the United States, 1905.
CARO, L.: Auswanderung und Auswanderungspolitik in Österreich, 1909.
COOLIDGE, MARY R.: Chinese Immigration, 1909.
FAIRCHILD, H. P.: Greek Immigration to the United States, 1911.
FAUST, A. B.: The German Element in the United States, 1909.
FLOM, GEORGE T.: Norwegian Immigration into the United States, 1909.
GREEN, S. S.: The Scotch-Irish in America, 1895.
HALE, E. E.: Letters on Irish Immigration, 1852.
HANNA, CHARLES A.: The Scotch-Irish, 1902.
KING, BOLTON, and OKEY, THOMAS: Italy To-day, 1901.
LORD, ELIOT, TRENOR, J. D., and BARROWS, S. J.: The Italian in America, 1905.
MACLEAN, J. P.: Settlements of Scotch Highlanders in America, 1900.
MAGUIRE, J. F.: The Irish in America, 1868.
NELSON, O. N.: History of Scandinavians and Successful Scandinavians in the United States, 1900.
PETERS, MADISON C.: The Jews in America, 1905.
RUBINOW, I. M.: Economic Condition of the Jews in Russia, United States Bureau of Labor, Bulletin No. 72, 1907.
SEWARD, GEORGE F.: Chinese Immigration, 1881.
SPARKS, E. E.: The Chinese Question, in National Development, 1877–85, p. 229, 1907.
_Magazine Articles, etc._
ABBOTT, GRACE: The Bulgarians of Chicago, Charities, 21:653, 1909.
BODIO, L.: Dell’ Emigrazione Italiana, Nuova Antologia, 183:529, 1902.
EVERETT, E.: German Immigration to the United States, North American Review, 11:1, 1820.
HOUGHTON, LOUISE S.: Syrians in the United States, The Survey, July 1, Aug. 5, Sept. 2, Oct. 7, 1911; The above criticised, The Survey, Oct. 28, 1911.
MANGANO, ANTONIO: The Effect of Emigration Upon Italy, Charities and the Commons, Jan. 4, Feb. 1, April 4, May 2, June 6, 1908.
MILLIS, H. A.: East Indian Immigration to British Columbia and the Pacific Coast States, American Economic Review, 1:72, 1911.
North American Review: The Irish in America, 52:191, 1841.
RUBINOW, I. M.: The Jews in Russia, Yale Review, 15:147, 1906.
INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
_Books_
ADAMS, T. S., and SUMNER, H. L.: Labor Problems, 1905.
DEWEES, F. P.: The Molly Maguires, 1877.
HOURWICH, ISAAC A.: Immigration and Labor, 1912.
STEWART, ETHELBERT: Influence of Trade Unions on Immigrants, In LaFollette, R. M., The Making of America, Vol. 8, p. 226, 1906.
WARNE, F. J.: The Slav Invasion and the Mine Workers, 1904.
_Magazine Articles, etc._
All the Year Round: Molly Maguire in America, New Series, 17:270, 1876.
BAILEY, W. B.: The Bird of Passage, American Journal of Sociology, 18:391, 1912.
CANCE, ALEXANDER E.: Immigrant Rural Communities, The Survey, Jan. 7, 1911; Jewish Immigrants as Tobacco Growers and Dairymen, The Survey, Nov. 4, 1911; Piedmontese on the Mississippi, The Survey, Sept. 2, 1911; Slav Farmers on the “Abandoned-Farm” Area of Connecticut, The Survey, Oct. 7, 1911.
CHUTE, CHARLES L.: The Cost of the Cranberry Sauce, The Survey, Dec. 2, 1911.
DARLINGTON, THOMAS: Medico-Economic Aspect of the Immigration Problem, North American Review, 183:1262, 1906.
HOLCOMBE, A. N.: Minimum Wage Boards, The Survey, April 1, 1911.
KELLOGG, PAUL U.: An Immigrant Labor Tariff, The Survey, Jan. 7, 1911; The above criticised, The Survey, Feb. 4, 1911.
LAUCK, W. JETT: Industrial Communities, The Survey, Jan. 1, 1911.
LOVEJOY, OWEN R.: Cost of the Cranberry Sauce, The Survey, Jan. 1, 1911.
Political Science Quarterly: Levasseur’s American Workman, 13:321, 1898.
RHODES, J. F.: The Molly Maguires in the Anthracite Region of Pennsylvania, American Historical Review, 15:547, 1910.
RIPLEY, WILLIAM Z.: Race Factors in Labor Unions, Atlantic Monthly, 93:299, 1904.
ROBERTS, PETER: The Foreigner and His Savings, Charities, 21:757, 1909.
SPEARE, CHARLES F.: What America Pays Europe for Immigrant Labor, North American Review, 187:106, 1908.
POLITICAL RELATIONS
_Books_
FRANKLIN, FRANK G.: The Legislative History of Naturalization in the United States, 1906.
United States Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization: Naturalization Laws, 1911.
_Magazine Articles, etc._
MCMASTER, J. B.: The Riotous Career of the Know-Nothings, Forum, 17:524, 1894.
RELIGIOUS RELATIONS
_Books_
United States Bureau of the Census: Religious Bodies, 1906.
_Magazine Articles, etc._
COUDERT, FREDERIC R.: The American Protective Association, Forum, 17:513, 1894.
GLADDEN, W.: The Anti-Catholic Crusade, Century, 25:789, 1894.
WHITE, GAYLORD S.: The Protestant Church and the Immigrant, The Survey, Sept. 25, 1909.
WINSTON, E. M.: The Threatening Conflict with Romanism, Forum, 17:425, 1894.
SOCIAL RELATIONS
_Books_
ARONOVICI, CAROL: Some Nativity and Race Factors in Rhode Island, 1910.
BINGHAM, T. A.: The Girl that Disappears, 1911.
BONAR, J.: Malthus and His Work, 1885.
BOURNE, S.: Trade, Population, and Food, 1880.
United States Bureau of the Census; Insane and Feeble-Minded in Hospitals and Institutions, 1906; Paupers in Almshouses, 1904; Prisoners and Juvenile Delinquents in Institutions, 1907.
WHITE, ARNOLD: The Destitute Alien in Great Britain, 1892.
_Magazine Articles, etc._
BINGHAM, T. A.: Foreign Criminals in New York, North American Review, 188:383, 1908.
BUSHEE, F. A.: The Declining Birth Rate and Its Cause, Popular Science Monthly, 63:355, 1903.
CLAGHORN, K. H.: Immigration and Dependence, Charities, 12:151, 1904; Immigration in its Relation to Pauperism, Annals American Academy of Political Science, 24:187, 1904.
COMMONS, JOHN R.: City Life, Crime, and Poverty, Chautauquan, 38:118, 1903.
DAVENPORT, CHARLES B.: The Origin and Control of Mental Defectiveness, Popular Science Monthly, 80:87, 1912.
DUNRAVEN, EARL OF: The Invasion of Destitute Aliens, Nineteenth Century, 31:985, 1892.
FAIRCHILD, H. P.: Distribution of Immigrants, Yale Review, 16:296, 1907.
FISHER, S. G.: Alien Degradation of American Character, Forum, 14:608, 1893; Has Immigration Increased the Population? Popular Science Monthly, 48:244, 1895.
HART, H. H.: Immigration and Crime, American Journal of Sociology, 2:369, 1896.
HUNTER, ROBERT: Immigration the Annihilator of our Native Stock, The Commons, 9:114, 1904.
Monthly Chronicle: Pauperism in Massachusetts, 3:564, 1842.
PATTEN, S. N.: A New Statement of the Law of Population, Political Science Quarterly, 10:44, 1895.
ROSS, E. A.: Western Civilization and the Birth Rate, American Journal of Sociology, 12:607, 1907.
ROSSITER, W. S.: The Diminishing Increase of Population, Atlantic Monthly, 102:212, 1908.
ROUND, WILLIAM M. F.: Immigration and Crime, Forum, 8:428, 1889.
TUKE, J. W.: State Aid to Immigrants, Nineteenth Century, 17:280, 1885.
WHITE, ARNOLD: The Invasion of Pauper Foreigners, Nineteenth Century, 23:414, 1888.
WILLCOX, W. F.: The Distribution of Immigrants in the United States, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 20:523, 1906.
STANDARD OF LIVING
_Books_
CHAPIN, ROBERT C.: The Standard of Living Among Workingmen’s Families in New York City, 1909.
STREIGHTOFF, FRANK H.: The Standard of Living Among the Industrial People of America, 1911.
_Magazine Articles, etc._
ALMY, FREDERIC: The Huddled Poles of Buffalo, The Survey, Feb. 4, 1911.
BRECKENRIDGE, SOPHONISBA, and ABBOTT, EDITH: Housing Conditions in Chicago, American Journal of Sociology, 16:289, 433; 17:1, 145, 1910–11.
CHAPIN, ROBERT C.: Living Costs: A World Problem, The Survey, Feb. 3, 1912.
HUNT, MILTON B.: The Housing of Nonfamily Groups of Men in Chicago, American Journal of Sociology, 16:145, 1910.
MARK, MARY L.: The Upper East Side: A Study in Living Conditions and Migration, American Statistical Association, 10:345, 1907.
THOMPSON, CARL D.: Socialists and Slums, Milwaukee, The Survey, Dec. 3, 1910.
WARD, ROBERT DE C.: Congestion and Immigration, The Survey, Sept. 9, 1911.
SHIPPING CONDITIONS
_Magazine Articles, etc._
All the Year Round: Aboard an Emigrant Ship, 7:111, 1862.
Chambers’ Journal: Emigrant Ship _Washington_, 16:27, 1851; Trip in an Emigrant Ship, etc., 1:228, 262, 302, 1844.
Living Age: Scenes in Emigrant Ships, 26:492, 1850.
United States Senate Reports: Sickness and Mortality on Board Emigrant Ships, 33d Congress, 1st Session, Committee Report No. 386, 1853–54.
INDEX
Advertising, 153.
Age distribution of immigrants, 194–196, 316.
Agents, 132, 148–160.
Agriculture, 59, 72, 263.
Alaric, 13.
Alexander the Great, 15.
Alien Bill, 57.
Almshouses, paupers in, 312, 318, 319, 320.
American Protective Association, 294.
American type, 51, 147, 399, 408.
Americanization. See Assimilation.
Ancient Order of Hibernians, 95.
Appeals, 111, 114, 116, 185.
Argentina, 22, 27, 137.
Arguments concerning immigration, 388–415.
Assimilation, 51, 58, 69, 103, 130, 194, 196, 199, 202, 231, 257, 327, 369, 375, 397–415.
Assimilation argument, 397.
Assisted immigration, 159.
Association, 409.
Attitude toward immigrants, of colonists, 38, 41, 43, 45, 46; of American people, 54, 65, 88, 99, 164. See also Race prejudice.
Australia, 22, 24, 27.
Austria-Hungary, 128, 134–136.
Austro-American Company, 171.
Avars, 14.
Bellevue and Allied Hospitals, 321, 339.
Berths, 175.
Biological argument, 390, 397.
Birds of passage, 126, 359.
Birth rate, European, 420; foreign-born, 222, 225, 298, 377; native, 215–218, 375.
Births, 298.
Black Hand, 334.
Boarders, 239, 242, 243–246, 253, 262.
Bohemians, 73.
Bonding shipowners, 41, 45, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80.
Boot-blacking. See Shoe-shining.
Boston, 282.
Brutality at immigrant stations, 186.
Buffalo, 239.
Bulgaria, 142.
Cabin passengers, 183.
California, 99.
Canada, 22, 27, 79, 81, 133, 168; aliens arriving in, 121.
Canals, 62, 63.
Carolina colonies, 35.
Castle Garden, 80, 91.
Causes of immigration, 34, 131, 144; from Austria-Hungary, 134; Bulgaria, 142; China, 98; Germany, 72; Ireland, 73; Italy, 136; Russia, 139; Scandinavia, 93.
Causes of migration, 3, 5.
Certificate of citizenship, 365.
Chain-letter system, 156–157.
Charitable organizations, 312, 328, 413.
Charity organization societies, 313, 318, 322, 326.
Chicago, 278.
Children, occupations of, 266.
China, 17.
Chinese, 98–105.
Cities, growth of, 374.
Civil War, 86, 90.
Cleanliness, 242, 247.
Climatic changes, 14.
Clothing of immigrants, 256–257.
Colonies classified, 17.
Colonists, 29.
Colonization, 16, 28.
Commissioner General of Immigration, 113, 114.
Commissioners of Emigration in New York, 76, 79.
Company houses, 254.
Conditions. See separate headings, _i.e._ Housing, Sex, Wages, etc.
Congestion, 228–231, 236–242.
Conjugal conditions of immigrants, 201–202.
Conquest, 14.
Conservation, 382, 394.
Contract labor laws, 90, 108, 111, 153–154, 279.
Contract labor system, 277–280.
Control-stations, German, 173.
Convicts, imported. See Criminals, imported.
Coöperative housekeeping, 247.
Crime, 328–338.
Crime argument, 395.
Criminals, imported, 43, 44, 48, 56, 67.
Crises, 123, 347–361.
Deaths, 298.
Debarred aliens, 207–211, 336.
Declaration of intention, 364.
Density of population, 228, 375.
Departing aliens, 116, 124–128, 347, 351.
Department of Commerce and Labor created, 114.
Department of Labor, 118.
Depopulation, 424, 426.
Deportation, 57, 102, 109, 112, 114, 118, 337.
Destination of immigrants, 206–207.
Destitution, 40, 317. See also Pauperism.
Discharging, 290.
Discoveries Period, 27.
Disease, 86, 209–211.
Displacement, 133, 235, 342.
Dissatisfaction, as a cause, of immigration, 133, 145, 148; of migration, 4.
Distribution argument, 394, 435.
Distribution of immigrants, 207, 226–232.
Early population movements, 1.
East Indians, 168.
Economic argument, 391.
Economic competition, 50, 57, 69, 105, 222, 302, 342.
Economic conditions of immigrants in colonial period, 40; in modern period, 204–206.
Economic nature of immigration, 145, 341, 363, 428.
Economics, practical, 433.
Effects of immigration. See separate headings, _i.e._ Housing, Standard of Living, Wages, etc. See also Arguments.
Effects of migration, 8.
Ellis Island, 183–185.
Embargo, 59.
Embarkation, conditions at port of, 169.
Emigrant aliens, defined, 125. See also Departing aliens.
Encouragement of immigration, 55, 60, 62, 87, 90, 383, 389; forbidden, 110.
England, colonists from, 32.
English, 401.
English language, ability to speak, 267, 272, 327, 365, 401.
Environment, 406.
Europe, 14, 17, 167, 417.
Examination in Europe, 171.
Excluded classes, 76, 78, 105, 107, 110, 113, 115.
Exclusion. See Debarred aliens.
Exclusion of Chinese, 102, 113.
Exploitation, of immigrants, 79, 274–289, 291; of resources, 382, 391–392.
Family incomes, 261.
Famine, Irish, 72, 421.
Farm colonies, 17, 22.
Farms, 210, 211.
Federal laws, 61, 82, 87, 90, 102, 105, 106–120, 386.
Feeble-mindedness, 339.
Food, of immigrants in the United States, 254–256; on shipboard, 83, 176–179.
Foreign-American societies, 405.
Foreign-born population, number and race, 214.
Foreign missions, 296, 401.
Fraud in naturalization, 367.
French, 71.
Gains of immigrants, 428–430.
Germans, 33, 71, 84, 92.
Germany. See Germans.
Goths, 11.
Greece, 17, 422, 426.
Greek Orthodox Church, 141.
Greeks, 150, 157, 159, 275, 333.
Gresham’s Law, 342.
Haida Indians, 3.
Hamburg-American emigrant village, 170.
Head forms, 407.
Head tax, 42, 74, 76, 77, 78, 107, 113, 115.
Hebrews. See Jews.
Heredity, 406.
Hindus. See East Indians.
Historical analogies, 414.
History of immigration, 27.
Hospitals, 43; private, 80. See also Bellevue and Allied Hospitals.
Housing conditions, 234–254.
Huguenots, 24, 33.
Humanity, point of view of, 431.
Huns, 14.
Illegal entrance argument, 396.
Illiteracy, 197–201, 325.
Imitation, 409.
Immigrant Aid Societies, 289–293.
Immigrant aliens defined, 125.
Immigrant banks, 283–287.
Immigrant Homes, 289–293.
Immigration Commission authorized, 117.
Immigration defined, 20, 26.
Immorality, in the United States, 292, 335; on shipboard, 87, 179.
Importation of paupers and criminals, 40, 43, 64, 68.
Indented servants, 48.
Indentured servants. See Indented servants.
India, 16.
Indifference, 411.
Indifference argument, 393.
Induced immigration, 93, 132, 148–162, 379, 387.
Industrial depressions, 92, 123, 124, 145.
Insanity, 338.
Inspection of immigrants, in Canada and Mexico, 121; on arrival, 43, 111, 183–188; on embarkation, 170.
Inspectors on shipboard, 182, 434.
Intellectual qualities of immigrants, 197.
Interbreeding, 390, 397.
Interest rates, 353.
Interests, 387.
Intermarriage, 202, 299, 397, 400.
Internal migration, 90, 373.
Invasion, 10.
Ireland, 421. See also Irish.
Irish, 63, 69, 71, 83, 92, 94, 146, 238, 310, 368.
Italians, 238, 240, 241, 334.
Italy, 13, 128, 136, 423–426. See also Italians.
Japanese, 167.
Jews, 8, 23, 139, 238, 241, 288, 296, 362.
Juvenile delinquency, 298, 337.
Know Nothing Party, 85.
Labor. See Wages, Standard of Living, Shortage of Labor, etc.
Labor agents, 153.
Labor conditions, 346.
Labor-saving devices, 344.
_Laissez-faire_, 385.
Land. See Ratio of men to land.
Laws. See Federal laws and State laws.
Liquor, 63, 332.
Literacy, 267.
Literacy test, 197, 199–201.
Living wage, 264–266.
Loan-sharks, 160.
Lodgers. See Boarders.
London Company, 30.
Losses of immigrants, 429.
Lumber camps, 282.
Magyars, 14.
Maine, 282.
Malthusianism, 219–221, 381, 416.
Manifests, 111, 112, 172.
Manufacturing industries, 59, 62, 259, 375.
Marine Hospital, New York, 74, 76.
Marine Hospital Service, officers of, 111, 172, 184.
Marriages, 299.
Maryland colony, 44, 47.
Massachusetts, colony, 31, 37, 46; State, 78.
May Laws, 141.
Mennonites, 33.
Methods of emigration agents, 149.
Migration, defined, 2; forced, 23; intra-state, 24.
Migration, seasonal, 2, 3; causes of, 3, 33; classified, 6; economic, 6, 12; political, 7; social, 7; religious, 7; effects of, 8; routes of, 9.
Milwaukee, 240, 314.
Mining, 94.
Mining communities, 246, 248, 253.
Missionaries, 290, 292.
Molly Maguires, 94–98, 334.
Money brought in, 202–204.
Money sent home, 157, 158–160, 204, 287, 326, 345, 421, 424.
Moors, 23.
Moral dangers, 295.
Mores, 10, 15, 16, 403.
Mortgages, 150, 160, 278.
Motives of migration, 5.
Native American Party, 70, 81.
Naturalization, 58, 70, 85, 101, 114, 115, 272, 363, 364–368.
New immigration, 128, 250.
New Jersey colony, 32, 35.
New Netherland, 31.
New-type steerage, 180–181.
New York City, 289, 329, 331.
New York, colony, 32, 35, 46; State, 74.
Nonemigrant aliens, 359; defined, 125.
Nonimmigrant aliens, 359; defined, 125.
North Carolina, colony, 44; State, 57.
Notary public, 287.
Numbers argument, 393.
Occupations of immigrants, 204–206, 223.
Old immigration, 128, 249.
Old-type steerage, 174–180.
Open-door policy, 383, 388.
Opposition to immigration, 41, 54, 68, 69, 70, 81, 85, 91, 99, 104. See also Arguments.
Orders in Council, 59.
Overcrowding on shipboard, 44, 61, 82, 87, 180. See also Congestion.
Overpopulation, 6, 12, 14, 16, 136, 138, 383.
Overproduction, 352.
Padrone system, 274–277.
Palatinate, 34.
Palatines, 33, 34.
Panic of 1907, 286, 350.
Parochial schools, 273, 411.
Pauperism, 63, 84, 311–328.
Pauperism argument, 395.
Paupers, imported, 64.
Penal colonies, 24.
Pennsylvania, colony, 32, 33, 36, 39, 41; State, 56, 94.
Peonage system, 280–283.
Persons per room, 237.
Petition for naturalization, 364.
Philanthropy, 413.
Phœnicia, 17.
Physical conditions of immigrants, colonial period, 40; 1820–1860, 64, 81; modern period, 209–211.
Physiological analogy, 398.
Plantation colonies, 18.
Plymouth colony, 31.
Plymouth Company, 30.
Poles, 239, 241.
Politics, 70, 363–368.
Poorhouses, private, 80.
Population, effect of emigration upon, 416–421, 423; effect of immigration upon, 215–225, 341.
Population movements, four forms of, 2.
Potato, 73.
Prepaid tickets, 158, 169, 284, 379.
Presbyterians, 33, 37.
Prices, 137, 302, 307, 352, 422, 425.
Prisoners, 330.
Protection, 289.
Protestantism, 46, 51, 70, 297.
Provisions on shipboard, 61.
Public domain, 372.
Public schools, 252, 270–272, 410.
Quakers, 33, 47.
Quality of immigrants, 377–380, 395, 419.
Race prejudice, 39, 99, 103, 297, 362, 397, 411.
Racial composition, 128–131, 189, 369.
Railroads, 62, 63.
Ratio of men to land, 6, 21, 38, 88, 146, 303, 370–373, 381.
Recreations, 299.
Redemptioners, 48.
Reformation, Protestant, 33, 34.
Regulation, 386.
Religion, 293–298.
Remedies, 434–436.
Remittances. See Money sent home.
Responsibility of the United States, 382, 387, 432–436.
Restriction, 42, 393, 394, 436.
Retardation, 272.
Returned emigrants, 157–158, 422, 424, 426.
Revolution of 1848, 72.
Rhode Island colony, 47.
Roman Catholicism, 34, 47, 70, 85, 293.
Roman Empire, 12.
Rome, 13, 15, 17.
Rooms per apartment, 236.
Routes of migration, 9.
Runners, 79. See also Agents.
Russia, 22, 128, 139.
Sanitary provisions on shipboard, 176; on land, see Housing conditions.
Savings, 284, 323, 345, 357.
Scandinavians, 93.
Schools, 269–273. See also Parochial schools and Public schools.
Scotch-Irish, 33, 36.
Second generation, 403.
Sentimental argument, 388.
Sex distribution of immigrants, 190–194, 317, 419.
Ship fever, 84.
Shipping, 59, 84, 91, 131.
Shipping conditions, 59, 63, 81. See also Voyage.
Shoe-shining industry, 275–277, 282.
Shortage of labor, 344, 357.
Skye, Isle of, 419.
Slavery, 19, 24, 30, 164.
Slums, 234, 242, 251, 403.
Social argument, 390.
Social stratification, 361.
Sociology, applied, 384, 387, 433.
Sources of immigration, 167, 419.
South Africa, 22, 27.
Special inquiry, boards of, 113, 114, 185.
Standard of living, 221, supposed to be 224–273, 303–310, 417.
Standard of living argument, 394.
Standpoints, 385, 388.
State laws, 74–81, 104.
Statistics of immigration, authorized, 62.
Steerage conditions, 86, 174–182.
Steerage legislation, 82, 87, 118–120.
Steerage rates, 148, 181.
Stimulated immigration. See Induced immigration.
Stimulation argument, 396.
Stowaways, 121.
Superintendent of Immigration, 111, 113.
Supreme Court decisions, 77.
Sweat shops, 288.
Sweden, colonists from, 31.
Tamerlane. See Timur.
Tariff, 60, 92.
Temporary immigration, 138, 379.
Theodoric, 13.
Timur, 14.
Trachoma, 209, 210, 211.
Trade-unions, 310.
Tradition, 383, 392.
Transit, aliens in, 121, 125–126.
Transportation companies, 148–153, 170, 175, 207.
Treaties with China, 101.
Underconsumption, 352, 357.
Unemployment, 352.
United Hebrew Charities, 323.
United States, 22, 24, 27, 53, 382, 388.
Ventilation, of steerage, 178; of houses, see Housing conditions.
Virginia colony, 30.
Volume of immigration, 1783–1820, 53; 1820–1860, 62, 73, 74; 1860–1882, 92; 1882–1912, 102, 106, 123–128; 1820–1912, 189, 369, 384.
Voyage, 39, 61, 83, 174, 379.
Wages argument, 394.
Wages, in Europe, 422; in Italy, 137, 424; in the United States, 258–264, 301–310, 354.
Wandering, defined, 1, 10.
War of 1812, 59.
Wealth, amount of, 345; distribution of, 346; growth of, 392; love of, 411.
Weekly earnings, 260.
White slavery, 296, 334–337, 365.
Yearly earnings, 261, 276.
Young Men’s Christian Association, 297.
-----
Footnote 1:
Mason, Otis T., “Migration and the Food Quest,” _American Anthropologist_, 7:279.
Footnote 2:
Mason, Otis T., “Migration and the Food Quest,” _American Anthropologist_, 7:275.
Footnote 3:
Professor A. G. Keller brings out this point in his unpublished lectures on Colonization, where the causes of emigration are classified under unsatisfactory conditions of environment, either physical or human. He also emphasizes the strength of the home tie in resisting emigration.
Footnote 4:
Henry George does not appear to recognize this dividing line, but seems to regard an indefinite increase of numbers as bearing with it the possibility of improvement. The opposite view is maintained by Professor Irving Fisher, _Elementary Principles of Economics_, pp. 434 ff.
Footnote 5:
Cf. Bryce, James, “Migrations of the Races of Men Considered Historically,” _Contemporary Review_, 62:128.
Footnote 6:
Bradley, H., _The Story of the Goths_, p. 21. Cf. Von Pflugk-Harttung, J., _The Great Migrations_, p. 110.
Footnote 7:
Bradley, _op. cit._, p. 365. See this work for fuller details of the Gothic invasion. Also Von Pflugk-Harttung, _op. cit._, and Hodgkin, Thomas, _Theodoric the Goth_.
Footnote 8:
Huntington, Ellsworth, _The Pulse of Asia_, pp. 357, 373, 383.
Footnote 9:
Keller, A. G., _Colonization_, Ch. I.
Footnote 10:
Sumner, W. G., _War and Other Essays_, “Sociology.”
Footnote 11:
Well developed, of course, in the sense of culture, not in the exploitation of natural resources.
Footnote 12:
There has not only been much looseness and ambiguity in the use of the word “immigration,” but also an apparent feeling that immigration and emigration are two different things, as is witnessed by the title of one of the standard works on the subject. They are, in fact, only two different ways of looking at the same thing. As so often happens in the social sciences, the student of immigration is under the necessity of taking a word from the common language, and giving it a more restricted and inflexible meaning than either everyday usage or the etymology of the word would warrant.
Footnote 13:
Mayo-Smith, R., _Emigration and Immigration_, p. 36.
Footnote 14:
Cobb, S. H., _The Story of the Palatines_. Cf., also, Faust, A. B., _The German Element in the United States_, Chs. II, III, IV; Bittinger, Lucy F., _The Germans in Colonial Times_, pp. 12–19; Proper, E. E., _Colonial Immigration Laws_, Columbia College Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 40–42.
Footnote 15:
Commons, J. R., _Races and Immigrants in America_, p. 32.
Footnote 16:
Cf., especially, Commons, _op. cit._, pp. 31–38. Also Hanna, Charles A., _The Scotch-Irish_, esp. Vol. II, pp. 172–180; Green, S. S., _The Scotch-Irish in America_; MacLean, J. P., _Settlements of Scotch Highlanders in America_, pp. 40–61.
Footnote 17:
Kapp, F., _Immigration and the Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New York_, p. 21.
Footnote 18:
Pennsylvania Colonial Records, 6:385.
Footnote 19:
Early examples of this practice are furnished by Holland, which in 1655 sent out large numbers of orphan boys and girls from its asylums. The action in this case was less grievous, however, as they were apparently bound out to service for a term of four years, so that they did not at once come on the community. Documents relating to the Colonial History of New York, 14:166, 264, etc.
Footnote 20:
Cf. Proper, E. E., _op. cit._, pp. 19, 20.
Footnote 21:
Diffenderffer, F. R., _German Immigration into Pennsylvania through Philadelphia_, p. 143.
Footnote 22:
Pennsylvania Colonial Records, 2:282 ff.
Footnote 23:
Diffenderffer, _op. cit._, pp. 51–53.
Footnote 24:
_Ibid._, p. 53, quoted from Watson’s _Annals of Philadelphia_, 2:266–7.
Footnote 25:
Proper, _op. cit._, p. 50.
Footnote 26:
The action of the governor in recommending the passage of the act of 1727 is exceptional.
Footnote 27:
Pennsylvania Colonial Records, 4:516.
Footnote 28:
William Penn in his day reckoned the average voyage at between six and nine weeks, though voyages sometimes took four months. Diffenderffer, _op. cit._, pp. 29, 62.
Footnote 29:
North Carolina Colonial Documents, 25:120.
Footnote 30:
Archives of Maryland, 2:540.
Footnote 31:
_Ibid._, 15:36.
Footnote 32:
See, for instance, Archives of Maryland, 13:440 and 19:183.
Footnote 33:
Yet in 1700 Massachusetts passed an elaborate immigration law, requiring shipmasters to furnish lists of their passengers, and prohibiting the introduction of lame, impotent, or infirm persons, or those incapable of maintaining themselves, except on security that the town should not become charged with them. In the absence of this security, shipmasters were compelled to take them back home. This statute was reënacted with amendments from time to time. Proper, _op. cit._, pp. 29, 3.
Footnote 34:
_Commercial Relations of the United States_, 1885–1886, Appendix III, p. 1967.
Footnote 35:
Hall, Prescott F., _Immigration_, p. 4.
Footnote 36:
_Mass. Election Sermons_, 1754, pp. 30, 48.
Footnote 37:
Doc. Col. Hist. of N. Y., 6:60.
Footnote 38:
Proper, E. E., _op. cit._, p. 13.
Footnote 39:
_Ibid._, pp. 25, 63.
Footnote 40:
_Ibid._, p. 36.
Footnote 41:
_Ibid._, pp. 13, 57, 62.
Footnote 42:
Archives of Maryland, 22:497.
Footnote 43:
These terms are used somewhat loosely in the contemporary documents and in modern writings. “Indented servants” is the broader term, including all who signed indentures, or were sold under an indenture, whether they came willingly or under compulsion. “Redemptioners” is sometimes used to refer specifically to those who voluntarily sold themselves. But there is authority for the view that “redemptioner,” strictly speaking, referred to one who came without an indenture, on the expectation of finding some one on this side who would pay for his passage. He was given a period of time after landing to accomplish this. Failing in this, he was to be sold by the captain to the highest bidder. See Geiser, K. F., _Redemptioners and Indentured Servants in the Colony and Commonwealth of Pennsylvania_, Ch. I. But the words are sometimes used interchangeably.
Footnote 44:
Fiske, J., _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, Vol. II, pp. 177 ff.
Footnote 45:
Evans-Gordon, W., _The Alien Immigrant_, pp. 192–193.
Footnote 46:
Hall, P. F., _Immigration_, p. 4.
Footnote 47:
_Encyc. Britannica_, article “United States.”
Footnote 48:
Commons, _op. cit._, p. 27.
Footnote 49:
_Encyc. Britannica_, article “United States.”
Footnote 50:
_American Museum_, 1:206.
Footnote 51:
_Ibid._, 7:233.
Footnote 52:
_Ibid._, 2:213.
Footnote 53:
_American Museum_, 10:114.
Footnote 54:
North Carolina Colonial Documents, 25:120.
Footnote 55:
Jefferson is quoted as having expressed the wish that there were “an ocean of fire between this country and Europe, so that it might be impossible for any more immigrants to come hither.” Hall, P. F., _op. cit._, p. 206.
Footnote 56:
McMaster, J. B., _History of the United States_, Vol. II, p. 332; “The Riotous Career of the Know Nothings,” _Forum_, 17:524; Franklin, Frank G., _Legislative History of Naturalization_.
Footnote 57:
_Monthly Anthology_, Boston, 6:383.
Footnote 58:
_Niles’ Register_, 13:378.
Footnote 59:
McMaster, J. B., _History of the United States_, Vol. V, pp. 121 ff.
Footnote 60:
Hazard’s _Register of Pennsylvania_, 6:266; 11:362, 416; 15:157.
Footnote 61:
Trollope, Mrs. T. A., _Domestic Manners of the Americans_, p. 121.
Footnote 62:
_Niles’ Register_, 24:393.
Footnote 63:
_Ibid._, April 26, 1823.
Footnote 64:
_Ibid._, Aug. 23, 1823; July 21, 1827; Aug. 14, 1830.
Footnote 65:
Executive (House) Documents, 25th Cong., 2d Ses., 370.
Footnote 66:
_Ibid._
Footnote 67:
_Ibid._
Footnote 68:
Executive (House) Doc., 25th Cong., 2d Ses., 370, and House Reports of Committees, 34th Cong., 1st and 2d Ses., 359.
Footnote 69:
Executive (House) Doc., 29th Cong., 2d Ses., 54.
Footnote 70:
Senate Doc., 29th Cong., 2d Ses., 161.
Footnote 71:
As late as 1884–1885 thousands of immigrants were sent from Ireland to the United States and Canada, partly at state expense and partly at the expense of the “Tuke Fund.” Some of these were admittedly paupers. Cf. Tuke, J. H., “State Aid to Emigrants,” _Nineteenth Century_, 17:280.
Footnote 72:
_Knickerbocker_, 7:78.
Footnote 73:
It is said that the natives suspected a deliberate plan on the part of the Catholic powers to destroy the free institutions of America. McMaster, _Forum_, 17:524.
Footnote 74:
Hall, P. F., _op. cit._, p. 207.
Footnote 75:
Franklin, F. G., _op. cit._, p. 247.
Footnote 76:
Report of the Immigration Commission, Federal Immigration Legislation, Abstract, pp. 7, 8.
Footnote 77:
Roscher-Jannasch, _Kolonien, Kolonialpolitik, und Auswanderung_, p. 380.
Footnote 78:
The statistics at this period are confused by changes in the time of ending of the fiscal year, but the above statement corresponds with the figures of the Immigration Commission.
Footnote 79:
Mar. 21, 1823; Rev. Stat., 1827, Ch. XIV, Title IV, Sec. 7; Apr. 18, 1843; May 7, 1844.
Footnote 80:
In 1818 a book was published under the title _Der Deutsche in Nord-Amerika_, by M. von Fürstenwärther. According to a review of this book which appeared in the _North American Review_ for July, 1820, Mr. von Fürstenwärther mentions a New York State law requiring security from ship captains against their immigrant passengers becoming public burdens. This reference does, in fact, occur on page 38 of the book in question, but the present author, after a careful search, has not succeeded in finding any such law on the New York Statutes previous to 1824.
Footnote 81:
7 Howard, 283. Passenger Cases, U. S. Supreme Court, Jan. Term, 1849.
Footnote 82:
Endicott, William C., Jr., _Commercial Relations of the United States_, 1885–1886, pp. 1968 ff.
Footnote 83:
The following passage, quoted from J. T. Maguire’s _The Irish in America_, gives a vivid picture of conditions on the voyage, and of the circumstances that attended landing in Canada. “But a crowded immigrant sailing ship of twenty years since [written in 1868], with fever on board!—the crew sullen or brutal from very desperation, or paralysed with terror of the plague—the miserable passengers unable to help themselves or afford the least relief to each other; one fourth, or one third, or one half of the entire number in different stages of the disease; many dying, some dead; the fatal poison intensified by the indescribable foulness of the air breathed and rebreathed by the gasping sufferers—the wails of children, the raving of the delirious, the cries and groans of those in mortal agony!” The only provision for the reception of these sufferers at Grosse Isle, where many of them were landed, consisted of sheds which had stood there since 1832. “These sheds were rapidly filled with the miserable people, the sick and the dying, and round their walls lay groups of half-naked men, women and children, in the same condition—sick or dying. Hundreds were literally flung on the beach, left amid the mud and stones, to crawl on the dry land how they could. ‘I have seen,’ says the priest who was chaplain of the quarantine, ... ‘I have one day seen thirty-seven people lying on the beach, crawling on the mud, and dying like fish out of water.’ Many of these, and many more besides, gasped out their last breath on that fatal shore, not able to drag themselves from the slime in which they lay.” As many as 150 bodies, mostly half naked, were piled up in the dead-house at a time. (pp. 135, 136.) The moral evils and dangers were said to be even worse than the physical.
Footnote 84:
For accounts of the activities at Castle Garden, and of the operations of the runners, see Kapp, Friedrich, _Immigration and the Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New York_; _Chambers’ Journal_, 23:141, “Emigrant Entrappers”; Bagger, L., “A Day in Castle Garden,” _Harper’s Monthly_, 42:547.
Footnote 85:
Maguire, _op. cit._, pp. 185–187.
Footnote 86:
See Mr. Maguire’s description, footnote, p. 79.
Footnote 87:
_Congressional Globe_, Feb. 1, 1847, p. 304.
Footnote 88:
Hale, E. E., _Letters on Irish Immigration_.
Footnote 89:
Most of these details are taken from E. E. Hale’s interesting _Letters on Irish Immigration_, written in 1851–1852.
Footnote 90:
_Congressional Globe_, 33d Cong., 2d Ses., p. 391.
Footnote 91:
Its real name was “The Supreme Order of the Star Spangled Banner.” There appears to be some difference of opinion as to the exact date of organization. It began to attract public attention about 1852. See Hall, _op. cit._, p. 207; Jenks and Lauck, _The Immigration Problem_, p. 297; Rept. Imm. Com., Federal Immigration Legislation, Abs., p. 8; McMaster, J. B., “The Riotous Career of the Know Nothings,” _Forum_, 17:524.
Footnote 92:
Rept. Imm. Com., Federal Immigration Legislation, Abs., pp. 8–10.
Footnote 93:
Rept. Imm. Com., Steerage Legislation, Abs., p. 11.
Footnote 94:
Rept. Imm. Com., Steer. Legis., Abs., pp. 12, 13.
Footnote 95:
Rept. Imm. Com., Steer. Legis., Abs., p. 13.
Footnote 96:
See Flom, George T., _Norwegian Immigration into the United States_, and _Chapters on Scandinavian Immigration to Iowa_; also, Nelson, O. N., _History of the Scandinavians and Successful Scandinavians in the United States_.
Footnote 97:
Commons, J. R., _op. cit._, p. 129.
Footnote 98:
Dewees, F. P., _The Molly Maguires_; Rhodes, J. F., _The Molly Maguires in the Anthracite Region of Pennsylvania_; _Encyc. Britannica_, article “Molly Maguires.”
Footnote 99:
Coolidge, Mary R., _Chinese Immigration_, pp. 16, 17.
Footnote 100:
Coolidge, M. R., _op. cit._, p. 107.
Footnote 101:
Professor Taussig justifies the exclusion of the Chinese on the ground that “a permanent group of helots is not a healthy constituent in a democratic society,” _Principles of Economics_, Vol. II, p. 140.
Footnote 102:
The subject of Chinese immigration has been treated thus summarily because of the large amount of reliable material which is easily available on the question. It has been treated as a whole, rather than divided among the different periods, because in fact it has been a distinct phase of our immigration problem; only since 1900 has the administration of the Chinese exclusion law been a part of the duties of the Commissioner General of Immigration. Foremost among the books on the topic is Mrs. Coolidge’s work, already quoted. A defense of the Chinese written in the heat of the controversy is George F. Seward’s _Chinese Immigration_. Interesting chapters on the topic are to be found in Mayo-Smith, and Hall, and frequent references in Jenks and Lauck, and Commons. Cf. also Sparks, E. E., _National Development_, 1877–1885, pp. 229–250.
Footnote 103:
Mason, A. B., “An American View of Emigration,” _Fortnightly Review_, 22:273.
Footnote 104:
“Deportation” must be carefully distinguished from “exclusion,” “debarment,” or “returning.” When either of the last three terms is used, it implies that the immigrant is never allowed to land in the country. The first term is applicable when the immigrant has landed in this country, and some time after, in accordance with some provision of the law, is sent back to the country from which he came.
This is the first provision for deportation in the federal laws, except the temporary provision of the Alien Bill. As early as 1837 the common council of New York City passed a resolution, authorizing the commissioners of the almshouse to send back to their native country such alien paupers as were, or were likely to become, paupers at the establishment at Bellevue or elsewhere, provided the pauper in question gave his consent. (Executive (House) Documents, 25th Cong., 2d Ses., 370, pp. 16–18.) It is amusing to note that at that period our right to send back alien paupers,—even though they had been officially transported to this country,—after they had once been admitted, was seriously questioned by foreign powers.
Footnote 105:
By an administrative rule of the department any alien, who is a lawful resident of the United States and becomes a public charge from physical disability arising subsequent to his landing, may, with his consent, and the approval of the bureau, be deported within one year at government expense.
Footnote 106:
See page 118.
Footnote 107:
Rept. Imm. Com., Steer. Legis., Abs., p. 14.
Footnote 108:
The figures since 1858 have been for the fiscal year ending June 30.
Footnote 109:
For a fuller discussion of this class see the discussion of crises, p. 359.
Footnote 110:
As, for instance, in the study of the effects of crises (see pp. 347–361).
Footnote 111:
Rept. Imm. Com., Emigration Conditions in Europe, Abs., p. 9.
Footnote 112:
Rept. Imm. Com., The Immigration Situation in Canada, p. 15.
Footnote 113:
Commons, J. R., _op. cit._, pp. 79 ff.
Footnote 114:
Balch, Emily G., _Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens_, p. 29.
Footnote 115:
For a detailed account of Slavic immigration, the reader is referred to Miss Emily G. Balch’s monumental work, _Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens_.
Footnote 116:
Commons, J. R., _op. cit._, p. 73. For fuller figures see King, B., and Okey, T., _Italy To-day_, p. 126.
Footnote 117:
Cf. _Americans in Process_, p. 46.
Footnote 118:
Bodio, Luigi, “Dell’ Emigrazione Italiana,” _Nuova Antologia_, 183:529.
Footnote 119:
Commons, J. R., _op. cit._, p. 92. Cf. _Americans in Process_, p. 48; Rubinow, I. M., “The Jews in Russia,” _Yale Review_, August, 1906, p. 147; Antin, Mary, _The Promised Land_; Evans-Gordon, _The Alien Immigrant_, Chs. IV, V.
Footnote 120:
Marsh, Benjamin C., _Charities_, XXI:15, p. 649.
Footnote 121:
The instances given by Mrs. Houghton of economic causes of immigration are mainly of this temporary nature, though not all trifling. See Houghton, Louise S., “Syrians in the United States,” _Survey_, July 1, 1911, p. 482.
Footnote 122:
Rept. Imm. Com., Steer. Cond., p. 8.
Footnote 123:
Caro, L., _Auswanderung und Auswanderungspolitik in Österreich_, pp. 59–71.
Footnote 124:
Mayo-Smith, R., _Emigration and Immigration_, p. 46.
Footnote 125:
Rept. Imm. Com., Brief Statement of Conclusions and Recommendations, p. 17.
Footnote 126:
Rept. Imm. Com., Contract Labor, etc., Abs., p. 12.
Footnote 127:
Canoutas, S. G., _Greek-American Guide_, 1909, p. 39.
Footnote 128:
These prepaid tickets are commonly orders, to be exchanged by the traveler, in Europe, for the actual certificate of transportation. Cf. Rept. N. Y. Com. of Imm., pp. 38 ff.
Footnote 129:
See pp. 192, 194.
Footnote 130:
See Whelpley, Jas. D., _The Problem of the Immigrant_, p. 3.
Footnote 131:
Report, 1910, p. 116.
Footnote 132:
Quoted from the author’s book, _Greek Immigration_, pp. 236–237. Cf. Cooke-Taylor, W., _The Modern Factory System_, p. 419.
Footnote 133:
Rept. Imm. Com., Japanese and Other Immigrant Races, etc., Abs., p. 46.
Footnote 134:
Under authority conferred by Section 1 of the Immigration Law of 1907.
Footnote 135:
Millis, H. A., “East Indian Immigration to British Columbia and the Pacific Coast States,” _Am. Econ. Rev._, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 72. Rept. Comm. Gen. of Imm., 1910, p. 148.
Footnote 136:
For a picturesque description of “The Beginning of the Trail” the reader is referred to the first chapter of Professor Steiner’s fascinating book, _On the Trail of the Immigrant_.
Footnote 137:
Clapp, Edwin J., _The Port of Hamburg_, pp. 667–688; Evans-Gordon, _op. cit._, Ch. XIII.
Footnote 138:
Rept. Com. Gen. of Imm., 1910, p. 118.
Footnote 139:
Rept. Imm. Com., Emig. Cond. in Eur., Abs., p. 37.
Footnote 140:
_Ibid._, p. 38.
Footnote 141:
For a fuller description of the system of medical examination, see the Report of the Immigration Commission, Emig. Cond. in Eur., Abs., pp. 35 ff., from which many of the above facts are taken.
Footnote 142:
See p. 149.
Footnote 143:
For fuller accounts of the steerage and life therein, see Rept. Imm. Com., Steerage Conditions; Steiner, E. A., _On the Trail of the Immigrant_; Brandenburg, B., _Imported Americans_, Chs. III, XIV, XV.
Footnote 144:
Rept. Com. Gen. of Imm., 1910, p. 135.
Footnote 145:
Cf. Brandenburg, B., _Imported Americans_, Chs. XVII and XVIII.
Footnote 146:
See an editorial in the _New York Evening Journal_, May 24, 1911.
Footnote 147:
Brandenburg, _op. cit._, p. 214.
Footnote 148:
Rept. Com. Gen. of Imm., 1907, p. 77.
Footnote 149:
Rept. Imm. Com., Statistical Review, Abs., p. 17, and Rept. Comr. Gen. of Imm., 1912, pp. 68, 129. The figures of the Commission do not tally in all respects with those given in the annual Reports.
Footnote 150:
Figures for Italy, unless otherwise specified, include Sicily and Sardinia.
Footnote 151:
Rept. Imm. Com., Emig. Cond. in Eur., Abs., p. 9.
Footnote 152:
_Ibid._, Stat. Rev., Abs., p. 11.
Footnote 153:
See page 128.
Footnote 154:
Rept. Imm. Com., Stat. Rev., Abs., pp. 9, 10, 11.
Footnote 155:
Repts. Comr. Gen. of Imm., 1911, 1912.
Footnote 156:
Rept. Imm. Com., Emig. Cond. in Eur., Abs., p. 13.
Footnote 157:
See page 247.
Footnote 158:
Rept. Imm. Com., Brief Statement, p. 39.
Footnote 159:
_Ibid._, Emig. Cond. in Eur., Abs., p. 14.
Footnote 160:
See page 341.
Footnote 163:
The per cent of illiteracy in the general population of the United States, ten years of age or over, is 10.7.
Footnote 164:
Claghorn, Kate H., “The Immigration Bill,” _The Survey_, Feb. 8, 1913.
Footnote 165:
Rept. Imm. Com., Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining, Abs., p. 165.
Footnote 168:
Mayo-Smith, R., _Emigration and Immigration_, pp. 104 ff.
Footnote 169:
Rept. Imm. Com., Emig. Cond. in Eur., Abs., p. 20.
Footnote 170:
Rept. Imm. Com., Immigrant Banks, p. 69.
Footnote 173:
_Races and Immigrants in America_, pp. 124–125.
Footnote 174:
For detailed figures of occupation by races see Rept. Imm. Com., Stat. Rev., Abs., pp. 52, 53.
Footnote 176:
See Brandenburg, B., “The Tragedy of the Rejected Immigrant,” _Outlook_, Oct. 13, 1906.
Footnote 177:
Stoner, Dr. George W., _Immigration—The Medical Treatment of Immigrants_, etc., p. 10.
Footnote 178:
There is also a flourishing business of this sort in Liverpool, Marseilles, etc. Rept. Commissioner General of Immigration, 1905, pp. 50 ff.
Footnote 180:
Quoted by Prescott F. Hall, _Immigration_, p. 107. See also Walker, F. A., “The Restriction of Immigration,” _Atlantic Monthly_, 77:822.
Footnote 181:
Bushee, F. A., “The Declining Birth Rate and Its Cause,” _Pop. Sci. Month._, 63:355.
Footnote 182:
Hunter, Robert, “Immigration the Annihilator of our Native Stock,” _The Commons_, April, 1904.
Footnote 183:
For a statement of the importance of the growth of cities, as opposed to immigration, in affecting the birth rate, see Goldenweiser, E. A., “Walker’s Theory of Immigration,” _Am. Jour. of Soc._, 18:342.
Footnote 184:
See page 217.
Footnote 185:
See review of Levasseur’s “American Workman,” _Pol. Sci. Quart._, 13:321.
Footnote 186:
See page 145.
Footnote 187:
See Report of Committee on Standard of Living, 8th N. Y. State Conference of Charities and Corrections, Albany, 1907, p. 20. Also Van Vorst, Mrs. John, _The Cry of the Children_, p. 213.
Footnote 188:
Bailey, W. B., _Modern Social Conditions_, p. 104, and Gonnard, René, _L’Émigration européenne au XIXe siècle_, p. 120.
Footnote 189:
For discussions of the sensitiveness of the marriage rate to economic conditions, see Schooling, J. Holt, “The English Marriage Rate,” _Fortnightly Review_, 75:959; Willcox, W. F., “Marriage Rate in Michigan, 1870–1890,” _Quart. Publ. Amer. Stat. Assn._, 4:1; and Crum, F. S., “The Marriage Rate in Massachusetts,” _Quart. Publ. Amer. Stat. Assn._, 4:322.
Footnote 190:
See page 191.
Footnote 191:
_Christianity and the Social Crisis_, p. 273.
Footnote 192:
Cf. Commons, J. R., _op. cit._, pp. 203–204.
Footnote 193:
See page 207.
Footnote 195:
See page 207.
Footnote 197:
Abstract, Thirteenth Census, p. 197.
Footnote 198:
For a full statement of opposite opinions on this subject, see Willcox, W. F., “The Distribution of Immigrants in the United States,” _Quart. Jour. of Econ._, August, 1906; and Fairchild, H. P., “Distribution of Immigrants,” _Yale Review_, November, 1907.
Footnote 199:
Cf. Balch, Emily G., _Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens_, pp. 317–319; and Addams, Jane, _Newer Ideals of Peace_, pp. 65–68.
Footnote 200:
Quotations are from the abstract of that report.
Footnote 201:
Lord, Trenor, and Barrows, _Italians in America_, p. 70; Bushee, F. A., _Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston_, p. 29.
Footnote 202:
Lord, Trenor, and Barrows, _op. cit._, p. 72.
Footnote 203:
Bushee, _op. cit._, p. 30.
Footnote 204:
Almy, Frederic, “The Huddled Poles of Buffalo,” _The Survey_, Feb. 4, 1911.
Footnote 205:
Thompson, Carl D., “Socialists and Slums,” Milwaukee, _The Survey_, Dec. 3, 1910. Cf. Byington, Margaret F., _Homestead_, pp. 131–136.
Footnote 206:
Cf. description of conditions in a manufacturing town, Fitch, John A., Lackawanna, _The Survey_, Oct. 7, 1911, p. 936.
Footnote 207:
Balch, Emily G., _Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens_, p. 349.
Footnote 208:
For convenience’ sake, the term “boarder” will hereafter be used in the place of the clumsy phrase “boarders and lodgers.”
Footnote 211:
Balch, _op. cit._, p. 349.
Footnote 212:
Lauck, W. Jett, “The Bituminous Coal Miner and Coke Worker of Western Pennsylvania,” _The Survey_, April 1, 1911. Cf. also Roberts, Peter, _Anthracite Coal Communities_, p. 137.
Footnote 213:
Warne, F. J., _The Slav Invasion_, p. 68. Cf. Hunt, Milton B., “The Housing of Non-Family Groups of Men in Chicago,” _Am. Jour. of Soc._, 16:145.
Footnote 214:
See, for instance, Riis, Jacob, _How the Other Half Lives_; Breckenridge, Sophonisba, and Abbott, Edith, “Housing Conditions in Chicago,” _Am. Jour. of Soc._, 16:4 and 17:1, 2; “The Housing Awakening,” series in _The Survey_, beginning Nov. 19, 1910.
Footnote 215:
_The Survey_, Feb. 4, 1911, p. 771.
Footnote 216:
Roberts, _op. cit._, p. 143.
Footnote 217:
For full descriptions of life in mining and manufacturing villages, see Roberts, _op. cit._, Chs. IV and V; Lauck, W. Jett, _The Survey_, Apr. 1, 1911; Fitch, John A., _The Survey_, Oct. 7, 1911; Balch, _op. cit._, pp. 372–375; Warne, _op. cit._, Ch. VI. For an account of the life of some of our foreign agriculturists, see Cance, Alexander E., “Piedmontese on the Mississippi,” _The Survey_, Sept. 2, 1911; Lord, Trenor, and Barrows, _op. cit._, Ch. VI; Balch, _op. cit._, Ch. XV.
Footnote 218:
Cf. Balch, _op. cit._, pp. 363–364; Lauck, _The Survey_, Apr. 1, 1911, p. 48; Roberts, _op. cit._, pp. 103 ff.; Bushee, _op. cit._, p. 29; Rept. Imm. Com., Recent Imms. in Agr., Abs., p. 59; _Americans in Process_, p. 141.
Footnote 219:
Cf. Streightoff, F. H., _Standard of Living_, Ch. VI.
Footnote 220:
_Ibid._, p. 106.
Footnote 221:
_Americans in Process_, pp. 142–143.
Footnote 222:
Conditioned, of course, by the general standard of the society.
Footnote 230:
_Ibid._, Imms. in Cities, Abs., p. 44.
Footnote 231:
_Ibid._, Recent Imms. in Agr., Abs., p. 57.
Footnote 232:
Roberts, _op. cit._, p. 346.
Footnote 233:
_Standard of Living_, Ch. IV.
Footnote 234:
Roberts, _op. cit._, p. 346.
Footnote 235:
_The Survey_, Feb. 4, 1911, p. 767.
Footnote 236:
Streightoff, _op. cit._, p. 162.
Footnote 241:
In this investigation pupils are listed by their own nativity, rather than by that of the father.
Footnote 242:
Rept. Imm. Com., Greek Padrone System, pp. 7, 8. For an account of the operation of the system in England, see Wilkins, W. H., _The Alien Invasion_.
Footnote 243:
For a fuller description of the system, and a more detailed account of its crying evils, see Fairchild, H. P., _Greek Immigration_, and Rept. Imm. Com., The Greek Padrone System in the United States.
Footnote 244:
For an illustration of such a contract, see Rept. Imm. Com., Greek Padrone System, Abs., pp. 23–24.
Footnote 245:
Cf. Addams, Jane, _Twenty Years at Hull-House_, p. 221.
Footnote 246:
Rept. Imm. Com., Contract Labor, Abs., p. 12, which compare throughout.
Footnote 247:
Clyatt case, 197 U. S. 207.
Footnote 248:
Cf. Rept. Imm. Com., Peonage, etc.
Footnote 249:
Rept. Imm. Com., Immigrant Banks, p. 35.
Footnote 250:
_Ibid._, p. 35.
Footnote 251:
Rept. Imm. Com., Immigrant Banks, p. 27.
Footnote 252:
_Ibid._, pp. 69, 85, 86.
Footnote 253:
For a full description of the nature, organization, and functions of the immigrant bank, and of efforts which have been made to correct its evils, the reader is referred to the Report of the Immigration Commission on Immigrant Banks, to which reference has been made, and also to the Report of the New York Commission of Immigration. This latter volume also contains an extended discussion of the position of the notary public. Cf. also Roberts, Peter, _The New Immigration_, Ch. XV.
Footnote 254:
Addams, Jane, _Twenty Years at Hull-House_, p. 99; Adams, T. S., and Sumner, Helen L., _Labor Problems_, Ch. IV.
Footnote 255:
Rept. New York Com. of Imm., p. 88.
Footnote 256:
Rept. Imm. Com., Imm. Homes and Aid Socs., Abs., p. 8.
Footnote 257:
Rept. New York Com. of Imm., p. 90.
Footnote 258:
Rept. Imm. Com., Imm. Homes and Aid Socs., Abs., p. 14.
Footnote 259:
_Ibid._, p. 16.
Footnote 260:
Cf. Rept. N. Y. Com. of Imm., p. 92.
Footnote 261:
New York now has a state law, which went into effect Sept. 1, 1911, for the regulation of these lodging houses. _The Survey_, Sept. 30, 1911.
Footnote 262:
That the spirit of Know Nothingism dies hard, and is likely to crop out even in modern times, is evidenced by the so-called A. P. A. agitation of the early nineties. The A. P. A., or American Protective Association, was the most prominent of several secret organizations, formed about this time, the purposes and methods of which were strikingly similar to those of the Native American and Know Nothing
## parties. The object of their antagonism was the Roman Catholic Church,
and particularly the body of Irish Catholics. This agitation was carried to such an extent that many people, even of the intelligent and thoughtful, feared that a religious war was impending. For details see Winston, E. M., “The Threatening Conflict with Romanism,” _Forum_, 17:425 (June, 1894); Coudert, Frederic R., “The American Protective Association,” _Forum_, 17:513 (July, 1894); Gladden, W., “The Anti-Catholic Crusade,” _Century_, 25:789 (March, 1894).
Footnote 263:
Professor Mayo-Smith says on this point, “The commands of morality are absolute and must have the sanction of perfect faith in order to be effective. To destroy the credibility of the sanction, without putting anything in its place, must for the time being be destructive of ethical action.” _Emigration and Immigration_, p. 7.
Footnote 264:
Cf. Bingham, T. A., “Foreign Criminals in New York,” _North American Review_, September, 1908, p. 381. Also, Rept. Imm. Com., Importing Women for Immoral Purposes, pp. 12, 14.
Footnote 265:
_The Workingman and Social Problems_, p. 32. Cf. White, Gaylord S., “The Protestant Church and the Immigrant,” _The Survey_, Sept. 25, 1909.
Footnote 266:
Anderson, W. L., _The Country Town_, p. 164.
Footnote 267:
Commons, J. R., _op. cit._, p. 203.
Footnote 268:
It is a suggestive fact that the word “recreation” does not occur in the indexes of Hall’s _Immigration_, Jenks and Lauck’s _The Immigration Problem_, Commons’ _Races and Immigrants in America_, Coolidge’s _Chinese Immigration_, or Balch’s _Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens_. For descriptions of the recreations of the foreign-born see Kenngott, George F., _The Record of a City_, Ch. VIII; _City Wilderness_, Ch. VIII; _Americans in Process_, Ch. VIII; Roberts, Peter, _The New Immigration_, Ch. XVIII.
Footnote 269:
Statistical Abstract of the U. S., 1910, p. 251. Cf. also Ely, R. T., _Outlines of Economics_, p. 340, and Streightoff, F. H., _Standard of Living_, p. 55.
Footnote 270:
_Races and Immigrants in America_, p. 115.
Footnote 271:
Professor Taussig says that there is evidence that “a standard of living so tenaciously held as to affect natural increase” is a force which acts on the numbers of the well-to-do in modern countries and is coming into operation in the upper tier of manual workmen. _Prin. of Econ._, Vol. II, p. 152. In these upper groups it operates mainly upon the birth rate. In the lower groups, where there is less conscious control of the rate of reproduction, a decrease in the means of subsistence must almost inevitably result in an increase of the death rate, particularly of infants.
Footnote 272:
A certain amount of repetition of matter already given—particularly in the discussion of the effects of immigration on population—has seemed unavoidable in the following paragraphs. The matters of population, wages, and standards of living are obviously closely associated.
Footnote 273:
See page 145.
Footnote 274:
Mr. Earle Clark has shown by a comparison of recent figures that “the wages paid in the Massachusetts cotton mills do not enable the men employed to maintain a standard of living higher than that which the men employed in English mills can maintain upon English wages.” _The Survey_, March 23, 1912.
Footnote 275:
A further consideration, in addition to the difference in standards, which gives the foreigner an advantage over the native, is found in the different price levels here and abroad. In general the price levels in the countries from which the new immigration comes are lower than in the United States. This means that the immigrant, who saves part of his earnings for the support of a family in Europe, finds it possible to accept a lower wage than the native, who supports his family in this country, and yet keep his family on a standard equivalent to that of the American workman.
Footnote 276:
Professor Taussig says, “The position of common laborers in the United States (that is, in the Northern and Western States) has been kept at its low level only by the continued inflow of immigrants.... These constant new arrivals have kept down the wages of the lowest group, and have accentuated also the lines of social demarcation between this group and others.” _Principles of Economics_, Vol. II, p. 139. See also p. 234.
The same general opinion is expressed by Jenks and Lauck, _The Immigration Problem_, p. 195; by Hall, _Immigration_, pp. 123–131; by Commons, _Races and Immigrants in America_, pp. 151, 152, 159; by Miss Balch, _Our Slavic Fellow Citizens_, pp. 288–289; and by Wilkins (with reference to England), _The Alien Invasion_, p. 68.
Footnote 277:
Cf. Byington, M., _Homestead_, pp. 6–11.
Footnote 278:
Cf. Ripley, William Z., “Race Factors in Labor Unions,” _Atlantic Monthly_, 93:299.
Footnote 279:
Cf. Stewart, Ethelbert, “Influence of Trade-Unions on Immigrants,” in LaFollette, R. M., _The Making of America_, Vol. VIII, pp. 226 ff.
Footnote 280:
Congressional Globe, 33d Cong., 2d Ses., 391.
Footnote 281:
Hall, P. F., _Immigration_, p. 161.
Footnote 282:
_Ibid._, p. 165.
Footnote 283:
_Ibid._, p. 161.
Footnote 284:
See, for example, Mass. Report on the Unemployed, 1895, pp. 18, 116. Report Ohio State Board of Charities, 1902, pp. 178 ff.
Footnote 285:
Abstract of Thirteenth Census, pp. 92, 95, 96.
Footnote 287:
_Paupers in Almshouses_, p. 101.
Footnote 288:
Abstract of Thirteenth Census, pp. 215, 218.
Footnote 290:
_Immigration_, p. 168.
Footnote 291:
Mr. Streightoff points out that even in a year of prosperity about half of the laboring families are not able to save anything, even on the close margin of living which they maintain. _Standard of Living_, pp. 24, 25.
Footnote 292:
Cf. Byington, M. F., _Homestead_, p. 184.
Footnote 293:
Claghorn, K. H., “Immigration in its Relation to Pauperism,” _Annals of the American Academy of Political Science_, 24:187.
Footnote 295:
Rept. Imm. Com., Immigration and Crime, Abs., p. 7.
Footnote 296:
_Ibid._, p. 8.
Footnote 297:
Cf. Hourwich, I. A., “Immigration and Crime,” _Am. Jour. Soc._, 17:4, p. 478.
Footnote 298:
Census Report on Prisoners, 1904, pp. 42, 45.
Footnote 299:
_Ibid._ Cf. also Bingham, T. A., “Foreign Criminals in New York,” _No. Am. Rev._, September, 1908, p. 381; Rept. Imm. Com., Imm. and Crime, Abs.; _Americans in Process_, pp. 199–207; _The City Wilderness_, p. 172.
Footnote 300:
Fairchild, H. P., _Greek Immigration to the United States_, p. 203.
Footnote 301:
“Molly Maguire in America,” _All the Year Round_, New Series, 17:270.
Footnote 302:
Cf. Bingham, T. A., _The Girl that Disappears_, and “Foreign Criminals in New York,” _No. Am. Rev._, September, 1908; and Rept. Imm. Com., Importing Women for Immoral Purposes; _New York Times_, Jan. 17, 1912, p. 1.
Footnote 303:
Cf. Census Report on Prisoners, 1904, p. 236; Commons, _Races and Immigrants in America_, p. 170; Hall, _Immigration_, p. 150; Bingham, _No. Am. Rev._, September, 1908; Addams, _Twenty Years at Hull-House_, p. 252; _Americans in Process_, p. 209.
Footnote 304:
Rept. Com. Gen. of Imm., 1908, p. 98.
Footnote 305:
_Insane and Feeble-minded in Hospitals and Institutions_, 1904, p. 20.
Footnote 306:
Rept. Imm. Com., Immigration and Insanity. Cf. Williams, William, “Immigration and Insanity,” address before the Mental Hygiene Conference, New York City, Nov. 14, 1912. Yet the burden of the feeble-minded immigrant is becoming so strongly felt in New York as to lead the Chamber of Commerce of that state to send resolutions to Congress urging better provisions for excluding this class. _The Survey_, March 2, 1912.
Footnote 307:
Roberts, P., _Anthracite Coal Communities_, pp. 19 ff.; Warne, _Slav Invasion_.
Footnote 308:
Jenks and Lauck, _Immigration Problem_, p. 92.
Footnote 309:
_Ibid._, p. 72. For numerous other cases see Rept. Imm. Com., Imms. in Mf. and Min., Abs., pp. 226 ff.; Commons, J. R., _Races and Immigrants in America_, pp. 151, 152.
Footnote 310:
_Anthracite Coal Communities_, p. 20.
Footnote 311:
For an opposite view of this whole question, see Hourwich, I. A., _Immigration and Labor_. This book, which should be consulted for an elaborate defense of free immigration from the economic point of view, has come to hand too late to be cited at frequent intervals throughout the present work. It is an ingenious production, but so full of inconsistencies, inaccuracies, and misleading statements that to criticize it in detail would require a volume in itself. The refutation of many of Dr. Hourwich’s arguments may be found throughout the pages of the present work.
Footnote 312:
Mr. W. L. Anderson, who is not an extreme advocate of the opinion that immigration has not increased population, nevertheless says, “Certainly the common assertion that without the foreigner the development of the country would have halted disastrously is fallacious.” _The Country Town_, p. 154.
Footnote 313:
Some allowance needs also to be made for the amount of money brought in. See p. 202.
Footnote 314:
Speare, Charles F., “What America Pays Europe for Immigrant Labor,” _No. Am. Rev._, 187:106.
Footnote 315:
Cf. Balch, _op. cit._, p. 302. Fred C. Croxton and W. Jett Lauck find the recent immigrants largely responsible for dangerous and unhealthful conditions in mines and factories, and trace a direct causal relation between the extensive employment of recent immigrants and the extraordinary increase of mining accidents in recent years. Spiller, G., _Inter-Racial Problems_, pp. 218–219.
Footnote 316:
Pp. 155–159.
Footnote 317:
For the distinction between these classes see p. 125.
Footnote 318:
White, _Money and Banking_, third edition, Ch. XVIII.
Footnote 319:
The fact that in March, 1908, there was a gain of 31 is not a coincidence. The month of March is always a busy one in immigration, as it opens the spring season, and this influence was sufficient to check the prevailing movement temporarily.
Footnote 320:
Mr. F. H. Streightoff shows that at the time the census of 1900 was taken, 2,634,336 or 11.1 per cent of all males over ten years of age who were engaged in gainful occupation in the United States were unemployed three months or more during the year. See _Standard of Living_, p. 35.
Footnote 321:
Fisher, Irving, _The Purchasing Power of Money_, pp. 58 _seq._
Footnote 322:
Ely, R. T., _Outlines of Economics_, p. 268.
Footnote 323:
Bulletin of the American Economic Association, April, 1911, p. 253.
Footnote 324:
Streightoff, _The Standard of Living_, p. 24.
Footnote 325:
Streightoff, _The Standard of Living_, p. 111.
Footnote 326:
See quotation from Professor Taussig, footnote, p. 309.
Footnote 327:
Israel Zangwill, in an address before the Universal Races Congress in London, said, “Even in America, with its lip-formula of brotherhood, a gateless Ghetto has been created by the isolation of the Jews from the general social life,” Spiller, G., _op. cit._, p. 270. Cf. also Peters, Madison C., _The Jews in America_, pp. 123–138.
Footnote 328:
“The Jews associate little with other nationalities, principally from the choice of the other nationalities.” Bushee, F. A., _City Wilderness_, p. 42.
Footnote 329:
Cf. _Americans in Process_, pp. 61–63, 157.
Footnote 330:
Jenks and Lauck, _Immigration Problem_, p. 172.
Footnote 331:
Cf. Franklin, Frank G., _Legislative History of Naturalization in the United States_.
Footnote 333:
Hall, P. F., _op. cit._, p. 194.
Footnote 334:
_Ibid._, p. 186. For a general discussion of these abuses, see Hall, _op. cit._, Ch. IX.
Footnote 335:
_Americans in Process_, p. 157.
Footnote 336:
Act of March 2, 1907.
Footnote 337:
Cf. Champernowne, Henry, _The Boss_, Ch. XIII.
Footnote 338:
Commons, J. R., _Races and Immigrants in America_, p. 182.
Footnote 339:
Cf. throughout, Commons, _op. cit._, Ch. VIII.
Footnote 340:
Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. xxxii. Includes land and water. Figures for land area alone are given in _A Century of Population Growth_, p. 54. Taking land in this restricted sense would not materially affect the conclusions.
Footnote 341:
This change has been furthered, according to Professor Taussig, by immigration. _Principles of Economics_, Vol. I, p. 545.
Footnote 342:
The importance of this change is emphasized by noting Professor Guy S. Callender’s statement, “Perhaps the most important circumstance affecting American society is the fact that the people have always been in contact with unoccupied lands.” _Economic History of the United States_, p. 667. Professor Taussig points out also, in this connection, that unskilled labor is more needed when a plant is being constructed than when it is being utilized. _Principles of Economics_, Vol. II, p. 154, footnote.
Footnote 343:
Thus, “Immigration calls for courage and every other personal quality which makes for social progress.” Lincoln, _The City of the Dinner Pail_, p. 141.
Footnote 344:
See page 160.
Footnote 345:
Cf. Bailey, W. B., “The Bird of Passage,” _Am. Jour. of Soc._, 18:3, p. 391.
Footnote 346:
See Professor Keller’s introduction to Fairchild’s _Greek Immigration_.
Footnote 347:
A slight element of inaccuracy is given to these figures by the different methods of recording immigration at different periods. Rept. Imm. Com., Stat. Rev., Abs., p. 8.
Footnote 348:
_War and Other Essays_, p. 169.
Footnote 349:
Cf. Kidd, Benjamin, _Social Evolution_, p. 237; Ellis, Havelock, _The Task of Social Hygiene_, pp. 2–4.
Footnote 350:
_De Bows’s Review_, 18:698, “Sources from which Great Empires Come.” Signed L.
Footnote 351:
This point is frequently pressed by writers who adopt the standpoint of the immigrant, as for instance, Professor Steiner. Much effort is expended to establish the high character of the immigrant, his noble motives and worthy ambitions. The wealthy American on the promenade deck is contrasted unfavorably with the alien in the steerage. No criticism is to be made of this position. It is beyond doubt that there is a great deal to admire in the very humblest of our immigrants. But a most emphatic exception must be taken to the conclusion which apparently is assumed to follow this premise; namely, that therefore anything in the way of restriction is wrong. Granted that the admirable character of the immigrant is thoroughly established. This fact does not obviate the need for action, if it appears that evils arise. If the welfare of the nation is menaced; if the immigrants are not reaping the benefits for which they have sacrificed all in the old country; if the wonderful patrimony of the United States, fitted to render an enduring service to mankind, is being thoughtlessly squandered; if conditions in foreign countries are not improved; if the most remarkable population movement in history is being left to the machinations of selfishly interested parties—if any of these things are true, the fact that it is not the immigrant’s “fault” does not remove the responsibility from those upon whom it naturally rests of taking active measures to secure to humanity the greatest and most enduring benefits which such a tremendous sociological phenomenon may be made to yield. If the first step in such a conservation program is restriction, then that step must be taken.
Footnote 352:
Cf. Hall, P. F., “The Future of American Ideals,” _No. Am. Rev._, Jan., 1912.
Footnote 353:
_Webster’s Dictionary._
Footnote 354:
_Century Dictionary._
Footnote 355:
_New English Dictionary._
Footnote 356:
_Encyc. Britannica_, article “Physiology.”
Footnote 357:
For an enumeration of important American characteristics, see Mayo-Smith, R., _Emigration and Immigration_, pp. 5–6.
Footnote 358:
It is noteworthy that while the English are in many respects more similar to Americans than any other foreign race, yet their complete assimilation to the American type is said to be very difficult, because of their unwillingness to give up their own ideas and character. _City Wilderness_, p. 52; _Americans in Process_, p. 65.
Footnote 359:
Professor Lester F. Ward says, “The assimilation of an alien civilization ... cannot be accomplished in a single generation, no matter how favorable the conditions may be.” _Applied Sociology_, p. 109. Professor Sumner says, “The only way in which, in the course of time, remnants of foreign groups are apparently absorbed and the group becomes homogeneous, is that the foreign element dies out.” _Folkways_, p. 115. Mr. Joseph Lee says, “Whether we in this country shall succeed in doing in a few centuries what Europe in fifteen or twenty or more has not been able to accomplish, is a problem of which the present generation of Americans is not in a position to fully judge.” _Charities and the Commons_, 19:17.
Footnote 360:
_The Immigration Problem_, p. 209.
Footnote 361:
_The Immigration Problem_, p. 267.
Footnote 362:
_Ibid._, p. 293.
Footnote 363:
Cf. Coolidge, Mary R., _Chinese Immigration_, p. 267; and Fairchild, H. P., _Greek Immigration_, footnote, p. 242.
Footnote 364:
_Americans in Process_, p. 50.
Footnote 365:
Hall, P. F., “The Future of American Ideals,” _No. Am. Rev._, Jan., 1912.
Footnote 366:
_De Bows’s Review_, “Sources from which Great Empires Come,” 18:698 (1855).
Footnote 367:
_American Museum_, 7:240.
Footnote 368:
_Political Economy_, Vol. II, 13:265.
Footnote 369:
_Kolonien, Kolonialpolitik, und Auswanderung_, pp. 333 ff.
Footnote 370:
_Op. cit._, p. 135. Cf. also Bonar, J., _Malthus and His Work_, p. 144.
Footnote 371:
_The Commons_, April, 1904.
Footnote 372:
Douglas, _Emigration_, pp. 117–118.
Footnote 373:
_The Problem of the Immigrant_, p. 15.
Footnote 374:
_Op. cit._, p. 23.
Footnote 375:
_Principles of Economics_, Vol. II, p. 217. For a statement of the opposite opinion, see Bourne, S., _Trade, Population, and Food_.
Footnote 376:
Bailey, _Mod. Soc. Cond._, 101, and Gonnard, _L’Emig. Eur._, 120.
Footnote 377:
In spite of the enormous emigration from Italy, and the almost entire depopulation of certain districts, the population of the country as a whole increased 6.81 per cent during the period from Feb. 10, 1901, to June 10, 1911, without regard to those subjects temporarily residing abroad. Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Jan. 20, 1911, p. 1440.
Footnote 378:
Gonnard, _op. cit._, p. 22.
Footnote 379:
Flom, George T., _Norwegian Immigration_, p. 27.
Footnote 380:
Fairchild, _Greek Immigration_, p. 71.
Footnote 381:
Mangano, Antonio, “The Effect of Emigration upon Italy,” _Charities and the Commons_, Jan. 4, 1908, Feb. 1, 1908, April 4, 1908, May 2, 1908, June 6, 1908.
Footnote 382:
For a corroboration of these facts, see Borosini, Victor von, “Home-Going Italians,” _The Survey_, Sept. 28, 1912.
Footnote 383:
Rept. Imm. Com., Emig. Cond. in Eur., Abs., pp. 10, 11.
Footnote 384:
Fairchild, H. P., _Greek Immigration_, pp. 220–235, Ch. XI.
Footnote 385:
Gonnard, while he has little to say of the effects of emigration, other than those on population, in his book on _European Emigration_, nevertheless gives the general impression that these effects are injurious as far as Austria-Hungary is concerned, quoting Count Mailath to that effect (p. 280). The so-called emigration from Russia to Siberia, which Gonnard regards as advantageous, does not fall within the strict definition of emigration adopted in this book.
Footnote 386:
Rept. Imm. Com., Emig. Cond. in Eur., Abs., p. 10.
Footnote 387:
Miss Balch gives a pathetic and significant instance of a Ruthenian woman, returned to her native land, whose highest ideas of American social life were based on her acquaintance with negroes. _Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens_, p. 144.
Footnote 388:
See the series of articles on foreigners in the United States in _Munsey’s Magazine_ for 1906.
Footnote 389:
Balch, E. G., _op. cit._, pp. 154–155, pp. 300–303; Steiner, E. A., _The Immigrant Tide_, Ch. II.
Footnote 390:
Mangano, A., _The Survey_, April 4, 1908, p. 23; Rept. Imm. Com., Greek Bootblacks, Abs., pp. 12 ff.
Footnote 391:
Adams and Sumner, _Labor Problem_, pp. 130–138.
Footnote 392:
Chute, Charles L., “The Cost of the Cranberry Sauce,” _The Survey_, Dec. 2, 1911, and Lovejoy, Owen R., _The Survey_, Jan. 7, 1911.
Footnote 393:
Page 246.
Footnote 394:
See page 383.
Footnote 395:
Cf. Rept. Com. Gen. of Imm., 1911, pp. 4–7.
Footnote 396:
Quoted by Hall, P. F., _Immigration_, p. 128.
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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected palpable typographical errors; retained non-standard spellings and dialect. 2. Reindexed footnotes using numbers and collected together at the end of the last chapter. 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. 4. Enclosed bold or blackletter font in =equals=.