CHAPTER VII

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_Description of the Inhabitants of West Barbary — their Dress — Religious Ceremonies and Opinions — their Character — Manners and Customs — Diseases — Funerals — Etiquette of the Court — Sources of Revenue._

The inhabitants of the Emperor of Marocco’s dominions may be divided into four classes, namely, Moors, Arabs, Berebbers, (which latter are probably the aborigines,) and Shelluhs.

The _Moors_ are the descendants of those who were driven out of Spain; they inhabit the cities of Marocco, Fas, Mequinas, and all the coast towns, as far southward as the province of Haha. Their language is a corrupt Arabic, intermixed with Spanish. In my transactions with these people, I have generally observed in them a misanthropic insolence whenever they are addressed with courtesy and respect, but much civility when treated with dignity. They seem to imagine suavity of manners to be an indication of fear.

The _Arabs_ have their original stock in Sahara, from whence they emigrate to the plains of Marocco, whenever the plague, famine, or any other calamity depopulates the country so as to admit of a new colony, without injuring the territory of the former inhabitants. These Arabs live in tents, inhabiting the fertile and extensive plains, and indeed the whole territory west of Atlas, and as far south as Mogodor, or the confines of the Arab province of Shedma. (See the map of Marocco). These populous tribes travel over the whole of Africa; and are the agriculturists of Barbary and of Bled-el-jerrêde. They speak the Korannick Arabic somewhat corrupted. They are a restless and turbulent people, continually at war with each other: in one province a rebellious kabyle, or clan, will fight against a neighbouring loyal one, and will thus plunder and destroy one another, till, fatigued by the toils of war, they mutually cease, when, the next year perhaps, the rebellious clan will be found fighting for the Emperor against the former loyal one, now become rebellious. This plan of setting one tribe against another is an act of policy of the Emperor, because, if he did not, in this manner, quell the broils continually breaking out amongst them, he would be compelled, in order to preserve tranquillity in his dominions, to employ his own army for that purpose, which is generally occupied in more important business. Hospitality is a prominent feature in the character of these people, insomuch that if an enemy be driven to the necessity of seeking an asylum among them, hostility is immediately forgotten.

The _Berebbers_ inhabit the mountains of Atlas north of the city of Marocco, living generally in tents; they are a robust, nervous, and warlike people, having a language peculiar to themselves, which differs more from the Arabic, or general language of Africa, than any two languages of Europe differ from each other; it is probably a dialect of the ancient Carthaginian. In travelling through the Berebber Kabyles of Ait Imure, and Zemure Shelluh, I noticed many of the inhabitants who possessed the old Roman physiognomy. The general occupation of these people is husbandry, and the rearing of bees for honey and wax. They possess much cunning and duplicity, and are never outwitted by the Moors, or entirely worsted by the troops of the Emperor, with whom they have had very frequent encounters, but have never been permanently subdued: they esteem it the greatest advantage possible to fight on their own territory. Their allegiance to the Emperor has often been secured by retaining their chiefs at court, conferring favours on them, appointing them to offices of state, and to seats in the Diwan; thus making them hostages, as it were, for the peaceable conduct of their respective Kabyles.

The _Shelluhs_ inhabit the Atlas mountains, and their various branches south of Marocco; they live generally in walled habitations, or in towns, and are, for the most part, occupied in husbandry like the Berebbers, though differing from them in their language,[126] dress, and manners; they live almost entirely on (Assoua) barley meal made into gruel, and (Zimeta) barley roasted or granulated, which they mix with cold water, when travelling. They occasionally indulge in (_cuscasoe_) a nutritive farinaceous food, made of granulated flour, and afterwards boiled by steam, and mixed with butter, mutton, fowls, and vegetables. Many families among these people are reported to be descended from the Portuguese, who formerly possessed the ports on the coast; but who, after the discovery of America, gradually withdrew thither. East of Marocco, near Dimenet, on the Atlas mountains, there is still remaining a church, having inscriptions in Latin over the entrance, supposed to have been built by the Portuguese, which, being superstitiously reported to be haunted, has escaped destruction. The language of the Shelluhs is called Amazirk.

The Shelluhs are a crafty people; they are, perhaps, better disposed towards Christians than the Moors or the Arabs. The term Kabyle applies to all cultivators of land, and to those who rear the cattle and flocks. Sometimes we discover, in traversing this country, an encampment of Bedouin Arabs, who, in their migrations to far distant countries, pitch their tents wherever they find the country productive and unoccupied; here they sojourn till their flocks have consumed all the pasture, when they strike their tents and proceed on their long journey. These people live, for the most part, on camel’s milk; they are an indolent race, and neither cultivate the earth, nor do any kind of work, attacking and plundering caravans whenever they can do it with impunity. It is these Bedouins, or Saharawans, who sometimes plunder the Akkabahs and caravans whilst traversing the Great Desert of Africa. The Arabs of Woled Abbusebah[127] place a string over the crown of the head, bringing it down behind the ears, and shave the front hair, to prevent, as is pretended, their enemies from catching hold of them. The same custom predominates among the independant Shelluhs of Idautenan, inhabitants of Atlas near Cape de Geer. See the Map of Marocco, lat. N. 30° 30′.

The Moors, as well as the other natives of this country, are generally of a middle stature: they have not so much nerve as the Europeans, and are, for the most part, thick and clumsy about the legs and ancles, insomuch that a well-formed leg is seldom seen among them; this may proceed from their constantly sitting cross legged, with their legs under them, like the tailors of Europe, or perhaps from their wearing no covering to their legs, which are thus exposed to all weathers. Deformed persons are rarely met with; the loose Arabian dress covers deformity, and their mode of bringing up children, (every thing being left to follow nature,) generally prevents it. Corns and deformed feet are unknown; the toes take their natural growth, and are as useful to the mechanics as their fingers. Lame people are seldom seen; but the blind are more numerous than in Europe. Both sexes have remarkably fine teeth; they universally use a dentifrice,[128] which is procured from vegetables from the interior country. Their complexion, from frequent intermarriage, or intercourse with the Soudanic race, is of all shades, from black to white. The women of Fas are as fair as the Europeans, with the exception of their eyes and hair, which are universally dark.[129] Those of Mequinas are in general so handsome, that it is a rare thing to see a young woman in that city who is not lovely or pretty. With large, black, and expressive sparkling eyes, they possess a healthy countenance, uniting the colours of the lily and the rose, that beautiful red and white so much admired by foreigners in our English ladies; indeed their beauty is proverbial, as the term _Mequinasia_[130] is applied to any beautiful woman of elegant form, with black sparkling eyes, and white teeth; they also possess a modesty and suavity of manners rarely met with elsewhere. It is extraordinary that the inhabitants of two great and populous cities, situated within thirty miles of each other, should discover such a physiognomical difference, as is apparent between the females of Fas and those of Mequinas, the former being generally of a sallow or pale complexion. The women of Duquella are ordinary and diminutive, whilst the men are the reverse; being tall, and well-limbed, with regular features. The men of Temsena, and Shawia, are a strong, robust race, of a copper colour: the women possess much beauty, and have features highly expressive; and the animation of the female countenance is encreased by the use of El kahol filelly, with which they tinge the eye lashes and eye brows, as already described. In these provinces they are particularly fond of dying their hands and feet with a decoction or preparation of the herb Henna,[131] which gives them an orange colour, and, in hot weather, imparts a pleasing coolness and softness to the hands, by obstructing, in a certain degree, the quickness of perspiration.

The Moorish dress resembles that of the ancient patriarchs, as represented in paintings; that of the men consists of a red cap and turban, a (Kumja) shirt, which hangs outside of the drawers, and comes down below the knee, a (Caftan) coat, which buttons close before, and down to the bottom, with large open sleeves; over which, when they go out of doors, they throw carelessly, and sometimes elegantly, a hayk or garment of white cotton, silk, or wool, five or six yards long, and five feet wide: the Arabs, however, often dispense with the caftan, and even with the shirt, wearing nothing but the hayk. The Berebbers wear drawers, and a cloak of dark blue cloth, called a Silham. The poor and penurious are contented with the Burnose, or black cloak of woollen cloth, of a close texture, made so as to resist the rain. To this dress is added a pair of yellow sandals. The dress of the women nearly resembles that of the men, except in the adjustment of the hayk, or surtout covering, and in the (Rahayat) slippers, which are scarlet or red. The hair is concealed in a black silk handkerchief, over which they wear shawls of silk or handkerchiefs of various gay colours; they wear bracelets, and armlets above the elbow, and massive rings of silver round their ancles; their ear-rings are of gold about the thickness of a goose’s quill, and set with precious stones, or coloured glass, the ring being about six inches in circumference; these ear-rings have a gaudy appearance, or, as the French express it, _“font beaucoup de parure;”_ they wear also a number of necklaces, generally of amber beads or coral, some large, and others small, and a variety of rings on their fingers.

In their dress, they are partial to striped silks, ginghams, and cottons of particular patterns.

The people belonging to the court have a particular dress, never appearing before the Emperor in a hayk, but in a silham, or large hooded cloak of white woollen cloth; and in presence of a bashaw, or governor, the hayk is thrown down on the shoulders, which at other times covers the cap, a mode of salutation similar to that of taking off the hat among Europeans.

The religion of the Emperor of Marocco’s dominions is Islaemism, or Mohammedism,[132] which was first planted in West Barbary by the renowned Muley Dris Zerone, on the spot where the town and sanctuary of that name is built, being east of Mequinas, at the western declivity of the Atlas, near an ancient and magnificent ruin, called by the Arabs (Kasser Farawan)[133] the Ruins of Pharoah; from hence assuming the name of (Deene-el-Wasah) the unconfined law, it quickly spread itself to the shores of the Atlantic ocean, to Bled-el-jerrêde, Sigin-Messa, Suse, and Sahara. At the beginning of the present reign of Seedy Soliman ben Mohammed, a considerable body of people, who professed Deism, sprung up, and spread themselves over the northern provinces, exclaiming (la Illah ila Allah) There is no God but the true God; in distinction from the Mohammedan, whose creed is (la Illah ila Allah, wa Mohammed, arrasule, Allah), There is no God but the true God, and Mohammed is his prophet. The Emperor, however, by discouraging such tenets, found no difficulty in annihilating this sect.

Throughout the country are discovered buildings of an octagonal form, with domes of stone, or plastered with lime; these are called (Zawiat) Sanctuaries: and attached to each is a piece of ground, uninclosed, for the interment of the dead. The priest or saint, who is called el fakeer, or maraboot, superintends divine service and the burial of the dead, and is often referred to for the adjusting of disputes or controversies. Criminals taking refuge in these consecrated places are screened from the hand of justice; and the opulent men of the country often, for security, deposit their treasure in them. The toleration of the western Arabs and Moors is such, that the Emperor (although religiously disposed himself) will allow, on proper application being made, any sect which does not acknowledge a plurality of gods, to appropriate a place to public worship;[134] and even the more ignorant and bigotted Mohammedans maintain, that every man should be allowed to worship God according to his own conscience, or agreeably to the religion of his ancestors. They have a rooted contempt for all who change their religion, even if it be to Islaemism; such people are distinguished by the appellation of (el Aluge) Renegades, who, after having embraced the Mohammedan faith, are obliged to practise a system of dissimulation, and to affect more than ordinary contempt for Christians, in order to appear islaemized, and to prevent their being harassed and upbraided for their want of faith in Mohammed.

This people have a particular aversion to the sound of bells, originating perhaps from their being peculiar to the (Ajemi) Barbarians,[135] as they denominate Christians; or because Mohammed reprobated the ancient trumpet of the Jews, as well as the rattel of the oriental Christians, and substituted the human voice to call people to prayer: accordingly a man (denominated El Muden) goes to the top of the tower of each (Jamâa) mosque, and exclaims with a loud voice, first to the east, or towards Mecca, and then to the south, west, and north, the following words (Allah kabeer! A’shed-en, la illa ila Allah, Mohammed arrasule Allah; haiala essla, Allah kabeer. Allah!) God is great; witness that there is no God but one God, and Mohammed is his prophet: come to prayers: God is great. God![136]

This religious ceremony is performed several times a day, and the different prayers are called (Sala’at el fejir) prayers at the dawn of day; (Sala’at el dohor) prayers at half-past one o’clock, P.M.; (Sala’at el assar) prayers at four o’clock, P.M.; (Sala’at el mogorb) prayers at sun-setting; and (Sala’at el ashaw) prayers an hour and an half after sun-setting. The principal of these prayers is the Sala’at el dohor, when all such as are desirous of being thought true Mohammedans go to the (Jamâa) mosque, on entering which, every one must take off his slippers. Every (Jma)[137] Friday, the Mufti preaches a discourse on religion, similar to the sermons of Christian priests. The mosques have square towers adjoining the body of the building; the principal side faces Mecca, on which is erected a flag-staff: and a white flag called (el Alem) the Signal, is hoisted every day at twelve o’clock, to warn the people out of hearing, or at a great distance, to prepare, by the necessary preliminary ablutions[138], to prostrate themselves before God at the Dohor service of prayer. At the dawn of day on every (Jma) Friday, the (Muden) man who announces the prayers from the summit of the principal mosque, chants a hymn out of the Koran, which being scientifically sung, in the stillness of the morning, makes a most pleasing impression on the mind. This hymn is concluded with the annunciation of the unity of God, and the glory of heaven, impressing the mind of the Mohammedan with that grand fundamental principle of Islaemism, the unity of God.

The people of this empire being born subjects of an arbitrary despot, they may be said to have no established laws; they know no other than the will of the prince, which is called (_Shra el Mukkuzzen_) military law, or (_Amer Seedna_) our Lord’s decree; and if this should deviate, as it sometimes does, from the moral principles laid down in the Koran, it must nevertheless be obeyed; for no appeal can be admitted against _Amer Seedna_, unless his Imperial Majesty should discover an error in judgment, in which case he, and he alone, can alter the decree. Where the Emperor resides, he administers justice, in person, generally twice, and sometimes four times a week, in the (M’shoire) place of audience, whither all complaints are carried:[139] here access is easy; he listens to every one, foreigners or subjects, men or women, rich or poor; there is no distinction, every one has a right to appear before him, and boldly to explain the nature of his case; and although his person is considered as sacred, and established custom obliges the subject to prostrate himself, and to pay him rather adoration than respect, yet every complainant may tell his story without the least hesitation or timidity; indeed, if any one is abashed, or appears diffident, his cause is weakened in proportion. Judgment is always prompt, decisive, plausible, and generally correct.

Civil law is administered by the (Cadi’s) judges, who have attached to their court several (Lokiels) attornies; some of whom manage civil controversies, others misdemeanors, and others matters relating to religion, marriages, divorces, &c. These controversies are decided by the laws of the Koran, than which, and the commentaries thereon, they have no other written law. When two persons are engaged in a law-suit, they retain their respective attornies; if they cannot settle the dispute, they go to the Cadi, who generally sets on the ground at the gate of his house, where any one may be present. The two disputants stand before him, surrounded by their respective friends; the plaintiff speaks first, the defendant replies: in these law-suits the respective claims of the suitors are investigated. The Arabs (however ignorant they may be in other respects) defend themselves, whether right or wrong, so long as they have hope of gain, or fear of loss; but their well laid plans to conceal the truth, and elude the purposes of justice, are often exposed and rendered abortive by the penetrating sagacity with which their pretensions are investigated by the Cadi. The Cadi takes the evidence of the witnesses, and pronounces sentence, which is sometimes without appeal. The culprit is then taken into custody till he has satisfied the law; but in cases where he is entitled to an appeal, it is made to the Emperor, who takes the opinion of the (L’Alemma) learned, and decides the controversy by pronouncing judgment. If the crime be punishable by death, the sentence is either executed, or the criminal is delivered over to the aggrieved, and may then purchase of him his life, by money or contrition.

In places remote from the Emperor’s court, the (Kalif) viceregent, or bashaw, has his M’shoire, where he administers justice, sometimes according to the laws of the Koran, and at others as his caprice dictates; for the same imperious despotism which the Emperor too frequently exercises over his bashaws and alkaids, is exercised by them over those who fall under their government; and the same is done again by their subalterns, when they have it in their power; thus tyranny proceeds progressively from the prince to the lowest of his officers: these petty tyrants are dispersed over the whole empire, and often give sanction to their extortions by effecting them in the name of their master; the accumulation of wealth is the grand object of all their desires; when they learn from their emissaries, or spies, that an individual has acquired considerable property, they contrive to find out some cause of accusation against him, and by that means extort money from him. It often happens, however, that those who amass the greatest sums in this way enjoy their ill gotten wealth but a very short time; some unexpected order from the Emperor, accusing them of crimes or misdemeanors, is made a pretext for depriving them, in their turn, of their property, which his majesty never fails to inform them can be of no use to them, being more than sufficient to procure the necessaries of life, and ought therefore to belong to the (Biet el Mel el Mooselmin) Mohammedan treasury, into which it is accordingly delivered, never more to return to its former possessor.

The influence of this mode of government upon the people is such as might naturally be expected; they are suspicious, deceitful, and cruel; they have no respect for their neighbours, but will plunder one another whenever it is in their power; they are strangers to every social tie and affection, for their hearts are scarcely susceptible of one tender impression; the father fears the son, the son the father; and this lamentable mistrust, and want of confidence, diffuses itself throughout the whole community.

The pride and arrogance of the Moors is unparalleled; for though they live in the most deplorable state of ignorance, slavery, and barbarism, yet they consider themselves the first people in the world, and contemptuously term all others barbarians. Their sensuality knows no bounds: by the laws of the Koran, they are allowed four wives, and as many concubines as they are able to support, but such is their wretched depravity, that they indulge in the most unnatural and abominable propensities;[140] in short, every vice that is disgraceful and degrading to human nature, is to be found amongst them.

It must be confessed, however, that some of the well educated Moors are courteous and polite, and are possessed of great suavity of manners. They are affable and communicative where they repose confidence; and if in conversation the subject of discussion be serious, and the parties become warm in dispute, they have generally the prudence to turn the subject in a delicate manner; they are slow at taking offence, but when irritated, are noisy and implacable.

There is one noble trait in the character of this people which I cannot avoid mentioning, that is fortitude under misfortune; this the Moor possesses in an eminent degree; he never despairs; no bodily suffering, no calamity, however great, will make him complain; he is resigned in all things to the will of God, and waits in patient hope for an amelioration of his condition. In illustration of this, I will take the liberty to relate the following anecdote, as it will also tend to show the great risks to which merchants are exposed in traversing this country, and Sahara, or the Great Desert.

A Fas merchant (with whom I had considerable transactions) went, with all his property, on a commercial speculation from Fas to Timbuctoo; and after remaining at the latter place a sufficient time to dispose of and barter his effects for gold dust and gum Soudan, he set out on his return to Fas; after passing the Desert, he began to congratulate himself on his good fortune and great success, when suddenly a party of Arabs attacked the (cafila) caravan, and plundered all who belonged to it, leaving the Fas merchant destitute of every thing but the clothes he had on his back. During the interregnum, between the death of the Sultan Yezzid and the proclamation of the present Sultan Soliman, this man was plundered again on his way to Mogodor, whither he was going to discharge some debts, and to dispose of gum and other Soudanic produce. Four wives and a numerous family of children rendered his case peculiarly distressing; yet, when condoling with him a few days after his misfortunes had happened, he very patiently observed (Ash men doua, Allah bra; u la illah, ila Allah), What remedy is there? God willed it so, and there is none but God. This man afterwards collected together what merchandize he could procure on credit, and proceeded again to Timbuctoo, where he realized much property, and travelling therewith through Wangara and Houssa to Egypt, he was plundered a third time of all he possessed, near Cairo, and reduced to the greatest distress: this last misfortune he bore with the same fortitude as the former. He is now, however, one of the principal merchants established at Timbuctoo.

The Moors are equal by birth; they know no difference of rank except such as is derived from official employments,[141] on resigning which the individual mixes again with the common class of citizens; the meanest man in the nation may thus aspire, without presumption, to the hand of the daughter of the most opulent, and accident, or the caprice of the prince, may precipitate the latter into misery, and elevate the former to prosperity and honour.

The Moors are, for the most part, more cleanly in their persons, than in their garments. They wash their hands before every meal, which, as they use no knives or forks, they eat with their fingers: half a dozen persons sit round a large bowl of _cuscasoe_, and, after the usual ejaculation (Bismillah) “In the name of God!” each person puts his hand to the bowl, and taking up the food, throws it, by a dexterous jerk, into his mouth, without suffering his fingers to touch the lips. However repugnant this may be to our ideas of cleanliness, yet the hand being always washed, and never touching the mouth in the act of eating, these people are by no means so dirty as Europeans have sometimes hastily imagined. They have no chairs or tables in their houses, but sit cross-legged on carpets and cushions; and at meals, the dish or bowl of provisions is placed on the floor. They have an excellent dish, which they call El Kalia; it is prepared without salt; the meat is cut in long slips, about an inch wide, and hung in the air for a few days, when it is put into jars, which are filled with clarified butter (Smin): this preparation will keep several years; it is used by the rich and affluent when crossing the Desert to Timbuctoo, or when on a journey to Mecca, and indeed whenever they travel through a country where food is not readily procurable. Bread is seldom used in the traverse of the Desert, but certain flat cakes, similar to crumpets, but without leaven, are kneaded, and put on embers, where they are half baked, and eaten with honey and butter by the merchants and traders who accompany the caravans.

The women are not less cleanly than the men; for besides performing the usual ablutions before and after meals, they wash their face, hands, arms, legs, and feet, two or three times a day, which contributes greatly to their beauty. The poorer classes, however, look deplorable, and excite disgust. The faces of the old women appear shrivelled, from the immoderate use of cosmetics and paint during their youth.

The chief delight of the women is to attend diligently to their children, and a numerous posterity is fervently desired. In obedience to the injunction of Mohammed, mothers suckle their children two years.[142] When circumstances oblige them to take a nurse, she is not treated as a servant, but becomes one of the family, and passes her days among the children she has suckled, by whom she is _ever afterwards_ cherished and protected; the children are taught to consider her as their own relation, and she is called (_Emuh d’el Hellib_) the milk mother: in case of future adversity, she never applies ineffectually for succour to these children, who consider it a duty incumbent on them to assist her to the utmost extent of their power. These milk-mothers are chosen from well formed, young, and healthy women. The new born infant is not swaddled up in a profusion of clothes, but is laid naked on a carpet, and exposed in a lofty and spacious apartment, where, breathing freely, it gradually acquires strength, while daily ablution renders it vigorous and healthy. The females are not taught to read or write, but learn early, and from experience, the domestic offices of the household; their body and limbs are never confined by tight dresses, their garments are loose and easy, suffering the limbs to have free

## action, and the body to take its natural form; they are occupied

in grinding the corn, baking the bread, and preparing the food for their husbands and family. Ancient custom, and a predilection for the manners of their primogenitors, rendering these necessary occupations pleasant and agreeable.

The male children, whose mode of education is equal throughout the empire, on attaining the eighth year (not eighth day, as some have asserted,) are circumcised, and then begin to study the Koran. He is taught to fear and adore God, to respect old age and his parents; he is initiated in the principles of hospitality, which virtues being inculcated at school, and being afterwards seen constantly practised in his father’s family, then cannot fail to be, at the age of puberty, indelibly engraven on his heart. His inclination directs him to learn the useful arts, the care of the flocks, the tillage of the soil, or the exercise of arms; those engaged in the latter are particularly noticed by the Emperor, and if they discover a Machiavellian or despotic policy, they are generally promoted to the government of some province or town.

The Moors are not very fond of games or diversions; they are often seen sitting in the streets for hours together, sometimes in a dull lethargic humour, at others so vociferous and full of action with each other, that a person unacquainted with their manner would suppose they were going to fight.

Their usual games are leap-frog, jumping, and foot-ball; the last is the favourite diversion, at which they do not seek to send the ball to a goal, but kick it up, and amuse themselves with it, without any definitive purpose.

Of their military exercises the (lab el Borode) riding full speed, and firing, is the only one; this is performed by all those who keep horses; a party starts off together, and running full gallop fire their muskets, stopping short close to some wall, those being considered the best horsemen who approach nearest the wall, and stop shortest; they then return, load again, and renew the race: this is the mode after which they charge an enemy.

In the markets and public streets are seen expert jugglers, who perform astonishing feats of _leger-de-main_ with most curious and unaccountable deceptions: the province of Suse is most celebrated for these arts.

Certain theatrical orators go about the most busy parts of the cities, and arrest the attention of the passengers by declamation. Some of these players personify all the various characters of a drama with exquisite spirit and humour. In the evening these amusements are laid aside and the Assfæhna, or dancing boys, excite the attention of the populace; these boys are accompanied by a governor, or master, who is indispensibly of a musical turn, and is accompanied by a kettle-drum, a flute made of a reed, and similar in sound to the pandean pipe, and an instrument with two strings, somewhat like the Greek lyre. These dancers are habited in gaudy attire, and move their feet in dancing without taking them off the ground, but gradually proceeding forwards, till they, by a signal from their chief, vault into the air, and perform various evolutions somewhat similar to the tumblers at Sadler’s Wells. Decency forbids the recital of what usually occurs after this entertainment is terminated.

Amongst the Arabs the girls dance in a very superior style; the Arabian ladies of the Mograffra tribe, as well as those of Woled Abbusebah, eminently excel. I remember passing a night in one of their douars, on the confines of Sahara, with a large party of Arabs, and instead of going to sleep, the Sheik of the douar sent for six elegant females, who engaged our admiration till the morning. Judging of the movements of these dancing Arabs with the sentiments of an Englishman, they would be thought somewhat lascivious; but the manners and customs of the country reconciles to propriety these spirited movements. Signor Andrea de Christo, a Venetian merchant, was with me, and declared that he had never seen better dancing in Italy.

When a Mooselmin is inclined to marry, he makes enquiry of some duena or confidential servant respecting the person of her mistress, and if he receive a satisfactory description of the lady, an opportunity is sometimes procured to see her at a window, or other place; this interview generally determines whether the parties are to continue their regards; if the suitor be satisfied with the lady, he seeks an occasion of communicating his passion to the father, and proposes to marry his daughter. The father’s consent being obtained, he sends presents to the lady, according to his circumstances, which being accepted, the parties are supposed to be betrothed, and marriage follows.

Of the marriage ceremony much has been said by various authors. The bridegroom is mounted on a horse, with his face covered, surrounded by his friends, and those of the parents, who run their horses, and fire their muskets at the feet or face of the bridegroom; the (Tabla) kettle drum, the (Erb’eb) triangle, an instrument similar to the Greek lyre, (having however but two strings,) and a rude kind of flute, form the band of music; whilst the friends of the married party dance and jump about, twirling their muskets in the air, and otherwise discovering their satisfaction. This ceremony being terminated, the parties go to the house of feasting, where the evening is passed in conviviality, till the bride and bridegroom retire to rest. The sheets are afterwards produced, somewhat indecently, as a proof of the virginity of the bride, and exhibited in triumph to the relations.

It is not expected that the woman should have a fortune or a settlement; but if the father be rich, he generally gives a dowry to his daughter, and a quantity of pearls, rubies, diamonds, &c. The dowry remains the property of the female, and in case of a divorce, by consent of the husband, is returned to her: these separations proceed from various causes, as barrenness, the disappointment of expectation, incapability of performing the domestic duties, or incompatibility of disposition. Separation, however, not originating in the above causes, is reprobated as immoral and disreputable. A plurality of wives is allowed in all Mohammedan countries; the lawful number is limited by the Koran to four, in addition to which they are allowed as many concubines as they can support; in this latitude of luxury, however, they seldom indulge. The Emperor, the princes, and some of the bashaws, have often four wives, but _even with them_ this number encreases _gradually_; thus, the first wife, after having had a child, or when her bloom has passed, or the marks of age appear, makes way for a young one, who is taught to respect the former, who still remains mistress of the household; when the second lady loses her bloom, she is supplanted by a third, and the third by a fourth; so that the rich and independant Mooselmin, however old he be himself, has generally a young wife, or a young concubine,[143] to cherish him; and this, they say, enables them to enjoy life longer than the Christians; for they maintain, that as an old woman destroys the vigour of a man, a young woman encreases it; but these luxurious debauchees, these devotees to the pleasures of the fair sex, from their irregular excesses, are often, about the age of fifty, and sometimes before, totally incapable of performing the duties of the matrimonial contract; under these circumstances, stimulating drugs, and aromatic compositions are in vain resorted to, and the wretched man becomes at once the victim of inflamed desire, and impotency.

It must not, however, be imagined, that this insatiable desire for young females pervades the mass of the people; Mooselmin, in general, are satisfied with one wife, and, in a tract of country possessing a population of one hundred thousand souls, a hundred men will scarcely be found who keep four. Such is the state of polygamy in this country.

With regard to the (Kadeem[144]) concubines, they are generally black women, purchased originally at Timbuctoo; they reside in the house with the wives, performing the menial offices of the domestic establishment. The children of these concubines, when not the master’s offspring, are born slaves, and inherited by him, who either keeps them for the purpose of marrying them to some black slave of his own, or sells them in the public market; this latter mode of disposing of them, however, is seldom practised, except in cases of necessity; for although the law gives great latitude to masters having slaves, yet the children are generally brought up under the mother’s care, and become members of the family; by serving at an early age in domestic occupations, they earn their living by their work; for in a country where the necessaries of life are prohibited from exportation,[145] the expense of maintenance is inconsiderable: so that a large and numerous family is a blessing, and the more numerous the greater the blessing. Living on simple food, for the most part of the farinaceous kind, their appetites are easily satisfied: their wants are few, and their resources many.

This system of prohibiting the exportation of provisions does not, however, as might be supposed, reduce their value; for it has been observed, in the reign of Seedy Mohammed ben Abd Allah, when the prohibition was enforced only when a scarcity was anticipated, that during the prohibition the price of corn rose; the Arab farmers, preferring a market and sale to Europeans for dollars, to the tardiness of sale for domestic consumption, kept their corn in their Matamores till an exportation was again permitted, and then brought it to market. Neither is there policy in the prohibition, (except the Mohammedan principle of policy be admitted, that of promoting the poverty of the people or community), for by it the agriculturists not having a sufficient market for the whole produce of his land, he cultivates but a third or a fourth part, leaving the remaining part fallow; and even this fourth part is found to produce quite as much as is necessary for the domestic consumption. The same argument applies to the other articles of produce, viz. sweet almonds, dates, raisins, figs, olive oil, &c. Accordingly, since their prohibition, the immense plantations of these articles in all the provinces,

## particularly in Suse, where they abound, have been neglected, and

are gradually decreasing, the produce being more than the domestic demand, insomuch, that the price is insufficient to pay the labour of gathering; for among this abstemious and parsimonious people, it would be difficult to find the individual who would give two shillings for the same quantity of provision of one kind, that he could procure of another kind for one shilling.

The women are not so much confined as has been generally imagined; they frequently visit their relations and friends,[146] and have various ways of facilitating intrigues; thus, if a lady’s (rahayat) sandals be seen at the door of an apartment, the husband himself dare not enter; he retires into another room, and directs the female slave to inform him when her (Lela) lady is disengaged, which is known by the sandals being taken away. On the other hand when an ill-disposed husband becomes jealous or discontented with his wife, he has too many opportunities of treating her cruelly; he may tyrannize over her without control; no one can go to her assistance, for no one is authorised to enter his Horem without permission. Jealousy or hatred rises so high in the breast of a Moor, that death is often the consequence to the wretched female who has excited (perhaps innocently) the anger of her husband. The fate of those women who are not so fortunate as to bear a male child is too often to be lamented; those who do, are treated with extraordinary respect, the father being careful not to ill-treat the mother of his son or heir. A father, however fond of his daughter, cannot assist her, even if informed of the ill-treatment she suffers; the husband alone is lord paramount: if, however, he should be convicted of murdering his wife, he would suffer death, but this is difficult to ascertain, even should she bear on her the marks of his cruelty, or dastardly conduct, for who is to detect it? Instances have been known where the woman has been cruelly beaten and put to death, and the parents have been informed of her decease as if it had been occasioned by sickness, and she has been buried accordingly; but this difficulty of bringing the men to justice holds only among the powerful bashaws and persons in the highest stations; and these, to avoid a retaliation of similar practices on _their_ children, sometimes prefer giving their daughters in marriage to men of an inferior station in life, who are more amenable to justice.

The etiquette of the court of Marocco does not allow any man to mention the word Death to the Emperor; so that when it be necessary to communicate to him the news of the decease of any Mohammedan, the courtiers thus express themselves: (Ufah Ameruh) he has completed his destiny or his period; to which the reply is (Allah eê erhammoh) God be merciful to him. When a Jew dies, the Moors express it by (Maat bel Karan), the son of a cuckold is dead. On the death of a Christian, if he bore a good character, they say (Maat Mesquin), the inoffensive man is dead; but if he was unpopular, or disliked, (Maat el Kaffer) the infidel is dead.

All persons at this court who have no faith in Mohammed being considered as infidels, a stigma is attached to their names when uttered before the Emperor; accordingly they say (Lihudi ashawk asseedi. El Kaffer ashawk asseedi.) He is a Jew, _ashawk_, Master. He is an Infidel, _ashawk_, Master. This term _ashawk_ is an Arabic idiom, and signifies, “I beg pardon for mentioning so degraded or contemptible a name in my master’s presence.”

There is a ridiculous prejudice throughout this country, which extends as far as the Nile El Abeede, or Nile of Soudan, in considering the word _five_ as indecorous; it is therefore never mentioned in the Emperor’s presence, nor even to any prince, bashaw, or powerful man: the speaker expressing himself thus (Arbat u Wahud) i.e. Four and one.

The number 5 is emblematical of the hand of power or tyranny; so that the poor Jews, who are treated in this country somewhat worse than dogs in Christian countries, have a hand with the fingers spread out, painted on their doors or houses, as an amulet to charm away oppression. Accordingly (Khumsa alik), “Five be upon thee, or the hand of power be upon thee,” is a curse or malediction frequently conferred by the Moors on the oppressed Jews.

The imperial revenue consists of the following imposts:

1st. (_Ska u Lashor_,) Two per cent. on camels, horses, mules, asses, cattle, sheep, goats, &c. and ten per cent. on corn and the produce of land. The payment of this branch of the revenue which is the most considerable, is made either in cash or in kind, optional in the subject.

2nd. (_Daira’s and Sokra’s_,) Fines and presents, viz. Fines levied at discretion by the bashaws of provinces, alkaids of cities and towns, and douars, and others employed by them; these consist in satisfaction for offences; thus, if two men quarrel, and blood be spilt in the fray, half the property of the aggressor is often exacted as a fine for disturbing the peace. If a traveller be robbed, the douar, or encampment, where the robbery was committed, is fined in double the sum, viz. the sum stolen is returned to the robbed, and an equal sum is paid to the bashaw for the imperial treasury. The inhabitants of the douar are then left to discover the robbers, and recover of them the property stolen; the beneficial effects of this salutary law must be evident to every man, but particularly to those who have frequently travelled through this country, and by their own experience have seen and felt the influence which it has on every individual, and the interest that is diffused throughout the community to protect travellers from plunder. In an extensive champaign country like this, where the population of the provinces consists of encampments in the plains, open to the attack of robbers, and undefended, there would be no security were it not for the good effects of this law, which renders every individual a guard to the property of the person sojourning in the district of which he is an inhabitant.

A traveller may exact a fine from a douar for inhospitable treatment, by making a complaint to the bashaw under whose government the Sheik of the douar lives.

3d. Legal disputes. Considerable sums are presented to the bashaws, alkaids, &c. to procure their attention to the interest of the

## parties disputing, and to accelerate the termination. Thus a douceur

to a bashaw of a few hundred dollars, will sometimes give a man as much advantage over his antagonist, as would be gained in England by the retaining of an eminent counsel to plead his cause. These douceurs are often paid to ministers by persons desirous to obtain some privilege from the Emperor, and are usually regulated according to the rank of the applicant, and the importance of the favour to be conferred. The ministers, and other persons in authority, do not conceal their operations; but will tell you what you are to pay for such a privilege or favour, which has at least this good effect, that you have a certain _quid pro quo_, and you are not seduced, under false promises, to attend on ministers ineffectually: your business is expedited generally to your satisfaction. A knowledge of the ministers, and of the spirit of the court, as well as the character of the Emperor, is, perhaps, indispensibly necessary to ensure success. When these sums and douceurs have been repeatedly given, and have, by accumulation, become considerable, a pretext is seldom wanting to attack these bashaws, cadis, alkaids, and other officers, for some misdemeanor, or for mal-administration of justice, and they are accordingly heavily mulcted; but they readily pay the fine, which thus ultimately forms a part of the imperial revenue, that they may again enter into their oppressive offices.

In cases of dispute, which come into the province of the civil law, the cadi determines the case; and the retaining, in such cases, able (Lokiels) pleaders, is attended with similar advantages, as with us. In these disputes, however, a paper or two, written in the most concise manner, is all that is necessary; the wheels of justice are not clogged with such volumes of cases and briefs as with us.

4th. Immense presents are occasionally made by the bashaws, alkaids, &c. to the Emperor, to secure the imperial favor, and to enable them to hold their places against the attacks continually made by others, who spare no expense in presenting, through the ministers, their claims for preferment. The bashaw Ben Hammed, who governed Duquella in the reign of the present Emperor’s father, Seedy Mohammed, every Friday, as the Emperor came out of the mosque, presented him with a large wedge of pure gold of Soudan.

5thly. The fish called Shebbel (similar to salmon), the produce of the great rivers, viz. the El Kose, the Seboo, the Morbeya, the Tensift, and the river Suse, pay to the imperial treasury a heavy duty; but that duly is generally farmed to some wealthy individual, who pays about 20 per cent. on the value of the fish caught, or gives so much per annum for the privilege of fishing in the rivers.

6th. _El Beb_, or gate-duty, an impost of from (one blanquil to two ounces) 1½_d._ to 1_s._ on every camel-load of merchandize carried out or brought into any city or town.

7th. (_Gizzia_,) The poll-tax levied on the Jews, viz. the pro rata of every Jew is calculated according to his property, by a committee appointed by themselves. This tax may amount to about ten per cent. on their income or profits.

8th. (_El Worella_.) The hereditary tax. The Emperor is heir to all the estates of his subjects who die without heirs; so that at the termination of the plague, in 1800, he gained an incalculable accession of wealth in gold, silver, and in estates, many of which latter he has since given to the (Jamaat) mosques. This property of the mosques is called _Wak’f_, a term significant of any thing, the right of which continues in the original proprietor, but the profit issuing from it belongs to some charitable institution; so that the _mosque lands_ are now extensive, and, consequently, the priests are amply provided for.

9th. Duties on the importation of merchandize from Europe, and on the exportation of the produce of the country. On the former, the regulation is generally 10 per cent., which is paid in kind, except only on iron, steel, Buenos Ayres hydes, lead, and sulphur, which pay a duty on importation of three dollars per quintal. The duties on the produce of the country are regulated by the option of the Emperor.

The duty on Wax now is 12²⁄₁₂ per cent.

on Bitter Almonds 2

on Gum 3

Oil } } Sweet Almonds } } Raisins } } Figs } now prohibited from exportation. } Dates } } Corn } } And all kinds } of Provisions }

10th. All ambassadors, envoys, consuls, merchants, and, in short, every individual who presents himself to the Emperor, whether in a public or private capacity, must necessarily be accompanied with a present, a custom established from time immemorial in Africa, as well as in the East; and these presents are in proportion to the magnitude of the negociation. The king of Spain, during the reign of Seedy Mohammed ben Abd Allah, the father of the reigning Emperor, sent presents to an enormous amount, in order to purchase the friendly alliance of the Emperor, and to induce him to continue the exportation of grain to Spain.

11th. In addition to all these sources of revenue, may be mentioned the duties on the exportation of cattle and vegetables to our garrison of Gibraltar, and on a few similar supplies to Spain and Portugal.

Before the present Emperor ascended the throne, the produce of the country was allowed to be exported from all the ports on the coast, and formed a very considerable source of revenue; the duties on grain alone, from Dar El Beida, in one year, amounted to 722,000 dollars. The exportation from the ports of Arzilla, El Araiche, Mamora, Rabat, Fedella, Azamor, Mazagan, Saffy, Mogodor, and Santa Cruz, in Suse, were not quite so considerable. The present prohibition of the exportation of grain, together with all the articles enumerated above, to which may be added, wool, flax, and cotton, cannot be a proof of the Emperor’s avarice, a passion ascribed to him by many; as, by allowing their exportation, and encouraging their cultivation, an accession of several millions would annually be added to the revenue of his empire.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 126: Some persons have affirmed that the Berebber and Shelluh languages are one and the same. I had considerable difficulty in procuring incontestible proofs to the contrary; a specimen of the difference will be seen by the vocabulary in the chapter on languages.]

[Footnote 127: Lat. N. 22°. See Map of the tract across the Desert.]

[Footnote 128: This dentifrice has been imported lately, and is sold at Bacon’s Medicinal Warehouse, No. 150, Oxford Street.]

[Footnote 129: Whenever a blue, or gray-eyed Mooress is seen, she is always suspected to be the descendant of some Christian renegade.]

[Footnote 130: _Mequinasia_, a woman of Mequinas.]

[Footnote 131: This is the _Lawsonia inermis_ of Linnæus.]

[Footnote 132: See some observations on this religion in a subsequent chapter.]

[Footnote 133: When I visited these ruins, in my journey from the Sanctuary of Muley Dris Zerone, near to which they are situated, in the plains below, the jealousy of the (_Stata_) protecting guide sent by the Fakeers to see me safe to the confines of their district was excited, and he endeavoured to deter me from making any observations, by insinuating that the place was the haunt of large and venomous serpents, scorpions, &c. A great number of cauldrons and kettles filled with gold and silver coins have been excavated from these ruins.]

[Footnote 134: Besides the Catholic establishments in Marocco and Mequinas, before mentioned, there is one at Tangier, and another at Mogodor.]

[Footnote 135: Ajem in Arabic signifies Barbarian. Ajemi in the same language signifies the Europeans; Wosh kat douee bel Ajemi? Do you speak the Barbarian or European language?]

[Footnote 136: Mohammedans utter the word Allah with great respect, sounding it long, and making a full stop after uttering it; they never use the pronoun to signify the Supreme Being, but always repeat the noun, and generally begin and end all religious sentences with the word Allah.]

[Footnote 137: Jma signifies the conclusion of any thing; as the conclusion of the week, and is the Arabic name appropriated to Friday, or the Mohammedan day of rest; from the radical word Jamaa, to collect or gather together. The Mohammedans name the days of the week, first day, second day, and so on, calling Sunday El hed, i.e. the first day; El thenine the second day, or Monday, &c. They do not entirely shut their shops on Friday, but work less than on any other day; they refuse, however, altogether to work for Christians, unless particularly or clandestinely feed, when they will condescend to do almost any thing.]

[Footnote 138: O believers! before ye pray, wash your faces, your hands, and your arms to the elbows, and wipe yourselves from head to feet. Vide _Koran_.]

[Footnote 139: It is customary here, as in the East, for every person to accompany his complaint with (el Heddia) a present suited to his condition; and none must appear without something, as it would be not only contrary to the established usages, but highly disrespectful; even such a trifle as three or more eggs is accepted.]

[Footnote 140: By the laws of the Koran, these crimes are punishable by death; but they are so generally indulged in, as to be mutually connived at.]

[Footnote 141: Persons bearing the name of Mohammed, which is generally given to the first male child born in marriage, are always addressed by the title of Seedy, which answers to Signor, or Monsieur; even the Emperor himself observes this towards the meanest subject that may happen to appear before him; when the name is Achmet, Aly, Said, Kossem, &c. this honourable distinction is observed or not, according to the situation and character of the person addressed. The Jews, however, whatever their condition, must address every Mooselmin with the term Seedy, or incur the danger of being knocked down; while, on the other hand, the lowest Mooselmin would consider it a degradation to address a Jew of the highest rank or respectability by this title.]

[Footnote 142: “Let the mother suckle her child full two years, if the child does not quit the breast; but she shall be permitted to wean it with the consent of the husband.” Vide Koran.]

[Footnote 143: These young wives and concubines often find opportunities clandestinely to cuckold their men or husbands.]

[Footnote 144: The k guttural, for when not guttural, the word signifies _old_ or _worn out_.]

[Footnote 145: The supply of the garrison of Gibraltar, with bullocks, &c. excepted.]

[Footnote 146: Women of rank, who reside in the towns, seldom walk abroad, it being considered a degradation to the wife of a gentleman to be seen walking in the street; when, however, they are going to pay a visit, they have a servant, or slave, to accompany them.]

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