CHAPTER XXI

BRANCH ARTHROPODA (_continued_); CLASS INSECTA: THE INSECTS

THE LOCUST (_Melanoplus_ sp.)

TECHNICAL NOTE.--Locusts or grasshoppers are common and familiar insects all over the country. The genus _Melanoplus_ includes numerous species, one or more of which are to be found in almost any locality. The common red-legged locust (_M. femur-rubrum_) of the East, the Rocky Mountain migratory locust (_M. spretus_), of the West, the large differential (_M. differentialis_) and two-striped (_M. bivittatus_) locusts of the Southwest, are especially common species. All the members of the genus have their hind wings uncolored, and the front wings marked with a longitudinal series of small dots more or less distinct, or with a longitudinal line. There is a small blunt spine or process projecting from the ventral aspect of the prothorax. If a species of _Melanoplus_ cannot be found, any other locust may be used, although there are some slight variations in the external structure of the various species. Fresh specimens killed in a cyanide bottle (for preparing see p. 463) are preferable in the study of the external structure, but specimens preserved in alcohol will do.

=External structure= (fig. 38).--Note that the body of the grass-hopper is composed of successive rings or _segments_ grouped into three regions, the _head_ (anterior), _thorax_ (median), and _abdomen_ (posterior). In which region of the body are the segments most readily distinguished? Of how many segments does the head appear to be composed? The thorax is composed of three segments of which the most anterior, to which is attached the front pair of legs, differs from the succeeding two, being freely movable and bearing a large hood- or saddle-shaped piece on its dorsal aspect. To the other two thoracic segments the second and third pair of legs are attached, as are also the two pairs of wings. The remaining segments of the body compose the abdomen.

[Illustration: FIG. 38.--The red-legged locust, _Melanoplus femur-rubrum_, to show external structure.]

Note the smooth, rather firm and horny character of the body. This is due to the fact that the skin is everywhere covered with a cuticle in which is deposited a horny substance called _chitin_. The cuticle is not uniformly firm over the body. At the junction of the body segments in the abdomen, in the neck and between the segments of the legs, in fact, wherever motion is desirable, the cuticle is flexible, thus making bending of the body-wall possible. Elsewhere, however, it is hard and stiff, serving not only as a protective coat or armor over the body, but also affording firm places for the attachment of muscles.

Insects (and all other Arthropods) have no[9] internal skeleton, but, in this firm cuticle, an _exoskeleton_.

Although the head is apparently a single segment, it is really composed of six or seven body segments greatly modified and firmly fused together. Note that it bears a pair of large _compound eyes_ and three much smaller _simple eyes_ or _ocelli_.

TECHNICAL NOTE.--Strip off a bit of the outer covering of a compound eye, mount on a glass slide and examine under the microscope.

Note that, as in the crayfish, each compound eye is composed externally of many small hexagonal _facets_, the outer covering, the _cornea_, being simply the cuticular covering of the body, in this place transparent and divided into small facets. Besides the eyes, the head bears also several movable appendages, namely the _antennæ_, and the _mouth-parts_. Note the number, place of insertion, and segmented character of the antennæ. These antennæ are sense-organs and are used for feeling, smelling, and, in some insects, for hearing. Note that the mouth-parts consist of an upper, broad, flap-like piece, the[10]_labrum_; of a pair of brown, strongly chitinized, toothed jaws or _mandibles_; of a second pair of jaw-like structures, the _maxillæ_, each of which is composed of several parts; and of an under, freely-movable flap, the _labium_, also composed of several pieces. Each maxilla bears a slender feeler or _palpus_ composed of five segments. The labium bears a pair of similar palpi, which are, however, only three-segmented. The mandibles and maxillæ, which are the insect jaws, move laterally, not vertically as with most animals.

Make drawings of the lateral aspect of the head; of a bit of the cornea; of the dissected out mouth-parts.

Of the three segments of the thoracic region of the body, the most anterior one is called the _prothorax_. It is freely movable and has a large hood or saddle-shaped piece, the _pronotum_, on its dorsal aspect, and a blunt-pointed tubercle on the ventral aspect. The foremost pair of legs is attached to the prothorax. The next segment is the _mesothorax_, which is immovably fused to the next thoracic segment. What appendages does it bear? The third segment is the _metathorax_, which besides being fused with the mesothorax in front, is similarly fused with the foremost abdominal segment behind. What appendages does the metathorax bear?

Examine one of the fore legs and note that it is composed of a series of unequal parts or segments. The segment nearest the body is sub-globular and is called the _coxa_; the second segment is smaller than the coxa and is called the _trochanter_; the third, known as the _femur_, is the largest of all; the fourth, _tibia_, is long and slender; and the next three, the last of which is the terminal one and bears a pair of claws and between them a little pad, the _pulvillus_, are called the _tarsal segments_. Most insects have five tarsal segments. Note the great size of the hindmost or leaping legs. Determine the segments of the middle and hindmost legs. Make a drawing of a fore leg.

Examine the wings. In what ways do the front wings differ from the hind wings? The front wings are known as the wing covers or _tegmina_. Note how the hind wings fold up like a fan, and are covered and protected by the wing covers. Draw the wings.

The abdomen is composed of a number of segments most of which resemble each other. The first segment (immediately behind the metathorax) has its dorsal and ventral parts widely separated by the cavities for the insertion of the hindmost legs. The ventral part of this segment is dovetailed into the ventral part of the metathorax and appears to be part of it. In the dorsal part of this segment there is on each side a spot where the cuticle is only a thin membrane. At these places are the auditory organs or ears of the locust. The thin membranes are the _tympana_. Only the various kinds of locusts and those insects closely related to them have ears of this kind. Most other insects are believed to have the sense of hearing situated in the antennæ.

The abdominal segments from second to eighth are ring-like in form and are without appendages. There is on the side of each of these segments near its front margin a tiny opening or pore called a _spiracle_. These spiracles are the breathing pores of the locust, which does not take in air through its mouth or any other opening in the head. There is a spiracle near each ear in the first abdominal segment, and one on each side of the mesothorax near the insertion of the middle legs.

The terminal segments of the abdomen are provided with certain processes which are different in male and female. The female has at the tip of its abdomen two pairs of strong, curved pointed pieces which compose the _ovipositor_, or egg-laying organ. The opening of the oviduct lies between the pieces. The male has a swollen rounded abdominal tip, with three short inconspicuous pieces on the dorsal surface.

Make a drawing of the lateral aspect of the abdomen of a female locust; also, of a male.

For a more detailed account of the external anatomy of a locust see Comstock and Kellogg's "Elements of Insect Anatomy," chap. II.

The external structure of the grasshopper should be carefully compared with that of the crayfish; pay special attention to the mouth-parts and legs.

The teacher should point out the homologies and modifications.

=Life-history and habits.=--The eggs of the locust are laid in the autumn in the ground in bare dry places, as roadsides, closely-grazed pastures, etc. The female thrusts her strong ovipositor into the soil, and by opening and shutting it, thus boring, pushes in the abdomen for about two thirds its length. The eggs, about one hundred, are then deposited in a capsule or pod. The young locusts hatch in the following spring. When just hatched they resemble the parent locust in general appearance and structure except that they lack wings, and are of course very small. The young locusts are gregarious, congregating in warm and sunny places. They feed on green plants and travel about by walking and hopping. At night they try to find shelter under rubbish in the fields. They feed voraciously and grow rapidly, reaching maturity in about two months. During this post-embryonic development and growth they molt (shed the chitinous exoskeleton) five times. After the first molt indications of the wings appear in the shape of small backward and downward prolongations of the posterior margins of the dorsum of the mesothorax and metathorax. With each succeeding molt these wing-pads, or developing wings, are larger and more wing-like, until after the last molting they appear fully developed. With each molting, too, there is a marked increase in size of the locust, the average length of the body just before the first moult being 4.3 mm., before the second 6.8 mm., before the third 9 mm., before the fourth 14 mm., before the fifth 17 mm., and after the fifth (the full-grown stage) about 26 mm.

The molting is an interesting process, and can be readily observed. The young locust ready for its last molt crawls up some post, weed, grass stalk, or other object, and clutches this object securely with the hind feet. The head is generally downward. The locust remains motionless in this position for several hours, when the skin suddenly splits along the back from the middle of the head to the base of the abdomen. By steady swelling and contracting and slight wriggling, lasting for half an hour to three-fourths of an hour, the old skin is completely shed, and the wings spread out. In an hour the wings are dry and the new chitinized exoskeleton firm enough for flying, or crawling about, and in another hour the locust begins to eat.

The red-legged locust does considerable damage to cultivated crops, but its injuries are insignificant compared with the tremendous losses occasioned by a near relative, the Rocky Mountain Locust (_Melanoplus spretus_). This locust has its breeding-grounds on the high plateaus of the Rocky Mountain region, but it sometimes migrates in countless numbers southeast over the plains and into the great grain-fields of the Mississippi valley. Such migrations occurred in 1866, 1867, 1874 (in this year eighteen hundred and forty two families in Kansas were reduced to destitution by the utter wiping out of their crops by the locusts) and 1876. With the settling-up of the regions in which the Rocky Mountain locust breeds, there seems to have come a change of conditions, so that no great migrations have occurred since 1876.

THE GREAT WATER-SCAVENGER BEETLE (_Hydrophilus_ sp.)

TECHNICAL NOTE.--The great water-scavenger beetles are large, black, elliptical insects common in quiet pools where they may be found swimming through the water, or crawling among the plants growing on the bottom. They are an inch and a half long and are readily distinguishable from all other water insects except the predaceous diving beetles (_Dyticus_). The antennæ of _Hydrophilus_, however, are thickened (clavate) at the tip, while those of _Dyticus_ are thread-like for their whole length. The beetles may be readily collected with a water-net, and kept alive in glass jars or aquaria in water containing decaying vegetation.

=External structure= (fig. 39).--Is the body of the water-beetle composed of segments? Can you make out three body-regions, _head_, _thorax_ and _abdomen_? As in the locust the _metathorax_ is fused with the first abdominal segment and with the _mesothorax_, while the _prothorax_ is freely movable, and is covered above by a strong shield. The chitin armor of the whole body is specially heavy and strong, affording a great protection to the insect.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Ventral aspect of male great water-scavenger beetle, _Hydrophilus_ sp.]

On the flattened head note the _compound eyes_ and the peculiarly-shaped nine-segmented _antennæ_. Are there any _ocelli_? Dissect out the mouth-parts. The beetle's mouth is fitted for biting, the mouth-parts being in general character like those of the locust, with distinct flap-like _labrum_, dentate _mandibles_, jaw-like _maxillæ_ with long, slender, four-segmented _palpi_ and lip-like _labium_ with three-segmented _palpi_. Make drawings of the antennæ and mouth-parts.

Note the character of the thoracic segments. Examine the wings and legs. The fore wings are modified into strong horny sheaths, or _elytra_, which completely cover and protect the folded hind wings. The hind wings are large and membranous. How are they folded? Note the adaptation of the middle and hind legs for swimming. Determine the various segments of the legs, i.e. _coxa_, _trochanter_, _femur_, _tibia and tarsus_. Note the long longitudinal median keel on the ventral aspect of the thorax.

The abdomen articulates with the metathorax by the full width of the broad first abdominal segment. It is composed of a series of segments without appendages, of about equal length but decreasing in width from in front backwards. Of how many segments does the abdomen seem to be composed when viewed from the ventral aspect? From the dorsal?

Make a drawing of the ventral aspect of the whole body.

TECHNICAL NOTE.--After examining the abdomen thus far, remove it from the rest of the body, and boil it in dilute potassium hydrate (KOH) in a test-tube. This will soften and partially bleach the body wall.

Examine the softened specimen, and note that at least two additional segments are to be found retracted or telescoped into the apparently last segment. The character of these terminal abdominal segments differs in male and female individuals, and specimens of both sexes should be examined. (The males can be distinguished from the females by the peculiar pad-like expansion of the last tarsal segment of the fore legs.) Pull out the retracted segments, and note that they are unevenly chitinized, parts of their surface being simply membranous. Projecting backwards are several long-pointed processes. The female has but one retracted segment. Though the females of many insects possess more or less elaborately developed egg-laying organs, this is not the case with the beetles. Look for _spiracles_ near the lateral margins of the dorsal surface of the abdomen. How many pairs are present?

=Internal structure= (fig. 40).--TECHNICAL NOTE.--If fresh specimens are to be had, kill by dropping into the cyanide bottle (see p. 463). Specimens preserved in a 5% solution of chloral hydrate may be used if necessary. When putting specimens into this solution a small slit should be cut through the body wall to allow the preservative to enter the body cavity. When ready to dissect a specimen cut off the elytra and wings close to the base, and carefully remove all of the dorsal wall of the abdomen and thorax and the median portion of the dorsal wall of the head. Pin out, ventral side down, under water in a dissecting-dish.

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Dissection of female great water-scavenger beetle, _Hydrophilus_ sp., the heart and tracheæ being cut away.]

Note in the median dorsal line of the abdomen a pale transparent longitudinal vessel, the _heart_ or _dorsal vessel_. Note on each side of it six prominent triangles or "Vs" with apex of each directed laterally, the posterior three smaller than the anterior three of each side. These triangles are formed by respiratory tubes or _tracheæ_. From each spiracle or breathing-pore there extends into the body a respiratory tube or trachea. These lateral tracheæ join a main longitudinal trachea on each side, from which are given off branches, which in turn repeatedly subdivide, until all parts of the body are ramified by tracheæ, large and small, bringing air to all the tissues. The oxygen is taken up from this air, and carbonic-acid gas is given up to it, when it passes out of the body again through the spiracles. Thus in the insects oxygen and carbonic-acid gas are not carried by the blood but by special air-tubes. The respiratory system of insects is very different from that of other animals.

Mount a bit of trachea in glycerine on a glass slide and examine under the microscope. Note the fine spiral line (looking like transverse annular striations) which is a thickening of the chitinous inner wall of the tube and which by its elasticity keeps the tracheal tubes open.

The heart, already noted, is composed of a longitudinal series of very thin-walled chambers, each with a pair of lateral openings into the body-cavity and with terminal openings into the adjacent chambers. The blood, which is colorless or greenish or yellowish, is sent forward through the successive heart chambers by regular contractions until it finally pours from the most anterior chamber freely into the body-cavity. Here it bathes the body-tissues, flowing perhaps in regular paths, giving up food to the tissues and taking up food from the alimentary canal, until it finds its way through the lateral openings into the heart chamber again. There are no arteries or veins.

Note the large mass of _muscles_ in the metathorax. Note, by attempting to remove it, that the anterior part of the muscle mass is attached to a chitinous partition-wall between the meso- and meta-thorax. Remove this

## partition-wall (and one between the metathorax and abdomen) and note

that certain muscles run deeply down into the body. By pulling on the bits of chitin to which the muscles are attached, the muscles (if they have not been cut) can be stretched to the length of three-quarters of an inch. When released they will contract. (This stretching and contracting takes place only in fresh specimens.) What are these large and numerous muscles of the thorax for?

Remove the thin membrane stretching over the abdomen and in which the heart and tracheal "Vs" lie, and note immediately underneath it the large coiled _intestine_ with a knot of greenish yellow threads in the centre. Carefully uncoil and pin out the intestine, cutting away the tying tracheæ, but being careful not to cut other structures. Work out the full length of the alimentary canal, noting the _œsophagus_, the widened _crop_ behind it, and the long intestine. From the intestine arise several greenish yellow threads, the _Malpighian tubules_. These are the excretory organs of the insect. What is the total length of the alimentary canal?

The reproductive organs, consisting of a pair of glands (egg-glands or sperm-glands) with a pair of tubes which unite before reaching the body-wall and have a common external opening, may now be seen. These should be removed, thus exposing the _ventral nerve-chain_ in the abdomen. To expose the chain in the thorax it will be necessary to pick away carefully the muscles. As in the crayfish, the central nervous system in the beetle consists of a ventral nerve-chain, a _brain_ or _supra-œsophageal ganglion_ and a pair of _circum-œsophageal commissures_ connecting the brain and the foremost ganglion (_infra-œsophageal_) in the ventral chain. There are, in the ventral chain, four ganglia in the thorax and four in the abdomen. The large nerves running from the brain to the compound eyes and to the antennæ can be traced.

Make a drawing showing the nervous system.

=Life-history and habits.=--The eggs, usually about one hundred, are deposited in a silken sac or case which is spun by the female, and either floats freely or is attached to the under sides of the leaves of aquatic plants. This egg-case is not wholly filled with eggs but has a considerable air-chamber in it, causing it to float. It is oval in shape, and has a peculiar curved horn-like projection at the upper end. In sixteen or eighteen days the young water-scavenger beetles hatch as elongate, wingless, active larvæ, provided with three pairs of legs and strong jaws. They remain for a short time after hatching in the egg-case, feeding on each other! After they issue from the case they feed on flies or other insects which fall into the water, and on snails. They breathe through a pair of spiracles situated at the posterior tip of the abdomen, coming to the surface and thrusting this tip up so that the spiracles are out of water. They grow rapidly, molting three times before becoming full grown. They attain a length of nearly three inches. When full grown they leave the water, crawling out on the damp shore of the pond or stream, and burrow into the soil for a few inches. Here they molt again, or pupate as it is called, changing to a non-feeding, quiescent stage called the pupal stage. The pupa is the stage in which the great changes from wingless, crawling and swimming, short-legged, long, slender-bodied larva to winged, swimming and flying, long-legged, compact, broad-bodied adult are completed. Late in the summer or in the fall the pupal skin breaks and the adult issues. It works its way to the surface of the ground, and betakes itself to the nearest water.

The water-scavenger beetle shows in its post-embryonal development a "complete metamorphosis" as contrasted with the "incomplete metamorphosis" of the locust. Wherever among insects similar changes occur, the young issuing from eggs as larvæ only remotely resembling the parent, and these active feeding larvæ changing finally into more or less quiescent, strictly non-feeding pupæ, which finally change into the active adults, a complete metamorphosis is said to exist. All the beetles, the butterflies and moths, the two-winged flies, the ants, bees and wasps, and certain other groups of insects undergo in their post-embryonic development a complete metamorphosis. The crickets, katydids, the sucking bugs, the May-flies, the white ants and numerous other insects have, like the locust, an incomplete metamorphosis, that is, the young when hatched resemble in most respects, except in the absence of wings, their parents.

The adult water-scavenger beetle feeds chiefly on decaying vegetation in the water, but instances of the taking of other insects and of snails have been noted. Although an aquatic insect the beetle, like its larva, has no gills for breathing the air which is mixed with the water, but has to come to the surface occasionally to obtain air. This it does in an interesting way, which should be carefully observed by the pupils. The air is received and held by a covering of fine hairs on the ventral surface of the body, so that a considerable supply may be carried about by the beetle while underneath the surface. The beetles often leave the water by night, flying abroad to other ponds or streams. In winter the beetles hibernate, burying themselves in the banks of the ponds which they inhabit.

For a good account, with illustrations, of the water-scavenger beetle's life-history see Miall's "Natural History of Aquatic Insects," pp. 61-87.

THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY (_Anosia plexippus_)

TECHNICAL NOTE.--The Monarch or Milkweed butterfly is distributed all over the country. It is large, and red-brown in color, and lays its eggs on milk weeds where the greenish yellow and black-banded larvæ (caterpillars) may be found feeding. The covering of scales conceals the outlines of the various external parts, but these scales may be easily removed with dissecting needle and a small brush. In brushing the scales from the head care must be taken not to break off the mouth-parts.

=External structure= (fig. 41).--Note the three body-regions, _head_, _thorax_ and _abdomen_. Is the body segmented? Note the dark color and firm character of the chitinized cuticle.

[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Body of the monarch butterfly, _Anosia plexippus_, with scales removed to show the external parts.]

Note on the head the large _compound eyes_. Note the tumid convex _clypeus_ which composes most of the anterior aspect of the head. Are _ocelli_ present? Compare the _antennæ_ with those of the locust and water-beetle. Compare also the _mouth-parts_ and note that they differ radically from those of the locust and beetle. They are not fitted for biting, but for sucking up liquid food (the nectar of flowers). Note the absence of a movable flap-like _labrum_ (a minute narrow stiff piece, bearing at each latera end a small group of fine brown hairs, represents the labrum), the entire absence of _mandibles_, and the absence of a movable flap-like labium. The _labium_ is a fixed chitinized triangular piece forming part of the floor of the head. Note the long slender _proboscis_ coiled up like a watch-spring. (In fresh specimens this proboscis can be uncoiled and will be found flexible. If dried or alcoholic specimens are being studied, the head of the butterfly should be removed and softened in warm water before the mouth-parts are examined.) On either side of this proboscis is a peculiar pointed process which rises from the under side of the head. These processes are the _labial palpi_ and serve to protect the sucking proboscis. The proboscis itself is composed of the two greatly modified _maxillæ_. Instead of being short, jaw-like and composed of several pieces as in the locust, in the butterfly each maxilla is a slender, flexible half tube applied against its mate on the opposite side in such a way as to form a perfect tube long enough to reach into the nectaries of flowers when in use and capable of being compactly coiled up at other times. Cut across the proboscis and note the canal in the centre. Try to separate the two maxillæ which compose it.

Make a drawing of the frontal aspect of the head with the eyes and appendages.

Compare the thorax with that of the beetle and that of the locust. The _prothorax_ is a freely movable narrow ring or collar. The _mesothorax_ and _metathorax_ are fused to form a large convex mass, of which fully five-sixths is mesothorax and only one-sixth metathorax. Try to distinguish the boundaries of the two segments. Note the three pairs of legs; the differences in size among them, and the differences between them and the legs of the locust and water-beetle. In one of the legs determine the _coxa_, _trochanter_, _femur_, _tibia_ and _tarsal segments_. Note the differences between the wings of the butterfly and those of the locust and beetle. Note that the wings are membranous, but are covered with many fine _scales_ (fig. 42), as is, indeed, the whole body. Rub off some of these scales on a glass slide and examine; note shape, little stem or pedicel of insertion, and longitudinal striations. Examine under microscope a bit of wing from which some of the scales have been rubbed. How are the scales attached to the wing membranes? How are the scales arranged? Note that the wing is colorless where the scales have been removed. All the colors and patterns of the wings of butterflies are produced by the scales.

Make drawings of scales; of parts of denuded wings, and of bit of wing covered with scales.

Remove all or nearly all the scales from a wing and note the arrangement of the _veins_ (_venation_). Compare with venation in wings of locust.

Make drawing showing venation in the butterfly's wings.

[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Bit of wing of Monarch butterfly, _Anosia plexippus_, magnified to show the scales; some scales removed to show the insertion-pits and their regular arrangement. (From specimen.)]

The venation of insects' wings is much used in insect classification, and the various veins have been given names. The names of the veins in the butterfly's wings are given in fig. 43. When the veins in the wings of all the various groups of insects are studied, it is evident that the principal ones are the same in all insects, so that the costa, sub-costa, radius, media, cubitus and anal veins of the butterfly's wings can be compared with the corresponding veins in the wings of a beetle or wasp or fly. Noting the differences in the number and character of branching of these principal veins, and the number and disposition of the cross-veins which connect the longitudinal veins, the various kinds of insects can be to a large extent properly grouped or classified. A detailed account of the wing-veins of insects is given in Comstock and Kellogg's "Elements of Insect Anatomy," chap. VII.

Of how many segments is the abdomen composed? The first or basal segment is depressed, while the others are more or less compressed. The _spiracles_ are, as in the locust, situated on the lateral aspects of the abdominal segments. What segments bear spiracles? The terminal segments of the abdomen differ in the two species. In the female the dorsal part of the (apparently) last segment is longer than the ventral part and is bent down over it forming a sort of hood over a space enclosed partly by this hood, partly by a bluntly-pointed projection from the ventral surface, and partly by the lateral margins of the segment. In this chamber lies the opening from which the eggs issue. In the male there are several backward-projecting, horny, thin processes.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Wings of monarch butterfly, _Anosia plexippus_, to show venation; _c_, costal vein; _sc_, sub-costal vein; _r_, radial vein; _cu_, cubital vein; _a_, anal veins. In addition most insects have a vein lying between the sub-costal and radial veins called the median vein.]

Make a drawing of the lateral aspect of the whole body.

=Life-history and habits.=--The tiny, conical, yellowish-green eggs of the monarch butterfly are deposited on the under side of the leaves of milkweeds (_Asclepias_) and when examined under the microscope are seen to be very beautiful little objects finely ribbed with longitudinal and transverse striæ. The eggs are laid in April and May (depending on the latitude and season) by females which have hibernated in the adult condition. From the eggs the minute, cylindrical, pale-green, black-headed larvæ hatch in four or five days. As soon as hatched the larva devours the eggshell from which it has escaped and then feeds voraciously on the milkweed leaves. It grows rapidly, and in three or four days a blackish band or ring appears on each segment, and for the rest of its life it is very conspicuously colored with its black rings on a yellowish-green background. It molts three times, and in from twelve to twenty days is ready to pupate, or change to a chrysalis.

When ready to pupate the larva usually leaves the milkweed plant, and seeks some such protected place as the under side of a fence-rail or jutting rock. Here it attaches its posterior extremity by a small silken web to the rail or rock, and casting its larval skin appears as a beautiful pale-green chrysalis with ivory black and golden spots. It hangs motionless, and of course without taking food, for from a week to two weeks (according to season and temperature), when the pupal cuticle breaks and the great red-brown butterfly (fig. 165) issues.

The butterfly feeds (as is indicated by the structure of its mouth-parts) very differently from the larva; it sucks up by means of its long tubular proboscis the nectar of flowers, nor does it confine itself at all to the flowers of milkweeds. It is a fine flyer and a great traveller. Many thousands of these butterflies often make long flights or migrations together. At other times tens of thousands of these butterflies congregate in a certain limited area, clinging sometimes to the branches of a few trees in such numbers and so closely together as to give the tree a brown color. Such a "sembling" of monarch butterflies occurs every year near the Point Pinos lighthouse on the Bay of Monterey, California. The object of this assembling together is not understood. Both the larvæ and adults of the monarch butterfly are distasteful to birds, by their possession of an acrid body-fluid. The species is thus protected against the most dangerous enemies of butterflies, a fact which chiefly accounts for the great abundance and wide distribution of the monarch (see p. 137). For a full account of the life-history of the monarch butterfly, see "Scudder's Life of a Butterfly."

LARVA OF MONARCH BUTTERFLY (_Anosia plexippus_)

TECHNICAL NOTE.--For directions for finding and identifying the larvæ of the monarch butterfly see p. 171. If larvæ (caterpillars) of _Anosia_ cannot be found, those of any other butterfly or moth will do. Use naked, smooth kinds like cutworms, cabbage worms and the like, rather than hairy or spiny ones. Use large specimens. Kill the caterpillar with ether or in a cyanide bottle.

=Structure= (fig. 44).--As we have learned from the study of the life-history of the locust, water-beetle and butterfly, some insects are hatched from the egg in a condition resembling that of the parents in most structural characters. This is true of the locust. Other insects, as the beetle and butterfly, are hatched in a form and condition apparently very different from that of the parents. The external appearance of a beetle or butterfly larva differs much from that of the adult or imago of the same individual. It will be of interest to examine more particularly the structural condition of one of these larvæ and to compare it with the structure of the adult.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Dissection of the silkworm, larva of the moth _Bombyx mori_.]

Is the body segmented? Is the body composed of _head_, _thorax_ and _abdomen_? Note the soft, flexible, weakly-chitinized condition of the _body-wall_. How many pairs of legs are there? Where are they situated? Is there any difference in the various legs? If so, what is the difference? Which of the legs of the larva correspond with the legs of the butterfly? Why? The prothoracic segment and the abdominal segments 1 to 8 each bear a pair of _spiracles_ (small blackish spots on the sides). Are both _compound_ and _simple eyes_ present? How many eyes are there? Are there _antennæ_? Dissect out the _mouth-parts_. How do they differ from those of the butterfly? Are they more like the mouth-parts of the butterfly or more like those of the locust?

With fine sharp-pointed scissors make a shallow longitudinal incision along the whole length of the dorsal wall. In a freshly-killed specimen a drop of pale greenish blood will issue as the scissors' point is first thrust through the skin. Put a droplet of this blood on a glass slide, cover with cover glass and examine with high power of the microscope. Note that the blood is a fluid containing numerous sub-circular or elliptical bodies, the _blood-corpuscles_. Note at least two kinds of corpuscles: most abundant a granular, circular kind, the true blood-corpuscles; and rarer, a larger, clear, usually elliptical or oval, but sometimes irregular and amœbiform kind, generally spoken of as _fat-cells_.

Make a drawing of the corpuscles in the field of the microscope.

After making the dorsal longitudinal incision pin out the caterpillar in the dissecting-dish with dorsal aspect uppermost. When the edges of the skin are pinned back, the organs most conspicuous in the body-cavity will be the flocculent masses of _adipose tissue_, the large, simple, tubular _alimentary canal_ usually dark or greenish because of the color of its contents, and the numerous silvery _tracheal tubes_. In those caterpillars which spin a silken cocoon, the _silk_ or _spinning-glands_ are usually long and prominent. They lie on either side of the anterior part of the alimentary canal, and open by a common duct on the labium. Rising from behind the middle of the alimentary canal may be found the long, whitish, folded and twisted _Malpighian tubules_. By picking away the fat masses, expose the full length of the alimentary canal. Note its great size (large diameter). Is it divided into distinct regions such as crop, proventriculus, stomach, intestine, etc.? How is it held in place? Trace the principal longitudinal tracheal trunks. Find, if you can, a pair of small compact bodies usually somewhat elongate, one lying on each side of the posterior part of the alimentary canal. These are the rudimentary reproductive organs.

Remove the alimentary canal by cutting it off at its posterior tip and also in the prothoracic segment. Work out now the _ventral nerve-cord_ and _ganglia_, and the _supra-œsophageal_ (brain) and _infra-œsophageal ganglia_ and the _commissures_ in the head.

In the body of the caterpillar we have found the same general disposition of organs as in the body of an adult insect, but several differences are nevertheless noticeable, viz., the presence of a large quantity of fatty tissue, the great size and simple character of the alimentary canal, and the undeveloped condition of the reproductive organs.

OTHER INSECTS

The class Insecta includes those Arthropods which have one pair of antennæ (sense appendages), three pairs of mouth-parts (oral appendages), and three pairs of legs (locomotory appendages). The insects, in further contradistinction to the crustaceans, are mostly land animals and breathe by means of tracheæ or tracheal gills. They are the most familiar of land invertebrates, and, as already mentioned, include more species than are comprised in all the other groups of animals taken together. Beetles, moths and butterflies, flies, wasps and bees, dragonflies and grasshoppers are familiar members of the class of insects, but spiders, mites, scorpions, centipeds and thousand-legged worms are not true insects and should not be so miscalled. These last belong to the branch Arthropoda but to other classes than the class Insecta. While insects are found living under most diverse conditions on land, that is, on the ground, in the leaves, fruits and stems of plants, in the trunks of trees or in dead wood, in the soil, in decaying animal or plant matter, as parasites on or in other animals, and in all fresh-water ponds and streams, they do not live in ocean water. A few species live habitually on the surface of the ocean, and a few other forms are found habitually on the water-drenched rocks and seaweeds between tide lines. The varied habits of insects, their economic relations with man, the beauty and grace of many of them, and the readiness with which they may be collected, reared and studied, renders them unusually fit animals for the special attention of beginning students of zoology.

[Illustration: FIG. 45.--A wingless insect; the American spring-tail. _Lepidocyrtus americanus_, common in dwelling-houses. The short line at the right indicates the natural size. (From Marlatt.)]

=Body form and structure.=--The segments composing the body of an insect are grouped to form three body-regions, the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head of an adult insect appears to be a single segment or body-ring, but in reality it is composed of several segments, probably seven, completely fused. The head bears the eyes, antennæ and the mouth-parts. The thorax is made up of three segments, each segment bearing a pair of legs. From the dorsal side of the hinder two thoracic segments arise the two pairs of wings which are the most striking structural features of insects. Not all insects are winged, (fig. 45), and of those which are a few have only one pair of wings, but the great majority of them have two pairs of well-developed wings (fig. 46), which give them, as compared with the other animals we have studied, a new and most effective means of locomotion. The great numbers of insects and their preponderance among living animals is undoubtedly largely due to the advantage derived from their power of flight. The hindmost part of the body, the abdomen, is composed of from seven to eleven segments, only the last one or two of which are ever provided with appendages. When such posterior abdominal appendages are present they form egg-laying or stinging or clasping organs.

[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A four-winged insect; a stone fly, _Perla_ sp., common about brooks. (From Jenkins and Kellogg.)]

The body-wall is usually firm and rigid, with thinner flexible places between the segments and body-parts for the sake of motion. The body-wall is composed of a cellular skin or hypoderm, and an outer non-cellular cuticle in which is deposited a horny substance called chitin. This chitinous cuticle or exoskeleton serves as an armor or protective covering for the soft body within, and also as a point of attachment for the many muscles of the body.

Insects vary a great deal in regard to shape and appearance of the body, and certain of the external organs are greatly modified in different insects to adapt them to the varied conditions under which they live. Especially interesting and important are the variations in the character of the mouth-parts and wings, the organs of food-getting and locomotion. In our consideration later of some of the more important groups of insects the modification of these parts will be specially referred to. Despite the great number of insects, however, and their varied habits of life, a strong uniformity of body-structure is noticeable, all of them holding pretty closely to the typical body-plan.

The most interesting feature of the internal anatomy of the insect body is the respiratory system. Insects breathe through tiny paired openings, called spiracles, in the sides of the abdominal (and sometimes the thoracic) segments (the number and disposition of the pairs of spiracles varying much in different insects). These spiracles are the external openings of an elaborate system of air-tubes or tracheæ (fig. 47) which ramify throughout the whole body and carry air to all the organs and tissues. The blood has apparently nothing to do with respiration as it has in the vertebrate animals, where it carries oxygen to all the body tissues.

[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Piece of trachea (air-tube) from the larva of the giant-cranefly. (Photo-micrograph by Geo. O. Mitchell.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 48.--The antenna of a carrion beetle, with the terminal three segments enlarged and flattened, and bearing many "smelling-pits", the antenna thus serving as an olfactory organ. (Photo-micrograph by Geo. O. Mitchell.)]

The other systems of organs are well developed and in many respects more complex and elaborate than those of any of the other invertebrates. The muscular system comprises a large number of distinct muscles, usually small and short, which are disposed so as to make very effective the various complex motions of antennæ, mouth-parts, legs, wings, and egg-laying organs. The muscles appear to be very delicate, being almost colorless when fresh, but they have a high contractile power. The alimentary canal is divided into various special regions, as pharynx, œsophagus, crop, fore stomach or gizzard, digesting stomach, and small and large intestine. From the canal just at the point of union of the digesting stomach (ventriculus) and the small intestine rise the so-called Malpighian tubules, which are excretory organs. They are long slender diverticula of the alimentary canal, and are typically six (three pairs) in number. The circulatory system is composed of a tubular vessel running longitudinally through the body in the median line just under the dorsal wall. It is composed of a series of chambers or segmental parts, which by a rhythmic contraction and expansion propel the blood anteriorly and into a short, narrow, unsegmented anterior portion of the vessel which may be called the aorta. There are no other arteries or veins, the blood simply pouring out of the anterior end of the dorsal vessel into the body-cavity. It bathes the body tissues, flowing usually in regular channels without walls. It re-enters the dorsal vessel through paired lateral openings in the chambers.

[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A section through the compound eye (in late pupal stage) of the blow-fly, _Calliphora romitoria_. In the centre is the brain, with optic lobe, and on the right-hand margin are the many ommatidia in longitudinal section. (Photo-micrograph by Geo. O. Mitchell.)]

The main or central nervous system consists of a large ganglion, the "brain," situated in the head above the œsophagus, which sends nerves to the antennæ and eyes, a ganglion in the head below the œsophagus connected with the brain by a short commissure on each side of the œsophagus, and sending nerves to the mouth-parts; and a ventral nerve-chain composed of a pair of longitudinal commissures lying close together and running from the head to the next to the last abdominal segment, which bears a series of segmentally disposed ganglia, each ganglion being composed of two ganglia more or less nearly completely fused. There is, in addition, a lesser system called the sympathetic system, which comprises a few small ganglia and certain nerves which run from them to the viscera. The function of the nervous system of insects reaches a very high development among the so-called "intelligent insects" and certain extraordinarily complex and interesting instincts are possessed by many forms. The social or communal habits of the ants, bees, and wasps and the habits connected with the deposition of the eggs and the care of the young exhibited by the digger wasps and other insects are of extreme specialization. The organs of special sense are highly specialized, the sense of smell (fig. 48) reaching in particular a high degree of perfection. One of the compound eyes (figs. 49 and 50) may contain as many as 30,000 distinct eye-elements or ommatidia, but the sight is probably in no insect very sharp or clear. Among insects there are organs of hearing of two principal kinds. In one kind the organ for taking up the sound-waves is a group of vibratile hairs usually situated on the antennæ, as is the case with the mosquito; in the other kind, it is a stretched membrane or tympanum such as is found in the fore leg of a cricket or katydid or on the first abdominal segment of the locust (fig. 51).

[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Part of cornea, showing facets, of the compound eye of a horse-fly (_Therioplectes_ sp.). (Photo-micrograph by Geo. O. Mitchell.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--The auditory organ of a locust (_Melanoplus_ sp.). The large clear part in centre of the figure is the thin tympanum, with the auditory vesicle (small black pear-shaped spot) and auditory ganglion (at left of vesicle and connected with it by a nerve) on its inner surface. (Photo-micrograph by Geo. O. Mitchell.)]

The sexes are distinct in insects, and there is often a marked sex dimorphism; in numerous species the males are winged while the females are wingless, and in a few cases this condition is reversed. Where there is a difference in size between male and female, the females are usually the larger. Fertilization of the egg takes place in the body of the female and, strangely, this fertilization is effected after the eggshell has been formed. In all insect eggs there is a minute opening in one pole of the eggshell called the micropyle through which the sperm-cells enter. In a few cases the young are born alive, but such a viviparous condition is exceptional. In a few species, too, young are produced parthenogenetically, that is, are produced from unfertilized eggs. And in the case of a few insect species male individuals are not known.

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--The young (at left) and adult (at right) of the bed-bug, _Acanthia lectularia_, a wingless insect with incomplete metamorphosis. (After Riley.)]

=Development and life-history.=--The young insect when just hatched from the egg either resembles, except for the absence of wings, its parent in general appearance as in the case of the locust, or it may, as in the butterfly, emerge in a form very unlike the parent. In the first case the young has simply to grow, that is, to increase in size, to develop wings, and to make some other not very obvious developmental changes in order to become fully grown. But in the case of the butterfly, and similarly in the case of all other insects as the flies, beetles, bees _et al._, whose young hatch in a larval condition differing markedly from the adult, some radical and striking developmental changes occur before maturity is reached. Such insects are said to undergo complete metamorphosis in their development, while those insects like the locusts, the sucking-bugs, white ants, and others, the just hatched young of which resemble their parents, are said to have an incomplete metamorphosis (fig. 52).

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--The larva of the violet tip butterfly, _Polygonia interragationis_, making its last molt, i.e. pupating. (Photograph from life.)]

In the case of insects with complete metamorphosis, the young hatches as an active grub or worm-like feeding larva which increases in size, casting its skin or molting several times in its growth. Finally after the last larval molt (fig. 53) called pupation the insect appears in a quiescent non-feeding stage called the pupa (fig. 54), and encased in an extra thick and firm chitinous exoskeleton. The immovable pupa is sometimes concealed underground, sometimes enclosed in a silken cocoon spun by the larva just before pupation, or is in some other way specially protected. It is in this pupal condition that the great changes from wingless, often legless, worm-like larva to winged, six-legged, graceful imago of adult stage are completed, and with the molting of the chitinous pupal cuticle the metamorphosis or development of the insect is completed. As a matter of fact many of the special organs of the adult, the legs and wings, for example, begin to develop as little buds or groups of cells in the body of the larva, and when the larva is ready to pupate these imaginal wings and legs are drawn out to the external surface of the body, and may be readily recognized as they lie on the ventral surface of the pupa folded and closely pressed to the body surface. In recent years the study of the post-embryonic development of insects with complete metamorphosis has revealed some remarkable changes of the internal organs which result in a nearly complete disintegration or breaking down of most of the internal organs of the larva (fig. 55) and a rebuilding of the organs of the adult from primitive beginnings.

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Chrysalid (pupa) of the violet tip butterfly, _Polygonia interragationis_. From this chrysalid issues the full fledged butterfly. (Photograph from life.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 55.--A cross-section of the body of the pupa of a honey-bee, showing the body cavity filled with disintegrated tissues, and (at the bottom) a budding pair of legs of the adult, the larva being wholly legless. (Photo-micrograph by Geo. O. Mitchell.)]

The habits of the larvæ of insects with complete metamorphosis and of the young of some insects with incomplete metamorphosis often differ markedly from the habits of the adults, and as the habits and instincts of insects are remarkably specialized, the study of their behavior and of the structural and physiological modification which their varied habits of life have brought about is of much interest and significance. In later paragraphs this phase of insect study will be again referred to.

=Classification.=--Much attention has been paid to the classification of insects and the 300,000 (approximately) known species have been variously grouped together into orders by different entomologists. A subdivision of the class Insecta into five orders was proposed by Linnæus about 1750 and was used until comparatively recently. Since then, however, numerous other arrangements have been proposed, all of them agreeing in increasing the number of orders by breaking up some of the old ones into two or more new ones. The classification adopted in the text-book[11] of zoology which we have made our reference in classification is an 8-order system. The latest English[12] text-book in entomology adopts a 9-order system, while the principal American[13] text-book on this subject divides the insects into nineteen orders.

The classification depends chiefly on the character of the post-embryonic development, that is, on whether the metamorphosis is complete or incomplete, and on the structural character of the mouth-parts and wings. In the following paragraphs a few of the larger insect orders, with some special representatives of each, will be briefly considered.

The best American text-book of the classification and habits of insects is Comstocks' "Manual of Insects." For an account of the structure of the wings and mouth-parts of various insects see Comstock and Kellogg's "Elements of Insect Anatomy."

=Orthoptera: the locusts, cockroaches, crickets, katydids, etc.=--TECHNICAL NOTE.--Obtain specimens of crickets or katydids, and cockroaches, and compare the external body structure with that of the grasshopper; examine especially the wings, mouth-parts, legs, and egg-laying organs. Note that the hindmost legs of the cockroach are not fitted for leaping but for running. Note the sound-making (stridulating) organs on the bases of the fore wings of the male katydids and crickets. Note the auditory organs (tympana) in the fore tibiæ of the katydids and crickets. Crickets can be easily kept alive in breeding-cages in the laboratory and their feeding habits and much of their life-history observed. The growth of the young and the development of the wings can be noted, and will be found to be essentially similar to the conditions already found in the case of the locust.

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--The house cricket, male (_a_) and female (_b_). (From Marlatt.)]

The locust studied as one of the examples of the class Insecta belongs to the order Orthoptera, which also includes the cockroaches, crickets (fig. 56), katydids and green grasshoppers, the walking-stick or twig insects, the praying mantis and others. The members of this order all have an incomplete metamorphosis, and in all the mouth-parts are fitted for biting and the fore wings are more or less thickened and modified to serve as covers or protecting organs for the broad, plaited, membranous hind wings, which are the true flight organs. The hind legs of locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids are very large, and enable the insects to leap; the legs of the cockroaches are fitted for swift running; the fore legs of the praying mantis are fitted for grasping other insects which serve as their food, and the legs of the walking-stick (fig. 162) are long and slender and fitted for slow walking. The shrill singing of the crickets and katydids and the loud "clacking" of the locusts are all made by stridulation, that is, by rubbing two roughened parts of the body together. The sounds of insects are not made by vocal cords in the throat. The male crickets and katydids (for only the males sing) have the veins of the fore wings modified so that when the bases of the wings are rubbed together (and when the cricket or katydid is at rest the base of one fore wing overlaps the base of the other) a part of one wing called the "scraper" rubs against a part of the other called the "file" and the shrilling is produced. The sounds of locusts are produced by the rubbing of the inside of the hind leg against the outside of the fore wing when the insect is at rest, or by striking the front margin of each hind wing against the hind margin of each fore wing when the locust is flying. For hearing the Orthoptera are provided with auditory organs having the character of tympana or vibrating membranes. In the locusts these ears (fig. 51) are situated on the dorsal surface of the first abdominal segment; in the katydids and crickets they are in the tibiæ of the fore legs. The food of locusts, crickets, and katydids is vegetable, being usually green leaves; the cockroaches eat either plant or animal substances fresh or dry, while the praying mantis is predaceous, feeding on other insects which it catches in its strong grasping fore legs. The walking-stick or twig insect is an excellent example of what is called "protective resemblance" among animals. Indeed most of the Orthoptera are so colored and patterned as to be almost indistinguishable when on their usual resting- or feeding-grounds. Some of the tropical Orthoptera carry to a marvelous degree this modification for the sake of protection. (In this connection read