CHAPTER XI

THE BUILDING OF THE STEAMSHIP

We propose in the present chapter, now that we have seen the evolution of the steamship through all its various vicissitudes and in its special ways, to set forth within the limited space that is now left to us some general idea of the means adopted to create the great steamship from a mass of material into a sentient, moving being.

Around the building of a ship there is encircling it perhaps far more sentiment than in the activity of almost any other industry. Poets and painters have found in this a theme for their imagination not once, but many times. Making a ship is something less prosaic, a million times more romantic, than making a house, for the reason that whilst the ship, as long as she remains on the stocks, is just so many thousand tons of material, yet from the very moment when she first kisses the water she becomes a living thing, intelligent, with a character of her own, distinct and recognisable. In the whole category of man-made things there is nothing comparable to this.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--FLUSH-DECKED TYPE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--“THREE ISLAND,” TYPE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--TOP-GALLANT FORECASTLE TYPE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--TOP-GALLANT FORECASTLE TYPE, WITH RAISED QUARTER-DECK.]

[Illustration: Fig. 5.--EARLY “WELL-DECK” TYPE.]

Her genesis begins when the future owners resolve to have her built. Before any plans are drawn out there must first be decided the dimensions, the displacement and the general features which she is to possess, whether she is to be a slow ship, a fast ship, engaged in passenger work, cargo-carrying, on the North Atlantic route, for the East through the Suez Canal, and so on; for all these factors combine to determine the lines on which she is to be built. Before we progress any farther, let us get into our minds the nine different types which separate the generic class of steamships. If the reader will follow the accompanying illustrations, we shall not run the risk of being obscure in our argument. Fig. 1, shows the steamship in its elementary form, just a flush-decked craft, with casings for the protection of the engines as explained on an earlier page. This represents the type of which the coasting steamer illustrated opposite page 134 is an example. This casing in the diagram before us is, so to speak, an island on the deck, but presently it was so developed that it extended to the sides of the ship, and, rising up as a continuation of the hull, became a bridge. At the same time a monkey forecastle and a short poop were added to make her the better protected against the seas. This will be seen in Fig. 2. This is known as the “three-island” type for obvious reasons. It must be understood that on either side a passage leads beneath the bridge-deck so as to allow the crew to get about the ship. But from being merely a protection for the bows of the ship, the monkey forecastle became several feet higher, so that it could accommodate the quarters of the crew, and this “top-gallant” forecastle, as it is known, will be seen in Fig. 3. At the same time, the short poop or hood at the stern has now become lengthened into something longer. But in Fig. 4 we find the lengthened poop becoming a raised quarter-deck--that is, not a mere structure raised over the deck, but literally a deck raised at the quarter. This raised quarter-deck was the better able to withstand the violent force of the sea when it broke over the ship. In Fig. 5 we have a still further development in which the topgallant forecastle is retained as before, but the long poop and the after end of the bridge are lengthened until they meet and form one long combination. This is one of the “well-deck” types, the “well” being between the after end of the forecastle and the forward end of the bridge-deck. This well was left for the reason that it was not required for carrying cargo, because it was not desirable to load the ship forward lest she might be down at the head (which in itself would be bad), whilst at the same time it would raise the stern so that the propeller was the more likely to race. But in the modern evolution of the steamship it is not only a question of trim and seaworthiness that have been taken into consideration, but also there are the rules and regulations which have been made with regard to the steam vessel. Now, this well-space not being reckoned in the tonnage of the ship (on which she has to pay costly dues) if kept open, it was good and serviceable in another way. Considered from the view of seaworthiness, this well, it was claimed, would allow the prevention of the sweeping of the whole length of the ship by whatever water that broke aboard the bows (which would be the case if the well were covered up). If left open, the water could easily be allowed to run out through the scuppers. But this type in Fig. 5 is rather midway in the transition between the “three-island” type and the shelter-deck type. The diagram in Fig. 6 is more truly a well-decker, and differs from the ship in Fig. 5, in that the one we are now considering has a raised quarter-deck instead of a poop. She has a top-gallant forecastle, a raised quarter-deck and bridge combined, and this type was largely used in the cargo ships employed in crossing the Atlantic Ocean. It is now especially popular in ships engaged in the coal trade. The advantages of this raised quarter-deck are that it increases the cubic capacity of the ship, and makes up for the space wasted by the shaft tunnel. By enabling more cargo to be placed aft, it takes away the chance of the ship being trimmed by the head.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.--“WELL-DECK” TYPE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 7.--“SPAR-DECK” TYPE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 8.--“AWNING-DECK” TYPE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 9.--“SHADE-DECK” TYPE.]

Fig. 7 shows a “spar-decker,” which is the first of the three-deckers that we shall now mention. This was evolved for the purpose of carrying passengers between decks. It has a continuous upper deck of fairly heavy construction, the bridge deck, of course, being above the spar deck. In Fig. 8 we have the “awning-decker,” which has a continuous deck lighter in character than the last-mentioned type, and like the latter, the sides are completely enclosed above the main deck. Because of this lightness of construction, it is not customary to add further erections above that are of any weight. Its origin was due to the desire to provide a shelter for the ships employed in carrying Oriental pilgrims. Later on this type was retained in cargo-carriers. Finally, we have the “shade-decker” as in Fig. 9, which is provided with openings at the side for ventilation. This type is so well known to the reader from posters and photographs, that it is scarcely essential to say much. But we may remark that the lightly constructed deck fitted between the poop and forecastle is supported by round stanchions, open at the sides (as shown herewith), but sometimes closed by light plates. It is built just of sufficient strength to provide a promenade for passengers, or shelter for cattle, on the upper deck. This is still a very popular type for intermediate and large cargo steamers.

[Illustration: THE BUILDING OF THE “MAURETANIA.”

Showing Floor and part of Frames.

_From a Photograph. By permission of the Cunard Steamship Co._]

With these different types before us, we may now go on with our main subject. Having settled the question as to the type and character of the steamship to be built, the next thing is to design the midship section, which shows the general structural arrangements and scantlings of the various parts. In the drawing-office the plans are prepared, and the various sections of the ship worked out by expert draughtsmen attached to the shipbuilding yard. This necessitates the very greatest accuracy, and the building is usually specially guarded against those who might like to have an opportunity of obtaining valuable secrets. The plans having been worked out on paper, there follows the “laying off” on the floor of an immense loft, called the “mould floor,” where the plans are transferred according to the exact dimensions that are to be embodied in the ship. In many cases the future owner insists on a wooden model being submitted in the first instance, by the builder, so that a fair idea may be obtained of the hull of the proposed ship.

Each vessel is known at the shipbuilder’s by a number and not by her name. The keel is the first part of her to be laid, which consists of heavy bars of iron laid on to blocks of wood called “stocks,” and the line of these slants gently down to the water’s edge, so that when, after many months, the time arrives for the launching of the great ship, she may slide down easily into the sea that is, for the future, to be her support. After these bars have been fastened together, then the frames or ribs are erected, the ship being built with her stern nearest to the water, and her bow inland, except in the few cases (as, for example, that of the _Great Eastern_), where a vessel, owing to her length in proportion to the width of the water-space available, has to be launched sideways. These ribs are bent pieces of steel, which have been specially curved according to the pattern already worked out. Let us now turn to the accompanying illustrations which show the steamship in course of construction. These have been specially selected in order that the reader might be able to have before him only those which are of recent date, and show ships whose names, at least, are familiar to him.

[Illustration: THE “GEORGE WASHINGTON” IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION.

Showing Framing from the Stern.

_From a Photograph. By permission of the Norddeutscher Lloyd Co._]

The photograph opposite page 286 represents the _Mauretania_ being built on the Tyne. This striking photograph shows the floor and the double cellular bottom of the leviathan in the foreground; whilst in the background the frames of the ship have been already set up. Some idea of the enormous proportions may be obtained from the smallness of the men even in the foreground. The next illustration represents the Norddeutscher Lloyd liner, _George Washington_, and exhibits the framing of the ship and bulkheads before the steel-plating had been put on. The photograph was taken from the stern, looking forward, and one can see already the “bulge” which is left on either side to allow for the propeller shafts. Opposite page 290 is shown the bow end of the _Berlin_ (belonging to the same company) in frame, and on examining her starboard side it will be seen that already some of her lower plates have been affixed. Finally, opposite page 292 is shown one of the two mammoth White Star liners in course of construction. This picture represents the stern frame of the _Titanic_ as it appeared on February 9th, 1910. No one can look at these pictures without being interested in the numerous overhead cranes, gantries and scaffolding which have to be employed in the building of the ship. The gantries, for instance, now being used at Harland and Wolff’s Belfast yard are much larger than were used even for the _Celtic_ and _Cedric_, and have electric cranes, for handling weights at any part of the berths where the ships are being built. Cantilever and other enormous cranes are also employed. Cranes are also now used in Germany fitted with very strong electro-magnets which hold the plates by the power of their attraction, and contribute considerably to the saving of labour.

Whilst the hull of the ship is being built, the engines are being made and put together in the erecting-shop--which also must needs have its powerful cranes--and after being duly tested, the various parts of the engines are taken to pieces again and erected eventually in the ship after she has been launched. After the frames and beams are “faired” the deck-plating is got in hand. Besides affording many advantages, such as promenades and supports for state-rooms, the deck of a ship is like the top of a box, and gives additional strength to a ship. The illustration opposite page 292 shows the shelter deck of the Orient liner _Orsova_. The photograph was taken looking aft, on August 1st, 1908, whilst the ship was being built at Messrs. John Brown & Co.’s yard, Clydebank. The photograph is especially interesting as showing the enormous amount of material which has to go to the making of the steamship. But even still more significant is the next illustration, which shows one of the decks of the _Lusitania_ whilst in course of construction. To the average man it seems to be well-nigh impossible ever to get such masses into the water.

[Illustration: BOWS OF THE “BERLIN” IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION.

_From a Photograph. By permission of the Norddeutscher Lloyd Co._]

[Illustration: THE “BERLIN” JUST BEFORE HER LAUNCH.

_From a Photograph. By permission of the Norddeutscher Lloyd Co._]

After the plates have been all fastened by rivets to the frames, and the outside of the ship has been given a paint of conventional salmon pink, the time approaches for her to be launched. During her building the ship has been resting on the keel blocks where her centre touches, but her bilges have been supported by blocks and shores. These latter will be seen in the illustration of the _Mauretania_ already considered. As the day for launching approaches, so also does the anxiety of the builders increase, for at no time in her career is the ship so seriously endangered. On the day of the launch the weight of the vessel is gradually transferred from the stocks on which she has been built, to the cradle, being lifted bodily from the keel-blocks by means of an army of men driving wedges underneath her bottom. This cradle is constructed on the launching ways, and the ship herself, being now “cradle-borne,” is held in place only by a number of props called “dog-shores.” At the right moment the signal is given for these to be knocked aside, and at the first symptoms of the ship in her cradle showing an inclination to glide, the bottle of wine is broken against her bows by the lady entrusted with so pleasant an honour. With a deep roar the ship goes down the ways, and as soon as the vessel becomes waterborne the cradle floats. The ship herself is taken in charge by a tug, whilst numerous small boats collect the various pieces of timber which are scattered over the surface of the water. Two or three days before the launch, the cradle which has been fitted temporarily in place, is taken away and smeared with Russian tallow and soft soap. The ways themselves are covered with this preparation after they have been well scraped clean. In case, however, the ship should fail to start at the critical moment after the dog-shores have been removed, it is usual now to have a hydraulic starting ram (worked by a hand-pump) under the forefoot of the ship. This will give a push sufficiently powerful to start the great creature down her short, perilous journey into the world of water which is to be her future abiding-place.

But it can readily be imagined that such a ponderous weight as this carries a good deal of impetus with it, and since in most cases the width of the water is confined, precautions have to be taken to prevent the ship running ashore the other side and doing damage to herself--perhaps smashing her rudder and propellers, or worse. Therefore, heavy anchors have been buried deep into the ground, and cables or hawsers are led from the bows and quarters and attached thereto, or else to heavy-weights composed of coils of chain, whose friction over the ground gradually stops the vessel. Not infrequently the cables break through the sudden jerk which the great ship puts on them, and the anchors tear up the slip-way. Perhaps as many as eight cables may be thus employed, each being made fast to two or three separate masses of about five to fifteen tons, but with slack chain between so that only one at a time is started. As soon as the ship has left the ways, all the cables become taut, and they put in motion the first lot of drags. Further on, the next lot of drags receive their strain, then the third, so that no serious jerk may have been given, and the ship gradually brings up owing to the powerful friction. Lest the force of the ship going into the water should damage the rudder or the propeller, these, if they have been placed in position, are locked so as to prevent free play. After this the ship is towed round to another part of the yard where her engines are slung into her by means of powerful cranes. The upper structures are completed, masts stepped and an army of men work away to get her ready for her builders’ trials. Carpenters are busy erecting her cabins, painters and decorators enliven her internal appearance, and upholsterers add the final touches of luxury to her saloons and lounges.

[Illustration: STERN FRAME OF THE “TITANIC,” FEB. 9, 1910.

_From a Photograph. By permission of Messrs. Ismay, Imrie & Co._]

Turning now to the illustration facing page 290, we see the Norddeutscher Lloyd _Berlin_ just before she was launched. The anchors and cables which will be dropped as soon as she has floated will be seen along her port side, and the platform for her christening is already in place. In the illustration facing page 294, which shows the launch of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company’s _Araguaya_, we have a good view afforded of the ship as she is just leaving the ways and becoming water-borne. The other illustration on the same page shows the launch of one of those turret-ships to which reference was made in an earlier chapter. In the picture of the _Berlin_ will be seen the system of arranging the steel plates in the construction of the ship, and the rivets which hold them in place.

[Illustration: THE SHELTER DECK OF THE “ORSOVA” IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION.

_From a Photograph. By permission of Messrs. Anderson, Anderson & Co._]

[Illustration: ONE OF THE DECKS OF THE “LUSITANIA” IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION.

_From a Photograph. By permission of the Cunard Steamship Co._]

One of the most important events of the ship’s life is her trial trip. Before this occurs the ship’s bottom must be cleaned, for a foul underwater skin will deaden the speed, and give altogether erroneous data. The weather should be favourable also, the sea calm, and the water not too shallow to cause resistance to ships of high speed, while a good steersman must be at the helm so as to keep the ship on a perfectly straight course. Around our coasts at various localities are noticeable posts erected in the ground to indicate the measured mile. To obtain the correct data as to the speed of the ship, she may be given successive runs in opposite directions over this measured mile; a continuous run at sea, the number of revolutions being counted during that period, and a continuous run past a series of stations of known distances apart, the times at which these are passed being recorded as the ship is abreast with them. For obtaining a “mean” speed over the measured mile, one run with the tide and one against the tide supply what is required. During these trials, the displacement and trim of the ship should be as nearly as possible those for which she has been designed. But besides affording the data which can only show whether or not the ship comes up to her contract, these trials are highly valuable as affording information to the builder for subsequent use, in regard both to the design of the ship herself and the amount of horsepower essential for sending her along at a required speed. The amount of coal consumption required is also an important item that is discovered. This is found as follows: Let there be used two bunkers. The first one is not to be sealed, but the latter is. The former is to be drawn upon for getting up steam, taking the ship out of the harbour, and generally until such time as she enters upon her trial proper. This first bunker is then sealed up, and the other one unsealed, and its contents alone used during the trial. After the trial is ended, the fires being left in ordinary condition, the second bunker is again sealed up, and the first bunker drawn upon. By reckoning up the separate amounts it is quite easy afterwards to determine the exact quantity which the ship has consumed during a given number of knots in a given time. Finally, after every detail has been completed, the ship is handed over to her owners and steams away from the neighbourhood of her birth. Presently she arrives at her port, whence she will run for the next ten or twenty years, and before long she sets forth with her first load of passengers, mails and cargo on her maiden trip across the ocean. To begin with, she may not establish any new records for speed; for a ship takes time to find herself, and her officers to understand her individualities. “Know your ship” is one of the mottoes which an ambitious officer keeps ever before him, and if this is true on the navigation bridge, it is even still more true down below, where the engines will not show their full capabilities for several passages at least.

[Illustration: LAUNCH OF THE “ARAGUAYA.”

_From a Photograph. By permission of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co._]

[Illustration: LAUNCH OF A TURRET-SHIP.

_From a Photograph. By permission of Messrs. Doxford & Sons, Sunderland._]

But it is not merely in ship-building, but in ship-repairing that the genius of those responsible is fully shown. Some of the achievements which have been wrought in this way are scarcely less remarkable than the work of building the ship from the beginning. It would be impossible here to go through all the historic occasions when the ship-builder’s art has been so exceptionally manifested, but it is pertinent to our inquiry to mention some of the most interesting. One of the most recent was the repairing of the P. & O. _China_, after she had been on the rocks at Perim for several months. The damage was so serious that Harland and Wolff had to reconstruct her entire bottom, and the docking of her for repairs was supposed to have been a notable engineering feat. The American liner now called the _Philadelphia_, of which we gave an illustration on another page, some years ago caused consternation by getting so far out of her course whilst proceeding down channel that she ran on to the dreaded Manacles, south of Falmouth. Eventually she was got off, but her damage was very great, and she had to be taken round to Belfast, where she was practically rebuilt with an improved stern, and entirely new engines and boilers. Since then she has continued to ply her voyages across the Atlantic without let or hindrance. Most readers will also remember the _Scot_, the famous South African liner, which had a marvellous career for record breaking. She was owned by the old Union Line before they amalgamated with the Donald Currie Company. This same vessel was taken to Belfast, placed in dock, cut in two, and lengthened by building over 50 feet into her midship body, and a like operation was performed on the Hamburg-American liner, _Auguste Victoria_, at the same yard. The Germans themselves in a similar way lengthened the steamship _Wittekind_, which was taken into dock at Geestemünde. But without doubt the most notable case of all was that of the White Star liner _Suevic_. This was a comparatively new ship, and was on her way home from Australia via the Cape of Good Hope, and with her tonnage of 12,531, is the largest vessel steaming from the United Kingdom in the Australian trade. She had entered the English Channel, but being out of her reckoning, had the bad luck to run on to some of the dangerous rocks off the Lizard, as many of my readers will doubtless recollect. The illustration facing page 296, which is taken from a photograph made at the time, shows this fine ship in her sad predicament. Happily, it was found that only her fore part was ashore, and after strenuous and brilliant work, quite two-thirds of her were cut off by means of blasting, and, not without grave peril, towed all the way up Channel to Southampton, where this greater portion was docked, and the present writer remembers the sad and sorrowful sight she presented lying alongside the quay. But the firm of Harland and Wolff, who had made her, at once set to work to build a replica of the bow portion which had been left on the Lizard rocks, and this, also after a perilous passage from Belfast to Southampton, was towed round to the dock, where the other two-thirds were awaiting. The illustrations here given show the stern portion of the _Suevic_ lying in dock at Southampton, with all the breakage cleared ready for the new bow, and the replica of the forward portion just arrived from Belfast and being warped into the dock to be joined on. The two parts were effectively joined together--a wonderfully clever shipbuilding achievement--and the _Suevic_ partly modern and partly old, has long since been restored to her original route as a perfectly sound and satisfactory ship.

[Illustration: THE “SUEVIC” ASHORE OFF THE LIZARD.

_From a Photograph by Gibson & Son, Penzance._]

[Illustration: THE STERN PART OF THE “SUEVIC” AWAITING THE NEW BOW AT SOUTHAMPTON.

_From a Photograph by Reginald Silk, Portsmouth._]

[Illustration: THE NEW BOW OF THE “SUEVIC” AT ENTRANCE TO DOCK.

_From a Photograph by Reginald Silk, Portsmouth._]

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