III.
I have already said that I believe that the cold of winter is the cause of the ice in caves. To make this clearer, I may say that I look on glacières as the last outcrop, the outside edge, so to speak, of the area of low temperatures, which has its culminating point in the Northern Hemisphere in the Arctic Ocean, Greenland and Siberia, and in the Southern Hemisphere in the Antarctic; and which is manifested to us in the snows of mountain peaks, and immediately round us in frozen ponds and rivers and snowy blizzards; and which, as it disappears each summer, leaves its last traces in our latitudes in sequestered gorges and convenient caverns. In every case, it seems to me, glacières are simply refrigerators, which preserve the ice and snow accumulated in them during the winter. They all follow the same general laws as to the origin of their contents, modified only in slight degree according to the varying natural local conditions, such as the water supply, or the protection from sun and wind, or the thickness of the overhead rock, or the altitude or latitude. I cannot see that there is anything remarkable about the fact that the cold of winter is able to penetrate and make itself felt sometimes for a slight depth in the earth's crust; a depth, so far as yet known, never exceeding one hundred and fifty meters. It seems to me that glacières only emphasize a law of nature, which has doubtless been formulated many times in connection with springs and phreatic waters, and that is, that where we find cold waters underground, we may be sure that they have penetrated from the outside.
If we look first at the mode of formation of overground perennial ice, that is, of the ice of glaciers and of rock gorges; and then at the evidences of the mode of formation of underground perennial ice, in boulder heaps, wells and caves; we will soon see that the transitions between them are gentle in character and that there is nothing unnatural about the formation of the ice in glacières.
_Glaciers._--Everyone now knows the main characteristics of glaciers. They are formed in parts of the earth where the land or the mountains reach to the region of perpetual snow. The snows fall from the sky, and accumulate into a snow cap, which by its own weight and by melting and regelation, gradually changes to ice. This, by the laws of gravitation, descends to lower levels, and in mountain valleys extends sometimes far below the snow line into the region of cultivated fields. These valley prolongations of the perpetual snow caps are the glaciers. The important point to notice here, is that the formation of glaciers is originally entirely due to the precipitation of moisture by cold in the upper portions; while the destruction of glaciers is due to the action of heat melting the ice in the lower portions, where they disappear in the shape of streams of running water. It is, therefore, not surprising that the greatest glaciers are found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions and in the highest mountain ranges; and that in the tropics glaciers are either wanting or exceedingly small.
_Gorges and Troughs._--Gorges and gullies, where ice remains over, are a transitional form between glaciers and glacières. In many mountain ravines or canyons, the enduring snow consists principally of the avalanches which have fallen from the heights above during the winter and solidified in the bottom of the ravines. Freezing gorges proper, however, are not dependent on avalanches for their supply, but they receive the accretions to their ice directly from the winter snows. These fall into the gorge itself and by melting and regelation gradually solidify into a mass of ice which, when well sheltered against sun and wind, remains over sometimes till the following winter. By their mode of formation, therefore, it is evident that the ice in these gorges has some of the characteristics of glaciers; that it is due to the same prime causes as the ice of glaciers or the ice on ponds and rivers, namely the cold of winter; and in fact, it is not far wrong to consider these gorges as miniature glaciers.
Freezing gorges, however, show, also, certain degrees of kinship to freezing caverns and taluses, principally in the protection afforded to the ice against external destructive influences. The ice is almost always found in positions where it receives little, if any, of the direct rays of the sun and, also, where it is scarcely, if at all, exposed to any winds. The sides of the fissures and surrounding trees generally afford the necessary protection. Some of the forms which the ice assumes in gorges, such as long pendent icicles, are also more characteristic of underground than of overground ice.
The freezing troughs or basins found in Siberia are evidently closely related to gorges, and the fact that the ice is found in less sheltered places may be explained by the high northerly latitudes of these troughs, in general between fifty-seven and sixty degrees.
_The Winter's Cold Theory._--The places where ice is found underground differ in one important respect from gullies and troughs, and that is, in the fact that above the ice there is rock or soil, which, in true caves, takes the form of a roof. This causes some important distinctions between overground and underground perennial ice. It means that the ice is formed directly in the caves, and that it is genuine subterranean ice, and not, except perhaps near the entrance, solidified snow. The roof, while not admitting the winter snows, is, however, a protection against warm summer rains, and, of course, entirely cuts off radiation from the sky. If, therefore, it keeps out some cold, it also acts as a protector against heat.
That the cold of winter is the source of the cold which produces the ice which forms underground, and that it is through its influence, with the assistance of certain secondary causes, that some caves are converted into what are practically natural ice houses, seems to me the true explanation of the phenomenon of subterranean ice, not only since it is the simple and obvious explanation, but also because all the facts, so far as I have myself observed, are in accord with this theory.[56]
[56] Among those who have written or said that the cold of winter plays a more or less important part in the formation of subterranean ice may be mentioned: Poissenot, 1586; Gollut, 1592; DeBoz, 1726; Nagel, 1747; Cossigny, 1750; Jars, 1774; Hacquet, 1778; Girod-Chantrans, 1783; Hablizl, 1788; Prévost, 1789; Townson, 1797; Humboldt, 1814; Dearborn, 1822; Deluc, 1822; Dewey, 1822; Lee, 1824; Reich, 1834; Hayden, 1843; Guyot, 1856; Rogers, 1856; Petruzzi, 1857; Smyth, 1858; Hager, 1861; Thury, 1861; Browne, 1865; Raymond, 1869; Krenner, 1874; Ritchie, 1879; Benedict, 1881; Schwalbe, 1881; Fugger, 1883; Trouillet, 1885; Girardot, 1886; Russell, 1890; Martel, 1892; Krauss, 1894; Lohmann, 1895; Balch, 1896; Cvijic, 1896; Butler, 1898; Kovarik, 1898; Cranmer, 1899.
To form subterranean ice, just as to form any other ice, two things are necessary: the first is cold, the second is water. Cold is supplied by the cold air of winter, and water must in some manner find its way into the cave while the cold air is there.
The process is as follows: The cold air of winter sinks into and permeates the cave, and in course of time freezes up all the water which, in the shape of melting snow or cold winter rain or spring water, finds its way in; and once ice is formed it remains long after ice in the surrounding open country has melted away, because heat penetrates with difficulty into the cave. The only effect of the heat of summer is to melt the ice.
The proofs, to my mind, of the truth of this view are: 1--Glacières are always found in parts of the world where, during part of the year at least, the temperatures of the surrounding country fall below freezing point. 2--All observations by reliable observers show that the temperatures of glacière caves vary, but in a much narrower thermometric scale, with those of the outside air: that the temperatures are lowest, and as a rule below freezing point, during the winter months; and that the temperatures are highest, and as a rule above freezing point, during the summer months. 3--Ice is never found far from the mouth of caves, but always near enough for the cold air to get in. 4--Evaporation, according to my observations, is, as in all other forms of ice in nature, connected mainly with the melting, not the freezing of the ice.
_Geographical Distribution and Altitudes._--Glacière caves proper are found in various parts of Europe, Asia, and America, mostly in the smaller mountain ranges or in the outliers of the snowy mountain chains; generally in limestone and occasionally in basaltic formations. There are a good many in the Jura; a few in the Swiss and the Italian Alps; a number in the Eastern Alps of Tyrol and Carinthia. There are some in Hungary, several in Russia, one in Iceland, one on the Peak of Teneriffe, a number in Siberia, one in Kondooz in Central Asia, one in the Himálaya, one in Japan, and one in Korea. I have heard so far of over fifty glacières in North America, several of which are in Pennsylvania. From all over the world there are some three hundred places reported where subterranean ice is said to occur. This includes gorges, boulder heaps and freezing mines and wells, all of which exist in much the same localities as glacière caves.
All the glacières which I know of, are situated in a latitude or at an altitude where ice and snow forms for part of the year in the surrounding open country. None are reported from India or Africa, or in fact from any low-lying places in tropical latitudes. Most of them are found in middle latitudes, and only where during part of the year, at least, there is a cold season, that is, where for some time the thermometer stands below freezing point.
Glacières are, in general, at fairly high altitudes. The Schafloch is at 1780 meters; Skerisora in Transylvania at 1127 meters; Dóbsina at 1100 meters; the Glacière de Saint-Georges at 1208 meters. It is true that there is one freezing cavern in the sub-tropical latitude of Teneriffe, La Cueva de la Nieve; but it is at an altitude of 3300 meters, and where snow falls every year in the open on the Peak. Unless some freezing cave is hereafter discovered in a region where there is no ice in the open in winter, I do not see how the imperative necessity of the cold air of winter for forming the supply of ice can be controverted.
_Thermometric Observations._--That the cold air of winter is the important factor in the production of cold is proved, also, by the thermometric observations recorded in various caves by different observers. They all tell the same tale: that the temperatures vary with those of the outside air, that they are lowest in winter and highest in summer. I quote in the "List of Glacières"[57] a few of those published; but there are many more, and they all show the same general characteristics.
[57] See Part III.: Decorah, page 178; Chaux-les-Passavant, pages 203-5; La Poujade, page 208; Montarquis, page 218; Saint-Georges, page 219; Schafloch, page 223; Kolowratshöhle, page 227; Schellenberger Eisgrotte, page 228; Frain, page 252; Dóbsina, page 253; etc.
A comparison of all the figures recorded proves that, as a rule--inside of glacière caves--from about the first of November to the first of July, there are winter temperatures, that is temperatures below freezing point; and from about the first of July to the first of November, there are summer temperatures, that is temperatures above freezing point.
The observations prove also that the inner temperatures vary less than the outer, that is that they range within narrower limits. They also show that the inner air is but slowly affected by the outer air when the latter is above freezing point, the inner temperature rising then only gradually. Per contra, when the outside temperature drops quickly much below freezing point, the inside temperature generally drops correspondingly at once, proving that the cold air has sunk by its weight into the cave. The observations also prove that the old idea that the temperature of caves is the same throughout, can no longer be considered correct. The observations also appear to show, that the temperature of a cave does not necessarily represent the mean annual temperature of a surrounding district. Observation is still entirely lacking on the mean annual temperature of glacières, so that one cannot speak definitely about the matter; but it seems likely that the mean annual temperature of a glacière cave is lower than the isotherm of its locality; and it seems more than probable that on the same isotherm different glacière caves may have different mean annual temperatures, varying with the elements of size, quantity of ice, position of body of cave and of entrance, water supply and other factors.
_Ice near the Entrance of Caves and the Surface of the Soil._--An important proof that it is the cold air of winter which forms the ice is the fact that the latter is always found near the entrance of caves or near the surface of the soil. It never extends far within. To the best of my knowledge, ice has never been found two hundred meters from the entrance nor at any depth beyond one hundred and fifty meters. In all caves of great extent, the temperature far in is about the same as that of the surrounding rock, and in all deep borings the temperature increases with the depth and at great depths the temperature becomes high. This nearness of subterranean ice to the outside air is one of the best proofs, that, paradoxical as the whole phenomenon appears at first, yet in reality it is an extremely simple matter.
The position of the entrance of a cave in relation to the body of the cave is an important factor in permitting the cold air to permeate and remain in the cave. In all the caves or gullies I have examined myself, the main mass of ice is well below the level of the entrance, and even if the latter is sheltered against the wind, it is not sheltered against the cold air of winter. This is heavy, and by its own weight sinks well down to the bottom, freezing up in course of time all the moisture that may drip from the roof, or that may come into the cave in the shape of melted snow or cold winter rain. The summer air, which is warm and, therefore, light, can only enter the cave with great difficulty; and, as a rule, before it dislodges the winter air and destroys the ice, another winter's freeze reverses once more the conditions. These principles seem to hold of every known glacière. It is true, that at the Frauenmauer, the floor of the cavern rises somewhat from the entrance; but the highest point of the floor is still below the level of the top of the entrance, so that the cold air can flow over the highest point without difficulty. The same appears to be the case at the Posselthöhle; while at Amarnath in Kashmere, where the floor is said to rise to the back wall, the entrance is about as large as the area of the floor, so that the ice must also be below the level of the top of the entrance.
The position or situation of the entrance is important. In almost all cases it has a northerly exposure, and is sheltered against entering winds. If these two conditions do not exist the ice supply surely suffers. Sometimes the entrance is more or less tortuous. In some cases it is protected by a fringe of trees. Still, there is no absolute rule about entrances. The Friedrichsteinerhöhle faces about due south, and at midday in summer, the sun shines all the way down to the ice floor, causing mists to form. In the Kolowratshöhle, the entrance is badly sheltered against the wind and this undoubtedly affects the supply in summer and causes more rapid melting there than in some other cases.[58]
[58] See Part III.: Decorah, page 178.
Freezing boulder taluses invariably have the ice near the surface, and probably it is never a dozen meters distant from the open air. These taluses are one of the strongest links in the chain of evidence proving the winter's cold theory. The snow and ice on the surface of the taluses and on the surface of the boulders in gullies melts away, while it still lingers underneath the boulders. It seems self-evident that the melting snow water has run to the lowest level and there congealed, and then remained because it was better sheltered than the ice outside.
The subsoil ice of the tundras of Siberia and Alaska is almost identical with the ice of boulder formations, except that it extends under larger areas. It is the product of a climate where there is a long, rigorous winter and it is not surprising that the ice is found at greater depths than in more southerly latitudes.[59] The depth to which the ice extends is, of course, determined by the depth to which the winter's cold can penetrate the soil. There is no doubt that the causes of this ice are local, that is, that it is due to the long prevailing low temperatures.
[59] See Part III.: Alaska, page 166; Klondike, page 167; Kowak River, page 166; Kotzebue Sound, page 166.
The freezing wells of which the most conspicuous examples are at Brandon, Owego, Decorah, and in Montana, seem also due to local causes and the ice is never far from the surface, that is, not over twenty meters; and apparently also it forms above the water horizons which supply the wells.
The ice sheet on Mount Etna[60] does not seem to be at any great depth. It apparently had a different origin from most subterranean ice masses, in that the snow probably fell first and was then covered by a flow of lava. It is, therefore, almost _sui generis_ in its mode of formation, unless there are similar sheets on other volcanoes, which is probable in a country like Iceland, and which is said to be the case in Tierra del Fuego,[61] But the original cause of the ice sheet on Etna was the same as all other subterranean ice masses, namely the cold of winter.
[60] See Part III., page 210.
[61] See Part III., page 190.
_Evaporation and Movements of Air._--The formation of subterranean ice is sometimes assigned partly to evaporation or to expansion of the air. The theory is an old one, and both scientific and non-scientific men have advanced it.[62]
[62] Among those who have written that evaporation is a factor in the formation of subterranean ice, may be mentioned: Pictet, 1822; Scrope, 1827; Reich, 1834; Pleischl, 1841; Murchison, 1845; Olmstead, 1856; Hitchcock, 1861; White, 1870; Kirchhoff, 1876; Krauss, 1895.
I have already said that I believe it is the movements of the air which cause a cave to be a glacière cave or a normal cave. When they
## act in such a way as to permit the cold air of winter to permeate a
cave, we find low temperatures and ice; when they do not, we find the temperature about the same as that of the ground and no ice.
That the ice is not formed in apparently static caves, by movements of air producing evaporation, seems to me proved by what I have noticed in regard to the atmosphere. The dryness or moistness of the air within a glacière cave is coincident with the state of freezing or thawing of the cave. When I have visited a large cave in June, everything was frozen tight, there were no drips nor mushy ice, the air was relatively dry and the sensation of cold not unpleasant. When I have visited a cave in August, the ice was soft and mushy, water was dripping from the roof, the atmosphere was moist, and the cold penetrating. It seems to me that the facts go to show that it is not evaporation which forms the ice, but the melting of the ice which fills the cave with moisture. If there are any draughts or movements of the atmosphere when above freezing point, then their tendency is to vaporize the ice.
The process of the formation of ice in relation to the atmosphere is as follows: the cold air permeates the cave and freezes up all the drip: the atmosphere becomes dry: gradually warmer air gets in and the ice begins to melt: then the atmosphere gets charged slowly with the vapor of the melting ice. This process is the exact opposite of the formation of ice by evaporation; it is the atmosphere which is made humid by the vaporizing of the ice, and by the drip. When the air is thoroughly saturated with the vapor, being scarcely renewed from outside and but a few degrees above freezing point, it undoubtedly retards evaporation, acts like a blanket and lessens the rate of melting of the ice.[63]
[63] See Part IV.: Thury, page 285; Fugger, page 296; Trouillet, page 298.
Everything I have personally observed in freezing windholes shows that in them also the cold of winter and not evaporation is the cause of the ice. They answer to the same tests as other glacières, of geographical distribution and altitude, nearness of ice to the outside, thermometric observations, and dampness of the air when the ice melts. Equally with other glacières, the movements of air in windholes do not depend on the presence of ice, but the ice does depend on the movements of air and a water supply at the proper time. A proof that it is the cold of winter which makes the ice in windholes, is that the ice is always found at the lower extremity, for the reason that it is at that end that the cold air enters and to that end that the water gravitates. The reason that ice is more rarely found in windholes than in apparently static caves, is due to the movements of air. Unlike the caves where the heavy cold air preserves the ice by remaining pent up, as soon as the outside temperature rises the heavy cold air in windholes tumbles out at the lower opening and is replaced gradually by air at a higher temperature. This also flows out and when it is above freezing point, it naturally melts the ice and becomes humid: in fact, it vaporizes the ice as it passes, and dissipates the moisture into the outer air.
It is, however, certain, that in caves with a temperature some degrees above freezing point, when there is either running water or strong drips, evaporation may be, and sometimes undoubtedly is, a factor in lowering the temperature somewhat.[64] As in some windholes there is occasionally moisture on the rock surfaces where the air current passes, the evaporation from these surfaces doubtless lowers the temperature of the draughts, and it may be, also those of the rock surfaces, a little.
[64] See Part IV.: De Saussure, page 274. See also _Les Abimes_, 1894, page 564.
Further observations, however, will be necessary in regard to evaporation underground, as the data are still insufficient to make absolutely positive statements.[65] I fail to see any evidence to show that evaporation ever lowers the temperature of draughts underground below freezing point, only that it may help to lower them to something less than they would otherwise be. Taking all the facts which I have myself observed, and all I have read of in the reports of others, my own conclusion is that we have no proof that evaporation underground is ever strong enough to produce ice.
[65] Several observers consider evaporation as more or less of a factor in the production of cold underground. It is suggested also, that in certain cases, at high altitudes, evaporation tends to prevent the melting of the ice in windholes, but this is not proved, as yet. See
## Part IV.: De Saussure, page 274; Fugger, page 296; Trouillet, page 298;
Martel, page 300; Lohmann, page 302.
_Time of Formation of Ice._--Everything I have seen points to the fact that ice begins to form in a cave as soon as the temperature of the cave has sunk below freezing point, whenever, from any cause, water gets into the cave. The cold may begin to penetrate caves as soon as outside frosts have occurred, that is in the fall months, about November; and as soon as the temperature inside sinks below freezing point, ice will begin to form, provided also that water gets into the cave, from rains or springs or any other source.
In the mid-winter months, although there is then plenty of cold, the water supply is generally lacking, as the outside moisture is mostly frozen up and the result is that the winter months are not those when the ice is mainly formed. Some is undoubtedly formed in certain caves whenever during the course of the winter a surface thaw outside furnishes water to the cave,[66] but in other cases this is not so and the ice does not appear before the spring. In all cases it is in the spring, before the cave has parted with its store of cold, and when both the air and the rock walls are chilled below freezing point[67] that the ice forms fastest. Then plenty of water is furnished by the melting of the snows and the unlocking of the brooks, and also by early spring rains. All this surface water runs through the fissures into the still freezing cave and there becomes ice. Not only the air, but also the rock walls are chilled below freezing point, and as the rocks part slowly with the cold stored in them, this cold helps to freeze the water pouring in.
[66] See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203; Saint-Georges, page 220.
[67] See Part IV.: Townson, page 275; Thury, page 285; Trouillet, page 297; Schwalbe, page 298; Terlanday, page 301; Kovarik, page 307.
The natural law in relation to time seems to be this: Ice may be formed in caves as soon as the outside temperature sinks below freezing point. In some caves it forms intermittently all through the cold months because there is a water supply. In other caves it only forms in the spring, because there is no water supply in the winter months. In all cases, however, the end of winter is the time when most of the ice is formed.
## PART III.
LIST OF GLACIÈRES.
LIST OF GLACIÈRES.[68]
[68] This list is necessarily incomplete, and only approximately accurate in many cases.
NORTH AMERICA.
Buried or Fossil Glaciers, North Greenland. (W. E. Meehan, _Philadelphia Ledger_, 1896.)--On Robertson's Bay is the plateau of the Verhoef Glacier, which is about 1500 meters long and 400 meters wide, and stands back only a few meters from the edge of the sea. This plateau, both top and sides, is a mass of flourishing vegetation, chiefly grass, which reaches above a man's knee. From among this verdure buttercups, poppies, cinquefoils and dandelions thrust their golden heads in wild profusion. Similar buried glaciers are found in many places along the fiords of North Greenland.
Mr. Meehan gives a simple explanation in connection with the Verhoef Glacier. He says that this glacier formerly extended out into the sea, and that while it moved forward, the clump moss, which struggles for existence in Greenland gorges, could do little more than hold its own. In course of time, from some unknown cause, the glacier receded to the point where it now discharges, the part in the water floating away in the shape of icebergs, and the part on the shore remaining stationary. This was the opportunity for the clump mosses. Caring nothing for the cold they crept slowly over the quiet mass of ice and made their way first in thin net-like layers, later in thick masses, till they reached the rocky shore. Year after year the mosses grew, the young plants trampling underfoot the older; until the latter, rotting, turned into a rich mould. The seeds of grasses and flowers found their way to this, blown by the wind or carried on the feet of birds. The plateau now is a garden of green, gold and white. How long this will last it is impossible to say, as any time nature may unloose its hold, and the frozen river once more pour down into the bay.
Subsoil Ice in Alaska. (I. C. Russell, _A Journey up the Yukon River_, page 149, and _Second Expedition to Mount Saint Elias_, page 19.)--Professor Russell found ice covered by rocks and vegetation in several places in Alaska, especially along the southern edge of the Malaspina Glacier and on the Yukon River. He gives the following interesting account in 1890 of these ice sheets: "Throughout the length of the Yukon, one is frequently reminded of the high latitude drained by the great river, by seeing strata of ice in the recently cut banks, beneath the dense layer of moss and roots forming the surface on which the forests grow. One may frequently find ice even on a hot summer's day, by scraping away the moss at his feet. In some instances the frozen layer has been penetrated to the depth of twenty-five feet, but its full depth has never been ascertained. In the banks of some of the streams to the north of the lower Yukon, strata of ice over a hundred feet thick have been observed, and the indications are that its total depth is considerably greater than the portion exposed. This subsoil ice is stagnant and without the characteristics of glaciers."
Subsoil Ice in the Klondike Region. (_Philadelphia Ledger_, December 30th, 1897.)--The Klondike mining country is covered with snow most of the year. The ground is frozen for ten or twelve meters in depth, down to bed rock. In some places the ground, which is protected by a thick moss, is not thawed out by the sun in summer. The miner cuts off the moss with a shovel, and then builds a fire, which thaws out the ground for five or ten centimeters. He digs this out, rebuilds a fire, and then continues this process.
Ice Cliffs on the Kowak River, Alaska. (Lieutenant J. C. Cantwell, _National Geographic Magazine_, October, 1896.)--On the shores of the Kowak River are a series of ice cliffs of from about 25 meters to 45 meters in height. On top of these ice cliffs is a layer of black silt-like soil some 2 meters in thickness, and from this springs a luxuriant growth of mosses, grass and Arctic shrubbery. The melted ice shows a residuum of fine dust, which while fresh emits a pungent odor.
Subterranean Ice Sheet on Kotzebue Sound. (Otto von Kotzebue, _Entdeckungsreise in die Südsee_, etc. Weimar, 1821. Vol. IV., page 140.)--Dr. Eschholz discovered near Kotzebue Sound, in 1816, a mass of ice more than 30 meters thick, and entirely covered with a layer at least 15 centimeters thick of clay, sand, and earth, on which heavy, long grass was growing. In the ice and in the soil overlaying it, were many remains of extinct animals. On the side towards the ocean the ice was entirely bare, exposed to sun and air, and much of it was melting away in streamlets.
Freezing Lava Caves, Washington. (R. W. Raymond, _Overland Monthly_, 3d November, 1869, page 421. Th. Kirchhoff, _Reisebilder und Skizzen aus America_, 1876, vol. II., page 211. _Philadelphia Ledger_, September 25th, 1899.)--These caves are distant about four hours from the foot of Mount Adams, and about 56 kilometers from the mouth of the White Salmon River, where it falls into the Columbia River. The caves are in basalt, and they are connected at both ends with the open air. Only a few of them contain any ice, which in the largest cave is about 6 meters below the entrance, from which one descends by a ladder. The cave opens on one side and is some 15 meters in depth, 6 meters or 8 meters in width and 3 meters or 4 meters in height. This part contains the most ice. The other side gradually narrows from the entrance, is longer, and reaches out through fallen rocks and rubbish to daylight. In the lower portion, there are a few ice stalactites and stalagmites: one a superb, transparent hillock, which rises nearly to the roof, is called the Iceberg. A strong draught flows into the cave in summer through the open arm.
The following paragraphs from the _Philadelphia Ledger_ probably refer to the same locality:--
"Ice for the cutting, and that in August and early in September, is a novelty not often found in regions as far south as the Columbia River basin; but the novelty is enjoyed every year by people who visit the ice caves under the shadow of Mount Adams, about 100 miles northeast of Portland. It is a very extensive region. Frank McFarland, who has just returned from a six weeks' vacation camping trip there, gives an interesting account of its general make up.
"At the ice caves, which are six miles from Trout Lake, the stalactites are more beautiful and wonderful this year than ever before, and this was Mr. McFarland's fifteenth trip there. He broke off and took to camp chunks of ice weighing 100 pounds. Pleasure parties who come to the lake use considerable of the ice for packing their trout to take home. All you have to do is to take a torch of pitch pine or a lantern, and go into the big caves and pack off all the ice you want. It is a sure crop, and never fails."
Ice Spring in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon. (G. Gibbs, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1853, Second Series, vol. XV., page 146.)--The Ice Spring is about 60 kilometers from the South Pass to the right of the Sweetwater River. It is situated in a low marshy swale, where the ground is filled with springs; and about 60 centimeters below the turf is a sheet of horizontal ice, some 10 centimeters to 30 centimeters thick, lasting throughout the year. The ice is clear and is disposed in hexagonal prisms; it has a slightly saline taste, the ground above it being impregnated with salt and the water near by tasting of sulphur.
Freezing Lava Caves in Modoc County, California. (_Dispatch_, Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897, reprinted from another paper.)--The lava beds, where the Modoc Indians made their last stand against the United States troops, are described as an immense field of lava covered with a beautiful forest of conifers. Numerous caves of varying shapes and dimensions are scattered throughout these lava beds. Some are mere covert ways, with an arch of stone thrown over them; others are immense chambers some meters from the surface; another kind sinks deeply and may be in a series of chambers united by a corridor that opens at the surface; while another kind seems to go directly to the centre of the earth without stopping. Some of these caves contain ice and from them the Modocs drew their water supply while besieged by the troops. Judging from what is reported of the caves the quantity of ice in them must be large. The thermometer in winter in the region is said to go as low as -30° C.
Freezing Lava Beds near Medicine Lake, Siskiyou County, Northern California. (M. S. Baker, _Sierra Club Bulletin_, 1899. Vol. II., page 318.)--"One other feature of the lava region must be mentioned--the ice caves. There are several of these known, and very likely many more remain undiscovered. Those located along the edge of the lava, near the cinder cone, I have known to contain ice and water as late as August. The largest I have seen is on the Mayfield Road, about twenty miles east of Bartles. It is situated in the barren lava, and in one of the warmest localities of the region,--and there are few cool spots in the lava anywhere. One enters the cave by crawling down a hole none too large. The instant the interior is reached the temperature falls in a surprising way. Not more than ten feet below the surface of the hot rocks is a bed of ice, covered by a foot or so of ice water. The body of ice was perhaps twelve or fifteen feet long, by five feet across in the widest places. This cave is formed by a fissure that extends a distance of twenty miles from the ice cave to Pittville, and nearly coincides with the 4000 foot level, as shown in the map. Along the southeastern half of this earth fissure the southwest wall has faulted, leaving a cliff, which, in places, must be nearly 200 feet high."
Freezing Shafts, Montana.--Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, Cal., has given me much information about glacières in Montana. He visited one miners' shaft which is situated about 80 kilometers up the Rosebud River from Rosebud Station on the Northern Pacific R. R., and about 10 kilometers northeast of the Cheyenne Indian Agency. It is on the north slope of the Little Wolf Mountains, near the summit, at the head of Greenleaf Creek. The canyon and surrounding slopes are covered with a dense growth of pine. The rock has the appearance of scoriæ caused by the burning of immense beds of coal in recent geological times. The rock is broken into comparatively small pieces. The altitude is some 1200 meters. The forest, the volcanic ash and the altitude, besides the loose rock formation, makes this place a natural ice house. Ten or twelve years ago three prospectors, looking for silver, sunk a shaft here. At a depth of about 4 meters it began to grow cold, and at 6 meters they found ice and imagined they could feel an upward draught. Being ignorant and superstitious, they became frightened and abandoned the shaft. During the winter, the snow fills the shaft half full of ice, which then remains over through the summer. There is a general report and belief among those who have visited the well, that it freezes in summer and thaws in winter. There are thousands of mining shafts in Montana, and if they are on the north slope of a mountain of considerable altitude and under a dense forest and not too deep, they generally have ice at the bottom during the summer. It is also said to be nothing new for a miner in following crevices to find them filled with ice, especially if near the surface on the north slope of a mountain.
Freezing Cave, Fergus County, Montana.--Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, Cal., visited this place, which is about 35 kilometers southeast of Lewistown. It is on the north side of a butte. Masses of ice and great icicles form in some parts of the cave in such quantities during the latter part of winter that the cave furnishes ice for cooling the drinking water for several dozen families. During July and August the people come from some distance around to get the ice. The people in the neighborhood believe that the ice forms in summer and thaws away in winter. They also speak of the ever upward draught of cold air coming possibly from some great hidden cavern in the lower recesses of the mountain.
Freezing Well at Horse Plains, Montana. (Levi Allen, _Scientific American_. New Series, 27th October, 1883.)--The well is described as 13.60 meters deep. It is dug through solid gravel, and in sinking it there was encountered, at a depth of 10.60 meters, a current of air strong enough to blow out a candle. It began to freeze in September, 1882, and in November it was frozen solid.
Freezing Silver Mine, Bighorn County, Wyoming.--This place is in the Sunlight Basin of the Shoshone Mountains. Mr. William Worrell Wagner, of Philadelphia, informs me that he visited it in August, 1897. It is a silver mine or tunnel, running straight into the mountain for about 60 meters, at an altitude of about 3300 meters. The peaks of the Teton range were in sight from the mouth of the tunnel. For the first half of the way in, a good many icicles were hanging from the rocks. The last half of the tunnel was thickly coated with ice and looked like a cold storage plant. Snow disappears on the rocks outside about June, and begins to fall again in September, so that Mr. Wagner's visit was at about the hottest time of the year. Mr. Wagner presented the meat of a bull wapiti he had shot to the miners, and they stored it in the mine as if it had been an artificial refrigerator.
Rifts of Ice, Mount McClellan, Colorado. (Edward L. Berthoud, _American Journal of Science and Arts_. Third Series, 1876, vol. XI., page 108.)--Near the summit of Mount McClellan, is the Centennial Lode, which runs into the mountain, at an altitude of about 3900 meters. Intercalated in the mineral vein are three or four well defined veins of solid ice parallel with the bedding of the rock and filling all its inner side-cracks and fissures. The same frozen substratum is found in two other lodes near by on the same mountain. Nothing of the kind is known on other Colorado mountains. The soil is loose and largely made up of rocky débris, which shows that the ice is probably due to local causes.
Freezing Tunnel on the Hagerman Pass, Colorado. (_Philadelphia Press_, October 16th, 1897.)--The Hagerman Pass Railroad line is said to have been abandoned after the completion of the Busk-Ivanhoe tunnel, but to have been rebuilt. The Hagerman tunnel for a distance of over 700 meters was filled with solid ice, and it required blasting with dynamite, and a month's continuous labor, day and night, to dig the ice out.
Freezing Cavern in Cow Mountain, Colorado. (_Post Dispatch_, St. Louis, Mo., July 13th, 1897, and September 5th, 1897. _Mail Order Monthly_, St. Paul, Minn., October, 1899.)--The cave was discovered by parties doing assessment work on a group of claims. A man was picking in a three meter hole when he struck his pick into an opening, which was gradually enlarged and showed a deep pit underneath. The men got a rope and descended into an immense cavern full of ice. Later exploration led to a small hall, some 5 meters in diameter, full of icicles. From here a fissure led into a second rock chamber larger than the first. A small hole in the floor at an angle of some 45° gave access to a third and larger hall, about 25 meters by 40 meters. Great masses of ice were found in this, also a small lake, about 12 meters by 20 meters. "Some who have visited the wonderful discovery are of the opinion that it is a great cave or fissure in a glacier which for centuries has been slowly making its way down from Pike's Peak and whose waters are now feeding the Arkansas River."
Windhole, Arizona. (_Christian Herald_, March 24th, 1897.)--Mr. Cofman, while drilling a well on his place, is said to have opened a windhole from which the escaping air current was strong enough to blow off the hats of the men who were recovering the lost drill. Some days the air escapes with such force that pebbles the size of peas are thrown up, accompanied by a sound much like the distant bellowing of a fog horn. Again for days there will be a suction current, unaccompanied by sound, in which the current of air passes into the earth with somewhat less force than when escaping, and any light object, as a feather or a piece of paper, will be immediately sucked in. The account is probably exaggerated.
Freezing Lava Cave near Flagstaff, Arizona.--Professor W. B. Scott of Princeton University told me of this cave, which he had not visited himself. It lies 14.5 kilometers south of Flagstaff, on the Mesa table land, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It was described to Professor Scott as a double cave, with two floors, one over the other, the lower containing the most ice. It is in lava, and can only be entered by crawling in on hands and knees.
Freezing Cave or Gorge, White Mountains, Arizona.--Mr. Frank Hamilton Cushing has told me of this place. It is a cleft among lava rock, which being roofed at the further end, might be described as a cave. In this the ice remains until June or July, much later than anywhere else in the neighborhood. The Zuni Indians worship before this, calling the ice the breath of the Gods, the snow they consider as a sort of down. The region is arid, which makes any water precious, and this fact has developed the element of mysticism about snow and ice among the Indians.
Freezing Cave near Galena, Black Hills, South Dakota. (Miss L. A. Owen, _Cave Regions of the Ozarks and Black Hills_. Cincinnati, 1898, page 209): "At Galena, a new mining town of golden promise, there is reported to be an Ice Cave, where ice forms at all seasons, and during the warm weather is a source of comfort and pleasure to the miners."
Windholes in the Ozark Mountains, Missouri.--Mr. H. F. Brinckerhoff, of Aurora, Mo., informs me that there are a number of cold air current caves in the Ozark Mountain region. One of them is some 19 kilometers south of Aurora, Lawrence County, and is used for cold storage in summer. There is a cave in a limestone bluff about 15 meters above a river, and in the rear is this windhole, which is an opening about 30 centimeters high and 3 meters wide. A strong current of air comes out from it in summer, and the hotter the air outside, the stronger is the outward coming current. In winter the current is reversed. The outward current is so strong in very hot weather that a handkerchief held in it is straightened out to an angle of about 45°.
Freezing Cave and Well at Decorah, Iowa. Described in Part I. (Dr. C. A. White, _Report of Geological Survey of State of Iowa_, 1870, vol. I., page 80. A. F. Kovarik, _Scientific American Supplement_, No. 1195, November 26th, 1898, pages 19,158, 19,159).
On June 1st, 1869, Dr. White found the ice dry and well frozen, and he thought it was then accumulating. The cave was cool and apparently dry, and no strong air current was passing through.
Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of the Decorah Institute, has made a valuable series of observations about the Decorah Cave. The temperatures he observed were the following:
IN THE VALLEY, LOCUS SHADE. DIVISION. GLACIALIS. END.
July 1, 1897 +33.3° +2.2° 0.0° 0.0° " 27, " +21.1° +5.0° 0.0° 0.0° Aug. 14, " +32.2° +5.8° +3.1° 0.0° Sept. 3, " +32.2° +7.2° +3.1° +8.3° " 18, " +33.9° +8.6° +6.1° +8.3° Oct. 16, " +24.0° +10.0° +8.3° +8.3° " 30, " +10.0° +7.2° +4.7° +5.0° Dec. 11, " -2.2° -2.7° -1.1° -2.0° Jan. 8, 1898 -0.0° -2.7° -3.9° 0.0° " 22, " -5.0° -6.1° -3.9° -3.9° Feb. 26, " -0.0° -6.6° -6.6° -5.0° March 12, " +2.8° -1.6° -2.7° -2.7° " 26, " +8.8° -1.7° -1.6° -1.1° April 16, " +25.6° -1.4° +1.1° -1.1° " 30, " +13.9° +1.1° -1.1° -1.1° May 28, " +17.2° +1.7° -0.3° 0.0° June 9, " +25.0° +1.7° -0.3° 0.0° " 18, " +22.3° +1.7° -0.2° 0.0° July 16, " +35.0° +7.2° 0.0° +2.2°
On the 1st of July, 1897, a cold breeze was noticed coming from the cave to a distance of at least 30 meters. At the entrance the breeze was strong enough to blow out a candle. This breeze was not noticed at other times. From December to February inclusive, on the contrary, the breeze was reversed. From July to October, 1897, the walls of the cave were moist. From October to February they were dry. In February frost began to appear on the walls. On March 12th, 1898, the walls were covered with frost. The ice appeared at a spot nearly at the end of the cave on the 26th of March, 1898. At a place about 6.50 meters nearer the entrance, however, is where most ice forms. This place Mr. Kovarik calls _Locus Glacialis_. The ice appeared here about the 29th of May, 1898. It increased rapidly up to June 12th, when it was at its maximum, and was about two meters in width. It generally covers the north wall from top to base. The greatest thickness in 1898 was 29 centimeters.
The temperature which Mr. Kovarik recorded on the 16th of April at _Locus Glacialis_ of +1.1 seems an anomalous one. On writing to him he sent me the following explanation: "April 16th, after I left the thermometer at _Locus Glacialis_ the usual time, I noticed that it registered +1.1° C. It seemed singular, for at both the Division and the End, the thermometer registered considerably lower. I left the thermometer at its place for about an hour longer, and noticed then that it did not register differently. I would suggest this explanation: This is true about water that upon freezing it gives off its latent heat. Now on April 16th some water dripped into the cave on the wall near where the thermometer was, about 1.50 meters from the floor. The amount of water was very small, but as it came in contact with the cold wall it began to give out its latent heat which affected the close by thermometer. The temperature of the rock was without doubt between -1.° and -3°."
Freezing Cavern at Brainard, Iowa. (Alois F. Kovarik, _Decorah Public Opinion_, September 20th, 1899.)--This little cave is situated on the north side of a hill about 1.5 kilometers northwest of Brainard. It is about 4.50 meters deep. On June 10th, 1899, Mr. Kovarik found the floor and walls covered with ice. The temperature was 0° C. The owner claims to have taken enough ice out of it on July 4th, 1897, to freeze cream.
Freezing Cave near Elkinsville, Brown County, Indiana. (Clipping from a western newspaper, 1896.)--The entrance is said to be overlapped by trees and to resemble a mine shaft. The winding way leads to a hollow some 15 meters below the surface, resembling a broad vaulted corridor, which is known to the natives as the devil's chamber and where the temperature is low. From this point several galleries lead further in, and from one of them comes a blast of icy cold air. This passage is similar to the one at the entrance to the cave, but after a few meters frost is visible, and further on it is thick on all sides, like the crust that is formed on the pipes of an ice plant. The narrow way leads to a big chamber, known as the ice vault. In this dome, which is fully 30 meters in width, the ice forms a large stalagmite and is of unknown depth.
Freezing Gully on Mount Abraham, Maine. (Jackson, _Report of the Geology of Maine_, 1839, III.)--Ice was found in June at an altitude of 1032 meters among the boulders in one of the gullies of Mount Abraham.
[Illustration: FREEZING CAVERN AT BRAINARD.
From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. ]
Subterranean Ice in King's Ravine, Mount Adams, New Hampshire.--Described in Part I., page 1.
Ice Gulch on Crescent Mountain, Randolph, New Hampshire.--Described in
## Part I., page 83.
Ice in a Hole at Dixville Notch, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston, has examined this place, which he is sure is a refrigerator. It is in a hole north of the cliff and near its top.
Ice on Mount Garfield, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., informs me that ice was discovered among the boulders on the summit of Mount Garfield during the summer of 1897.
Freezing Talus near Rumney, New Hampshire.--Described in Part I., page 85.
Freezing Talus near North Woodstock, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., has examined this locality. He thinks the ice was gone in July, but judges it to be on the level of an old talus and a couple of meters down.
Freezing Well at Lyman, Grafton County, New Hampshire. (_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, I., page 197.)--A well in that town is reported as having been frozen solid in June, 1816, at a depth of about 2.60 meters from the surface.
Icy Wells at the Foot of Mount Mansfield, Vermont. (N. M. Lowe, _Science Observer_, vol. II., page 58.)--These are described as being really "incipient caves."
Freezing Cave near Manchester, Vermont.--Described in Part I., page 76.
Ice Bed of Wallingford, Rutland County, Vermont. Described in Part I., page 99. (S. Pearl Lathrop, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1844, XLVI., page 331.)--Dr. Lathrop says that ice has been found at the Ice Bed as late as September.
Freezing Wells at Brandon, Vermont. Described in Part I., page 77. (_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 192.)--Mr. Hager says that the well was dug into a mass of sand and gravel, of the kind known as modified drift. The gravel was frozen at the time of digging. The Boston Natural History Society, in 1859, sank two wells, one 21 meters southeast of the original one, the other 21 meters northwest. The first was 10 meters in depth and did not reach ice; the second was 11 meters in depth, and came to the layer of frozen gravel.
Cave near Brandon, Vermont. (_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 197.)--Mr. Hager heard that about 3 kilometers north of Brandon village was a cavern, in a hill, in which ice is found most of the summer.
Icy Gulf near Great Barrington, Massachusetts.--Mentioned in Part I., page 99.
Icy Glen near Stockbridge, Massachusetts.--Described in Part I., page 75.
The Snow Hole, New York: near Williamstown, Massachusetts. Described in
## Part I., page 98. (Dewey, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1819,
vol. I., page 340; and 1822, vol. V., page 398.)--Mr. Dewey found, in June, snow 2 meters deep on ice of unknown depth. On his second visit he found less ice and snow than on his first visit, as the trees in the neighborhood had been cut down.
Glacière near Williamstown, Massachusetts.--Described in Part I., page 101.
Freezing Well near Ware, Massachusetts.--(_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 197.)--Depth 11.5 meters. This is in a sand and gravel formation much like that at Brandon, except that there is less clay, and that none of the pebbles are limestone.
Wolfshollow near Salisbury, Connecticut. (C. A. Lee, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1824, vol. VIII., page 254.)--In the eastern portion of the township, at an altitude of about 800 meters, is a chasm about 100 meters long, 18 meters deep and 12 meters wide. It is in mica-slate, and is sheltered by large trees. At the bottom at one end is a spring of cold water and a cave of considerable extent, in which ice and snow is found the greater part of the year.
Natural Ice House, near Meriden, Connecticut. (Benjamin Silliman, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., page 174.)--It lies between New Haven and Hartford, about 32 kilometers from the sea, at an altitude of about 60 meters. The ice is found in a narrow defile of perpendicular trap rock, at the bottom filled with broken stones. The defile is so placed that in summer the sun only shines into it for about an hour each day; it is also well protected by surrounding trees, the leaves from which form beds at the bottom among the rocks and help to protect the ice.
Natural Ice House of Northford, Connecticut. (Benjamin Silliman, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., page 177.)--About 11 kilometers from New Haven on the Middletown road between Branford and Northford, is a gorge where ice remains throughout the year. In this case the ice is mixed with a considerable quantity of leaves and dirt; it has sometimes been brought to New Haven.
Ice in an Old Iron Mine, near Port Henry, Lake Champlain. (_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 199.)--Ice was found during the summer at a depth of from 15 meters to 30 meters, and a current of cold air was issuing from the opening. There seems to be more than one opening to the mine.
Freezing Talus on Lower Ausable Pond, Essex County, New York.--Described in Part I., page 79.
Freezing Talus at the South Base of the Giant of the Valley, Essex County, New York.--Described in Part I., page 81.
Freezing Boulder Talus, Indian Pass, New York. See Part I., page 83.
Freezing Boulder Talus, Avalanche Pass, New York.--See Part I., page 83.
Freezing Cave near Carlisle, New York.--See Part I., page 93.
Ice among the Catskill Mountains, New York.--Mr. George Brinton Phillips informs me that he has seen subterranean ice in August among boulders in a gorge in the Catskills near the Stony Cloves road, starting out from Haines' Falls. The people in the neighborhood speak of the place as an ice cave.
Gorge in the Shawangunk Mountains, near Ellenville, Ulster County, New York. Described in Part I., page 91. (Heilprin, _Around the World_, 1894, page 194.)--Professor Heilprin found in July a mass of ice measuring about thirty meters in length and 1 meter in depth. The thermometer near the ice read about 1° C. above freezing point, the day being hot. Icicles hung from the ledges on the side of the gorge.
Freezing Gorge at Sam's Point, New York.--See Part I., page 93.
Ice Deposits and Windholes at Watertown, New York.--Described in Part I., page 86.
Freezing Well near Tioga, New York.--Depth, 23 meters. No information.
Freezing Well near Prattsburg, New York.--Depth, 6.5 meters. No information.
Freezing Well near Owego, New York. Described in Part I., page 74. (D. O. Macomber, _American Journal of Arts and Sciences_, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184. _Well's Annual of Scientific Discovery_, 1856, page 190.)--The thermometer is said to have stood at--1.2° at the bottom of the biggest well when it registered--20° outside. When a candle was let down, the flame became agitated and was thrown in one direction at the depth of 9 meters; at the bottom the flame was still, but soon died out. Large masses of ice were found in the biggest well as late as July, and the men who made the well were forced to put on thick clothing in June, and even so could not work for more than two hours at a time.
Cave in the Panama Rocks, Chautauqua, New York. The Rev. Horace C. Hovey informs me that he has been in a small cave in this locality, and that he found ice in it.
Cave in Sussex County, New Jersey.--A clipping from a newspaper, with neither name nor date, says that new ice is found daily on the land of Peter Feather, in the mouth of an unexplored cavern. A small stream of water runs out of the cavern and forms a pool at the opening, and here it is that the ice forms. Enough has been taken in one day to freeze two cans of ice cream. A cold draught of air issues continuously from the cavern.
Hole Containing Ice on Blue Mountain, New Jersey. Reported; no information.
Gorge Containing Ice on Bald Eagle Mountain, Clinton County, Pennsylvania.--Mr. Henry Chapman Mercer, of Doylestown, learned of the existence of this gorge during the summer of 1897. It is near the village of McElhatten, in the neighborhood of Lock Haven, and is some 3 kilometers distant from the Susquehanna River. Ice is said to remain over during the entire summer.
Freezing Cave and Windholes near Farrandsville, Clinton County, Pennsylvania.--Described in Part I., page 93.
Underground Ice Formations, Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, on the southwestern borders of Lycoming County.--Mr. W. Coleman Hall of Philadelphia, about twenty years ago, found ice in two or three places, on Bear Creek, north of Muncy Creek, about 25 kilometers north of the Susquehanna River, and southwest of Eagles Mere. The ice was under rocks, in what may be described as limestone sinks. Since the destruction of the forest, the ice has become less abundant, if indeed any still forms.
Glacières in Abandoned Coal Mines near Summit, Carbon County, Pennsylvania.--Described in Part I., page 95.
Ice Cave Railroad Station, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. On the Bowman Creek branch of the Lehigh Valley R. R.--Mr. F. Holschuh, agent at Luzerne, informs me that about 2 kilometers from Ice Cave Station is a little waterfall on the side of a mountain which was formerly covered with dense forest. A short distance below the fall, a large hollow place has been worn out of the rocks by the action of the water. The overhanging rocks give this almost the appearance of a cave. While the forest was still thick and when the winter was cold, ice would form under these rocks and would not disappear until summer was well advanced. The station was called Ice Cave on account of this place.
Hole Containing Ice at Millerstown, Pennsylvania.--Reported; no information.
Freezing Talus at Spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania. Described in Part I., page 90. The _Philadelphia Ledger_ of July 6th, 1896, states that around the boulders where the ice lies, there are found varieties of plants strongly arctic in character.
Ice Mountain, Hampshire County, Virginia. (C. B. Hayden, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1843, vol. XLV., page 78.)--It lies on the North River, near the road leading from Winchester to Romney, at an altitude of from about 220 meters to 240 meters. One side of the hill is entirely composed of loose stones, among which an abundance of ice is found at all times, although the sun shines on the upper surface of the stones from ten in the morning until sunset. The ice is regularly used in summer by the people near by. Constant and strong air currents issue from the crevices in the rocks. Similar, but smaller accumulations, are said to occur in the same county. Mrs. George B. Balch visited the Ice Mountain in August, 1878. She saw no ice, but the air under the stones was very cold.
Blowing Cave, Bath County, Virginia.--Mrs. Horace Jayne informs me that there is a blowing cave near the Cowpasture River, about half way on the old stage road between Millboro and Warm Springs. A draught flows out from it, strong enough to blow the grass about, three or four meters away. The draught is cold, perhaps abnormally so. The cave has not yet been explored.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Ice Sheets on Mount Chimborazo. (A. von Humboldt, _Travels to the Equinoctial Regions_, London, 1814, vol. I., page 156.)--"On Chimborazo, enormous heaps of ice are found covered with sand, and in the same manner as at the Peak [of Teneriffe] far below the inferior limit of the perpetual snows."
Tierra del Fuego. (A. Winchel, _Walks and Talks_, 1898, page 122.)--"On Tierra del Fuego ice and lava are found interstratified for a great depth, each winter's snow being covered by a new lava sheet."
TENERIFFE.
La Cueva de la Nieve or del Hielo. (Humboldt, _Travels to the Equinoctial Regions_, 1814, vol. I., pages 154, 156. C. Piazzi Smyth, _Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment_, 1858, page 348.)--La Cueva de la Nieve lies at an altitude of 3267 meters in the Malpays on the Peak of Teneriffe, just below the snow line. It is in obsidian. The entrance is 3.6 meters high and 2.7 meters broad. The grotto is 36 meters long, 6 meters wide, and 4 meters high. The descent into the cave is so steep that it is necessary to be lowered by ropes. Professor Smyth found in July an ice floor about 60 centimeters thick which was covered with water. A good deal of snow was lying near the mouth of the cave. The walls were covered with ice and icicles and a few small ice cones rose on the ice floor.
ICELAND.
The Surtshellir or Cave of Surtur. (Olafsen and Povelsen, _Voyage en Islande_, Paris, 1802. Henderson, _Iceland_, 1819, 2d ed., page 420. Guimard, _Voyage en Islande_, page 481.)--The Surtshellir lies in the volcanic waste of Westisland, and is in lava which has flowed from the Bald Jokul. The approach is through an open chasm. The length of the cave is 1534 meters, with an average width of from 15 meters to 17 meters, and a nearly uniform height of from 9 meters to 11 meters. In four places the roof is broken and allows daylight to enter. A great deal of ice is sometimes found in the cave, in the shape of an ice floor, transparent icy pillars, hanging icy pendants, and columns and arches of ice along the walls. Some of the pillars have been found 2.50 meters high.
Kutlagaya. (A. Winchel, _Walks and Talks_, 1898, page 122.)--"In 1860 the crater of the mountain Kutlagaya, in Iceland, hurled out simultaneously into the air lumps of lava and ice, all intermingled together."
SCANDINAVIA.
Ice in the Mines of Nordmark. (Jars, _Voyages Métallurgiques_, 1774, page 105.)--13 kilometers north of Philipstadt, Wermeland, Sweden, a number of holes were dug, some to a depth of 120 meters. Ice of some thickness formed in some of these towards the end of winter, and lasted until about September, despite the fires of the workmen.
Persberg Iron Mines, Sweden. (J. Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., on page 206, quotes Dr. Clark's _Travels in Scandinavia._)--Ice is said to have been found on the sides and bottom of the mine to a depth of about 135 meters.
Ice Caves Reported in Norway.--I was told in Norway that some of the caves in the mountains near the Swartisen ice field contained ice, but I do not know whether this is true. I suspect that there are glacier ice caves which have given rise to this report.
ENGLAND.
Helvellyn, Cumberland. (Wordsworth, _Fidelity_.)--The following verses were pointed out to me by Mr. Bunford Samuel. As far as I know they are the only poetry about glacières:--
"It was a cove, a huge recess That keeps, till June, December's snow; A lofty precipice in front, A silent tarn below! Far in the bosom of Helvellyn, Remote from public road or dwelling Pathway or cultivated land From trace of human foot or hand."
Ice in an Old Copper Mine, Cumberland. (J. Clifford Ward, _Nature_, vol. XI., page 310.)--Ice reported as a rare occurrence.
Ludchurch Chasm, Staffordshire. (R. K. Dent and Joseph Hill's _Historic Staffordshire_, quote Dr. Plot, 1686.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called my attention to this book, in which Dr. Plot is quoted as saying that as late as the 17th of July, snow has been found in Ludchurch Chasm. Messrs. Dent and Hill do not mention anything of the kind as occurring now.
Blowing Cave in Denbighshire, Wales.--A newspaper cutting says that there are such strong eruptions of winds from a cave in this neighborhood as to toss back to a great height in the air any article of apparel thrown in.
Tin Croft Mine, Cornwall. (J. Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., page 206, quotes Mr. Moyle.)--Ice has been found in abundance in this mine at a depth of nearly 100 meters.
CENTRAL EUROPE.
Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant. Described in Part I., page 8. (Poissenot, _Nouvelles Histoires Tragiques de Benigne Poissenot, licencié aux lois. A Paris, chez Guillaume Bichon, rue S. Jacques, a l'enseigne du Bichot, 1586, avec privilege du Roy_, pages 436-453. Gollut, _Les Mémoires historiques de la Repub. Sequanoise, et des princes de la Franche Comté de Bourgogne, par M. Lois Gollut, Advocat au Parlement de Dôle; A Dôle, 1592_. Trouillet, _Mémoires de la Société d'Émulation du Doubs, 1885_. Girardot, _Mémoires de la Société d'Émulation du Doubs, 1886_.)
The earliest notice of a glacière which I have been able to find is in the shape of a letter giving an account of a visit to the Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant in 1584, by Benigne Poissenot, a French lawyer. The account, which I have translated as literally as possible, is in a special chapter, as follows:--
"Sir:--Since our separation, I have had this pleasure (_heut_) to hear news of you only once, having found your brother in Paris; who, having assured me of your good health (_disposition_), informed me of how since we had seen each other you had travelled to Italy, even as far as Greece, of which you had seen a large portion: and that sound and safe, after so long a journey, you had reappeared and landed at Havre de Grace where you wished to go, that is to say at home. All the pleasure which a friend can receive, knowing the affairs of another self, joined to such a happy result, seized my heart, at the recital of such agreeable news: and I did not fail shortly after, to write you amply all which had happened to me since I left you until my return to France: congratulating you at having escaped from marine abysses and perilous passages on land, on which travellers are often constrained to risk their life. From this time, I have always stayed in Paris or in the neighborhood, according to the good pleasure of dame fortune, who ruled me in her wise and fed me with her dishes the most common and ordinary until the first day of January of the year 1584, when I received my first gift in the shape of a strong and violent disease, which tormented me more than a month: from which, having become cured with the help of God, and having with time recovered my health and my strength at the arrival of spring, I was seized with the desire to smell the air of the country. And in fact having thrown away my pen and travelled about (_battu l'estrade_) through high and low Burgundy, I stopped at Bezenson, Imperial City, to spend the summer. This city is still to day just the same as Julius Cæsar describes it, in the notable mention he makes of it, in the first book of his commentaries of the war in Gaul, there remaining there all the vestiges of the most remarkable things, which he tells of in his description. There are also very fine fountains, from all of which water streams from the representation of some god of antiquity, as a Neptune, a Bacchus, a Pan, a Nereide or others: except before the state house, where the statue of Charles the Fifth, representing him in a most natural manner, is placed on an eagle, which from its beak, pours out such a great quantity of water that this is the most beautiful, among all the other fountains. And as I do not doubt that while traversing Italy, you both saw and examined with curiosity the most handsome singularities, which presented themselves to your eyes and that on your return, passing through Avignon and Dauphiné, as your brother informed me, you had the advantage over me of seeing the wonders of the country, of which you had heard me speak sometimes, regretting that the war, during the time I was in that quarter, had prevented my going to the spot, to see the burning fountain as in Dodone, and the fountain called Jupiter, which torches of fire light up and which grows less till midday and then grows till midnight, and then diminishes and fails at midday: and another in Epirus which we call to day Albania, the tower without venom and the inaccessible mountain: then as I said, since you have contemplated these things and several others not less admirable, I wish to entertain you about a marvel which I saw, during my sojourn in Bezenson, to know from you, whether in all your journey, you saw a similar thing. Know then that the day of the festival of St. John Baptist, a young man, provided with an honest knowledge, with whom I had made some little acquaintance, presented me with an icicle, to cool my wine at dinner, and which I admired greatly, on account of the time of the year in which we then were, begging him who gave it to me to tell me where he had discovered this rare present for that time. He answered me that every year, the day of the solemnity of the festival of St. John Baptist, the inhabitants of a village, which he named, were bound to come to offer the great church of St. John of Bezenson, a goodly quantity of ice, which they got in a wood, and brought to town at night on horses, for fear that by day it should melt, and that one of his cronies had given to him what he had given to me.
"Suddenly there flamed up in me a desire to see this place, where in the height of the summer, ice was to be found. When he who had presented me with the icicle saw this, he promised to accompany me, not having as yet, any more than myself, seen this marvel. I did not hatch very long this decision, all the more as all those, to whom I mentioned it, encouraged me to carry it out as soon as I could, assuring me that I should see a strange thing, and that even the Duke of Alva on his return from Flanders, passing through Franche Comté, had wished to see this novelty. Therefore calling on the promise of the one who was the cause of undertaking this journey, we went together to Versey, a fine town, distant five leagues from Bezenson, turning a little off our direct route, to go to see a literary man, at this said Versey, who having called on me at Bezenson, had extracted from me the promise of going to see him. There happened to me in this spot, what the poet du Bellay says happened to him, on his return from Italy, passing through the Grisons, to go into France: who, after having chanted the troubles there are in the passage, says that the Swiss made him drink so much, that he does not remember anything he saw in that country. Likewise, I can assure you that my host, following the custom of those of the country (who do not think they are treating a man properly if they do not make him drink a lot, taking that from the Germans, their neighbors) made us carouse so well, that when we went to bed, we were very gay boys. For although we had both made an agreement on the road, yet our host knew so well how to win us over, saying that those who would not drink, gave reason to think badly of them, and that they had committed, or wished to commit some great crime, which they feared to give away in drinking, that in the end we let ourselves go, passing the time in Pantagruelic fashion. The next morning having taken some "hair from the beast" and a guide which our host gave to us to conduct us to the _Froidiere_--we continued our wanderings, and arrived at a little village called Chaud, joining a large wood, where our guide told us, that although he had been more than six times to the _Froidiere_, yet the road was so tortuous and so cut up by small paths, that if we did not take a man from this village, to be more sure, we might spend more than half a day in the wood, before finding what we were seeking. Getting off our horses now, we added to our company a native of the place, who having led us by crooked roads, about a quarter of a league, through the forest, made us enter into a close thicket and by a little path led us to a pleasant meadow; where, looking down, we saw a hole, of difficult descent, at the bottom of which was the opening of a grotto, pretty big, and so awful and terrifying to see, that one would have said, it was the mouth of Hell. And in truth, I remembered then, the hole of St. Patrick, which is said to be in Hibernia. We were not brave enough knights, to try the adventure, my companion and I, if our guides had not taken the lead. After whom we descended as magnanimously as the Trojan Duke followed the Sybil to the Plutonic realms, the sword half drawn from the scabbard, and well determined to make test of the Platonic doctrine, which teaches that demons can be dissected, in case any shade or spook should have come to meet us. About the middle of the way, we began to feel in descending a very agreeable freshness; for it was the second day of July and the sun shone very warmly, which made us sweat drop by drop. But we had good opportunity to refresh ourselves and put ourselves to cool, having reached the grotto which we found of the length and breadth of a large hall, all paved with ice in the bottom, and where a crystalline water, colder than that of the mountains of Arcadia Nonacris, streamed from many small brooklets, which formed very clear fountains, with the water of which I washed myself and drank so eagerly, that I had wished the thirst of Tantalus, or else that I had been bitten by a Dipsas, in order to be always thirsty, amid such a pleasant beverage. A great lord, who in some pleasure resort, should have such a refrigerator in summer, could boast according to my judgment, to be better provided with drink, than the kings of Persia were with their river Coaspis, which engulphs itself into the Tigris, the water whereof was so sweet, that the use of it was allowed only to the great King, for the retinue and cronies of his household. Do not think, that among these delights, I was at all free from fear, for never did I raise my eyes above that from terror my whole body shivered and the hair stood up on my head, seeing the whole roof of the grotto, covered with big massive icicles, the least of which, falling on me, had been sufficient to scramble up my brains and knock me to pieces; so much so that I was like to that criminal, whom they say is punished in Hell, by the continual fear of a big stone, which seems as though it must suddenly fall on his ears. There are besides the large hall of the grotto, some rather roomy corners, where the gentlemen of the neighborhood, put their venison to cool in summer, and we saw the hooks, where they hang the wild fowl. It is true, that when we were there, we saw neither game nor wild fowl, and I think, that if we had found any of it, we were men to carry off some of it. We walked around for about a quarter of an hour, in this _Froidiere_ and we should have staid there longer if the cold had not driven us out; which struck in to our backs, even to make our teeth crack; we reascended the slope, not forgetting, all of us as many as we were, to provide and load ourselves with ice, which served us at lunch in the little village mentioned above to drink most delightfully, assuring you that it is impossible to drink more freshly than we drank then. I thought of those old voluptuaries, who cooled their wine with snow, and it seemed to me, as though they might have had it much cheaper if in their time there had been many such _Froidieres_, to refresh it with ice, instead of with snow, as some of the gentlemen of the neighborhood of the _Froidiere_ and some of the most notable persons of the neighborhood of Bezenson do; who by night, have a good supply brought on horses, which they keep in their caves, and use at their meals and banquets. Turning back towards the Imperial city of Bezenson, I carried for about two great leagues, a rather large icicle in my hands, which little by little melted and was a pleasant and agreeable cooler, on account of the great heat of the weather. After having thought over in my mind, the cause of this _antiperistase_, I could find none other but this: to wit, that as heat domineers in summer, the cold retires to places low and subterranean, such as is this one, to which the rays of the sun cannot approach, and that in such an aquatic and humid place, it operates the results, which we have shown above. Which seemed to me so much more likely, that on asking the peasants of the neighboring village, if in winter there was ice in this _Froidiere_, they answered me that there was none, and that on the contrary, it was very warm there. Whatever may be the cause, whether this or another, I can assure you, that I admired this singularity as much as any I have seen, since a large church, cut into a rock which I had seen a few years previously, in a little town of Gascony called St. Milion, distant seven leagues from Bordeaux; on the steeple of which is the cemetery, where they bury the dead; a thing to be marvelled at by him who has not seen it.
"I have made trial, to enrich this missive, with all the artifice which has come into my head, using the leisure, which the present time brings me: as the temple of Janus is open, the air beyond breathing nothing but war: which forces me, against my wish, to sojourn in this place longer than I had intended. If these troubles settle down, and if after the rain, God sends us fine weather as requires the calamitous state in which is now the flat country, I shall return to my Parnassus; from which if I go out hereafter, believe that it will be very much in spite of myself, or that my will will have very much changed. You will be able to let me hear from you there, and take your revenge for the prolixity of this letter, by sending me one still longer, which you will write to me with more pleasure, as I shall take much in reading it. However as it is becoming time to sound taps, I will pray the sovereign creator for my affectionate recommendations to your graces.
"Sir, and best friend, may you keep in health and have a long and happy life. From Sens this 20th of June 1585.
"Your obedient friend, BENIGNE POISSENOT.
"End of the description of the marvel, called the _Froidiere_."
The next notice about the Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant is by Gollut in 1592, as follows:--
[Sidenote: "Ices in summer."]
"I do not wish however to omit (since I am in these waters) to bring to mind the commodity, which nature has given to some dainty men, since at the bottom of a mountain of Leugné ice is found in summer, for the pleasure of those who wish to drink cool. Nevertheless at this time, this is disappearing, for no other reason (as I think) except, that they have despoiled the top of the mountain, of a thick and high mass of woods, which did not permit that the rays of the sun came to warm the earth, and dry up the distillations, which slipped down to the lowest and coldest part of the mountain where (_by antiperistase_) the cold got thicker, and contracted itself against the heats surrounding and in the neighborhood during the whole summer, all the external circumference of the mountain."
The ice at Chaux-les-Passavant is said to have been entirely cleared out, by the Duc de Lévi, in 1727, for the use of the Army of the Saone. In 1743, when de Cossigny visited the cave, the ice was formed again. There are no reports about the intervening time between 1727 and 1743. The ice probably all re-formed the winter after it was taken away.
Captain Trouillet in 1885 writes of Chaux-les-Passavant: "The following winter had shown itself unfavorable to the production of ice, the periods of humidity preceding too long ahead the periods of frost. Finally last summer, coming after a wet spring, was exceptionally warm. Such were the circumstances which brought about in the glacière the ruin which could be seen at the end of last October. * * * On the 11th of November, the first effects of frost are felt and the temperature falls in the glacière to -2°: outside the thermometer drops to -3°. On the morning of the 12th, same result, and ice makes its appearance in the grotto, as the report of the observer shows: but the quantity produced is so small that the internal thermometer soon goes above 0°. It is only on the 9th of December that the frost wins definitely; on the 11th, 12th and 13th the chill is intense and reaches -19° outside, stopping at -15° in the glacière. The water coming from the rains between the 5th and the 9th drip at this time through the roof and the big side crevasse: circumstances grow favorable and the ice accumulates. From the 17th, the entrance slope becomes almost impracticable; the icicles grow on the roof, as big as the body of a man. * * * From this time to the end of December, the ice sheet does not increase, for water only arrives by the rare drip of the roof, and only the stalactites increase slowly. Outside, however, the cold continues vigorously, the thermometer on the 31st of December dropping to -15° and to -13° in the glacière. If the production of the ice stops, it is not the cold which is wanting, but the other element, the one which as our former study showed, is the most rarely exact at the meeting. The winter is only favorable on condition that it offers alternating periods of freezing and thawing; so the observer writes in his report: 'it is the water which is wanting, otherwise the glacière would be magnificent.'"
Trouillet speaks of the difficulty of winter observations in the following words: "Mons. Briot, the present lessor of the glacière, has the unpaid mission of going every week to the bottom of the grotto to get and put in place the interior thermometer. It is a really hard piece of work at this time of the year: each journey takes about one hour. Besides the chance that a visitor has of receiving on his head one of those magnificent stalactites 1 meter or 2 meters long which fall continually from the roof, it is perfectly disagreeable to him to arrive at the base of the slope otherwise than on the sole of his boots, and to face thus the frequent and painful meeting with rocks whose angular edges dot the surface of the descent, smooth as a mirror set at an angle of 30°."
Trouillet and Girardot obtained a series of observations with maxima and minima thermometers at Chaux-les-Passavant during the winter of 1885-1886. At the end of November the temperature inside was +2°. On the 2d of December it rose to +2.5°. On the 10th of December, it sank to -1°, and after this date, it remained below freezing point all winter. The observations were not continuous, but they showed that every time the temperature outside dropped considerably, the temperature inside immediately did likewise. For instance, on the 12th of January, the outside air dropped to -18°, and the inside air responded by falling to -15°. On the other hand, when the temperature outside rose above freezing point, the temperature inside remained stationary or fluctuated only gently. For instance, from the 24th of March to the 8th of April, the outside air went up and down perpetually, the extremes being -2° and +16°; while in the same time the inside air rose continuously from -2° to -0.5°.
Windholes and Ice Formations near Gérardmer, Vosges. (Rozet, in _Encyclopédie Moderne_, Didot Frères, Paris, 1853, vol. XVI., page 503.)
L'Abime du Creux-Percé or Glacière de Pasques. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, 1894, page 394; _Annuaire du Club Alpin Français_, vol. XIX., page 38.)--On the plateau of Langres, Côte d'Or. It lies 15 kilometers from Dijon, and is really a limestone rock gorge, of 55 meters in depth, which at the top is 40 meters long and 20 meters wide, and at the bottom is 15 meters long and 12 meters wide. In March 1892, Mons. Martel found the north side covered with large icicles 15 meters long. The ice seems to remain throughout the year. The bottom of the Abime has been reached only by means of two long rope ladders.
Creux de Chevroche or Roche Chèvre, Côte d'Or. (Clément Drioton, _Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, 1897, vol. I., page 209.)--"In the woods of Mavilly, near Bligny-sur-Ouches, is a little cave, called Creux de Chevroche or Roche-Chèvre, where one can find ice until the month of July."
Freezing Well of Marolles, at La Ferté-Milon, Aisne. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 563, note 2.)--This well is 8.15 meters deep; the altitude is 70 meters. During the winter of 1892-93 the water in it froze for a thickness of 15 centimeters. The minimum outside temperature that year was -17°.
Windholes near Pontgibaud, Puy de Dome. (G. Poulett-Scrope, _The Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central France_, 1858, page 60.)--These windholes are in basalt. There are many cracks, whence cold air currents issue, and where ice has been found, sometimes in summer. There are cold storage huts over some of the cracks.
Le Creux-de-Souci, Puy de Dome. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, 1894, Page 387.)--This is situated 5 kilometers southeast of Besse-en-Chandesse. It is a large lava cavern with the entrance directly in the middle of the roof. The bottom is partly filled by a lake. The depth from the surface of the ground to the lake is 33 meters; from the smallest part of the opening to the lake the depth is 21.50 meters. Down this last portion one can descend only by means of a rope ladder. The temperature is extremely low; in general near freezing point. In June, July, August and November 1892, Monsieur Berthoule, _maire_ of Besse, did not find any snow. On the 10th of August, 1893, on the contrary, he found at the bottom a heap of snow, which he thinks was formed in the cave itself, by the freezing during their descent of the drops of water which are constantly dripping from the roof. He reports landing on _une montagne de neige, de neige blanche_. On several visits, Mons. Berthoule noticed carbonic acid gas in dangerous quantities. There was none at the time he observed the snow heap, but ten days later he found it impossible to descend into the cave as the carbonic acid gas came up in puffs to the entrance. In the lake, Mons. Berthoule discovered a variety of Rotifer, _Notholca longispina_, and also several algæ and diatoms. The _Asterionella formosa_ is the most remarkable from its abundance: it exists in some of the lakes of the Alps, but not in those of the Pyrenees.
Aven de Lou Cervi, Vaucluse. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 563.)--This is a cold cave. It belongs to the class which Mons. Martel calls _avens à rétrécissement_, or _abimes à double orifice_. In September, 1892, Mons. Martel noted a temperature of 6.5° at 53 meters; of 6.8° at 64 meters. Mean temperature of locality, 8.75°.
Igue de Biau, Lot. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 304.)--Cold cave. Temperature on 13th July, 1891: 5°.
Fosse Mobile, Charente. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 380.)--Cold cave. Temperature on 11th April, 1893: 7°.
Aven de Deidou, Causse Méjean. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 223.)--Cold cave. Temperatures on 14th October, 1892: outside air, 4°; at bottom, 6.5°.
Aven des Oules, Causse Méjean. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 227.)--Cold cave. Temperatures on 21st October, 1892: outside air, 2.5°; at bottom, 4°.
Windhole Cold Caves near Roquefort, Aveyron.--They lie 13 kilometers from Millau, at an altitude of about 600 meters, and are utilized in the manufacture of Roquefort cheese.
Aven de Carlet, near la Roche Giron, Basses Alpes. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 53.)--Lumps of ice are reported to have been taken from it.
La Poujade, Cévennes. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, pages 212-215.)--An intermittent spring in limestone rock. At the bottom of the first gallery, on the 18th of September, 1892, the temperature of the air was 12.3°, and that of a pool of water supplied by drip 11.5°. Mons. Martel thought that the drip brought to the pool the mean annual temperature of the ground through which it had come. A little further within and 5 meters lower, the temperature of the air was 7.3° and that of another pool of water 6.8°. This pool was not supplied by drip and must have been left over by the last flow of the spring. Mons. Martel thought that the lower temperatures at this spot were due to the cold air of winter dropping to the bottom of the cave and on account of its density not being able to get out.
Snow Preserved in Chasms in the Italian Mountains. (_The Penny Magazine_, London, August, 1834, page 335.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called my attention to an article in which the Southern Italians are said to dig wells or cellars on the mountain sides, and to throw snow into them in winter. The snow is well pressed together and straw, dried leaves, etc., is thrown on top. By having a northern exposure for these pits, and seeing that they are in thick forest, or in rifts where the sun does not penetrate, these depots may be safely placed as low down the mountain as the snow falls and lies. Naples is largely supplied [1834] with snow in summer from such snow wells situated on Monte Angelo, the loftiest point of the promontory separating the Bay of Naples from the Bay of Salerno.
Cold Caves of San Marino, Apennines. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les Alpes_, 1796, III., page 211.)--These are probably windholes.
La Bocche dei Venti di Cesi. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les Alpes_, 1796, III., page 211.)--These windholes were in the cellar of the house of Don Giuseppe Cesi, in the town of Cesi. The cellar acted as a natural refrigerator. The air stream was so strong, that it nearly blew out the torches. In winter the wind rushed into the holes. De Saussure was shown the following Latin verses by the owner:--
"Abditus hic ludit vario discrimine ventus Et faciles miros exhibet aura jocos. Nam si bruma riget, quaecumque objeceris haurit. Evomit aestivo cum calet igne dies,"
Windholes or "Ventarole" on Monte Testaceo, near Rome. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les Alpes_, 1796, III., page 209.)--There are a number here among heaps of broken pottery. The temperatures seem abnormally low.
Krypta Sorana. (Kircher, _Mundus Subterraneus_, 1664, page 118 and page 239.)--This has been spoken of as a glacière cave, but as there is much doubt in the matter, I quote the passages, on which the reports are based, in the original Latin: "Cryptae sunt naturales, quarum innumerae sunt species, juxta vires naturales iis inditas. Sunt nonnullae medicinali virtute praeditae, quaedam metallicis vaporibus, exhalationibus, aquis scatent, sunt et glaciales, plenae nivibus et crystallo, uti in Monte Sorano me vidisse memini." And further: "Vidi ego in Monte Sorano cryptam veluti glacie incrustatam, ingentibus in fornice hinc inde stiriis dependentibus, e quibus vicini montis accolae pocula aestivo tempore conficiunt, aquae vinoque, quae iis infunduntur, refrigerandis aptissima, extremo rigore in summas bibentium delicias commutato."
Subterranean Ice Sheet, Mount Etna, Sicily. (Lyell, _Principles of Geology, 11th Edition_, chapter XXVI.)--This ice sheet is near the Casa Inglese. Sir Charles Lyell ascertained the fact of its existence in 1828, and in 1858 he found the same mass of ice, of unknown extent and thickness, still unmelted. In the beginning of the winter of 1828, Lyell found the crevices in the interior of the summit of the highest cone of Etna encrusted with thick ice, and in some cases hot vapors actually streaming out between masses of ice and the rugged and steep walls of the crater. Lyell accounts for this ice sheet by the explanation that there must have been a great snow bank in existence at the time of an eruption of the volcano. This deep mass of snow must have been covered at the beginning of the eruption by volcanic sand showered on it, followed by a stream of lava. The sand is a bad conductor of heat and together with the solidified lava, preserved the snow from liquefaction.
Glacière on the Moncodine. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 13.)--The Moncodine is described as a Dolomite near the Lago di Como. The cave lies up the Val Sasina, two hours from Cortenuova, at an altitude of 1675 meters. The entrance faces north, and is 2.5 meters high and 1.5 meters wide. The average diameter of the cave is 16 meters. The floor is solid ice, which has been sometimes cut for use in the hotels on the Lago di Como and even been sent to Milan.
La Ghiacciaia del Mondole. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 8.)--The Mondole is a mountain 2375 meters high, near Mondovi, south of Turin. The cave lies on the eastern slope, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It is hard to get at. The entrance is to the east, and is 2 meters wide and 1.5 meters high. A passageway some 25 meters long leads to a large chamber where there is plenty of ice. In hot summers ice is brought from the cave to Mondovi. _Ghiacciaia_ means freezing cavern in Italian.
La Ghiacciaia del Val Séguret. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 8.)--It lies near Susa at the base of chalk cliffs, at an altitude of about 1500 meters. The cave is said to be about 40 meters deep, 50 meters wide and 50 meters high. Bonetti in May, 1874, found many icicles and ice cones.
La Borna de la Glace. (Chanoine Carrel, _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1841, vol. XXXIV., page 196.)--It lies in the Duchy of Aosta, commune of La Salle, on the northern slope of the hills near Chabauday, in a spot called Plan Agex. The altitude is 1602 meters. The entrance opens to the east and is 60 centimeters wide and 80 centimeters high. One can descend for 4 meters. There are two branches in the rear of the entrance. Chanoine Carrel found an ice pillar 1 meter high in the western branch. He recorded these temperatures on the 15th of July, 1841: Outside +15°. Entrance +2.9°. East branch +0.9°. West branch +0.5°.
Windholes in the Italian Alps. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, pages 94-97.)--A number of these seem to have abnormally low temperatures. Some are in the mountains around Chiavenna, and are sometimes, by building small huts over them, utilized as refrigerators. Some are reported in the neighborhood of the Lago di Como near Dongo, near Menaggio, and in the villa Pliniana near Curino; in the neighborhood of the Lake of Lugano at the base of Monte Caprino, near Melide, near Mendrisio and near Sertellino; and in the Val Maggia near Cevio.
The Glacière de Font d'Urle, or Fondurle, Dauphiné. (Héricart de Thury, _Annales des Mines_, vol. XXXIII., page 157; G. F. Browne, _Ice Caves_, etc., page 212; E. A. Martel, _Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, vol. I., page 37; L. Villard, _Spélunca_, 1896, vol. II., page 39.)--It lies on the Foire de Font d'Urle, 16 kilometers north of Dié, 48 kilometers east of Valence, and 80 kilometers south of Grenoble. The glacière consists of two large pits, lying east and west, and with underground communication. From this tunnel a long low archway leads to a broad slope of chaotic blocks of stone, which is 60 meters long and 42 meters in greatest width. The ice begins half way down this slope, fitfully at first and afterwards in a tolerably continuous sheet. Thury found many icicles hanging from the roof. Browne found four columns of ice, of which the largest was 5.80 meters across the base. On his visit, in the middle of August, the ice was strongly thawing. Both explorers noted the extremely prismatic character of the ice. Browne found a temperature of +0.5°. Martel gives a section and plan of Font d'Urle. Mons. Villard says about this cavern: "A curious thing: I found in this cave, motionless on a piece of rock, entirely surrounded by ice for a distance of several meters, a blind specimen of a coleoptera, _Cytodromus dapsoïdes_."
The Chourun Clot. (E. A. Martel, _Sous Terre_. _Annuaire du Club Alpin Français_, vol. XXIII., 1896, pages 42, 43; _Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, vol. I., page 31.)--In Dauphiné, half way between Agnières and the Pic Costebelle, at an altitude of 1,740 meters. There is first a pit 18 meters long, 4.50 meters wide and 25 meters deep. In the bottom of this is a vertical hole 15 meters deep and from 1 meter to 2 meters in diameter, in which there was much ice on the 31st of July, 1896. Then the pit changes to a sloping gallery which terminates in a little hall, full of ice, at a depth of 70 meters. Martel gives a cut and section of this glacière.
The Glacière du Trou de Glas. (E. A. Martel, _La Géographie_, 1900, vol. I., page 52.)--In the range of the Grande Chartreuse.
The Chourun Martin. (E. A. Martel, _La Géographie_, 1900, vol. I., page 53.)--In the range of the Dévoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,580 meters. An extremely deep pit, which on July 31st, 1899, was much blocked up with snow.
The Chourun de la Parza. (E. A. Martel, _La Géographie_, 1900, vol. I., page 54.)--In the range of the Dévoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,725 meters. A fine pit, 25 meters in diameter, and 74 meters in depth. Filled with snow or rather névé, in which are deep holes.
The Glacière de l'Haut-d'Aviernoz. Described in Part I., page 2. (C. Dunant, _Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz_, page 26; Browne, _Ice Caves_, etc., page 157.)--Mons. Dunant calls this glacière l'Haut d'Aviernoz; Mr. Browne calls it the Glacière du Grand Anu. By a plumb line held from the edge of the larger pit, Browne found that the ice floor was about 35 meters from the surface, which would give a level for the ice floor closely identical to the one I found. In July, 1864, he recorded a temperature of +1.1°.
The Glacière de l'Enfer. (G. F. Browne, _Good Words_, November, 1866; T. G. Bonney, _The Alpine Regions_, 1868, pages 95, 96; C. Dunant, _Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz_, page 25.)--On Mont Parmelan. A pit cave with a steep slope of broken rock leading to a rock portal in the face of a low cliff. This opens into a roughly circular hall about 22 meters in diameter and 3 meters to 4 meters in height. A chink between the rock and the ice permitted Mr. Browne to scramble down three or four meters to where a tunnel entered the ice mass. Throwing a log of wood down this tunnel, a crash was heard and then a splash of water, and then a strange gulping sound. "The tunnel obviously led to a subglacial reservoir and this was probably covered by a thin crust of ice; the log in falling had broken this and then disturbed the water below, which then commenced bubbling up and down through the hole, and making a gulping noise, just as it does sometimes when oscillating up and down in a pipe."
Mons. C. Dunant of the _Club Alpin Français_ describes a visit to the Glacière de l'Enfer. He mentions also a legend of a witch from a neighboring village who would get the ice from these caves and bring it down in the shape of hail on the crops of the peasants who were inhospitable to her.
The Glacière de Chapuis. Described in Part I., page 5. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, etc., page 182, and _Good Words_, November, 1866.)--Mr. Browne calls it the Glacière de Chappet-Sur-Villaz. Mr. Browne and Professor T. G. Bonney found several flies in the Glacière de Chapuis. Three of them were specimens of _Stenophylax_, the largest being probably, but not certainly, _S. hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens. Two smaller caddis flies were either _S. testaceus_ of Pictet or some closely allied species. One other insect was an ichneumon of the genus _Paniscus_, of an unidentified species. It differed from all its congeners in the marking of the throat, resembling in this respect some species of _Ophion_. Mr. Browne thinks that the case flies may have been washed into the cave somehow or other in the larva form, and come to maturity on the ice where they had lodged. But this explanation will not hold in the case of the ichneumon, which is a parasitic genus on larvæ of terrestrial insects.
The Glacière de Le Brezon. (Pictet, _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1822, vol. XX., page 270, and Thury, _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1861, vol. X., pages 139 and 152.)--It lies southeast of Bonneville near the foot of Mount Lechaud, at an altitude of 1276 meters. The cave is 9.7 meters long, about 8 meters wide and the greatest height is about 4 meters. The entrance is small and is at the base of a cliff, in some places of which cold air currents issue. The ice lies on the floor. Some of it is probably winter snow.
The Glacière de Brisons.--Described in Part I., page 1.
The Grand Cave de Montarquis. Described in Part I., page 70. (Thury, _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, vol. X., pages 135-153.)--Professor Thury describes two visits to this cave. On the 16th of August, 1859, he found no ice stalactites or stalagmites. On the 19th of January, 1861, he did not find a single drop of water in the cave, but many stalactites and stalagmites of beautiful clear ice, one of which resembled porcelain more than any other substance. In August, Thury found an air current streaming into the cave at the rear, but this did not, however, disturb the air of the interior, for in one
## part it was in perfect equilibrium: along the line of the draughts
the ice was more melted than elsewhere in the cave. In January, the current was reversed and poured into the fissure, with the temperature varying between -1.5° and -2.5°. He observed the following temperatures at the Grand Cave:--
TIME. OUTSIDE. INSIDE. 16th August, 1859 +8.6° +2.5° 19th January, 1861 1.25 P. M. +2.6° -4.° " " " 2.12 " +2.1° -4.° " " " 3.50 " -1.1° -4.°
The Petite Cave de Montarquis. Mentioned in Part I., page 71. (Thury, _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1861, vol. X., page 150. Also quotes Morin.)--At the end of a crooked fissure 10 meters deep, a passage 6 meters long, leads into a cave 8 meters high and 5 meters in diameter. In August, 1828, Morin found an ice stalagmite of 5 meters in height in the middle of the cave.
Cave Containing Ice on the Southern Shore of Lake Geneva.--Reported; no information.
The Glacière and Neigière d'Arc-Sous-Cicon. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, etc., page 118.)--These lie close together in the Jura about twenty kilometers from Pontarlier. The little glacière is formed by a number of fissures in the rock, disconnected slits in the surface opening into larger chambers where the ice lies. The neigière is a deep pit, with a collection of snow at the bottom, much sheltered by overhanging rocks and trees. A huge fallen rock covers a large part of the sloping bottom of the pit, which forms a small cave in the shape of a round soldier's tent, with walls of rock and floor of ice.
The Glacière de la Genollière. Described in Part I., page 48. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, etc., page 1.)--Mr. Browne observed in 1864 a temperature of +1.1°, and two days later of +0.8°. He also found a number of flies running rapidly over the ice and stones. He was told in England, from the specimen he brought away, that it was the _Stenophylax hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens or something very like that fly.
The Glacière de Saint-Georges. Described in Part I., page 62. (Thury, _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1861, vol. X.)--Professor Thury obtained the following temperatures at the Glacière de Saint-Georges:--
OUTSIDE. INSIDE.
9th January, 1858 7.36 P. M., -4.5° 7.16 P. M., -0.6° " " " 7.20 " -1.2° " " " 7.27 " -2.5° " " " 7.50 " -2.9° Minimum of night -5.8° -4.9° 10th January, 1858 10.53 A. M., -3.4° 10.12 A. M., -4.6° " " " 11.14 " -3.1° 10.30 " -4.5° " " " 11.45 " -2.2° 11.20 " -4.4° " " " 12.32 P. M., -2.4° 12.14 P. M., -4.4° " " " 1.12 " -0.9° 1.30 " -4.2° " " " 3.03 " -2.9° 2.30 " -4.1° " " " 3.56 " -3.5° 3.14 " -4.0° " " " 4.26 " -3.7° 4.00 " -3.8° Minimum of night -7.6° -6.8° 11th January, 1858 9.34 A. M., -5.6° 2d April, 1858 6.20 P. M., +0.7° -0.2° Minimum of night + 1.1° 3d April, 1858 10.00 A. M., +4.0° 9.00 A. M., -1.0°
Professor Thury's winter excursions caused him to accept as proved that part of the mountaineers' belief, which holds that there is no ice formed in caves in winter. One of the main grounds for his opinion was the series of observations he made in the Glacière de Saint-Georges. He found no ice forming there in winter and the natives said it did not because the cavern was not cold enough. So he placed large dishes filled with water in the cave and found that they froze solid during the night, which he had been assured was impossible. Thury also found violent movements of the air at Saint-Georges in January, 1858. A candle burned steadily for some time, but at 7.16 P. M. it began to flicker and soon inclined downwards through an angle of about 45°; and in the entrance, the flame assumed an almost horizontal position. At 8 P. M., the current of air nearly disappeared. Thury thought that this violent and temporary disturbance of equilibrium was due to the fact that as the heavier air outside tended to pass into the cave, the less cold air within tended to pass out; and the narrow entrance confining the struggle to a small area, the weaker current was able for a while to hold its own.
The Glacière du Pré de Saint-Livres. Described in Part I., page 65. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 40.)--Mr. Browne found, in 1864, a temperature of 0°.
The Petite Glacière du Pré de Saint-Livres. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 46.)--This is near the last cave at a slightly higher altitude. There is first a small pit, then a little cave, in which there is an ice slope. This passes under a low arch in the rock wall, and leads down into another small cave. Mr. Browne descended this ice stream, which was itself practically a fissure column and spread into the fan shape at the base. The lower cave was 22 meters long and 11 meters wide, and contained an ice floor and several fissure columns.
The Glacière de Naye, above Montreux, Switzerland. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397; _Spélunca_, 1895, vol. I., pages 107, 108; _Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, vol. III., pages 246-254.)--This is called a _glacier souterrain_. It was discovered in 1893 by Professor Dutoit. There are fifty-four caves known among the Rochers de Naye, and only this one contains ice. It is a long narrow cave with two entrances and widest towards the base, which opens over a precipice. The altitude is high, the upper entrance being at an altitude of 1820 meters, and the lower of 1750 meters. The place is both a passage cave and a windhole. The snow falls into the upper entrance, and slides down, becoming ice in the lower portion. There are other connecting passages and hollows where the cold air cannot get in, and there ice does not form. Mons. Martel thinks that the ice formed during the winter is preserved by the draughts--due to the difference in level of the two openings--causing an evaporation and chill sufficient for the purpose.
The Creux Bourquin. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397.)--At Mauberget, near Grandson. This is a rock gorge 25 meters deep. At the bottom, on the 9th of July, 1893, was a mass of ice 38 meters long and 8 meters wide.
The Glacière de Monthézy. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 97.)--This lies to the west of Neufchâtel, between the Val de Travers and the Val de Brévine, on the path between the villages of Couvet and Le Brévine, at an altitude of 1100 meters. The cave is nearly oval in shape, with a length of 34 meters and a width of 29 meters. The roof is from 1 meter to 3 meters high. There are three pits, about 20 meters deep, on different sides of the cave. The descent is made through the largest pit. On the 6th of July, 1864, Mr. Browne found the floor of the cave covered with ice, and icicles and columns in some places; he also saw a clump of cowslips (_primula elatior_) overhanging the snow at the bottom of the pit through which he descended.
Pertius Freiss. (T. G. Bonney, _Nature_, vol. XI., page 327.)--It lies on the way to the Pic d'Arzinol, near Evolène, in the Val d'Hérens. A slip or subsidence of part of a cliff has opened two joints in the rock, in both of which fissures Professor Bonney found ice on July 23d.
The Schafloch. Described in Part I., page 21. (Körber, _Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen Club_, 1885, vol. XX., pages 316, 343.)--Herr Körber gives some of the dimensions as follows: Entrance 14 meters wide and 4.70 meters high. Length of cave 206.8 meters: average width 20 meters and greatest width 23.5 meters. Height from 5 meters to 7 meters. Length of ice slope 29 meters and breadth 12.5 meters; for 16 meters the slope has an inclination of 32°. Körber made the following observations in the Schafloch:--
14 METERS 100 METERS 160 METERS DATE. OUTSIDE. FROM FROM FROM ENTRANCE. ENTRANCE. ENTRANCE.
21 September, 1884, 10.5° 5.6° 0.2° 0.2° 18 January, 1885, 2.7° -1.0° -1.3° --
The Rev. G. F. Browne, in 1864, found a temperature of +0.5°.
The Eisloch of Unterfluh. (Baltzer, _Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen Club_, 1892-93, pages 358-362.)--Twenty minutes from Unterfluh near Meiringen. A long narrow rock crack, some 30 meters deep and running some distance underground.
Windholes and Milkhouses of Seelisberg.--Described in Part I., page 45.
Windholes on the Spitzfluh. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 92.)--These are situated between Oltingen and Zeylingen, Canton Bâle: they generally contain ice till the end of July.
Windholes on the Blummatt. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 93.)--On the northwestern slope of the Stanzerberg. Ice sometimes lies over in these windholes.
Windholes near Bozen. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 97.)--On the Mendel ranges in Eppan, southwest of Bozen, among porphyry rocks. There are strong wind-streams. Ice is said to remain till late in the summer.
Grotto on Monte Tofana, Dolomites. (T. G. Bonney, _Nature_, vol. XI., page 328.)--This is probably a rudimentary glacière.
Holes with Ice near Lienz. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 97.)--One hour and a half distant near Aineth, is a small cave containing ice, and further up the valley towards Huben, are several windholes.
Eishöhle am Birnhorn. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 131.)--Near Leogang in the Pinzgau. Altitude 2150 meters. There are two entrances, from which a slope 10 meters long, set at an angle of 25°, leads to an ice floor 12 meters long and 3 meters high. Then comes a small ice slope, and a little horizontal floor at the back. Explored by Fugger.
Glacières on the Eiskogel. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 19.)--The Eiskogel is in the Tennengebirge, a mountain mass lying east of Pass Lueg. At an altitude of about 1900 meters, are two small caves, about 30 meters to 40 meters apart. They are some 25 meters in length and get smaller towards the bottom.
Holes with Ice in the Tennengebirge, between the Schallwand and the Tauernkogel. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 20.)--In this gorge are some small holes at an altitude of about 2000 meters, which are said to contain ice in summer.
The Seeofen. (A. Posselt-Csorich, _Zeitschrift des Deutschen und Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880, page 270.) On the Hean Krail in the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of about 1900 meters. The entrance faces southwest, and is 6 meters high and 4.5 meters wide. The cave is 25 meters long, and 8 meters wide. The floor of the cave is 13 meters below the entrance.
The Posselthöhle. (A. Posselt-Csorich, _Zeitschrift des Deutschen und Osterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880, page 273.)--Named after its discoverer. It lies on the Hochkogel in the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of about 1900 meters. The entrance faces southwest, and is about 8 meters high and 8 meters wide. From the entrance the cave first rises, then sinks again below the level of the entrance, where the ice begins. The cave is about 20 meters wide. About 180 meters were explored, to a point where a perpendicular ice wall, 6 meters high, barred the way. About 125 meters from the entrance, there was an ice cone about 7 meters high.
The Gamsloch or Diebshöhle. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 14.)--It lies on the Breithorn of the Steinernes Meer, near the Riemannhauss, at an altitude of about 2180 meters. The entrance faces south. There is first a small, then a larger chamber. The latter is some 40 meters long, by 5 meters or 6 meters wide. The ice is in the large chamber.
Eishöhle am Seilerer. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 15.)--On the eastern side of the Seilerer arête on the Ewigen Schneeberg, west of Bischofshofen, at an altitude of about 2400 meters, is a small glacière cave.
Cave in the Hagengebirge, West of Pass Lueg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 15.)--It lies about 2 kilometers east of Kalbersberg, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. A snow slope, with an ice floor at the bottom, leads into a long cave, about which little is known.
The Nixloch. Described in Part I., page 57. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 98.)--Professor Fugger gathered some valuable data in connection with the Nixloch. In August, 1879, he found the air current entering downwards; on September 14th, 1879, there was no current either way. On Christmas day, 1878, on the contrary, the draughts were reversed, pouring out of the hole with a temperature of +7.4°: the outside air then being -7.4°. At this time the known lower opening was in existence.
The Kolowratshöhle. Described in Part I., page 18. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page 7.)--This cavern has been more carefully studied than any other glacière cave. Some of its dimensions are given by Professor Fugger as follows: From the entrance to the ice floor, 26.6 meters; surface covered by ice as measured on a plane, 2940 square meters; approximate cubical measure of entire cave, 92,000 cubic meters. The height of the entrance is 7 meters, with a width at the base of 2.7 meters, and at the top of 6.6 meters.
On the entrance slope occurred the only fatal accident I know of in glacières. In 1866, the Bavarian minister Freiherr von Lerchenfeld tried to descend; a wooden handrail which had been erected over the snow broke under his weight; von Lerchenfeld fell to the bottom of the cave and died a few days after from the injuries he received.
Of the Kolowratshöhle, we have numerous thermometric observations by Professor Fugger, of which I select a few.
DATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE. REAR. 21 May 1876 +6.5° +0.7° +0.03° 0°& +0.08° 18 June 1876 +5.1° +1.6° +0.23° +0.4° 24 June 1876 +10.° +1.6° +0.4° -- 5 July 1876 -- -- +0.4° -- 22 July 1876 +11.3° +1.5° +0.4° +0.2° 29 July 1876 +15.2° +2.4° +0.3° +0.2° 22 Aug. 1876 +19.8° +4.0° +0.4° +0.25° 20 Sept. 1876 +7.2° +3.0° +0.45° +0.6° 22 Sept. 1876 -- -- +0.30° -- 16 Oct. 1876 +14.8° +2.05° +0.2° +0.2° 22 Oct. 1876 +5.6° +2.5° +0.25° +0.4° 26 Nov. 1876 +4.4° +0.4° -1.0° -- 6 Jan. 1877 +2.1° +1.2° -1.65° -0.6°
The Schellenberger Eisgrotte. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen in den Eishöhlen des Untersberges_, page 80.)--On the southeast slope of the Untersberg near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1580 meters. The path leads past the Kienbergalp over the Mitterkaser and the Sandkaser. In front of the entrance is a sort of rock dam, 30 meters long and 5 meters or 6 meters higher than the entrance. Masses of snow fill the space between the two. The entrance is about 20 meters wide and from 2 meters to 3 meters high. A snow slope of 25 meters in length, set at an angle of 25°, leads to the ice floor. The cave is 54 meters long, from 13 meters to 22 meters broad and from 4 meters to 10 meters high. The cave has been repeatedly examined by Fugger, who has always found most snow and ice in the beginning of the hot weather, after which it gradually dwindles away.
Of the Schellenberger Eisgrotte, we have the following thermometric observations by Professor Fugger:--
DATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE. 29 June, 1877 +18° -- +0.38° 24 " 1881 +21° +2.3° +0.24° 28 Aug., 1878 +14.6° -- +0.2° 12 " 1879 +17.8° -- +0.3° 4 Oct., 1876 +16.7° +1.4° +0.3° 9 " 1880 +3.6° +3.5° +0.3° 2 " 1887 +5.4° -- +0.4° 9 " 1887 +8.2° -- +0.4° 11 Nov., 1877 +7.4° -- +0.2°
The Grosser Eiskeller or Kaiser Karls Höhle. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page 58.)--On the Untersberg, between the Salzburger Hochthron and the Schweigmüller Alp. Altitude 1687 meters. A stony slope of 26 meters in length leads to an ice floor which is 26 meters long and 6 meters to 8 meters wide.
The Kleiner Eiskeller. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page 73.)--Near the last. A small cave 8 meters long, 6 meters wide, 8 meters high.
The Windlöcher on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page 73.)--On the Klingersteig, at an altitude of 1300 meters. Four small caves of about 12 meters each in length and 8 meters in depth, and communicating at the bottom. There are strong draughts among them. In one of the caves is a small pit of great depth.
The Eiswinkel on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page 77.)--Between the Klingeralp and the Vierkaser, at an altitude of 1600 meters. A small cave or rather rock shelter.
Windholes on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, pages 103, 104.)--Windholes have been found by Fugger on the lower slopes of the Untersberg:
Near the Hochbruch at Fürstenbrunn.
In the débris of the Neubruch.
In the débris of the Veitlbruch.
Hotel Cellar at Weissenbach on the Attersee. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 20.)--There is a small cave here, at an altitude of 452 meters, which is utilized as a cellar, and which is said to contain ice in summer.
Cave near Steinbach. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 20.)--A small cave containing ice on the northwest slopes of the Höllengebirge. Altitude about 700 meters.
The Kliebensteinhöhle or Klimmsteinhöhle. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 20.)--On the north slope of the Höllengebirge, near the Aurachkar Alp, between Steinbach and the Langbath Lakes. Altitude about 1300 meters. Length about 40 meters, width 20 meters, height 15 meters.
The Wasserloch. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 21.)--On the south slope of the Höllengebirge, near the Spitzalpe. Altitude about 1350 meters. At the bottom of a gorge is a snow heap and a small cave. The snow becomes ice in the cave.
Cave on the Zinkenkogl near Aussee. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 21.)--Altitude about 1800 meters. A snow slope leads to an ice floor 18 meters long and 4 meters wide.
Cave on the Kasberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 22.)--South of Grünau near Gmunden. Altitude about 1500 meters. Small cave 12 meters long, 4 meters wide.
The Wasseraufschlag on the Rothen Kogel. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 22.)--A tunnel near Aussee. The ice in it was formerly used.
The Gschlösslkirche. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 22.)--On the Dachstein range, facing the Lake of Gosau. A small cave, mostly filled with snow.
Cave with Ice on the Mitterstein. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 23.)--On the Dachstein, one hour and a quarter from the Austria hut. Altitude about 1800 meters. Cave 5 meters to 6 meters wide, 30 meters long. In the rear a passage leads apparently to a windhole where there is a strong draught.
Windholes in the Obersulzbach Valley in the Pinzgau. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 105.)--Fugger found ice among these on the 1st of August, 1886.
Ice in an Abandoned Nickel Mine on the Zinkwand, in the Schladming Valley. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 105.)
Windholes on the Rothen Kogel near Aussee. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 106.)--These were found to contain ice on the 2d of September, 1848.
Cave on the Langthalkogel. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 23.)--On the Dachstein plateau between Hallstatt and Gosau. A small cave which contains ice.
Eislunghöhle. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 24.)--A small cave between the Hochkasten and Ostrowiz in the Priel range.
The Geldloch or Seelücken on the Oetscher. (Schmidl, _Die Höhlen des Ötscher and Die Oesterreichischen Höhlen_; Cranmer and Sieger, _Globus_, 1899, pages 313-318, and 333-335.)--The second known notice of a glacière cave is the account of a visit to the Oetscher Caves in 1591. After lying in manuscript for two and a half centuries, it was published by Dr. A. Schmidl in 1857, in _Die Höhlen des Ötscher_, pages 21-36. According to the account, which is naive, but evidently truthful, Kaiser Rudolf II. ordered Reichard Strein, owner of the Herrschaff Friedeck, to investigate the Ötscher and especially its caves. He did so, with the title of _Kaiserlicher Commissarius_, and accompanied by the _Bannerherr_ Christoph Schallenberger, Hans Gasser, and eleven porters. On September the 16th, 1591, they visited the Seelücken, where they found a lake in the front of the cave, and where the party had great difficulties in climbing round on to the ice.
The Seelücken on the Oetscher is situated at an altitude of 1470 meters. It opens nearly due south. The ice floor is about 20 meters below the entrance and is about 38 meters long and 24 meters wide; at the rear, it rises for some 15 meters as an ice wall at an angle of about 60°, and then forms a second ice floor about 45 meters long by 19 meters wide. The front part of the ice is sometimes, about July, covered with water. The cave continues further back, in two branches, and Professors Cranmer and Sieger consider that it is a large windhole, in which draughts are infrequent, on account of its length and because the openings are near the same level. There are also several up and down curves and in these cold air remains and acts something like a cork in stopping draughts.
On the 13th of September there were no draughts, and the temperatures between 11 A. M. and 12 M. were:--
Outside air +7.1° Inside near entrance +1.5° A little further in +1.1° At the lowest point near ice +0.8°
On the 31st of October, 1897, there was a draught, which followed the curves of the cavern, and which flowed out at the southern end. The temperatures were:--
Outside air +3.7° Inside near entrance +1.3° At the lowest point near ice +0.8° On the second, higher ice floor +1.0° In the main passage behind ice +1.4°
Cave on the Kühfotzen near Warscheneck. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 25.)--A small cave containing ice.
Eiskeller on the Rax. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 25; Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 61.)--Altitude about 1660 meters. A doline with a small cave at the bottom, in which melting snow was found on the 19th of September, 1896.
The Tablerloch. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., pages 19-60.)--On the Dürren-Wand in the mountains south of Vienna, 2 hours distant from Miesenbach R. R. station. Altitude about 1000 meters. Entrance 7 meters wide, 3.5 meters high. Slope 30° from entrance. Lowest point 22 meters below entrance. Extreme length of cave 50 meters, width 23 meters, height 15 meters. Professor Cranmer found fresh ice beginning to form on the 12th of November, 1893; on the 1st of December, 1894; and on the 20th of October, 1895. He found it melting away on the 3d of June, 1894; on the 1st of June, 1895; and on the 31st of May, 1896. The rates at which the ice formed or melted, however, were not always the same in different parts of the cave. The greatest amount of ice observed seems to have been in March and April. In the summer months no perceptible movements of air seem to have been noticed. This was also sometimes the case in the winter months, during which, however, movements of air were at other times plainly perceptible.
The Gipsloch. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 60.)--A small cave on the Hohen-Wand near Wiener-Neustadt. It is rather a cold cave than a glacière.
The Windloch. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 61.)--On the Hohen-Wand near Wiener Neustadt. Small cave. Snow found in it on June the 2d, 1895.
Eisloch in the Brandstein on the Hochschwab. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 64.)--Altitude about 1600 meters. A moderately large cave. On the 21st of August, 1895, there was an ice floor 10 meters long and 5 meters broad. Temperature in rear of cave, -0.2°.
Caves on the Beilstein. (Krauss, _Höhlenkunde_, 1894, pages 207-219; Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 63.)--These lie about 4 hours on foot from Gams in Steiermark, at an altitude of 1260 meters, in a place where the mountain is much broken up by fissures and snow basins. The large cave has two openings, from which steep snow slopes descend. The cave is 60 meters long, 15 meters to 18 meters broad, and about 7 meters high. Clefts in the rock in two places lead to two lower, small ice chambers. In the neighborhood of the large cave are two small ones. Prof. Cranmer found fresh ice in the Beilsteinhöhle on the 20th of August, 1895. Two days before, fresh snow had fallen on the neighboring mountain peaks.
Eishöhle on the Brandstein. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 62.)--A small cleft cave near the Langriedleralm near Gams in Steiermark. On the 20th of August, 1895, it contained some ice.
The Frauenmauerhöhle.--Described in Part I., page 37.
The Bärenloch near Eisenerz. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 28.)--In the neighborhood of the Frauenmauerhöhle. Altitude 1600 meters. A steep snow slope leads to an ice floor 13 meters long.
The Katerloch. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 29.)--On the Göserwand near Dürnthal, Glemeinde Gschaid in Steiermark. A large cave, some 190 meters long and 80 meters wide. A thin ice crust has been found on parts of the walls in the rear.
Caves in the Stein Alps. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 29.)--The plateau of Velica Planina lies, at an altitude of 1600 meters, 9 kilometers north of Stein in the Duchy of Krain. There are three caves containing ice on the plateau. The first is a big one and is called V. Kofcih. The second is called Mala Veternica. The third and biggest is called Velika Veternica; its length is about 100 meters and its breadth 30 meters.
Glacière Caves on the Nanos Mountain. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 34.)--In the southwestern Krain, 5 kilometers from Präwald. There are four caves containing ice reported on the Nanos mountain. Two of them are big. The altitude of one of these is 1300 meters, of the other 1350 meters.
Brlowa Jama. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 36.)--Seven kilometers from Adelsberg. Small glacière cave.
Kosova Jama. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 38.)--Near Divacca. Forty meters long, 20 meters broad.
Glacière near Adelsberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 36.)--Small cave. One hour from Adelsberg.
Kacna Jama. (J. Marinitsch, _La Kacna Jama_, _Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, vol. I., page 83.)--A great pit near the railroad station of Divacca. Herr Marinitsch observed the following temperatures on January 2d, 1896:--
At Divacca -2° C. In the Kacna Jama at 40 meters -1.1° C. " " " " " 100 meters +1.2° C. " " " " " 210 meters +2.1° C.
Sanct Canzian, Karst. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 564, note.)--During the winter of 1889-1890, Herr Marinitsch found stalactites of ice as far as the seventeenth cascade of the Recca; 1000 meters from the third entrance of the river. The temperature of the Recca was then at 0°; during the summer, the temperature of the water rises to 27° (?).
The Grosses Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 36.)--On the high plateau of the forest of Tarnowa, east of Görz. A large pit cave, 30 meters to 40 meters deep. Professor Fugger says of it: "The flora in the basin-like depression has the character of high mountain vegetation, with every step it resembles more this flora as it exists in the neighborhood of glaciers, until finally in the deepest point of the basin all vegetation stops."
The Kleines Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 37.)--A small pit glacière, 500 meters distant from the Grosses Eisloch of Paradana.
Suchy Brezen. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 37.)--A small pit glacière, situated about midway between the Grosses and Kleines Eisloch of Paradana.
Prevalo Cave. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 37.)--In the Buchenhochwald, south of Karnica. Small glacière.
Cave of Dol. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 38.)--On a mountain near Haidenschaft. Small glacière.
Glacière near Matena in Bezirke Radmansdorf. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 68.)--On a wooded height. The ice commences to melt in the early summer.
Glacière on the Schutzengelberge near the Golac. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 64.)--A small glacière.
Glacière Cave near Lazhna-gora or Latzenberg. (Valvasor, _Die Ehre des Herzogthumes Crain_, vol. I., pages 242, 243; Hacquet, _Oryctographia Carniolica_, 1778, III., page 159.)--In the neighborhood of Vishnagora in the Krain. The entrance is under a church. It is a large cave, 40 meters long and 20 meters high, where the ice all melts by the end of the summer. Valvasor gives the following account of this cave in 1689, which seems the first printed notice of a glacière in German:--
"Near to Lazchenberg up by the church of St. Nicholas, where a _Thabor_ stands, one finds a big hole, which sinks into the stony rocks. Through this one descends deep with torches: there opens then underneath as big a cavity as the biggest church could be, and the same is extremely high, in the form of a cupola. One sees there different teeth, formed and hardened from the water turned to stone. Further down one arrives to a deep gully: into which, however, I have not been. On the other side one must again ascend, and then one comes again to a cupola: in which cupola ice stands up like an organ from the earth.
"There also one sees icicles of pure ice of different sizes and heights, of which many are one or two _klafters_ high and as thick as a man; but many only two or three spans high or higher, and as thick as an arm, and some also thinner. This ice is formed from the drops of falling water; and indeed in summer; for in winter there is no ice therein. Over such ice one must then ascend, as there are then said to be separate holes and grottoes. But no one has been any further."
Glacière on the Dini Verh. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 67.)--Near Tomischle in the Krain. Small glacière.
Eiskeller near Rosseck. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 64.)--On the Pograca Mountain in the Krain, northeast of the Hornwald, near the Meierhof Rosseck. Small glacière cave.
Gorge near Rosseck. (Valvasor, _Die Ehre des Herzogthumes Crain_, vol. I., page 243 and page 517 ; Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 64.)--Behind the ruined castle of Rosseck, on the Pograca Mountain in the Krain, is a gorge, at whose bottom are four little holes containing ice most of the year.
Valvasor wrote of this cave in 1689: "Near Rosseck immediately back of the castle there opens a mighty cavern entirely in stony rock, and yawns in the shape of a cauldron down into the earth. Above as wide as a good rifle shot, but below quite narrow. And there underneath there are many holes where the ice remains through the whole summer. From such ice have Duke Frederick Graf and Duke von Gallenberg daily made use in summer to cool their wine. Six years ago I descended there in the month of August, and found ice enough in all the holes."
In the same volume Freiherr Valvasor elaborates his remarks about this cave and that at Latzenberg, repeating in the main the observations in the paragraph just given. He says: "There hang also long icicles which are quite pleasant to look at. * * * This ice breaks all too easily and quickly. * * * Contrarywise, however, this ice lasts much longer in the sun and the heat than other ice. * * * Some might think it would eventually turn into stone: this, however, does not happen: for it remains only in summer and disappears in winter: as I can say for certain, as I have been in myself in the winter as well as in the summer time. * * * For as in the summer the floor is quite covered with ice: it makes walking so dangerous and bad that one cannot take a step without climbing irons; but in the winter time one goes safely and well. * * *"
Freiherr Valvasor was evidently an accurate observer, and, if for his word "winter" we substitute "autumn," his account will be much more nearly correct than might have been expected two centuries ago.
The Kuntschner Eishöhle. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., pages 65, 66.)--This is known also as the Töplitzer, Unterwarmberger or Ainödter Grotto. It lies 2 kilometers from Kuntschen, and 12 kilometers from Töplitz near Neustädtel, in the Krain. Altitude about 630 meters. Petruzzi says: "Of all so far noticed ice grottoes it is the most wonderful and splendid." In August and September, 1849, the temperatures near the ice were about two degrees above freezing. On the 16th of August, there were many long ice stalagmites and stalactites; on the 29th of September they had diminished materially. Petruzzi says also: "One leaves the abundant vegetation of the Alpine summer flora, and through bushes and dwarf underbrush, through bare and half moss covered rocks and débris, through rotten and twisted tree stems, one comes to the hall of eternal winter, where the microscopic mosses of the north surround the thousand year old stalactites, hanging from the dripping vault, with an always passing, always freshly forming, tender sulphur colored down." Dr. Schwalbe has also examined this cave.
The Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishöhle.--Described in Part I., page 51.
The Handler Eisloch.--7 kilometers south of Gottschee and about twenty minutes from the village of Handlern, near Rieg. Altitude 596 meters. Small cave. Professor Hans Satter of Gottschee told me he doubted whether ice ever formed there now.
The Suchenreuther Eisloch.--Described in Part I., page 55.
Ledenica na Veliki Gori. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 67.)--In the Krain, 11 kilometers from Reifnitz, on the Balastena Mountain. Altitude 1253 meters. Much ice was found there on the 10th of July, 1834.
Mrzla Jama. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 34.)--On the Innerkrainer Schneeberg, 13 kilometers from Laas.
Glacière Caves on the Kapella. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 39.)--On a pass in the neighborhood of Piacenza. Altitude 800 meters.
Glacière Cave in West Bosnia. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_. page 39.)--West of Kljuc, county Petrovac, district Smoljama, near village Trvanj. Called Trvanj, also Ledenica. Altitude about 1000 meters, length 170 meters, breadth from 4 meters to 30 meters.
Rtanj, Servia. (A. Boué, _La Turquie d'Europe_, 1840, vol. I., page 132; Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages 72-74.)--This glacière is on the south side of Siljak, near the village Muzinac. A passage 60 meters long leads to a hall about 10 meters in height. Dr. Boué found snow here in August, the thermometer standing below freezing point. The people in the neighborhood told Dr. Boué that the snow is formed in June and disappears in September and that it is sometimes carried to Nisch. He also heard of similar cavities on the Bannat Mountain. Dr. Cvijic observed in the hall a temperature of +0.4° C.
Ledena Pec, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages 68, 69.)--On the Ledini Verh or Glacial Peak, at an altitude of 800 meters; distant one hour and a half from the village of Souvold. Length of passage 108 meters; at entrance about 6 meters, at end about 15 meters in height. On the 10th of May, 1893, there was plenty of ice and snow. Temperature of outside air +19° C.; inside air at rear +0.5° C. Probably permanent glacière.
Dobra Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 70.)--West of Ledeno Brdo. Probably periodic glacière. On July 25th, 1890, the temperature of the outside air was +26° C.; of the inside air +3.5°C. _Ledenica_ is the name for a glacière in Servia.
Ledenica in the Mala Brezovica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 70.)--Length 43 meters. A large, permanent glacière. On July 28th, 1890, the outside air was +23°: inside air +2°.
Ledenica Treme in the Souva Planina, Servia. (Cvijic, Dr. A., _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 71.)--Altitude 1600 meters to 1700 meters. A rather large, probably permanent glacière. Plenty of ice in it on April 21st, 1894.
Zla Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 72.)--On the Kucaj. A permanent glacière, 7 meters or 8 meters deep. On July 25th, 1890, outside air +25°; inside air at snow +6°.
Glacière on the Devica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 74.)--Under the peak Lazurevica. Altitude 1000 meters. A narrow passage leads to a hall 17 meters long by 12 meters wide and 20 meters high. On June 30th, 1893, there was plenty of snow in the passage and ice in the hall.
Glacière Vlaska Pecura, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 74.)--On the Devica, under the Golemi Vech. A small periodic glacière.
Glacière in the Zdrebica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 74.)--On the southeast side of the Souva Planina, near the village Veliki Krtchimir. A small periodic glacière. On April 20th, 1874, plenty of snow and ice.
Glacière Stoykova, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages 75, 76.)--On the Kucaj. A large pit cave with a total depth of 23 meters. Probably a permanent glacière. On July 21st, 1890, plenty of ice and snow. Outside air +21°; inside air in hall +0.5°.
Glacière on the Topiznica Mountain, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 76.)--Altitude 1100 meters. A large pit cave with an extreme depth of 27 meters. In August, 1893, there was plenty of snow and ice, and the inside temperature was +1°.
Glacière Cave near Borszék. (Bielz, _Siebenbürgen_, 1885, page 334.)--About an hour distant from the baths, in broken limestone. It seems to be a rock fissure, at the end of which ice is found till towards the middle of July.
Glacière Cave near Sonkolyos in the Korös Valley. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 51.)--Small cave.
Glacière near Zapodia. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 50.)--Near Petrosc in the Bihar Mountains. Altitude 1140 meters; length 20 meters, width 7 meters.
Pescerca la Jesere. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 50.)--Between Vervul la Belegiana and the Batrina in the Bihar Mountains. Small freezing cave.
Glacière Cave near Verespatak, in Transylvania. (Bielz, _Siebenbürgen_, page 52.)--Small cave.
Gietariu near Funacza. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 50.)--In the Bihar Mountains. Small glacière cave.
Cave of Skerizora. (Karl F. Peters, _Sitzungsbericht der K. K. Akademie der Wissenchaften_, Wien, vol. XLIII., 1861, page 437; Bielz, _Siebenbürgen_, 1885, page 37.)--This is one of the greatest glacière caves known. It lies in the Bihar Mountains, three hours from the village of Ober-Girda, which can be reached from Gyula Fehérvar, via Topánfalva. It is a pit cave, in limestone, at an altitude of 1127 meters. The pit is about 57 meters broad, and 45 meters deep, with exceedingly steep walls. The entrance is in the northeast wall and is about 10 meters high. This leads into a nearly circular hall 47 meters in diameter and about 20 meters high. The floor is ice. In the southeast corner is a hole over 75 meters deep. In the northwest wall is an opening 14 meters wide, which forms the beginning of a sort of gallery 54 meters long and which at its further end is 24 meters wide and 8 meters high. This is also covered with a flooring of ice, which in some places can only be descended by step cutting. This passage is also richly adorned with ice stalactites and stalagmites. At its end is another also nearly circular hall, 21 meters in diameter and about 22 meters high. This is called the '_Beszerika_' or church. In one place there is a magnificent collection of ice stalagmites called the "Altar." Peters found in dirt on the sides of the cave remains of bats not very different from those now living in the vicinity. He thinks the bats may have come there before the cave became a glacière; or else that they may even now sometimes get into the first hall and there perish from cold. This makes it uncertain, therefore, whether the remains can be considered as of the past or the present.
Eishöhle bei Roth.--Described in Part I., page 35.
Mines on the Eisenberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 59.)--These lie near Blankenburg in the Thüringer Wald and have been known to contain ice.
The Ziegenloch or Grosses Kalte Loch, and the Kleines Kalte Loch. (Behrens, _Hercynia Curiosa_, pages 68, 70.)--These lie near Questenberg in the Southern Harz Mountains, at an altitude of about 300 meters. The Grosses Loch is described as a sort of small pit some 8 meters deep, in one side of which opens a small fissure some 10 meters long. Ice has been found in this in April; Schwalbe found none there in July. The Kleines Loch was another small cold cave near the Ziegenloch, but it has been filled up. Behrens says that the dampness at the cave at Questenberg is precipitated as snow.
Holes with Ice near Sanct Blasien. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 109.)--In the Black Forest, among boulders at an altitude of 820 meters.
Holes with Ice near Hochenschwand. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 109.)--In the Black Forest, among boulders at an altitude of 820 meters.
Eisstollen and Eiskeller at the Dornburg. Described in Part I., page 59. (Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Ergänzungsband_, 1842, pages 517-519.)--Ice appears to have been discovered at the Dornburg in June, 1839. It was found from a depth of 60 centimeters down to 8 meters. The width of the ice-bearing talus was from 12 meters to 15 meters; and it is said that it becomes wider in winter and narrower in summer.
Beschertgluck Mine, Freiberg District. (Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., page 206.)--Mr. Prestwich quotes Daubuisson as having seen the shaft of the mine lined with ice to a depth of 80 toises (144 meters?).
Ice in the Zinc Mines on the Sauberg. (Reich, _Beobachtungen über die Temperatur des Gesteines_, 1834, pages 175 and 205.)--These are near Ehrenfriedersdorf in Saxony and formerly contained ice in winter. They are reported now to be destroyed.
The Garische Stollen. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, etc., page 3.)--Near Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Lohman found much ice in this in January, less in March, and scarcely any in May.
The Ritterhöhle. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 5.)--Near Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Small ice deposit. The rock is granite.
The Stulpnerhöhle. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 6.)--Near the Ritterhöhle. Small ice deposit in granite rock.
Eisloch and Eishöhle near Geyer in Saxony. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 7.)--These are in a place called die Binge. Both are small.
The Alte Thiele. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 8.)--Near Buchholz in Saxony. Small ice deposit.
Mine Pits in the Saxon Erzgebirge. (Reich, _Beobachtungen über die Temperatur des Gesteines_, 1834.)--Extremely low temperatures have been found in several of these pits:--
In the Churprinz Friedrich August Erbstollen near Freiberg.
In the Heinrichs-Sohle in the Stockwerk near Altenberg.
In the Henneberg Stollen, on the Ingelbach, near Johanngeorgenstadt.
In the Weiss-Adler-Stollen, on the left declivity of the valley of the Schwarzwasser, above the Antonshütte.
Holes Holding Ice on the Saalberg. (_Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1850, LXXXI., page 579.)--These lie between Saalberg and the Burgk. Ice is found here on the surface from June to the middle of August. From the observations of Professor Hartenstein, Fugger deduces that this place must be the lower end of one or more windholes.
Millstone Quarry of Niedermendig. (M. A. Pictet, _Mémoires de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève_, 1821, vol. I., page 151.)--On the Niederrhein. There are many connecting pits and galleries here, in which ice has been found in the hottest days of summer as well as in March. The abandoned shafts are utilized as beer cellars.
Eisgrube on the Umpfen. (Voigt, _Mineralogische Reisen durch das Herzogthum Weimar_, 1785, vol. II., page 123.)--In the Rhöngebirge, twenty minutes from Kaltennordheim, are some irregular masses of columnar basalt, at an altitude of about 500 meters, among which abundant ice has been found up to late in the summer.
Cave near Muggendorf, Franconia.--The landlord of the Kurhaus Hotel at Muggendorf, told me that there was a small cave in the vicinity where there was ice in the winter and spring, but that it all melted away before August.
Cave on the Dürrberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 59.)--Near Zwickau in Bohemia. Small cave which sometimes contains ice.
The Schneebinge. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 11.)--Near Platten in Bohemia. A small ice deposit in an old mine.
Ice among Basaltic Rocks on the Pleschiwitz. (Pleischl, in Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, pages 292-299.)--Above Kameik near Leitmeritz in Bohemia. Professor Pleischl, in May, 1834, found ice under the rocks a little distance from the surface. The surface of the rocks was then warm. On the 21st of January, 1838, Professor Pleischl found snow on the outside of the rocks, but no ice underneath. He was assured by the people of the district that the hotter the summer, the more ice is found.
Glacière on the Zinkenstein. (Pleischl, in Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, page 299).--The Zinkenstein is one of the highest points of the Vierzehnberge, in the Leitmeritz Kreis. There is a deep cleft in basalt, where ice has been found in summer.
Eislöcher on the Steinberg. (Pleischl, in Poggendorffs _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, page 299.)--In the Herrschaft Konoged. Small basalt talus where ice is found in the hottest weather.
Windholes in Bohemia. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 109.)--In the neighborhood of Leitmeritz. These are in basaltic rock. Ice sometimes forms at the lower extremity. The most notable are--
On the Steinberg near Mertendorf on the Triebschbach;
On the Kelchberg near Triebsch;
On the Kreuzberg near Leitmeritz;
On the Rodersberg near Schlackenwerth;
In the Grossen Loch near Tschersink.
Ice in a Pit near Neusohl. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 109.)
The Frainer Eisleithen. Described in Part I., page 33. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 163.) Professor Fugger quotes the following observations by Forester Wachtl at Frain:--
1861. 1862. January -7° to -2° -5° February -2° to 0° -5° to -2° March 0° to +1° -1° to 0° April +1° to +2° 0° May +2° +2° to +5° June +2° to +3° +3° to +6° July +3° +3° to +5° August +3° to +7° +5° September +7° to +6° +3° to +6° October +6° +5° November -- +5° December -1° to -3° 0° to -2°
Démenyfálva Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 24.
Dóbsina Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 13. (Pelech; _The Valley of Stracena and the Dobschau Ice Cavern_; Schwalbe, _Über Eishöhlen und Eislöcher_, page 31.)--Pelech gives the following measurements: The Grosser Saal is 120 meters long, 35 meters to 60 meters wide, and 10 meters to 11 meters high, with a surface area of 4644 square meters. The ice mass is estimated as 125,000 cubic meters in volume. The length of the Korridor is 200 meters; the left wing being 80 meters, and the right wing 120 meters long. The cave was first entered on July 15th, 1870, by Herr Eugene Ruffiny, of Dóbsina, and some friends. He had happened to fire a gun in front of it, and hearing a continuous muffled rolling echo within, determined to explore it.
Dr. Schwalbe quotes the following series of observations in Dóbsina during the year 1881:
DEEPEST POINT FROM KORRIDOR ENTRANCE. GROSSER SAAL. OF KORRIDOR. TO KLEINEN SAAL.
January -2.2° -4.2° -2.2° -0.6° February -1.2° -3.4° -1.9° -0.3° March -1.4° -2.1° -0.9° -0.2° April -0.25° -1.25° -0.7° +0.3° May +0.7° +0.9° -0.5° +0.5° June +1.0° +1.5° -0.5° +0.5° July +1.8° +2.1° +0.2° +1.1° August +3.4° +3.8° +0.24° +0.80 September +2.00 +2.3° -0.3° -0.15° October -0.2° +0.2° -0.5° -0.2° November -1.3° -1.9° -0.6° -0.3° December -2.2° -3.2° -0.65° -1.75° ------ ------ ------ ------ Year +0.04° -0.44° -0.69° -0.02°
The Philadelphia _Evening Bulletin_, March, 1st, 1899, printed the following note about Dóbsina: "In this cave, some sixteen years ago, a couple named Kolcsey elected to pass the week immediately following their marriage. They took with them a plentiful supply of rugs, blankets and warm clothing, but notwithstanding all precautions, their experience was not of a sufficiently pleasant nature to tempt imitators."
Lednica of Szilize. (M. Bel, _Philosophical Transactions_, London, 1739, vol. XLI., page 41 _et seq._; Townson, _Travels in Hungary_, 1797; Terlanday, _Petermann's Mittheilungen_, 1893, page 283.)--It lies 1.5 kilometers from the village of Szilize, near Rosenau, in Gomör County, in the Carpathians, at an altitude of 460 meters. A pit about 35 meters deep, 75 meters long, and 48 meters wide opens in the ground, and at the southern end, in the perpendicular wall, is the cave. The entrance is 22 meters wide, 15 meters high, and faces north. A slope 4 meters long sinks with an angle of 35° to the floor of the cave, which is nearly circular in form, with a diameter of about 10 meters. On the east side of the cave there seems to be a hole in the ice some 10 meters deep.
In 1739, there was published in London a curious letter in Latin from Matthias Bel, a Hungarian _savant_, about the cavern of Szilize. He says: "The nature of the cave has this of remarkable, that, when outside the winter freezes strongest, inside the air is balmy: but it is cold, even icy, when the sun shines warmest. As soon as the snow melts and spring begins, the inner roof of the cave, where the midday sun strikes the outside, begins to sweat clear water, which drops down here and there; through the power of the inner cold it turns to transparent ice and forms icicles, which in thickness equal large barrels and take wonderful shapes. What as water drops from the icicles to the sandy floor, freezes up, even quicker, than one would think.
"The icy nature of the cave lasts through the whole summer, and what is most remarkable, it increases with the increasing heat of the sun. In the beginning of the spring the soft winter's warmth begins to give way soon thereafter, and when spring is more advanced, the cold sets in, and in such a manner, that the warmer does the (outside) air grow, the more does the cave cool off. And when the summer has begun and the dog days glow, everything within goes into icy winter. Then do the drops of water pouring from the roof of the cave change into ice, and with such rapidity that where to-day delicate icicles are visible, to-morrow masses and lumps, which fall to the ground, appear. Here and there, where the water drips down the walls of the cave, one sees wonderful incrustations, like an artificial carpeting. The rest of the water remains hanging on the ice, according to the warmth of the day. For when for a longer time it is warmer, the ice of the stalactites, of the walls and of the floor increases; but when the ruling heat, as sometimes happens, is diminished through north winds or rainstorm, the waters freeze more slowly, the ice drips more fully and begins to form little brooklets. When however the temperature gets warmer, the icy nature of the cave begins once more. Some have observed, that the nature of the grotto receives the changes of temperature ahead, like a barometer. For, when a warmer temperature sets in outside, the waters change into ice, several hours before the heat sets in, while the opposite takes place, when by day the temperature is colder; for then even by the warmest sky the ice begins to melt noticeably.
"When the dog days have passed and the summer has already changed into fall, the cave with its own nature follows the conditions of the external air. In the early months and while the nights are growing colder, the ice diminishes visibly; then when the air cools off more and more and when the brooks and side are rigid with frost, it begins to melt as though there was a fire built underneath, until, when winter reigns, it is entirely dry in the cave, without a sign of ice being left behind. Then gentle warmth spreads into the entire cave, and this icy grave becomes a safety resort for insects and other small animals, which bear the winter with difficulty. But besides swarms of flies and gnats, troops of bats and scores of owls, hares and foxes take up their abode here, until with the beginning of spring, the cave once more assumes its icy appearance."
These assertions of Bel are the most inaccurate ones made about glacières. Yet, strange to say, they have colored the literature of the subject down to our own times; and have been repeated many times, sometimes with, sometimes without, the hares and foxes; the latest repetition seeming to occur in 1883.
Cave near the Village of Borzova, Torna County, Carpathians. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 52.)--Reported to contain ice, but nothing certainly known.
CRIMEA.
Ledianaia Yama. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour du Caucase_ V., page 440; Hablizl, _Description physique de la Tauride_, 1783, pages 43-45.)--On the Karabi-Yaïla, 32 kilometers southwest of Karasubazar. Altitude about 1800 meters. A fairly large pit glacière cave. The name means an abyss of ice.
Glacière Cave on the Yaïla of Oulouzène at Kazauté. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour du Caucase_, II., page 380.)--A small pit cave.
CAUCASUS.
Glacière Cave in the Khotevi Valley. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour du Caucase_, II., page 379.)--In the province of Radscha, near the Monastery Nikortsminda. A large pit cave which must be of the same order as that of Chaux-les-Passavant and from which the inhabitants of Koutaïs get ice.
Glacières near Koutaïs. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397.)--"Dr. A. Sakharov, it appears, has recently discovered in the government of Koutaïs caves containing ice."
Cave of Sabazwinda. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 126.)--Near the town of Zorchinwall, on the river Liachwa, province of Gori, in Georgia, near the Ossete Mountains. Ice has been found in the cave in summer. In December there was none.
URAL.
Glacière Cave near Sukepwa. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 63.)--On the Volga, province of Zlatoust. Small cave on the river bank.
Glacière Cave on the Tirmen Tau. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., vol. II., page 28.)--Near the village of Chaszina, 160 kilometers from Orenburg. Small cave.
Glacière Cave of Kurmanajeva. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., vol. II., page 5.)--Near Kurmanajeva, a village 49 kilometers from Tabinsk, in the Government of Orenburg. A large cave. Lepechin found ice in one part of the cave and deep water in another. There were draughts in some places.
Cave on the Baislan Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., page 40.)--The Baislan Tasch is a mountain on the right bank of the Bielaja River, which flows into the Kama. There is a large cave in the mountain in which ice has been found.
Cave on the Muinak Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., page 38.)--The Muinak Tasch is a mountain on the Bielaja River. There is a large cave in it, in which a little ice has been found.
Cave of Kungur. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., page 137; Rosenmüller and Tilesius, I., page 79.)--The Cavern of Kungur is near the town of Kungur in the Government of Perm. There are in it many passages and grottoes connecting with one another, some of which contain ice. It is a fine, large cave, whose greatest length is 400 meters.
Mines of Kirobinskoy. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 65.)--These mines are 53 kilometers southeast of Miask in the Ural; they have been abandoned. One of them contains ice all the year round.
Caves of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. (Murchison, Vernieul and Keyserling, _The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains_, 1845, vol. I., page 186.)--72 kilometers southeast from Orenburg. The caves are in the Kraoulnaïgora, a gypsum hillock 36 meters high, rising in the midst of an undulating steppe, which lies on a vast bed of rock salt. Only one of the caves contains ice. There are strong draughts in places.
SIBERIA.
Cave near the Fortress Kitschigina. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A small cave, 17 kilometers east of Kajilskoi, 192 kilometers from Petropaulowsk, 605 kilometers from Tobolsk. The cave is in an open plain, and sometimes contains ice.
Wrechneja Petschera. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--Near the village Birjusinska, in the neighborhood of Krasnojarsk, on the right bank of the Yenisei. Large glacière cave.
Glacière Cave of Balagansk. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A narrow cleft, 80 meters long; 192 kilometers downstream from Irkutsk on the left bank of the Angora River; at a distance of 2 kilometers from the river.
Glacière Cave on the Onon River. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A small cave; 48 kilometers from the Borsja Mountain.
Mines of Siranowsk. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 126.)--In the Altai Mountains, on the Buchtorma River, an affluent of the Irtysch. Magnificent ice formations have been found in these mines.
Mines of Seventui. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 126.)--Near Nertschinsk, on the Amoor River. Two of the levels contain perennial ice and hence are called _Ledenoi_. These are at a depth of about 60 meters in porous lava. The rest of the mine is in more solid rock.
Glacière Cave near Lurgikan. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 67.)--Near the confluence of the Lurgikan and Schilka Rivers, in the province Nertschinsk. From 2 meters to 7 meters wide. Length 280 meters.
Basins or Troughs Retaining Ice. (Dittmar, _Ueber die Eismülden im Östlichen Siberien_; Middendorff, _Zusatz_; _Bulletin de la classe physico-mathématique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg_, 1853, vol. XI., pages 305-316.)--These troughs are nearly akin to gorges and gullies, but their water supply seems to come from a cause which is not usually present in gorges. Their principal observer, M. de Dittmar, thought that a cold and snowy winter would add materially to the supply of ice, but he also thought that a necessity to the existence of the ice in these troughs was an abundant water supply from a spring, whose temperature should be so high as not to freeze in winter. The cold is supplied by the winter temperatures. Some of the most important are reported--
In the Turachtach Valley.
Near Kapitanskji Sasiek.
In the valley of the River Belvi.
In the valley of the River Antscha.
In the Kintschen Valley.
In the neighborhood of Kolymsk.
In the Werchojanski Mountains.
In the Stanowáj Mountains.
KONDOOZ.
Cave of Yeermallik. (Burslem, _A peep into Toorkisthan_, 1846, chaps. X., XI.)--In the valley of the Doaub, northwest of Kabul. The entrance is half way up a hill, and is about 15 meters wide and 15 meters high. This is a large cave, with many ramifications and galleries. In the centre of a hall far within, Captain Burslem found a mass of clear ice, smooth and polished as a mirror, and in the form of a beehive, with its dome-shaped top just touching the long icicles which depended from the jagged surface of the rock. A small aperture led into the interior of this cone, whose walls were about 60 centimeters thick and which was divided into several compartments. Some distance from the entrance of this cave there is a perpendicular drop of 5 meters. A short distance beyond this, in one of the halls, were hundreds of skeletons of men, women and children, in a perfectly undisturbed state, also the prints of a naked human foot and the distinct marks of the pointed heel of an Afghan boot. The moollah, who was acting as guide, said the skeletons were the remains of seven hundred men of the Huzareh tribe who took refuge in the cave with their wives and children during the invasion of Genghis Khan, and who defended themselves so stoutly, that after trying in vain to smoke them out, the invader built them in with huge natural blocks of stone, and left them to die of hunger. Some of the Afghans said that the cave was inhabited by Sheitan, a possibility denied by the moollah who guided Captain Burslem, on the philosophical plea that the cave was too cold for such an inhabitant.
HIMÁLAYA.
Glacière Cave of Amarnath. (Miss Mary Coxe of Philadelphia showed me a copy of a letter of Dr. Wilhelmine Eger describing a visit to this cave.)--It lies three days' journey from Pailgam in Kashmere, on the borders of Little Tibet. The altitude is evidently high as one crosses snow fields to get to it. A small path zigzagging up a grassy slope leads to the cave and is a stiff climb from the valley. The cave opens on the side of a mountain and has a large, almost square mouth at least as big as the floor area within. The floor of the cave is the continuation of the grass slope and slants upwards and backwards to the back wall, the only case of the kind so far reported. This cave is most curiously connected with religion. Dr. Eger says that there are two small blocks of ice in it which never melt. From time immemorial these blocks of ice have been sacred to the Hindoos who worship them--as re-incarnations--under the names of Shiva and Ganesh. Dr. Eger saw offerings of rice and flowers on them. Thousands of pilgrims come every year at the end of July or beginning of August from all parts of India. Thousands of miles have been traversed and hundreds of lives laid down through this journey. Every year people die either before reaching the cave or after. The trip from Pailgam in Kashmere takes three days up and two days down, if one returns by a shorter route where the way is unsafe because of avalanches. So many have perished there that the pass is called "The Way of Death." This must be taken by one class of pilgrims, _Sardhas_ or Holy Men, to complete the sacred circuit, but the Hindoos say any one dying on the pass will go straight to heaven.
Icicles Formed by Radiation. (General Sir Richard Strachey, _Geographical Journal_, 1900, vol. XV., page 168.)--On the Balch pass of the Balch range in Tibet, General Strachey, in 1848, saw icicles of which he says: "On the rocks exposed to the south were very curious incrustations of ice, icicles indeed, but standing out horizontally like fingers towards the wind. I was not able to understand how they were caused, nor can I tell why they were confined to particular spots. The thermometer stood at 41°[F.], and though the dew point at the time would probably have been below 32°[F.], and the cold produced by evaporation sufficient therefore to freeze water, yet it is evident that no condensation could ever take place simultaneously with the evaporation. * * * It has since occurred to me that these icicles were formed by radiation. I found, subsequently, in a somewhat similar position, that a thermometer suspended vertically, and simply exposed to the sky in front of it, was depressed as much as 20° F. below the true temperature of the surrounding air. This result was, of course, due to the radiation through the extremely dry and rarefied atmosphere at the great elevation at which the thermometer was exposed. As radiation takes place freely from a surface of ice, the growth of such icicles as those described might be due to the condensation of vapour brought up by the southerly day winds that so constantly blow over these passes, and its accumulation in the form of ice on the exposed extremity of the icicle, the temperature of which might thus have been greatly reduced."
INDIA.
Ice Formed by Radiation. (T. A. Wise, _Nature_, vol. V., page 189; R. H. Scott, _Elementary Meteorology_, Third Ed., pages 61, 62.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called my attention to the mode of manufacturing ice by radiation in India. It is as follows:--
"A very practical use of nocturnal radiation has been made from time immemorial in India in the preparation of ice, and on such a scale that about 10 tons of ice can be procured in a single night from twenty beds of the dimensions about to be given, when the temperature of the air is 15° or 20° [F.] above the freezing point. * * * The locality referred to is the immediate neighborhood of Calcutta. A rectangular piece of ground is marked out, lying east and west, and measuring 120 by 20 feet. This is excavated to the depth of two feet and filled with rice straw rather loosely laid, to within six inches of the surface of the ground. The ice is formed in shallow dishes of porous earthenware, and the amount of water placed in each is regulated by the amount of ice expected.
"In the cold weather, when the temperature of the air at the ice fields is under 50°, ice is formed in the dishes. The freezing is most active with N. N. W. airs, as these are driest; it ceases entirely with southerly or easterly airs, even though their temperature may be lower than that of the N. N. W. wind.
"No ice is formed if the wind is sufficiently strong to be called a breeze, for the air is not left long enough at rest, above the bed, for its temperature to fall sufficiently, by the action of radiation.
"The rice straw, being kept loose and perfectly dry, cuts off the access of heat from the surface of the ground below it, and, when the sun goes down, the straw being a powerful radiator, the temperature of the air in contact with the dishes is reduced some 20° below that prevailing some two or three feet above them. The rapid evaporation of the water into the dry air above creates also an active demand for heat to be rendered latent in the formation of steam, and the result of all these agencies is the formation of ice, under favorable circumstances, on the extensive scale above mentioned."
KOREA.
Glacière Cave on the Han Gang.--Messrs. J. Edward Farnum and George L. Farnum, of Philadelphia, inform me that they saw a small cave containing ice on the banks of one of the Korean rivers. It is about 75 kilometers from Seoul, nearly northeast, near the ferry where the old road leading from Seoul towards northern Korea crosses the Han Gang, the river which passes by Seoul. The entrance is small; perhaps 2 meters wide. The cave is not thoroughly explored. Ice lies near the entrance, and as far back as the Messrs. Farnum could see.
JAPAN.
Glacière Lava Cave near Shoji. (_Evening Telegraph, Philadelphia, January 2d, 1896._)--The cave is about 12 kilometers from Shoji, and is in lava. First there is a pit in the forest, some 5 meters wide by 15 meters deep. The cave opens into this. It seems to be some 400 meters long and from 2 meters to 12 meters high. There is an ice floor in places, also many ice stalagmites. At the furthest point reached there is a strong air current, which extinguishes torches and so far has prevented further exploration. Ice from the cave has been cut by the country people for sale at Kofu, which is not far distant.
## PART IV.
SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIÈRES.
SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIÈRES.
Benigne Poissenot, in 1586, hinted that the cold of winter produced the ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.[69]
[69] See Part III.: page 193.
Reichard Strein and Christoph Schallenberger visited the caves on the Ötscher in 1591.[70]
[70] See Part III.: page 231.
Gollut, in 1592, suggested the cold of winter as the cause of the ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.[71]
[71] See Part III.: page 202.
In the _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, 1686, Tome II., pages 2, 3, there is an account, with no author's name, of Chaux-les-Passavant. The memoir states that in winter the cave is filled with thick vapors and that after some trees were cut down near the entrance, the ice was less abundant than formerly: that people come for ice with carts and mules, but that the ice does not become exhausted, for one day of great heat forms more ice than could be carried away in eight days in carts and wagons: and that when a fog forms in the cave, there is assuredly rain the following day, and that the peasants in the neighborhood consult this curious "almanac" to know the weather which is coming.
Freiherr Valvasor, in 1689, wrote about some of the glacières of the Krain.[72]
[72] See Part III.: pages 238, 239.
Behrens, in 1703, thought it was colder in summer than in winter in the caves near Questenberg in the Harz.
M. de Billerez, in 1712, writes that at Chaux-les-Passavant it is really colder in summer than in winter; and that the ice is harder than river ice, and this he thinks is due to the presence of a nitrous or ammoniacal salt, which he says he found in the rocks.
M. de Boz made four trips to Chaux-les-Passavant on the 15th of May and 8th of November, 1725; and the 8th of March and 20th of August, 1726. His memoir says that his observations tend to disprove those of M. de Billerez, and that "the cause for the great cold, which is less great in summer, although always remaining, is quite natural." He cites as causes for the ice the exposure to the north-north-east; the rock portal sheltering the entrance, and all the forest covering the surrounding lands; and adds that some veracious persons told him that since some of the big trees above the grotto had been cut down there was less ice than before. He found no traces of salt, nor any springs, and that the water supply came from the rains and melted snows filtering through the ground.
In 1739, Matthias Bel published his curious account of Szilize.[73]
[73] See Part III.: page 254.
J. N. Nagel, a Vienna mathematician, visited the Ötscher in 1747. He concluded that the ice was made in winter and preserved in summer as in an ice house.
M. de Cossigny wrote, in 1750, about Chaux-les-Passavant. He made a plan of the cave and took many observations in April, August and October, and concluded that the interior condition of the cave does not change noticeably from winter to summer, no matter what the external conditions of temperature may be; that what people say of greater cold in summer, vanishes before actual experience and that, as a state of freezing reigns more or less continuously in the cave, it is not surprising if the ice accumulates. Apparently he was the first to notice and insist on the necessity of drainage to the cave through cracks in the rocks. He also made a series of observations disproving those of M. de Billerez, as to the presence of any kinds of salts in the rocks or ice.
Hacquet, in 1778, thought that the ice in the cave at Lazhna-gora formed in winter, but he also thought that there must undoubtedly be some salt in the water. He says he found ice in the cave in the spring, and that his companion, a priest, had never found any in winter. He therefore concluded that by that time it had all melted.
Romain Joly, in 1779, claims to have visited Chaux-les-Passavant on the 19th of September (year not given). His account seems largely borrowed from the one in the _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, in 1686. He says: "This ice is formed by the drops of water which fall from the roof, and which freeze because of the chill of the cave. In the winter there is no ice, but running water." He says nothing, however, about the ice forming in summer.
The _Citoyen_ Girod-Chantrans visited Chaux-les-Passavant in August, 1783, and reached the conclusion, from all he saw and heard, that the cave did not freeze in summer nor thaw in winter, and that it was really a natural ice house. He was aided by the notes of a neighboring physician, Dr. Oudot, who had made observations in the cave, and among others, had placed stakes of wood, on the 8th of January, 1779, in the heads of the columns he had found in the cave; and on the 22d of February, 1780, had found these stakes completely covered with ice, forming columns 30 centimeters in diameter.
Hablizl, in 1788, wrote that the ice in the cave near Karassoubazar formed in the spring by the snows which melt, run into the cave, and refreeze. He also thought that there was less ice there in the fall than in the spring, that it diminishes in July and August, and that the idea, current in the neighborhood, of the formation of ice in summer, is a mistake.
Professor Pierre Prévost, in 1789, gave an accurate explanation of the formation of the ice in Chaux-les-Passavant. He says: "Weighing carefully the local circumstances, one discovers in truth a few causes of permanent cold. But these causes seem rather suited to keep up a great freshness or to diminish the heat of summer, than to produce a cold such as that which reigns in the cavern. First of all, big trees throw shade over the entrance; it is, I was told, forbidden under severe penalties to cut down any of them, for fear of depriving the grotto of a necessary shelter. In the second place, this entrance is situated almost due north, leaning a little to the east, which is the coolest exposure one can choose, and the one most suited to help the effect of the icy winds which blow from that quarter. Finally the slope is steep and the grotto deep and covered with a thick vault. These three conditions united constitute, as it seems to me, a very good _ice house_; by which I mean a reservoir fit to preserve during the summer, the ice which may bank up in winter.
"But how does this ice bank up? One knows that the outside waters above form on the roof, during the winter, long drops and stalactites of ice. These icicles, which hang down and increase constantly by the drip from the same source which formed them, fall at last, carried away by their own weight, and form so many centres, around which freeze the waters with which the floor of the grotto is always inundated. At the same time, the blowing of the north wind accumulates snow at the base of the slope, which is uncovered in part and exposed above to all the vicissitudes of the weather. Thus during the winter is formed an irregular heap of ice and snow, which the first heats of spring begin to make run, but which the heats of summer cannot finish dissolving. The winter following has therefore even more facility to augment the mass of these ice pyramids, which have resisted until the fall. And if men did not work at diminishing it, it might happen that it would fill the entire cavern at last to a great height.
"I am therefore strongly inclined to think that the process of nature is here precisely similar to that of art; that without any especial cause of cold, the natural glacière of Besançon conserves in the moderate temperature of deep caverns, the heaps of snow and ice which the winds and the outside waters accumulate there during the winter; and that the melting of these snows and of these accumulated ices forms little by little the ice floor, scattered over with blocks and pyramids, which one observes there during the summer."
Horace Bénédict de Saussure, the great Swiss scientist and mountaineer, in 1796, published a number of observations about cold current caves in various parts of the Alps. He found that in summer the air blows outward at the lower end, and that in winter it draws inward. His explanation is that in summer the colder air in the tube is heavier than the outside air and displaces it by gravity; while in winter the rupture takes place in the other direction, since the column within the tube is warmer than the outside air and therefore is pushed upwards by the heavy air flowing in. He concludes that evaporation due to the air passing internally over moist rocks suffices to explain the phenomenon of low temperatures and that such caves have a rather lower temperature in the Alps than in Italy owing to the greater natural cold of the Swiss lake region. An experiment of his is worth mentioning. He passed a current of air through a glass tube, 2.5 centimeters in diameter, filled with moistened stones, and found that the air current which entered with a temperature of 22.5° came out with a temperature of 18.75°, that is with a loss of 3.75° of heat.
Robert Townson, LL.D., in 1797, published an account, perhaps the first in English, of a glacière cave. He says of Szilize: "Ice I truly found here in abundance, and it was mid-summer, but in a state of thaw; the bed of ice, which covered the floor of the cavern was thinly covered with water and everything announced a thaw. I had no need to use my thermometer: however I placed it in the ice and it fell to 0° of Réaumur: I then wiped it and placed it in a niche in the rock, at the furthest part of the cavern, a yard above the ice and here it remained near an hour: when I returned I found it at 0°. * * * Everything therefore, ice, water and atmosphere in the neighborhood had the same temperature, and that was the temperature of melting ice: 0° Réaumur.
"When then is the ice which is found here, and in such quantities that this cavern serves the few opulent nobility in the neighborhood as an ice house, formed? Surely in winter, though not by the first frost, not so soon as ice is formed in the open air. No doubt, from the little communication this cavern has with the atmosphere, it will be but little and slowly affected by the change. Should therefore, Mr. Bel, or any of his friends, have come here to verify the common report at the commencement of a severe frost, when the whole country was covered with ice and snow, they might still have found nothing here but water, or the ice of the preceding winter in a state of thaw, and the cavern relatively warm; and likewise, should they have visited it in a warm spring, which had succeeded to a severe winter, they might have found nothing here but frost and ice; and even the fresh melted snow, percolating through the roof of this cavern, might again have been congealed to ice. I observed frequently in Germany in the severe winter of 1794-5, on a sudden thaw, that the walls of churches and other public buildings, on the outside were white and covered with a hoar frost, and the windows on the same side covered with a rime."
Dr. Franz Sartori, in 1809, was a strong believer in the summer ice theory, and wrote of the flies and the gnats, the bats and the owls, and the foxes and the hares coming to Szilize to winter.
Alexander von Humboldt, in 1814, says about the Cueva del Hielo on the Peak of Teneriffe that so much snow and ice are stored up in winter that the summer heat cannot melt it all, and also adds that permanent snow in caves must depend more on the amount of winter snow, and the freedom from hot winds, than on the absolute altitude of the cave.
Dewey, in 1819, thought that the ice in the Snow Glen at Williamstown was a winter formation.
Professor M. A. Pictet visited Saint-Georges, Le Brezon and Montarquis and in 1822 endeavored to prove that they are cold current caves and that the ice in them is due entirely to draughts causing evaporation. He believed in the theory of the ice forming in summer more than in winter and that it could not be the residue of a winter deposit. He therefore argued that it must be due to descending currents of air which he thought would be most energetic in summer; that they would become at least as low as the mean annual temperature of the place and be still further cooled by evaporation. The strange thing about his theories is that he does not seem to have personally observed any draughts either at Saint-Georges or Le Brezon, but the fact that the ice was evidently not an accumulation of winter snow led him to try to reconcile what he had himself seen with de Saussure's theories about windholes.
Jean André Deluc in 1822 published a paper discussing the theories of MM. de Cossigny, Prévost and Pictet. Deluc had never visited a glacière himself, but he explains clearly the impossibility of Professor Pictet's cold current theory, on the simple ground that Professor Pictet himself did not find any cold currents. He takes up Professor Prévost's theories warmly; using also the manuscript notes of Mons. Colladon who had visited the Grand Cave de Montarquis. Deluc says: "that the winter's cold penetrates into these caves, freezes the water which collects there and that the ice thus formed has not the time to melt during the following summer." He says further: "It seems that in the three glacières with which we have been occupied there is a flat or rather hollow bottom, where the waters can form a more or less deep pond, and whence they therefore cannot flow away; it is there they flow in winter; and as these are shut in places where the air cannot circulate, the heats of summer can only penetrate very feebly. The ice once formed in such cavities, only melts slowly; for one knows that ice in melting, absorbs 60° of heat; and where find this heat in an air always very cold and nearly still? During a great cold, the ice forms with great promptness, while it melts with much slowness, even when the temperature of the air is several degrees above zero; what must then not be this slowness when the temperature of the interior air only rises in summer one degree above freezing point. It would need several summers to melt this ice if it did not reform each winter."
C. A. Lee, in 1825, wrote that the ice in the Wolfshollow near Salisbury was a winter formation.
G. Poulett Scrope, in 1826, accepted as the truth the statement that the cave of Roth was filled with ice in summer, but that it was warm during the winter. In 1827, he explained the presence of ice at Pontgibaud as follows: "The water is apparently frozen by means of the powerful evaporation produced by a current of very dry air issuing from some long fissures or arched galleries which communicate with the cave, and owing its dryness to the absorbent qualities of the lava through which it passes."
F. Reich, in 1834, thought that there were two possible causes which might produce subterranean ice: 1, the difference in specific gravity between warm and cold air; 2, evaporation. He thought the cold air a sufficient cause in most caves, but he considered that evaporation also played a part not infrequently.
Professor Silliman, in 1839, gave the first hint, in the negative, about compressed air as a cause for subterranean ice. He said about Owego that if one could suppose that compressed gases or a compressed atmosphere were escaping from the water or near it, this would indicate a source of cold, but that as there is no indication of this in the water, the explanation is unavailable.
Professor A. Pleischl wrote in 1841 that he was told that ice formed on the Pleschiwetz and on the Steinberge in summer. Continuing, he says: "The author is therefore, as well as for other reasons, of the opinion, that the ice is not remaining winter ice, but a summer formation, and one formed by the cold of evaporation. * * * The basalt is, as a thick stone, a good conductor for the heat, and takes up therefore easily the sun's warmth, but parts with it easily to other neighboring bodies. In the hollows, between the basalt blocks, is found, as I already mentioned, rotting moss, which forms a spongy mass, which is wet through with water. The basalt heated by the sun's rays now causes a part of the water in the spongy mass to vaporize; for this evaporation the water needs heat, which it withdraws from the neighboring bodies and in part from water, and makes the water so cold, that it freezes into ice, as, under the bell of an air pump--Nature therefore makes here a physical experiment on the largest scale."
Much stress appears to have been laid on the paper of Professor Pleischl by Professor Krauss and one or two others. The weak point in it is that Pleischl did not see the ice form in summer, but was only, as usual, told that it did so. There is nothing in the facts given to show that the places mentioned are different from any other taluses, where ice does not form as the result of heat.
Mr. C. B. Hayden, in 1843, wrote about the Ice Mountain in Virginia, and held that the porous nature of the rocks makes them poor conductors of heat, and that the mountain is a huge sandstone refrigerator.
Dr. S. Pearl Lathrop, in 1844, wrote of the Ice Bed at Wallingford, Vermont, as a great natural refrigerator.
Sir Roderick Impey Murchison wrote in 1845 about the salt mine and freezing cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. He visited them during a hot August, and was assured that the cold within is greatest when the external air is hottest and driest; that the fall of rain and a moist atmosphere produce some diminution in the cold of the cave and that on the setting in of winter the ice disappears entirely. He accepted these statements evidently only in a half hearted way, submitting them to Sir John Herschel, who tried to explain them, in case they were true, of which Herschel was likewise doubtful. Murchison at first thought that the ice was due to the underlying bed of salt, but soon recognized that this explanation could not be correct. He also rejected Herschel's "heat and cold wave" theory. Shortly after this he came across Pictet's memoir, and on the strength of it concluded that the ice in Illetzkaya-Zatschita could not be the residue of a winter deposit, but must be due to descending currents of air; to the previously wet and damp roof affording a passage to water; and to the excessive dryness of the external air of these southern steppes contributing powerfully to the refrigerating effects of evaporation.
Professor Arnold Guyot, in 1856, said that the well at Owego admitted large quantities of snow which melts, but not readily, because it is not accessible to the sun. It therefore goes through the same process as glaciers, of partly melting and refreezing; and we have the formation of a glacier without movement.
Professor W. B. Rogers, in 1856, held that the well at Owego became the recipient of the coldest air of the neighborhood, and the temperature remained abnormal because the bad conducting power of the materials of the well retained the cold.
Professor D. Olmstead, in 1856, held about Owego that cold air exists in the interior of the earth which may have found a ventilating shaft in the well.
Professor Petruzzi, in 1857, considered the following requirements necessary for a glacière: A high altitude above the sea; a decided drop into the interior of the mountain; absence of all draught; protection against all warm and moist winds, therefore the opening to north and east. He also says about the glacière on the Pograca: that it is in shadow; that the thick forest round the mouth keeps the temperature down; that it begins to freeze below when it does above; that the cold remains there into the spring; and that the water from rain or other sources, which flows into the cave, must freeze there, and the ice form in greater quantities than the heat of summer can melt away.
Mr. Albert D. Hager wrote in 1859: "The question now arises, why it was that such a congealed mass of earth was found in Brandon at the time the frozen well was dug. My opinion is, that the bad conducting property of the solids surrounding it, the absence of ascending currents of heated air, and of subterranean streams of water in this
## particular locality favored such a result; and that the bad conducting
property of clay, as well as that of the porous gravel associated with it, taken in connection with the highly inclined porous strata, and the disposition of heated air to rise, and the cold air to remain below, contribute to produce in the earth, at this place, a _mammoth refrigerator_, embracing essentially the same principle as that involved in the justly celebrated refrigerator known as 'Winship's Patent.'
"Clay is not only nearly impervious to air and water, but it is one of the worst conductors of heat in nature. (Note.--To test the question whether clay was a poor conductor of heat or not, I took two basins of equal size, and in one put a coating of clay one-half inch thick, into which I put water of a temperature of 52° Fahrenheit. Into the other dish, which was clean, I put water of the same temperature, and subjected the two basins to equal amounts of heat; and in five minutes the water in the clean dish indicated a temperature of 70° while that of the one coated with clay was raised only to 56°.) If we can rely upon the statements of those who dug out the frozen earth, it rested upon a stratum of clay that lay upon the bed of pebbles in which the water was found, for it was described as being a very sticky kind of hard pan.
"This being the case, if the water contained in the pebbly mass had a temperature above the freezing point, the heat would be but imperfectly transmitted to the frost, through the clay, provided there was no other way for its escape. But we have seen that the stratum of clay that overlays the bed of pebbles in the side of the gravel pit was not horizontal, but inclined towards the well at an angle of 25°. Now if this drip was continued to the well, and existed there (which is highly probable), it will be seen that the ascending current of heated air, in the pebbly bed, would be checked upon meeting the overlying barrier of clay and be deflected out of its upward course. The tendency of heated air is to rise, hence it would continue its course along the under side of the clay, through the interstices in the bed of pebbles, till it found a place of escape at the surface, which in this case may have been at the gravel pit before named."
Professor Edward Hitchcock wrote in 1861: "The presence of a mass of frozen gravel deep beneath the surface in Brandon, was first made known by digging a well in it in the autumn of 1858. * * * The gravel, also, rises into occasional knolls and ridges. In short, it is just such a region of sand and gravel as may be seen in many places along the western side of the Green Mountains; and indeed, all over New England. It is what we call modified drift, and lies above genuine drift, having been the result of aqueous agency subsequent to the drift period. * * * The well was stoned up late in the autumn of 1858, and during the winter, ice formed upon the water in one night, two inches thick. It continued to freeze till April; after which no ice was formed on the surface, but we can testify that as late as June 25th, the stones of the well for four or five feet above the surface of the water were mostly coated with ice; nay, it had not wholly disappeared July 14th. The temperature of the water was only one degree of Fahrenheit above freezing point. The ice did however disappear in the autumn but was formed again (how early we did not learn) in the winter, and so thick too that it was necessary to send some one into the well to break it. We visited the well August 18th, 1860, and found the temperature 42°. Yet only the week previous ice was seen upon the stones, and we were even told by one of the family, that a piece of ice had been drawn up the day before in the bucket. * * * These frozen deposits may have been produced during the glacial period that accompanied the formation of drift, and continued far down into the subsequent epochs of modified drift. * * * But in all the excavations both gravel and clay occur: and how almost impervious to heat must such a coating 20 feet thick, be! It would not, however, completely protect the subjacent mass from solar heat. But there is another agency still more powerful for this end, namely, evaporation, which we think has operated here, as we shall more fully describe further on; and we think that these two agencies, namely, non-conduction and evaporation, may have preserved this frozen deposit for a very long period, from exterior influences."
Professor Thury in 1861 says about Saint-Georges: "Such is the _résumé_, concise but exact, of the results of our winter excursion. They furnish proof to the fact generally borne witness to by the mountaineers, that ice does not form in winter in the interior of caverns. But if this is so, it is for a very simple reason: two things are necessary for the formation of ice: cold and water. In winter, the cold is not wanting: but if there is no spring opening in the cave, the water is absent, and then no ice forms.
"It is in the spring, at the time of the first melting of the snows, that the ice must form. Then water at 0° pours over the surface, and penetrates by the fissures of the rock and by the large openings into the chilled cavern, which is also receiving the freezing air of the nights. The grotto then makes its annual provision of ice, which after this could only diminish little by little during the whole duration of the warm season."
Professor Thury writes about the Grand Cave de Montarquis: "Here it must be when water and cold meet, that is autumn and especially spring, the time of the first melting of the snows."
"During the winter * * * the colder, heavier air comes to freeze the water of the grotto, and chill the ice and the wall of rock."
"During the summer, the radiation of the vaults and the proper heat of the ground only melt a small quantity of ice because this absorbs much heat to pass into a liquid state."
"The heat of the air is entirely used to melt the ice; it does not therefore manifest itself as sensible heat."
"The contact of the ice ready to melt, plays in a certain way, towards the air a little warmer than itself, the rôle of an extremely absorbing body, or one which has an excessive caloric conductibility."
"Here the formation of the ice could not possibly be attributed to the cold caused by evaporation. The psychrometer indicated ninety-two per cent, of relative humidity: the atmosphere of the grotto was therefore almost saturated with evaporation of water, and the maximum of cold caused by evaporation was not over half a degree centigrade."
About prismatic ice and a hollow pyramid, he says: "The prismatic (_aréolaire_) structure is produced later on in the ice, by a new and
## particular arrangement of the molecules of the already solidified
water. Therefore the recent stalactites are never crystallized."
"In the beginning of the hot season, the atmospheric temperature of the grotto rises slowly. Inferior to zero by some tenths of a degree, it produces first on the surface, in the stalactites, the prismatic structure. The temperature continues to rise, the central portions of the stalactites, still composed of ordinary ice, liquefy, and if the melting water finds some issue, either by accidental openings left between some prisms, or by the extremity of the stalactite or by some point of its surface which had escaped the action of the regular crystallization; by this opening the water escapes, and the tubular stalactite has been formed."
"The column was composed of a very special ice, perfectly dry, perfectly homogeneous, translucid and whose appearance could only be compared to that of the most beautiful porcelain. I am inclined to believe that we had under our eyes a special molecular state of congealed water. This state would be produced under the influence of a constant temperature of a certain degree (Note--perhaps not far from 4°--the actual temperature of the grotto) long prolonged. These causes can be realized more completely in glacières than anywheres else."
The Reverend George Forrest Browne, published in 1865, _Ice Caves in France and Switzerland_, one of the most delightful books of travel ever written, on account of the scientific accuracy and the humor of the author. He visited La Genollière, Saint-Georges, Saint-Livres, Chaux-les-Passavant, Monthézy, Arc-sous-Çicon, the Schafloch, Haut-d'Aviernoz, which he calls Grand Anu, Chapuis, and Font-d'Urle. He says: "The view which Deluc adopted was one which I have myself independently formed. * * * The heavy cold air of winter sinks down into the glacières, and the lighter warm air of summer cannot on ordinary principles of gravitation dislodge it, so that heat is very slowly spread in the caves; and even when some amount of heat does reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, for ice absorbs 60° C. of heat in melting; and thus, when ice is once formed, it becomes a material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For this explanation to hold good it is necessary that the level at which the ice is formed should be below the level of the entrance to the cave; otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it to leave its prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived. In every single case that has come under my observation, this condition has been emphatically fulfilled. It is necessary, also, that the cave should be protected from direct radiation, as the gravitation of cold air has nothing to do with resistance to that powerful means of introducing heat. This condition, also, is fulfilled by nature in all the glacières I have visited, excepting that of S. Georges; and there art has replaced the protection formerly afforded by the thick trees which grew over the hole of entrance. The effect of the second hole in the roof of this glacière is to destroy all the ice which is within range of the sun. A third and very necessary condition is, that the wind should not be allowed access to the cave; for if it were, it would infallibly bring in heated air, in spite of the specific weight of the cold air stored within. It will be understood from my description of such glacières as that of the Grand Anu, of Monthézy, and the lower glacière of the Pré de S. Livres, how completely sheltered from all winds the entrances to those caves are. There can be no doubt, too, that the large surfaces which are available for evaporation have much to do with maintaining a somewhat lower temperature than the mean temperature of the place where the cave occurs."
Browne noticed prismatic ice several times. He says of it: "M. Thury suggests also, as a possibility, what I have found to be the case by frequent observations, that the prismatic ice has greater power of resisting heat than ordinary ice. * * * A Frenchman who was present in the room in which the Chemical Section of the British Association met at Bath, and heard a paper which I read there on this prismatic structure, suggested that it was probably something akin to the rhomboidal form assumed by dried mud; and I have since been struck by the great resemblance to it, as far as the surface goes, which the pits of mud left by the coprolite workers near Cambridge offer, of course on a very large scale. This led me to suppose that the intense dryness which would naturally be the result of the action of some weeks or months of great cold upon subterranean ice might be one of the causes of its assuming this form, and the observations at Jena would rather confirm than contradict this view: competent authorities, however, seem inclined to believe that warmth, and not cold, is the producing cause."
Mr. Browne found a hollow cone at La Genollière, for which he accounted as follows: "In the loftier part of the cave * * * ninety six drops of water in a minute splashed on to a small stone immediately under the main fissure. This stone was in the centre of a considerable area of the floor which was clear of ice. * * * I found that the edge of the ice round this clear area was much thicker than the rest of the ice on the floor, and was evidently the remains of the swelling pedestal of the column. * * * When the melted snows of spring send down to the cave, through the fissures of the rock, an abundance of water at a very low temperature and the cave itself is stored with the winter's cold, these thicker rings of ice catch first the descending water, and so a circular wall, naturally conical, is formed around the area of stones; the remaining water either running off through the interstices, or forming a floor of ice of less thickness, which yields to the next summer's drops. In the course of time, this conical wall rises, narrowing always, till a dome-like roof is at length formed and thenceforth the column is solid." From what I have observed myself, this explanation seems to fairly meet the facts.
Professor T. G. Bonney, in 1868, was inclined to believe that there was some connection between glacières and a glacial period.
Mr. W. R. Raymond, in 1869, concluded from his own observations about the lava cave in Washington: that the cold air of winter freezes up the percolating waters from the surface, layer upon layer, solid from the bottom, and the accumulated ice thaws slowly in summer, being retarded by the covering which keeps out the direct rays of the sun, and by the fact that the melting ice at one end of the cave, through which the summer draught enters, itself refrigerates the air and maintains a freezing temperature at the other end.
Dr. C. A. White, in 1870, says of the cavern at Decorah: "The formation of the ice is probably due to the rapid evaporation of the moisture of the earth and rocks, caused by the heat of the summer sun upon the outer wall of the fissure and valley side. This outer wall is from ten to twenty feet in thickness where the ice was seen to be most abundant. The water for its production seems to be supplied by slow exudation from the inner wall of the cave."
Dr. Krenner, in 1874, wrote of Dóbsina as "a natural ice cellar of giant dimensions, whose ice masses formed in winter, the summer does not succeed in melting."
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins wrote in 1874: "The apparent anomaly that one only out of a group of caves exposed to the same temperature should be a glacière, may be explained by the fact that these conditions [those formulated by the Rev. G. F. Browne] are found in combination but rarely, and if one were absent there would be no accumulation of perpetual ice. It is very probable that the store of cold laid up in these caves, as in an ice house, has been ultimately derived from the great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the Glacial Period."
Mr. Theodore Kirchhoff examined the lava caves in the State of Washington and in 1876 wrote that he considered that the ice in the smaller ones were simply remains of the winter's cold. He thought that the ice in the large cave where there is a draught could not be accounted for in the same way, so he concluded that the ice must be due to the draught.
Mr. N. M. Lowe, in 1879, proposed the Compressed Air or Capillary theory[74] about the Cave at Decorah.
[74] See Part II., page 142.
Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., in 1879, gave an exceedingly clear exposition of the theory in the same journal.
Mr. Aden S. Benedict, in 1881, published his observations about Decorah. He found that there was no water falling in the cave to compress the air, that there was no water falling near enough to be heard, nor any aperture giving vent to cold air in the cave. He thought that the cold of winter cools the sides of the cave several degrees below freezing point and that these rocks are so far underground that it would take a long season of hot weather to raise this temperature to the melting point of ice. In the spring the water percolates through the soil and drips on to the yet freezing rocks; on which it freezes and remains until the heat of summer penetrates to a sufficient depth to melt it away. The rocks once raised above 0° remain so until the following winter and consequently if there are heavy autumn rains there is water on the rocks but no ice. Mr. Benedict concluded that there was nothing more mysterious about Decorah than the fact that if you drop water on a cold stone it will freeze.
Professor Friederich Umlauft in 1883 wrote about glacières "that as moreover they were generally protected against warm winds and strong draughts and as their entrances look towards the north or east, there is consequently more ice formed under these conditions in winter than can melt away in summer. Other ice grottoes however show the remarkable characteristic, that it is warm in them in winter, in the summer on the contrary it becomes so cold that all the dripping water freezes. They are found near snow clefts and gorges; when in the hot summer months the snow melts, then the cold which has become free presses down the temperature in the cave so much that the water freezes into ice. Such grottoes are in Austria at * * * Frauenmauer, * * * Brandstein, * * * Teplitz, * * * Scilize, * * * Dobschauer."
Herr Körber in 1885 wrote about the Schafloch, that the stored-up winter's cold stands out as permanent adversary of the higher temperature of the earth. The thermometer proved this by its action at the end of the cave in a rock cleft, which is warmer than the rest of the cave. In September Herr Körber found the masses of ice less and the stalagmites smaller than in January, especially a column which in January had become a stately mountain of transparent ice.
Professor Eberhard Fugger of Salzburg, has studied the caves of the Untersberg carefully, having paid over eighty visits to them. He classifies freezing caverns into the following types, according to their position and their shape:
According to position: 1, open caves, that is those whose entrance is free on a rock wall; 2, pit caves, where the entrance is at the bottom of a pit; 3, pit caves, where the pit is covered and the opening is in the roof.
According to shape: 1, _sackhöhlen_ or chamber caverns, into which one enters immediately at the entrance; 2, _ganghöhlen_, or passage caves terminating in a chamber; 3, _röhrenhöhlen_, or passage caves where the passages continue further than the chamber.
He is a strong advocate of the winter's cold theory. He says: "The ice of caves is formed by the cold of winter, and remains despite the heat of summer, as through local circumstances the quantity of heat brought to the ice is not great enough to melt it by the time when ice and snow in the open at the same altitude have already disappeared."
"In order that ice may form in a cave in winter, two factors are necessary. There must be water present in some form or other, and in some way the outside cold air must be able to sink into the cave."
"When the bottom of a cave is below the entrance, the outside cold winter air sinks into the cave from its weight, when the temperature of the cave air is higher than that of the outside air; and it will remain there during the warmer weather, as the warm outside air on account of its lighter weight cannot drive out the cold heavy cave air."
"The most important factor for the formation of ice is the drip water. The more drip flows into a cave during the cold season, the more ice is formed; the more drip, on the contrary, flows into the cave during the warm season, the more ice is destroyed."
"The warmth, which the roof of the cave gives out, is also a cause which helps to melt the ice, and a cause in fact which works the harder, the higher the temperature of the roof and the dirtier the ice floor."
"If direct rays of the sun penetrate a cave, they scarcely warm up the air which they traverse, but they raise the temperature of the floor or of the walls, which they touch. They are therefore a very important factor, which may bring about the melting of the ice."
"The snow slope at the mouth of a cave offers some protection against the rays of the sun, especially if it is no longer white, but covered with all sorts of dirt."
"The larger the mass of ice, the longer is its duration." "A certain thickness to the roof is of importance in preserving the ice. If it is less than 8 meters, then it is well if it is covered with outside vegetation."
I entirely agree with these _dicta_ of Professor Fugger.
In 1893, Fugger writes: "The peculiar readings of temperature, which I made in August 1877, in the Kolowratshöhle, namely on the 13th at 12 M., 0.5°, on the 15th at 4 P. M., 0.35°, on the 23d at 10 A. M., 0.12°, on the 26th at 10 A. M., 0.17°, and on the 30th at 2.15 P. M., -0.10°, I think I can attribute to the workings of the winds. In the observations themselves there could scarce be an error. All five observations were made at the same place, with the same thermometer, after at least half an hour's exposure. In the time from the 13th to the 30th of August, the temperature minimum in the town of Salzburg, was 12°; before the 30th were several cloudless nights. During the whole of August scarcely any but southeast and northwest winds were blowing. The Kolowratshöhle opens in a rock wall to the east; the above named winds therefore affected during the entire month the entrance to the cave and may have produced a lively evaporation in the cave, through a sort of sucking up of the cave air, and thus have created the rather decided cooling off of 0.6° within seventeen days."
This statement, coming from Professor Fugger, deserves particular attention, because it would go to show: first, that the air in the Kolowratshöhle, a _sackhöhle_ with only one entrance, is only apparently stagnant in summer and not really so; and second, that evaporation may act to a limited extent in a cavern where there is almost no running water.
Captain Trouillet, in 1885, published a paper about Chaux-les-Passavant. He found that when it was colder inside than outside, the internal air was nearly cut off from the outside; when it was coldest outside there was a lively disturbance. He called these two classes _périodes fermées_ and _périodes ouvertes_. He says: "The duration of a _closed period_ is measured then on the curves [of a maximum and minimum thermometer] of the interior temperatures, between a minimum and the following maximum; that of an _open period_ is between a minimum and the preceding maximum. One can thus count from the 25th November to the 31st December 25 _open periods_ of a total duration of 200 hours or 8 times 24 hours: which gives for each a duration of 7½ hours. The shortest lasted 2 hours and the longest 16 hours. During the same interval, the _closed periods_ numbered 26, making a total duration of about 28 days; the longest, which lasted from the 3d to the 8th December, was 126 hours long."
Trouillet also says: "From the 23d to the 30th December, the grotto was completely isolated from the external air, and yet during three consecutive nights, the interior had three marked chills. Such is the phenomenon whose cause can only lay, in our opinion, in the introduction of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds between north and east. This air on entering comes in contact with the ice and the humid roof of the cave; it saturates itself in producing a formation of vapors, and therefrom a consumption of heat which may be considerable."
There are some discrepancies in this last paragraph which must be noted, for the reason that Trouillet's observations are so valuable. He does not mention having seen the vapors himself, in fact the production of these vapors seems only an inference. Nor is it easy to understand how the grotto could be "completely isolated from the external air" if the phenomenon lay "in the introduction of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds north and east."
Dr. B. Schwalbe, in 1886, wrote that "all my observations point to the fact that the rock is the cooling factor in summer, and that the cold goes out from it." He says also that "when I saw for the first time the little cave of Roth, which was filled with fairly numerous ice formations, it was precisely the smallness of the volume of air and the strange appearance of the ice which made the simple cold air theory seen insufficient, nor could I later, by widening the theory and observing the localities from the basis of DeLuc's theory, accept it. It always seemed by all my observations that in the rock there must be a lasting source of cold. There must be a cause present, which prevents the rapid warming of the cave wall through the temperature of the ground, which also keeps the stone cool in summer and induces the main ice formation in the spring." He also hints that Mr. Lowe's compressed air theory may be the correct one. Dr. Schwalbe's work, _Über Eishöhlen und Eislöcher_, is one of the four or five most important contributions to glacière literature, and his opinion is entitled to great respect on account of his many observations.
Professor Israel C. Russell wrote in 1890, about the ice beds on the Yukon: "It is thought by some observers, to be an inheritance from a former period of extreme cold; but under existing climatic conditions, when ice forms beneath a layer of moss, it is preserved during the short summer, and may increase as it does on the tundras, to an astonishing thickness."
In 1897, Professor Russell says: "It is not probable that all the subsoil ice of northern regions has been formed in one way. Along the flood plains and on the deltas of rivers where layers of clear ice are interbedded with sheets of frozen gravel and vegetable matter, as is frequently the case, it seems evident that the growth of the deposit is due, in some instances, to the flooding of previously frozen layers, and the freezing and subsequent burial of the sediment thus added to their surfaces. When spring freshets spread out sheets of débris over the flood plain of a river, as frequently happens when streams in high latitudes flow northward, the previously frozen soil and the ice of ponds and swamps may be buried and indefinitely preserved." "There is still another process by which frozen subsoil may be formed in high latitudes: this is, the effects of the cold during the long winters are not counteracted by the heat during the short summers. Under the conditions now prevailing in northern Alaska, where the mean annual temperature is below 32° Fahrenheit, the frozen layer tends to increase the thickness from year to year just as the depth of frozen soil in more temperate latitudes may increase from month to month during the winter season. During the short northern summers, especially where the ground is moss covered, melting only extends a few inches below the surface."
Mons. E. A. Martel, in 1892, wrote of the Creux-Percé: "I incline only, as in all the pits which narrow at the bottom (_avens à rétrécissement_) to attribute the chilling to the fall of the cold air of winter and to its non-renewal in summer." And at page 564 of _Les Abimes_ he says: "One knows that _evaporation_ is an active cause of cooling; therefore it is always cooler in caves near the drips of water. * * * I have positively noted this influence of evaporation near the drips of Tabourel (8° instead of 9.5°), of Dargilan, of the Cerna Jama, and in abysses with double mouths where there were strong draughts (Rabanel, Biau, Fosse-Mobile, etc.)." In December, 1897, Mons. Martel writes: "In short, the action of the winter's cold is the real cause accepted by * * * and recently confirmed by Fugger, Trouillet and Martel." And also: "It is probable that this influence [evaporation] is only real at rather high altitudes; this is at least what seems the result of the studies of the caves of Naye (1700 to 1900 meters) begun by Professor Dutoit."
In 1899, Mons. Martel gave an account of the Glacière de Naye. In this paper, he abandons definitely fossil ice, salts and the capillary theory as possible causes of underground ice. He considers that there are four causes: 1, shape of the cavity; 2, free access of snow in winter; 3, high altitude; 4, evaporation due to wind currents. The last two causes he thinks are not necessarily always present. For instance he considers that, at the Creux-Percé, and at Chaux-les-Passavant, the ice is due especially to the sack or hour-glass shape of these hollows where the summer air cannot get in on account of its lightness. At the Glacière de Naye, which is a big windhole, situated at an altitude of 1750 to 1820 meters, Mons. Martel thinks that the ice is formed by the snow and cold of winter, but that its preservation is assured by the evaporation caused by the action of the windhole.
Dr. Terlanday, in 1893, asserted that ice does not form in Szilize in winter, and that the ice first forms in the winter in the upper part of rock fissures and that in the spring, at the time of an increase of temperature, this fissure ice is brought to the melting point by the successive entering of heat into the earth and that it then arrives at the cave, where it aids the formation of icicles. This theory about fissure ice is probably in so far correct, that the ice in the upper parts of fissures, near the surface of the ground, melts before the ice in the lower parts of fissures. The drip would then naturally run into the cave and, as long as the temperature of the cave was low, help to form cave ice.
Dr. Hans Lohmann, in 1895, published some valuable notes about several glacières. While considering the cold of winter as the main cause of the ice, he thought evaporation a secondary cause of cold. He says: "That the cold from evaporation bears its share in cooling a cave, will not be denied. * * * The air saturated with aqueous vapor makes one think of constant evaporation. The aqueous vapor spreads itself by diffusion throughout the entire cave, and if the outside air is driest, goes to that. Through this, more ice and water can always be vaporized, and to the warming elements there is furnished a cooling one. If dry winds get into the cave, then must evaporation be very lively and the chilling especially strong. Through this cause alone can be explained the remarkably low temperature of +6.3° in the new part of the Garischen Stollen, in contrast to the temperature of +7.9° in the old part. The strong draught in the last drew out through its suction the damp air of the new adit, so that there had to be a strong evaporation."
Dr. Lohmann gives some exhaustive notes about prismatic ice. He found it a product of the fall months. He thinks all the observations show that "the beginning of all prismatic formation in the ice may be looked for in the changes of temperature in the cave at the time of the formation of the ice. These cause the everywhere recognized splitting, vertically to the outer surface. The further development hangs, as shown by Hagenbach and Emden, on the attempt of the neighboring cells, to join into larger unities. The increase of the larger crystals is finally prevented by the melting out of the openings between the separate crystals. Through this may be explained the difference in the prismatic ice in different parts of the same cave."
Regierungsrath Franz Kraus, in 1895, wrote a short essay on glacières in _Höhlenkunde_. He seems to have seen but few glacières himself, and considers the scientific side of the question by no means solved as yet. He says: "The last word will not be spoken by the geographers and the Alpine climbers * * * but by the physicists, in whose field both questions really belong. Only then, when the physical circumstances of the formation of the ice in glacières have been so thoroughly understood, that under the same circumstances it may be possible to build artificial glacières, only then could one say: the glacière question is definitely settled. The best proof is always experiment."
He lays down several dicta which he says are universally recognized, among which is this: "2. The ice formations in the débris heaps of basaltic mountains are summer ice formations. The evaporation of the infiltration water is recognized on all sides as the cause of this ice." I differ in opinion from Herr Kraus about this matter, and think that, on the contrary, every proof shows that the ice of basaltic taluses is not a summer formation and is not due to evaporation.
Herr Kraus also says: "The _Eishöhlen_ resemble so little the _Windröhren_, that for these a proper name is quite correct. Just as one cannot draw a sharp line between _Einstürzschlünden_ and _Einstürzdolinen_, so one cannot draw a sharp line between _eishöhlen_ and _windröhren_. A stagnation of cave air does not exist, and no cave student would pretend to say it existed. The circulation of air may in certain caves take place almost entirely through the mouth and it then depends largely on the shape of the latter; in other caves are crevices and erosion holes, which allow a circulation of air. Again in other caves air may come through the floor into the cave, as is proved by certain places always remaining free from ice."
He also says: "The formation of dripstone is also diminished about thick roofs, when the cracks are too broad to permit a slow dripping process. In caves with sufficient air movements, that is ventilation, the dripstone formation takes place faster than in those in which the air is only slowly renewed. Also in such caves, in which the air is strongly filled with moisture, the dripstone formation process is materially hindered. Therefore in water caves and in _eishöhlen_ one finds only rarely dripstone formations, and these mainly of poor appearance. But in all cases the carbonic acid of the infiltration water plays an important part."
In 1896, a Western newspaper published the following explanation about the presence of ice in the cave at Elkinsville, Indiana; and it shows how the idea--long since exploded--of the ice being due to chemical causes, serenely bobs up on the discovery of a new cave: "Some have advanced the theory that the air is forced through under passages of the earth with such pressure as to make the strange formation; some have attributed the cause to an underlying bed of alkali, whose chemical change to a gaseous form has produced the phenomenon. Others have thought that the interior heat of the earth, acting upon the iron pyrites, or fool's gold, which largely abounds in this country, is the true source of this unparalleled discovery. Still others think that the sudden expansion of the carbonic acid gas given off by the heated limestone, which is also common in this country, could have easily produced the ice. But thus far the theories are nothing more than speculation, and further than the fact that the ice cave exists, and is, indeed, a remarkable phenomenon, none has been able to further determine."
In 1896, Dr. A. Cvijic wrote that the cold air of winter is the source of cold in the glacières of Servia. The mountains have so little water that the shepherds constantly take the ice out in summer for their own use.
In 1897, numerous newspapers, among others, the _Philadelphia Press_ of August 1st, romanced as follows about the cave at Decorah: "In the summer its temperature is far below freezing. * * * From some unknown source in the impenetrable rear of the cave comes a blast of cold air as chill as from the Arctic region. In the winter the temperature of the cave is like summer. * * * We followed the winding passage in and out for more than 1000 feet. * * * I took out the thermometer and laid it upon the floor of the cavern for three minutes. When I took it up again I found that the mercury had fallen to 5 degrees below zero."
"What is it that causes this phenomenon? Scientific men are said to have visited the cave within the last day or two who have declared that it had in some manner a subterranean connection with the polar regions, and that the cold air from the North coming in contact with the warm moist atmosphere from outside converted the vapor into water on the walls of the cavern where it straightway congealed. * * * It seems to me possible after thinking the matter over carefully, that in some mysterious manner the same influences that work the changes in climate in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are operating in this cave. It is a well-known fact that in the regions referred to the seasons are the reverse of what they are here."
Mr. W. S. Auchincloss writes in 1897: "We also notice the working of the same principle during summer days. The hottest part does not occur at the noon hour--when the sun is on the meridian--but several hours later in the afternoon. In this case the accessions of heat arrive more rapidly than radiation is able to carry off. Radiation, however, keeps on apace, and, at last attaining the mastery, temperature falls. Ice caves furnish another example of the gradual procession in the seasons."
Mr. Alois F. Kovarik writes about Decorah in 1898 that "the length of duration of the ice in the cave during the spring and summer depends upon the quantity of cold stored up in the walls and this again upon the coldness and the length of coldness of the previous winter. If the winter be severe and long, the walls will store up a great supply of cold for the gradual dissipation in the spring and summer and consequently the phenomenon of the ice in the ice chambers will last longer. Last winter, with an exception of the fore part of December, was quite mild. As a result, the ice began to disappear with the latter part of June, and totally disappeared by the end of July. * * * The time of the lowest temperature in the cave depends upon how soon the cold spells of the winter begin; for the sooner the walls begin to freeze to a greater depth, the sooner have they stored up the greatest amount of cold. * * * February 28th, 1898, when the walls contained the greatest amount of cold, there was no ice in the cave, for the reason that no water made appearance. Could water have appeared, no doubt a great amount of ice would have formed; but as the conditions are, the water has to come from the ground outside, and this being frozen at the time, water could not in any natural way appear. If in early spring, sufficiently warm days should come to melt the snow and open the ground, the water not taken up by the ground would flow and seep through crevices into the cave and ice consequently would appear early. Somewhat such conditions prevailed this year, for warm days appeared quite early in the spring. If _per contra_ the ground does not open until in April, as was the case in 1895 and 1896, the appearance of the ice is consequently delayed. * * * Naturally this opening [the entrance] was small, but to give easier entrance, it was enlarged to its present size. * * * If the entrance had been left a small opening, as it naturally was, it is my belief that the temperature of the interior of the cave would be lower in summer than it is, and the ice would not disappear as soon as it does."
Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, Cal., investigated the question of cold air draughts coming from the glacière cave and from the freezing shaft he examined in Montana. He wrote to me, in 1898, that he found that one notices or imagines to notice a draught of air, especially on hot days. Rapidly walking into the cave from the hot air without to the rapidly cooling air within produces the same nervous sensations as though one were to remain stationary and the air were to pass by from the warm to the colder portions. A distance of twelve meters finds a difference in temperature of fifteen degrees Centigrade. Twelve meters can be walked quickly, so quickly that the nerves cannot become accustomed gradually to the change of temperature. The rapidly cooling air does actually produce the sensation of cool air passing by one's face. It produces somewhat the same sensation as the evaporation of ether on the surface of the body. Mr. Butler satisfied himself that as far as he had observed all the seemingly peculiar conditions and places where the ice has been found do not indicate any other causes when carefully investigated than those of the seasons of the year, and that the ice was formed by no other cause than the natural cold of winter.
Professor Cranmer, in 1899, added some important contributions to our knowledge of freezing caverns. All his work goes to prove the winter's cold theory, but he has brought out some new details. He found warm and cold periods in the Tablerloch during the winter months. The coldest air sank to the bottom and the air in the cave stratified itself according to its specific gravity and its temperature. During a cold period, the outside air sank into the cave only to the air stratum, whose temperature, from the preceding warm period, was as much higher as that of the outer air, as this had become warmer in sinking to that stratum. The air which enters falls down the slope and displaces an equal volume of air which streams out under the roof.
Water will sometimes drip through a crack in winter until that crack freezes up, when the water may then find some other crack to drip through; at this second place a stalagmite may then grow, while at the first place the stalagmite may stop growing and even begin to diminish from evaporation.
Ice begins to form, whenever water gets into a cave, if the cave temperature is below 0°; ice begins to melt as soon as the temperature is over 0°.
Professor Cranmer found that occasionally small quantities of ice form in caves in the summer months: this was in mountain caves, where there was snow on the mountains and the temperature of the nights at least, had sunk below freezing point: in fact when the conditions were those of the winter months.
## PART V.
LIST OF AUTHORS.
LIST OF AUTHORS.[75]
[75] This list of authors includes all the authorities which I have personally consulted. Several papers, such as Dr. Schwalbe's "_Uebersichtliche Zusammenstellung Literarischer Notizen ueber Eishöhlen_" and the works of Dr. Listoff, I have been unable to find in any library.
Allen, Levi. _Scientific American, New Series_, October 27th, 1883, page 259.
_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184.
Auchincloss, W. S., C. E. _Waters within the Earth and the Laws of Rainflow_, Philadelphia, 1897.
Badin, Adolphe. _Grottes et Cavernes_, Paris, Hachette, 1867.
Baedeker, Karl. _Handbook of Austria._ _Handbook of the Eastern Alps._ _Handbook of South Eastern France._ _Handbook of Switzerland._ _Handbook of the United States._
Baker, M. S. _The Lava Region of Northern California: Sierra Club Bulletin_, San Francisco, Cal., 1899, vol. II., page 318.
Balch, Edwin Swift. _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice_: Allen, Lane & Scott, Philadelphia, November, 1896, and _The Journal of the Franklin Institute_, Philadelphia, March, 1897, vol. CXLIII., pages 161-178. _Ice Cave Hunting in Central Europe: Appalachia_, Boston, 1897, vol. VIII., pages 203-209. _Subterranean Ice Deposits in America: Journal of the Franklin Institute_, Philadelphia, April, 1899, vol. CXLVII., pages 286-297.
Baltzer, Dr. A. _Eine Neue Eishöhle im Berner Oberland: Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen Club_, Bern, 1892-1893, pages 358-362.
Behrens, Dr. Georg Henning. _Hercynia Curiosa_, Nordhausen, 1703.
Bel, Matthias. _Philosophical Transactions_, London, 1739, vol. XLI., page 41 _et seq._
Benedict, Aiden S. _Decorah Republican_, June 19th, 1881.
Berthoud, Edward L. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, Third Series, 1876, vol. XI., page 108.
Bielz, E. Albert. _Siebenbürgen, Handbuch_, Carl Graeser, Wien, 1885.
Billerez, Mons. de. _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, 1712, page 22 _et seq._
Bonney, T. G. _The Alpine Regions, 1868._ _Nature_, vol. XI., pages 310, 327, 328.
Boué, Dr. Ami. _La Turquie d'Europe_, Paris, 1840, vol. I., page 132. _Sitzungsbericht der K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien_, 1864, I. Theil, page 321 _et seq._
Boz, Mons. de, Ingénieur du Roy. _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, 1726, pages 16, 17.
Browne, The Reverend G. F. _Ice Caves in France and Switzerland_, London, Longmans, 1865. _Ice Caves of Annecy: Good Words_, Edinburgh, November, 1866.
_Bulletin, The Evening_, Philadelphia, March 1st, 1899.
Burslem, Captain Rollo. _A Peep into Toorkisthan_, 1846.
C. B. A. _Scientific American_, May 3d, 1879.
Cantwell, Lieutenant J. C. _Ice Cliffs on the Kowak River: National Geographic Magazine_, October, 1896.
Carrel, Chanoine G. _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1841, vol. XXXIV., page 196.
_Christian Herald_, March 24th, 1897.
Colladon. His manuscript notes were used by J. A. Deluc in _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, Paris, 1822, vol. XXI., page 113 _et seq._
Cossigny, Mons. de, Ingénieur en chef de Besançon. _Mémoires de Mathématique et de physique présentés à l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, 1750, vol. I., page 195 _et seq._
Cranmer, Professor Hans. _Eishöhlen und Windröhren Studien: Abhandlungen der K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, vol. I., 1899.
Cranmer, Professor Hans, and Sieger, Professor Dr. Rob. _Untersuchungen in den Oetscherhöhlen: Globus_, 1899, vol. LXXV., pages 313-318, and 333-335.
Cvijic, Dr. A. _Les Glacières Naturelles de Serbie: Spélunca, Bulletin de la Société de Spéléologie_, 2^{me} Année, Paris, 1896, pages 64-77.
Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd. _Cave Hunting_, London, Macmillan, 1874.
DeLuc, Jean André, Neveu. _Des Glacières Naturelles et de la cause qui forme la glace dans ces cavités_, Genève 12 October, 1822: _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, Paris, 1822, vol. XXI., page 113 _et seq._
Dent, R. K., and Hill, Joseph. _Historic Staffordshire_, Birmingham, 1896.
Dewey. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1819, vol. I., page 340, and 1822, vol. V., page 398.
_Dispatch_: Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897.
Dittmar, C. v. _Ueber die Eismülden im Östlichen Sibirien: Bulletin de la classe Physico-mathématique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg_, 1853, Tome XI., pages 305-312.
Drioton, Clément. _Les Cavernes de la Côte d'Or: Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, Paris, 1897, vol. I., page 209.
Dufour, Lieutenant-Colonel. _Notice sur la caverne et glacière naturelle du Rothhorn: Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1822, vol. XXI., page 113 _et seq._
Dufour, L. _Ueber das Gefrieren des Wassers und über die Bildung des Hagels: Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1861, vol. CXIV., pages 530-554.
Dunant, C. _Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz: Annuaire du Club Alpin Français_, 2^{me} vol., Paris, 1875.
Fugger, Professor Eberhard. _Über Eishöhlen: Petermann's Mittheilungen_, vol. XXIX., 1883, pages 12-19. _Beobachtungen in den Eishöhlen des Untersberges_, Salzburg, 1888. _Eishöhlen und Windröhen_, Salzburg, 1891, 1892, 1893. _Eishöhlen und Windröhren: Mittheilungen der K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft_, Vienna, 1894, pages 97-134.
_Géographie, La: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_, Paris, 1900, vol. I., pages 52-54.
Georgi, John Gottl. _Bemerkungen einer Reise im Russischen Reich_, Saint Petersburg, 1775, vol. I., page 369.
Gibbs, G. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1853, Second Series, vol. XV., page 146.
Girardot, Albert. _Les dernières observations du Capitaine L. Trouillet à la glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant: Mémoires de la Société d'Émulation du Doubs_, 1886.
Girod-Chantrans, Le Citoyen. _Journal des Mines_, Prairial, An. IV., pages 65-72.
Gollut, Lois. _Les Mémoires Historiques de la Repub. Sequanoise_, Dôle, 1592.
Guimard, Paul. _Voyage en Islande et au Gröenland exécuté pendant les années 1835 et 1836_, Paris, 1838.
Guyot, Professor Arnold. _Well's Annual of Scientific Discovery_, 1856, page 190.
Hablizl. _Description physique de la contrée de la Tauride_, La Haye, 1788, pages 35-43.
Hacquet. _Oryctographia Carniolica_, Leipzig, 1778.
Hager, Albert D. _Hitchcock's Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 198 _et seq._
Hann, Hochstetter and Pokorny. _Allgemeine Erdkunde_, 1887, pages 435, 436.
Hayden, C. B. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1843, vol. XLV., page 78.
Heilprin, Professor Angelo. _Ice Caves and Ice Gorges: Around the World_, Philadelphia, 1894, pages 194, 195.
Henderson, Ebenezer. _Iceland, or a Journal of a Residence in that Island_, Edinburgh, 1819, 2d Edition, page 420.
Hitchcock, Professor Edward. _Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I.
_Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, 1686, Tome II., pages 2, 3, 22: published in Paris in 1733.
Hovey, The Reverend Horace Carter. _Celebrated American Caverns_, Cincinnati, Robert Clarke, 1882.
Humboldt, Alexander von. _Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions_, London, 1814, vol. I., pages 154-156.
_Ice Trade Journal_, Philadelphia, July, 1897.
_Into the Schafloch: Temple Bar_, London, November, 1861, vol. III., pages 393-401.
Jackson. _Report of the Geology of Maine_, 1839, vol. III.
Jars. _Voyages Métallurgiques_, 1774, vol. I., page 108.
Jarz, Konrad. _Die Eishöhlen bei Frain in Mähren: Petermann's Mittheilungen_, 1882, pages 170-176.
Jungk, C. G. _Ueber Temperaturerniedrigung bei der Absorption des Wassers durch feste Körper: Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1865, vol. CXXIV., pages 292-308.
Kircher, Athanasius. _Mundus Subterraneus_, 1664.
Kirchhoff, Theodore. _Reisebilder und Skizzen aus America_, 1876, vol. II., page 211.
Körber, H. _Das Schafloch: Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen Club_, Bern, 1885, vol. XX., pages 316-343.
Kotzebue, Otto von. _A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Bering's Strait in the years 1815-1818_, London, 1821, vol. I., page 220.
Kovarik, Alois F. _The Decorah Ice Cave and its Explanation: Scientific American Supplement_, No. 1195, November 26, 1898, pages 19158, 19159. _Ice Cave Observations: Decorah Public Opinion_, September 20th, 1899.
Kraus, Franz. _Höhlenkunde_, Wien, 1894.
Krenner, Dr. Jos. Alex. _Die Eishöhle von Dobschau_, Budapest, 1874.
Lathrop, Dr. S. Pearl. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1844, vol. XLVI., page 331.
Lee, C. A. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1824, vol. VIII., page 254.
Lepechin, Dr. Iwan. _Tagebuch der Reise durch verschiedenen Provinzen des Russischen Reiches in den Jahren 1768, 1769_, Altenburg, 1774.
Lohmann, Hans. _Das Höhleneis unter besonderer Berücksichtigung einiger Eishöhlen des Erzgebirges_, Jena, 1895.
Loomis, Professor Elias. _Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, New Series_, 1860, vol. XII., page 283.
Lowe, N. M. _Paradoxical Phenomena in Ice Caves: Science Observer_, vol. II., pages 57, 58, Boston, 1879.
Lowe, W. Besant. _La Glacière Naturelle de Dobschau: La Nature_, 2d August, 1879.
Lyell, Sir Charles. _Principles of Geology_, 11th Edition, New York, Appleton & Co., 1877.
M. L. E. _Decorah Republican_, June 10th, 1879.
Macomber, D. O. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184.
Marbach, Dr. Oswald. _Höhlen: Physikalisches Lexicon_, vol. III., pages 836-842.
Marinitsch, J. _La Kacna Jama: Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, April, 1896, vol. I., page 83 _et seq._
Martel, Edouard Alfred. _Les Abimes_, Paris, Charles Delagrave, 1894. _Sous Terre: Annuaire du Club Alpin Français_, vol. XXIII., 1896, pages 42, 43. Reviews in French of _Ice Caves and the Causes, etc._, and _Ice Cave Hunting, etc._, by E. S. Balch: _Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, Paris, vol. I., December, 1897, pages 349-352. _10me Campagne Souterraine: Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, vol. III., 1899, pages 246-254.
Meehan, W. E. _Philadelphia Ledger_, 1896.
Meissner, Franz. _Ueber die beim Benetzen pulverförmiger Körper auftretende Wärmetonung: Wiedemann's Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1886, vol. XXIX., pages 114-131.
Ménégaux. _La Glacière Naturelle de la Grâce-Dieu ou de Chaux-les-Passavant: Illustration_, Paris, 30th January, 1897.
Mercer, Henry Chapman. _The Hill Caves of Yucatan_, Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott, 1896.
Middendorff, Dr. A. Th. von. _Zusatz: Bulletin de la classe physico-mathématique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg_, 1853, Tome XI., pages 312-316.
Montpeyreux, Dubois de. _Voyage autour du Caucase_, 1843.
Morin, Auguste. Quoted by Thury in _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1861, vol. X., page 150.
Mousson, A. _Einige Thatsachen betreffend das Schmelzen und Gefrieren des Wassers: Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1858, vol. CV., pages 161-174.
Munro, J., C. E. _Jack Frost as an Artist: Cassell's Family Magazine_, February, 1895, pages 228-231.
Murchison, Vernieul and Keyserling. _The Geology of Russia and the Ural Mountains_, 1845, vol. I., pages 186-198.
Nagel, J. N. His manuscript was published in 1857 by Schmidl in _Die Höhlen des Ötscher_, pages 36-39.
_Nature's Ice Caves: Chambers' Edinburgh Journal_, New Series, 1850, vol. XII., page 169.
Nicholson. _Journal of Natural Philosophy_, 1797, vol. I., page 229 _et seq._
Niessl, G. _Verhandlungen des Naturforschenden Verein in Brünn_, 1867, vol. VI., page 62.
Olafsen, Eggert and Povelsen, Biarne. _Voyage en Islande; traduit du Danois par Gautier de Lapeyronie_, Paris, 1802.
Olmstaed, Professor D. _Well's Annual of Scientific Discovery_, 1856, page 190.
Owen, Luella Agnes. _Cave Regions of the Ozarks and Black Hills_, Cincinnati, The Editor Publishing Company, 1898.
Parrot, Georg Friederich. _Grundriss der Physik der Erde und Geologie_, Riga and Leipzig, 1815, pages 92-99.
Pelech, Dr. Johann E. _The Valley of Stracena and the Dobschau Ice Cavern_; translated by W. Bezant Lowe; London, Trübner & Co., 1879.
Peters, Karl F. _Geologische und Mineralogische Studien aus dem Südöstlichen Ungarn: Sitzungsbericht der K. K. Akademie der Wissenchaften_, Vienna, vol. XLIII., 1861, pages 435-437.
Petruzzi, Professor. In _Berichte Über die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften in Wien_; collected and published by Wilhelm Haidinger, vol. VII., Vienna, December, 1857.
Pictet, Professor M. A. _Mémoires de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève_, 1821, vol. I., page 151. _Mémoire sur les glacières naturelles du Jura et des Alpes: Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1822, vol. XX., page 261 _et seq._
Pleischl, Professor A. _Über das Eis im Sommer Zwischen den Basalttrümmern bei Kameik in Böhmen: Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1841, vol. LIV., pages 292-299.
Poggendorff, J. C. _Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Ergänzungsband_, 1842, pages 517-519; and 1850, vol. LXXXI., page 579 _et seq._
Poissenot, Benigne. _Nouvelles Histoires Tragiques_, Paris, 1586.
Posselt-Csorich, A. _Zeitschrift des Deutschen und Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880.
_Post-Dispatch_, St. Louis, July 13th and September 5th, 1897.
_Press, The_, Philadelphia, August 1st, 1897.
Prestwich, Joseph. _On Underground Temperatures: Proceedings Royal Society_, 1885. Reprinted in _Collected papers on some controverted questions of Geology_, London, Macmillan, 1885.
Prévost, Professor Pierre. _Journal de Genève_, No. 11, 21st March, 1789. _Recherches physico-mécaniques sur la châleur Solaire_, Genève, 1792, page 206.
_Public Ledger, The_, Philadelphia, July 6th, 1896; and September 25th, 1899.
Raymond, R. W. _The Ice Caves of Washington Territory: Overland Monthly_, 1869, vol. III., page 421.
Reich, F. _Beobachtungen über die Temperatur des Gesteines_, Freiberg, 1834, pages 175-205.
Ritchie, John, Jr. _Editorial: Science Observer_, Boston, 1879, vol. II., pages 60-64. _Ice Caves: Boston Transcript_, January 2d, 1897. _Talks in Science Fields: The Happy Thought_, Boston, January 23d, 1897, page 10.
Rogers, Professor W. B. _Well's Annual of Scientific Discovery_, 1856, page 190.
Romain-Joly, Fr. Joseph, Capucin. _La Franche-Comté, Lettres à Mlle. d'Udressier_, Paris, 1779, pages 32, 33.
Rosenmüller, Dr., and Tilesius, Dr. _Beschreibung Merkwürdiger Höhlen_, Leipzig, 1799.
Rozet. _Encyclopédie Moderne_, Didot frères, Paris, 1858, Tome XVI., page 502.
Russell, Professor Israel Cook. _A Journey up the Yukon River: Bulletin American Geographical Society_, vol. XXVII., No. 2, page 149. _Second expedition to Mount Saint Elias: Thirteenth Annual Report United States Geological Survey_, 1891-92, page 19. _Glaciers of North America_, Boston, Ginn & Co., 1897.
Sartori, Dr. Franz. _Naturwunder des Oesterreichischen Kaiserthums_, Vienna, 1809. _Neueste Reise durch Oesterreich_, Leipzig, 1812.
Saussure, Horace Bénédict de. _Voyages dans les Alpes_, 1796, Tome III., sections 1404-1416.
Schmidl, Professor Dr. Adolf. _Die Grotten und Höhlen von Adelsberg, Lueg, Planina und Laas_, Vienna, 1854. _Die Höhlen des Ötscher_, Vienna, 1857. _Die Oesterreichischen Höhlen_, Pest, 1858.
Schwalbe, Professor Dr. B. _Über Eishöhlen und abnorme Eisbildungen: Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, 1881, pages 146-163. _Über Eishöhlen und Eislöcher_, Berlin, Gaertner's Buchhandlung, 1886.
_Scientific American_, New Series, vol. III., July, 1860, page 51; vol. XVIII., January, 1868, page 3; vol. XXVII., October, 1872, page 248.
Scott, Robert H., M. A., F. R. S. _Elementary Meteorology_, Third Edition, London, Kegan Paul, French & Co., 1885.
Scrope, G. Poulett. _Edinburgh Journal of Science_, 1826, vol. V., page 154. _Memoir of the Geology of Central France_, London, 1827. _The Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central France_, London, 1858.
Sieger, Professor Dr. Rob. See Cranmer.
Silliman, Benjamin. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., pages 174 and 177; and 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 185.
Smyth, C. Piazzi. _Teneriffe, An Astronomer's Experiment_, 1858.
_Spéléologie, Mémoires de la Société de_, Paris, vols. I., II., III. Beginning in 1897.
_Spélunca, Bulletin de la Société de Spéléologie_, Paris. Beginning with January, 1895.
Strachey, General Sir Richard. _Narrative of a Journey to the Lakes Rakas-tal and Manasorowar, in Western Tibet, undertaken in September, 1848: Geographical Journal_, London, 1900, vol. XV., page 168.
_Telegraph, The Evening_, Philadelphia, January 2d, 1896, and January 20th, 1897.
Terlanday, Professor Emil. _Meine Erfahrungen in der Eishöhle von Szilize: Petermann's Mittheilungen_, 1893, page 283. _Sommereisbildung in der Eishöhle von Szilize: Petermann's Mittheilungen_, 1896, page 217.
Thomä, Dr. C. _Das Unterirdische Eisfeld bei der Dornburg_, Wiesbaden, 1841.
Thury, Héricart de. _Journal des Mines_, vol. XXXIII., page 157. _The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_, vol. II., page 80.
Thury, Professor. _Études sur les Glacières Naturelles: Bibliothèque Universelle, Archives des Sciences physiques de Genève_, 1861, vol. X., pages 97-153.
_Times, The_, Philadelphia, November 18th, 1896.
Townson, Robert, LL. D. _Travels in Hungary_, 1797, pages 317-321.
Trouillet, Capitaine. _La Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant: Mémoires de la Société d'Émulation du Doubs_, Besançon, 1885.
Umlauft, Professor Dr. Friedrich. _Die Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie_, Wien, Pest, Leipzig, 1883.
Valvasor, Johann Weichard, Freiherrn. _Die Ehre des Herzogthumes Crain_, Laybach, 1689.
Villard, L. _Grottes du Vercors: Spélunca_, 1896, vol. II., page 39.
Voigt, Joh. Carl Wilhelm. _Mineralogische Reisen durch das Herzogthum Weimar_, Weimar, 1785, vol. II., page 123.
Ward, J. Clifford. _Nature_, vol. XI., page 310.
White, Dr. C. A. _Geological Reports of the State of Iowa_, Des Moines, 1870, vol. I., page 80.
Whymper, Edward. _Scrambles Amongst the Alps_, London, John Murray, 1871.
Winchel, Alexander. _Walks and Talks in the Geological Field_, The Chautauqua Century Press, 1898.
Wise, T. A. _Ice Making in the Tropics: Nature_, Macmillan, London and New York, 1872, vol. V., pages 189-190.
INDEX.
INDEX.
PAGE
Adirondack guides, Opinions of, 81 Alaska, Subsoil ice in, 166, 167 Allmen, Emil von, guide, 21 Altitude of glacières, 150 Amarnath, Cave of, 262 Apparently static caves, 122 Arizona, Glacières in, 175, 176 Auchincloss, Mr. W. S., 307 Auersperg, Prince, 52 Ausable Pond, Freezing talus at, 79
Balch, Mrs. Geo. B., 189 Balch Pass, The, 263 Bargy, Mont, 71 Basins, Ice, 20, 130 Behrens, 270 Beilstein, Caves on the, 234 Bel, Matthias, 254, 271 Benedict, Mr. A. S., 293 Benner, Mr., 90 Berthoule, Mons., 206 Besançon, 8 Billerez, Mons. de, 270 Bonney, Professor T. G., 216, 222, 291 Boston Natural History Society, 138, 182 Boué, Dr. A., 242 Boulder heaps, 116 Boz, Mons. de, 270 Brandon, Freezing well of, 77, 182, 283, 284 Brinckerhoff, Mr. F. H., 177 Briot, Mons., 204 Brisons, Glacière de, 2 Browne, The Rev. G. F., 133, 213, 215, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 288 _Bulletin, The Evening_, 253 Buried glaciers, 165 Burslem, Captain, 261 Butler, Mr. R., 171, 172, 308
California, Glacières in, 170, 171 Canfield, Mr. N. M., 76 Capillary or Compressed Air Theory, 142 Carbonic acid gas, 133 Carrel, Chanoine, 212 Caucasus, Glacières in the, 257 Cesi, Don Giuseppe, 209 Chapuis, Glacière de, 5, 216 Chatham, Mr. I. C., 94 Chaux-les-Passavant, Glacière de, 8, 193 Chemical causes theory, 140 Cliff caves, 6, 18, 22, 27, 40, 70, 76, 120 Clothes for glacière exploration, 53 Cold caves, 117 Colladon, Mons, 278 Color effects, 131 Colorado, Glacières in, 174, 175 Cossigny, Mons. de, 202, 271 Cotterlaz, S. J., guide, 71 Coxe, Miss Mary, 262 Cranmer, Professor H., 232, 234, 235, 309 Creux-de-Souci, Le, 206 Crevasses, 4 Crimea, Glacières in the, 256 Cushing, Mr. F. H., 176 Cvijic, Dr. A., 243, 305
Dante, 135 Daubuisson, 248 Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd, 292 Decorah, Freezing cave of, 88, 177 Decorah, Freezing well of, 89 Deluc, Mons. J. A., 277 Démenyfálva Jegbarlang, 24 Dewey, Mr., 183, 277 Dimensions of glacières, 120 Dittmar, Mons. de, 260 Dóbsina Jegbarlang, 13, 252 Dóbsina, Village of, 13 Dornburg, Freezing talus at the, 59, 247 Dornburg, Freezing cellar at the, 60 Draughts, 8, 45, 47, 58, 80 Dripstone formations in glacières, 24, 30, 57, 63, 67, 304 Duc de Lévy, 202 Dunant, Mons. C., 215, 216 Dutoit, Professor, 221
Eastern Alps, Glacières in the, 224-236 Eastern United States, Glacières in the, 180-189 Eger, Dr. W., 262 Ehrlicher, Mr., 86 Eisenerz, 37 Elkinsville, Glacière at, 180, 305 Ellenville, Freezing gorge at, 91, 185 Émery, Aymon, guide, 62, 65 Enfer, Glacière de l', 215 England, Glacières in, 192, 193 Entrances of glacières, 121 Eschholz, Dr., 167 Evaporation, 156, 275, 287, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304
Farrandsville, Cave at, 93 Farnum, Mr. G. L., 266 Farnum, Mr. J. E., 266 Fauna of glacières, 133, 207, 214, 216, 219, 246 Fee Glacier, Ice Cave in, 68 Flora of glacières, 80, 83, 85, 91, 134, 188, 222, 237, 240 Fondurle, Glacière de, 213 Forms of Ice, 126 Frainer Eisleithen, The, 33, 251 France, Glacières in, 193-208, 213-218 Frauenmauerhöhle, The, 37 Freezing mines and tunnels, 117 Freezing wells, 74, 77, 89, 117, 206 Friedrichsteinerhöhle, 51 Fugger, Professor E., 224, 226, 227, 228, 237, 249, 251, 294
Genollière, Glacière de la, 48, 219 Geographical distribution of glacières, 149 Germany, Glacières in, 246-250 Giant of the Valley, Talus of the, 81 Girardot, Mons. A., 204 Girod-Chantrans, Le citoyen, 272 Glacial period theory, The, 136 Glacière, Advantage of term, 110 Glacière caves, 118 Glaciers, 145 Gollut, Lois, 202, 269 Gorges and troughs, 146, 260 Great Barrington, Icy gulf near, 99 Gruber, J., guide, 18 Gsoll-Alp, 38 Guyot, Professor A., 281
Hablizl, 272 Hacquet, 271 Hager, Mr. A. D., 182, 282 Hall, Mr. W. Coleman, 187 Hart, Mr. B., 76 Hartenstein, Professor, 249 Haut-d'Aviernoz, Glacière de l', 2, 215 Hayden, Professor C. B., 280 Heilprin, Professor A., 93, 185 Herschel, Sir John, 141 Hitchcock, Professor E., 284 Hoar frost, 16, 30, 129 Holes in ice, 4, 42, 64, 130 Hollow ice stalagmites, 23, 127, 287, 290 Holschuh, Mr. F., 188 Hovey, The Rev. H. C., 186 Howell, Mr. E. I. H., 80, 83 Humboldt, Alexander von, 276
Ice floors, 4, 7, 11, 15, 19, 22, 30, 42, 54, 64, 72 Ice formed by radiation, 263-266 Iceland, Glacières in, 190, 191 Ice near entrance of caves, 152 Ice sheets, Subterranean, 115 Ice slabs on floor, 20 Ice slopes, 4, 17, 19, 23, 52, 67 Ice Spring, Oregon, The, 169 Ice stalactites and stalagmites, 3, 7, 12, 23, 30, 42, 73, 127 Italy, Glacières in, 208-213
Japan, Glacière in, 266 Jayne, Mrs. Horace, 189 Joly, Capucin Romain, 272
Karst, Glacières in the, 236-242 King's Ravine, Subterranean ice in, 1 Kirchhoff, Mr. T., 292 Klenka, S., guide, 51 Kolowratshöhle, The, 18, 226 Körber, Herr B., 222, 294 Korea, Glacière in, 266 Kovarik, Mr. A. F., 89, 178, 180, 307 Krain, Glacières in the, 236-242 Krauss, Regierungsrath F., 303 Krenner, Dr., 292
Lakes, Subterranean, 7, 43 Lamb, Mr. C., guide, 81 Lathrop, Mr. S. P., 280 Lava caves, Washington, 168 Learned, Mr., 86 Lee, Mr. C. A., 278 Legends about glacières, 135, 216 Lepechin, 258 Lerchenfeld, Freiherr von, 227 Lewis, Miss J. F., 93 Lewis, Mr. J. F., 129 Liptós Szt Miklós, 24 Lohmann, Dr. H., 302 Lowe, Mr. C. E., Jr., 83 Lowe, Mr. C. E., Sr., 1, 85 Lowe, Mr. N. M., 142, 292 Luce, Mr. C. O., 78 Lyell, Sir Charles, 116, 210
Manchester, Marble freezing cave at, 76 Marinitsch, Herr J., 236 Martel, Mons. E. A., 205, 207, 208, 214, 221, 300 McCabe, Mr. E., 94 Meehan, Mr. W. E., 165 Mercer, Mr. H. C., 143, 187 Metric system, 3 Mist in caves, 18, 55 Misura, F., forester, 27 Montana, Glacières in, 171-173 Montarquis, Grand Cave de, 70, 217, 286 Montarquis, Petite Cave de, 71 Moonlight effects, 24, 33, 132 Morin, Mons., 218 Motion in subterranean ice, 131 Movements of air, 122, 156 Murchison, Sir R. I., 141
Nagel, J. N., 271 Naye, Glacière de, 221 Nicholson, Mr. C. J., 95 Niles, Mr., 81 Nixloch, The, 57, 226
Oetscher, The Seelücken on the, 231 Olmstaed, Professor D., 282 Otis, Mr., 81 Oudot, Dr., 272 Owego, Freezing well of, 74, 186
Paleontological remains, 134 Parmelan, Mont, 3, 5 Parrot, G. F., 125 Peasants, Opinions of, 33, 70, 139 Pelech, Dr. J. E., 252 Periods in glacières, Open and closed, 297 Peters, K. F., 246 Petruzzi, Professor, 241, 282 Phillips, Mr. G. B., 185 Pictet, Professor M. A., 277 Pit caves, 2, 3, 10, 48, 52, 63, 66, 119 Pleischl, Professor A., 250, 279 Poissenot, Benigne, 193, 269 Poprád, 13 Pralong du Reposoir, 70 _Press, The Philadelphia_, 306 Preston, Mr., 74 Prestwich, Mr., 248 Prévost, Professor P., 273 Prismatic ice, 64, 67, 129, 287, 289, 303 _Public Ledger, The_, 169
Randolph, The Ice Gulch,, 83 Raymond, Mr. W. R., 291 Reich, F., 279 Religious feeling about ice, 135, 176, 262 Ritchie, Mr. John, Jr., 76, 83, 85, 143, 181, 292 Rogers, Professor W. B., 281 Roth, Eishöhle bei, 35 Rudolf II., Kaiser, 232 Ruffiny, Herr E., 252 Rumney, Freezing talus at, 85 Russell, Professor I. C., 166, 299
Saint-Georges, Glacière de, 62, 219, 285 Saint-Georges, Village of, 62 Saint-Livres, Glacière de, 65 Saint-Livres, Pré de, 66 Sakharov, Dr. A., 257 Samuel, Mr. B., 192, 209, 264 Sartori, Dr. F., 276 Satter, Professor H., 241 Saussure, H. B. de, 209, 274 Scandinavia, Glacières in, 191 Schafloch, The, 21, 222 Schallenberger, C., 232, 269 Schellenberger Eisgrotte, The, 227 Schwalbe, Dr. B., 241, 253, 298 Scott, Professor W. B., 176 Scrope, Mr. G. P., 278 Seelisberg, The Milchhaüser of, 45 Selby-Hill, Mr. W. D., 88 Servia, Glacières in, 242-245 Skerizora, Cave of, 245 Skinner's Cave, 76 Siberia, Glacières in, 259-261 Sieger, Professor, 232 Silliman, Professor, 279 Sirar, J., guide, 56 Snow, Subterranean, 16, 129, 206, 247 South America, Subsoil ice in, 189, 190 Spruce Creek, Freezing talus at, 90, 188 Stockbridge, Icy glen near, 75 Strachey, Gen. Sir R., 263 Strein, R., 232, 269 Suchenreuther Eisloch, The, 55 Summer's heat theory, The, 138 Summit, Glacières near, 95 Switzerland, Glacières in, 219-223 Szilize, Cave of, 253
Tablerloch, The, 233 Taluses, 79, 81, 85, 90, 100, 116 Temperatures, Subterranean, 112 Teneriffe, Glacière on the Peak of, 190 Terlanday, Dr., 301 Terminology, 109 Thermometric observations, 151, 178, 219, 227, 228, 233, 237, 252, 253 Thury, Professor, 122, 139, 213, 217, 219, 220, 285 Time of formation of ice, 159 Townson, R., 275 Trouillet, Captain, 202, 297 Turrian, A. A., gendarme, 48
Umlauft, Professor F., 293 Ural, Glacières in the, 257-259
Valvasor, Freiherr, 238, 240, 270 Villard, Mons. L., 133, 214 Viré, Mons. A., 134
Wachtl, Forester, 252 Wagner, Mr. W. W., 173 Wallingford, The ice beds of, 99 Watertown, Cave at, 87 Watertown, Windholes at, 86 Waves of heat and cold, Theory of, 141 White, Dr. C. A., 291 Williams, Mr. W. F., 101 Williamstown, Caves near, 101 Williamstown, The snow hole near, 98, 183 Winter's cold theory, The, 147 Windholes, 61, 111, 117 Windholes, The theory of, 124 Wordsworth, Verses by, 192
Yeermallik, Cave of, 261
Ziegler, Herr J. M., 45
* * * * *
Transcriber Note
Images were moved so as to not split paragraphs. Accents were standardized. Obvious punctuation errors and typos repaired.