Chapter 17

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[Illustration: 18. GOLD-TOOLED AND INLAID MOROCCO BINDING. _THE LETTERS OF PRINCESS LIEVEN._ BY S. T. PRIDEAUX. MODERN ENGLISH.]

In the eleventh century we come to the first employment of gold leaf on decorated leather, whence is derived the name, “or basané,” which it afterwards received. The passage describing the process of gilding has been quoted already (page 80), but each master of the art no doubt introduced his own modifications.

With the introduction of gold, leather decoration assumed a magnificence and importance hitherto unknown. The heads of the saints were surrounded with golden haloes, and the gold and silver embroideries of the sacerdotal ornaments were carried out in those metals on the leather. A little later the knights are represented clad in brilliant armour with plumed helmets. The correct rendering of the heraldic colouring of the coats of arms figuring on shield and target then necessitated the use of a more extended range of oil colours, until, little by little, decorated leather grew to resemble the paintings of Van Orley.

Meanwhile, punches, cut in relief or in intaglio and used with a hammer, were adopted to break the monotony of the groundwork and throw up the relief of the ornament, and the fashion also arose of embossing leather with a modelling tool or by means of stamps, the latter method necessarily resulting in the substitution of repeating ornament for figures and landscapes.

Leather manufactured in Spain, Portugal, Flanders, and later in England is almost always decorated in high relief with touches of gold, the design being principally flowers, foliage, cupids, pomegranates, etc. Venice alone remained faithful to flat decoration with hollowed or merely darkened outline in the cameo-like medallions of classical scenes painted on groundwork whose design was borrowed from the gorgeous stuffs of the East.

The fashion imported from Italy in the reign of Francis I of breaking up surfaces with pilasters, cornices, medallions and ornaments in relief, was instrumental in adding importance to small painted designs on leather rather than to hangings properly so called. Some of these leather paintings were like pictures and were used not only for wall decoration, but as hangings for beds and even as bedspreads of state. The custom of thus decorating beds lasted a long time. Pierre Bénard, an upholsterer by trade, established in Paris, and author of a collection of songs dedicated to the “Vertueuse Royne Marguerite,” first wife of Henri IV, refers to the use of “or basané” in this manner as an evidence of wealth.

Already under Catherine de Médicis, decorated leather had become extremely popular, and was preferred to all other hangings for the embellishment of apartments; its popularity lost nothing under the second wife of Henry IV, in whose native country this style of decoration was also held in great favour. In the reign of Louis XIII the influence of Anne of Austria brought Spanish leather again into fashion. From that time also, leather gilt or stamped in its natural colour and ornamented with copper nails (probably inspired by the marriage chests with their curious studded ornament) was found in the mansions of the great and became the principal material for covering chairs.

The grandiose style of architecture of the time of Louis XIV called for the decoration of spaces framed in gorgeous pilasters and was favourable to the application of decorated leather in the style of Bérain. But this did not long remain popular, and leather was replaced by Gobelin and other tapestries made in France, whose introduction gave the deathblow to the manufacture of leather hangings.

From this period till the present day the art of gilding leather has been on the decline. Of this no further proof is needed than the following preface written in 1762 by Fougeroux de Boudaroy, who had been commissioned by the Academy to take over the work of research, previously conducted by Réaumur, on the subject of leather hangings:——

[Illustration: 19. BACK AND SEAT OF CHAIR IN CUT, EMBOSSED AND GILT COWHIDE WITH PUNCHED BACKGROUND. EXECUTED BY ROSALIE VIGERS FROM A DESIGN BY FREDERICK VIGERS. MODERN ENGLISH.]

“Flanders, Holland and England are reputed to have furnished the first gilt or silvered leather hangings seen in Paris. Some attribute their invention to Spain, but without apparent reason, since to-day there are in France no such hangings of Spanish manufacture, nor are they much known in that country. The gilt leather hangings which come to us from Flanders are nearly all made at Lille, Brussels, Antwerp and Mechlin; those derived from the last-named place are the most prized of all. Some very fine ones which we have attempted to imitate are made in Venice; manufactures were also started at Lyons and met with success.

“It was only about two centuries ago that this trade was established in Paris. We owe it to some Flemish workmen who settled in the capital and left successors there. But on account of the nation’s prejudice in favour of all that comes from abroad, the hangings from Holland and Flanders were always preferred to those of our own manufacture, although they did not surpass the latter in quality or in beauty.

“Though equalling those of Holland and Flanders, it was not possible to find a sale for our hangings unless they were passed off as having been made in one or other of those provinces, and this was frequently done by our manufacturers. It must, however, be admitted that certain gilt leather hangings from England and Venice have never been equalled here. We are forced to allow their superiority in brilliancy, beauty of design and durability. Perhaps all that our workmen needed to be able to imitate them perfectly was to feel the assurance of greater constancy in our tastes, and to witness the cessation of that affection and preference for everything foreign, which might lead to the more favourable treatment of the native industry.

“Gilt leather hangings were at one time much sought after. Their qualities of being, unlike woollen and other materials, unaffected by damp and insects, of retaining their brilliancy unimpaired by time, of not attracting dust, and of allowing it to be easily removed by washing with a sponge, and finally, of not lending themselves to the multiplication of the insects which in summer infest the capital and which find in other tapestries convenient nests for depositing their eggs, were all advantages, forming so many reasons for their being in demand and gaining for them a place in the apartments of the great, of which they frequently constituted the ornament. But to-day, a change of taste and the dictates of fashion which outweighs even the advantages and conveniences of life, have caused them to be almost forgotten and relegated them to the ante-rooms of a few county houses where some of the earliest are to be found, nearly as beautiful as when they were first made in Paris.

“Now that the art is less in vogue, we think it a suitable time to describe it to the public, thus following the intention of the Academy of allowing nothing to be lost that may now or hereafter be useful to the cause of art. We may at any time be desirous of returning to these older fashions, no longer being able to vary them, and this may be among those destined to return to favour. At any rate, it will be agreed that some of its processes merit description, and might find their application in other arts and help in bringing them to perfection.”

[Illustration: 20. EMBOSSED CALF BINDING. _BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER._ EXECUTED BY ROSALIE VIGERS FROM A DESIGN BY FREDERICK VIGERS. MODERN ENGLISH.]

The same author describes minutely and very clearly the various processes in use at the time for gilding or silvering leather. Instead of silver-gilt, which is necessarily very costly, he recommends silver leaf burnished and covered with a varnish, for which he gives the following recipe, found by him, as he modestly acknowledges, among the papers of Mons. de Réaumur:——

“Take four and a half pounds of colophony, the same quantity of ordinary resin, two and a half pounds of sandarach and two of aloes; mix these four drugs together, after having broken up those which are in large pieces, and put them in an earthen pot on a good charcoal fire. It is better for the fire to be of charcoal, because it makes but little flame, which would be dangerous if it should enter the vessel, as the ingredients are very inflammable. To guard against this accident and others of which we will speak later on, the vessel must be chosen large enough not to be more than half-filled by the drugs already mentioned and the others yet to be added, as will presently be explained. It is well also for it to widen out at the top, or to have a rim that will project the flame outwards. These are small precautions which it is always better to take; some, however, neglect them, and make their varnish on a wood fire, and then double attention must be given to prevent the drugs igniting.

“Melt all these drugs in the pot and stir them with a spatula so that they mix together and do not stick to the bottom. When they are well melted, pour in seven pints of linseed oil and mix it with the drugs, using the spatula. Cook the whole, stirring it from time to time to prevent as much as possible a kind of sediment which forms and does not mix with the oil from sticking to the bottom of the vessel. When the varnish is cooked, pass it through a cloth or strainer.

“This quantity of varnish should, according to workmen, remain seven to eight hours on the fire to cook, but this cannot be regarded as an invariable rule. It will not take so long to cook on a large fire. A better test used by workmen in manufacturing varnish is to take a few drops of the liquid with the spatula and lay it over silver leaf on some leather; or else they take some of the varnish in a silver spoon and, by trying it with the finger tip as if it were syrup, find out if it is cooked enough. If it ropes in cooling, or if the finger has a tendency to stick when it is gently withdrawn, it is a sign that it is sufficiently cooked, that is to say that it has arrived at the consistency of a thickish syrup. The varnish is then brown in colour, and curiously enough when laid over silver it becomes transparent and gives the effect of brilliant gold.”

While on the subject of gold groundwork made with gold or silver leaf or tin-foil covered with varnish to imitate the colour of gold, it is curious to note how far back in the history of art its origin can be traced; after the Greeks, the Byzantines made use of and, it may also be said, abused it. This want of moderation in the use of gold is to be met with long afterwards, for it is mentioned in his book on painting by L. Benedetto Alberti who died in Rome in 1472.[18]

[18] _Sunt qui auro immodice utantur, quam aurum putent historiæ affere majestatem._ L. B. Alberti, _De Pictura_, Book 2, page 25, _ad finem Vitruv. Elzevir. f._

Van Orley, Raphael’s pupil, when painting his “Last Judgment” at Antwerp, had his panel gilt in order to obtain “a beautiful transparency.”[19]

[19] Decamps. _Vie des peintres flamands._ Paris, 1753, 4 vols. Vol. 1, page 39.

We have quoted above the formula for golden varnish given by Fougeroux de Boudaroy which he ascribes to Réaumur. It may be found interesting to compare with it that given by the Monk Theophilus in his _Diversarum Artium Schedula_:——

“Put some linseed oil in a small new pot; add some gum arabic called _fornis_ pounded very fine; this gum is like very light incense, but is more brilliant when broken up. Place it on a charcoal fire and cook it carefully without allowing it to boil, until it is reduced by one third. Be very careful of flames, for they are very dangerous, and the preparation is difficult to extinguish if it once catches fire. Any painting coated with this varnish becomes brilliant, beautiful and perfectly lasting....

“Another method. Arrange three or four stones which will stand the fire without breaking, or bricks may be used instead. On these place a new pot, pour into it some _fornis_ mentioned above, called by the Romans “glossa,” otherwise gum arabic. Over the opening of the pot, put a smaller one having a little hole at the bottom; fill in with clay so that no space remains between them. Carefully light a fire underneath the apparatus until the gum liquefies. You will also have a thin tool with a handle which will serve to stir the gum and to find out the exact moment when it becomes perfectly liquid. Have a third pot on charcoal by you in which there is hot linseed oil; when the gum is quite liquid, so that a thread of it hangs from the tool when it is withdrawn, pour in the hot oil, stir with the tool, and, when in this condition, cook all together without letting it boil, take out the tool from time to time and spread a little of the mixture on wood or stone to try its density. With regard to the proportion, be careful that there are two thirds of oil to one of gum. When it is cooked according to your judgment, take it off the fire and, covering it with care, let it cool.

“_Of the Method of Colouring Tinfoil to give it the Appearance of being Gilt, so that it may be used when Gold cannot be had._

“Place the pieces (of tinfoil) side by side on the board, fasten them one by one to the wood with wax, so that they cannot get displaced, spread over them with the hand a coating of the varnish described above, and let them dry in the sun. After that take some sticks of rotten wood cut in April, slit in half and smoke dried. Peel off the outer bark and the second, which is the colour of saffron; scrape it into a clean vessel, adding to it a fifth part of saffron, macerate it well in old wine or ale; after letting it stand during the night, make it lukewarm the next morning. When in this condition, dip in the sheets of tinfoil one by one, frequently taking them out until you find them assume a golden shade, when you will again fix them on the wooden board and apply a coat of varnish as before; when dry you will have sheets of tinfoil that you can use as you wish in your work....”[20]

[20] _Diversarum artium schedula_, Book 1. Chapters 21 and 36.

Although it may not be possible for an amateur, incompletely equipped with the necessary implements, to reproduce the marvellous work of a byegone age, there are still many methods of decoration for him to attempt which will be equally attractive in modern surroundings.

NOTE

SOME EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON LEATHER FOR BOOKBINDING, APPOINTED BY THE COUNCIL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, FEBRUARY, 1900.

“This Committee met for the first time on May 3, 1900.... Its first step was to appoint two Sub-Committees from amongst its members. The first of these was to visit a selected number of libraries, and to ascertain the comparative durability of the various bookbinding leathers used at different periods and preserved under different conditions.... The second ... was appointed to deal with the scientific side of the matter, to ascertain the cause of any deterioration noticed, and, if possible, to suggest methods for its prevention in the future....

“The first step taken by the (first) Sub-Committee was to visit a number of libraries, including that of the British Museum, the Bodleian Library, Oxford, the University Library, Cambridge, the libraries of the Athenæum Club, of the Patent Office and of the Chemical Society, also the valuable private library of Mr. Huth....

“As regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decay prematurely, the Sub-Committee satisfied themselves that books bound during the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence of deterioration than those of an earlier date. Many recent bindings showed evidence of decay after so short a period as ten, or even five years. The Sub-Committee came to the conclusion that there is ample justification for the general complaint that modern leather is not so durable as that formerly used. To fix the date of the commencement of this deterioration was a difficult matter; but they came to the conclusion that while leather of all periods showed some signs of decay, the deterioration becomes more general on books bound after 1830, while some leathers seem to be generally good until about 1860, after which date nearly all leathers seem to get worse. The deterioration of calf bindings at the latter end of the nineteenth century may be attributed as much to the excessive thinness as to the poor quality of the material.

“With regard to the conditions under which books are kept, ventilation, lighting, heating, etc., the Committee were satisfied that in libraries where there was no artificial light used, and where the ventilation was good, the bindings were generally in a better state than elsewhere. Where gas is used the bindings are in the worst state noticed, especially on the higher shelves.... Daylight and still more direct sunlight, has a disintegrating effect on leather....

“As to the suitability of various leathers, the Sub-Committee came to the conclusion that of the old leathers (fifteenth and sixteenth century), white pigskin, probably alum tanned, is the most durable, but its excessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leather unsuitable for most modern work. Old brown calf has lasted fairly well, but loses its flexibility, and becomes stiff and brittle when exposed to light and air. Some of the white tawed skins of the fifteenth and sixteenth century, other than white pigskin, and probably deerskin, have lasted very well. Some fifteenth and sixteenth century sheepskin bindings have remained soft and flexible, but the surface is soft and usually much damaged by friction. Vellum seems to have lasted fairly well, but is easily influenced by atmospheric changes, and is much affected by light. Early specimens of red morocco from the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth century were found in good condition, and of all the leathers noticed, this seems to be the least affected by the various conditions to which it had been subjected. In the opinion of the Committee, most of this leather has been tanned with sumach or some closely allied tanning material. Morocco bindings earlier than 1860 were generally found to be in fairly good condition, but morocco after that date seems to be much less reliable, and in many cases has become utterly rotten. During the latter part of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down calf until it was as thin as paper. Since about 1830 hardly any really sound calf seems to have been used, as, whether thick or thin, it appears generally to have perished. Sheepskin bindings of the early part of the century are many of them still in good condition. Since about 1860 sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to be found. Sheepskins are grained in imitation of other leathers and these imitation-grained leathers are generally found to be in a worse condition than any of the other bindings, except, perhaps, some of the very thin calf skin. Undyed modern pigskin seems to last well, but some coloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished. Modern leathers dyed with the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned. In nearly every case Russia leather was found to have become rotten, at least in bindings of the last fifty years....

“The work of the second Sub-Committee, which was composed of chemists specially conversant with the treatment of leather, was directed specially to the elucidation of the following points; an investigation of the nature of the decay of leather used for bookbinding; an examination of the causes which produced this decay; a research into the best methods of preparing leather for bookbinding; and a consideration of the points required to be dealt with in the preservation of books....

“The Sub-Committee made a number of tests and analyses of samples of decayed leather bookbindings, as well as of leathers used for binding. The Committee found that the most prevalent decay was what they termed a red decay, and this they think may be differentiated into old and new, the old red decay being noticeable up to about 1830, and the new decay since that date. In the old decay the leather becomes hard and brittle, the surface not being easily abraded by friction. The older form is specially noticed in calf-bound books, tanned presumably with oak bark. The new form affects nearly all leathers, and, in extreme cases, seems absolutely to destroy the fibres. Another form of deterioration, more noticeable in the newer books, renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off when exposed to the slightest friction. This is the most common form of decay noted in the most recent leathers. In nearly all samples of Russia leather, a very violent form of red decay was noticed. In many cases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all parts exposed to light and air....

“An extensive series of experiments was carried out with a view of determining the causes of the decay of bindings. The Sub-Committee find that this is caused by both mechanical and by chemical influences. Of the latter some are due to the mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder, others to the want of ventilation, and to improper heating and lighting of libraries. In some cases inferior leathers are finished (by methods in themselves injurious) so as to imitate the better class leathers, and of course, where these are used, durability cannot be expected. But in the main, the injury for which the manufacturer and the bookbinder are responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect of the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities required for binding, than to the intentional production of an inferior article....

* * * * *

“We are of opinion that no special skin can be condemned in its original condition, although goat, seal, pig, and calf are probably superior in strength of texture to sheep. Sheepskins are, however, equally resistant to chemical agencies, and being naturally soft and flexible, are extremely suitable for use for purposes where they are not much exposed to mechanical wear.

“Fresh market skins, dry skins, or wet salted skins are much to be preferred to those known as ‘drysalted,’ since the crystallization of the salt which takes place in the drysalting process, tends to weaken the structural fibre of the pelt. No tainted or putrefied skins, even if only slightly affected, are suitable for the manufacture of bookbinding leather, both for the same reason, and because the weakness of grain so produced leads to uneven dyeing.

“In the soaking of skins we would strongly condemn the use of old putrid soaks, or the addition of salt to the soaks to assist in the softening, as both methods weaken the skin. ... Violent mechanical treatment such as ‘stocking’ is injurious....

“The liming should be done in mellow, weak limes. Old limes smelling strongly of ammonia, and containing large quantities of bacteriological products, must be avoided....

“Special care should be taken with regard to the beamhouse work after unhairing and fleshing, as, by excessive or unsound puering and drenching of the skins, their whole natural strength is frequently destroyed.... Great damage is frequently caused by the use of foul puers or foul bates, in which putrefaction has taken place.

“Pure sumach is the tannage we would most strongly recommend for high class bookbinding....

“The tannage of bookbinding leathers must be a mellow one, and must not be carried too far, as we have found in many cases the cause of decay in tanned leather has been the fact that the leather was overloaded with tannin. Tanning has throughout a hardening effect on the leather fibre, which, if pushed too far, ends in brittleness and loss of tenacity....

“We must absolutely condemn the use of any but mild vegetable acids in souring or scouring the leather, or in the dye bath, and as far as possible would avoid the use of acids and alkalis on tanned leather, both being equally injurious.

“It has been shown by careful experiment, that even a minute quantity of sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour, is at once absorbed by the leather, and that no amount of subsequent washing will remove it. In a very large proportion of cases, the decay of modern sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used in the dye bath, and retained in the skin....

“We ... advise that the glazing of skins by friction in a damp ‘seasoned’ condition should be avoided.

“The use of nitric acid as a preparation for glazing is absolutely destructive....

“The use of oxalic acid for washing backs of books, or of leather for bookbinding, is fatal to their durability....

“The sprinkling of leather with ferrous sulphate (green vitriol), either for the production of ‘sprinkled’ calf or ‘tree’ calf, must be most strongly condemned, as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the leather, and free sulphuric acid is liberated which is still more destructive....

“The stretching of leather tightly over books in a wet condition ... should be strongly condemned....

“It is shown conclusively that the catechol tannins, which include turwar, quebracho, hemlock and larch barks, and gambier, are unsuitable for bookbinding leathers where durability is expected, and that sumach yields a much more permanent leather, while myrobalans occupy an intermediate place, but nearly approaching sumach. It is unfortunate that cassia bark, which is the tanning material employed for East Indian sheep and goat skins, should have proved so unreliable, since these leathers have been largely used in bookbinding without suspicion, and are in other respects a cheap and good article. With regard to sumach leathers themselves, it is possible that some of the darkening noticed may be due to the presence of adulterants, such as pistacia leaves, in the sumach used, as it is almost impracticable to obtain absolutely pure sumach, and the pistacia tannin is allied to that of the cassia.

“Of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries, gas fumes——no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid which they contain——are shown to be the most injurious, but light and especially direct sunlight and hot air, are shown to possess deleterious influences which had scarcely been suspected previously, and the importance of moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be too much insisted on.”

INDEX

Absorbent leather: colouring, 69

Acid : hydrochloric, 30, 66, 71 : muriatic, 71 : nitric, 71 : oxalic, 71 : picric, 66, 67, 68 : sulphuric, 71

Acids, 66 as decolorants, 71 : diluting, 71 : effect of, on steel tools, 30 : injurious effect of, on leather, 72

Alberti: L. B., author of _De Pictura_, 87

Albumen: colours based on, 67

Alizarin, 66, 67

Alkalis, 66

Aniline dyes: stability of, 64

Apparatus for pyrogravure, 36-37

Archil, 66

Arnotto, 66

Aumaître: Mons. E., 38, 42, 52, 59

Baryta: chromate of, 66

Bed-furniture: leather, 84

Belleville: Mons., author of _Le cuir dans la Décoration Moderne_, 62, 71

Bénard: Pierre, author, 84

Bérain: leather decorated in style of, 84

Blacks, 66

Blues, 67, 74

Bookbinding : carved leather, 14 : choice of design for, 77 : crushed morocco for, 17 : first use of leather for, 14 : gold-tooled leather, 14 : mosaic leather, 14 : pigskin in, 17-18 : report of Committee on leather for, 90-95 : vellum in, 18

Boudaroy: Fougeroux de : remarks on leather hangings, 84-86 : recipe for golden varnish, 86-87

Bronzes, 35, 68, 73, 74, 78

Browns, 65

Brush : couch-grass, 70 : flannel, for rubbing leather, 73 for gold leaf, 74 for powder colours, 74 for sprinkling, 70 for stencilling, 72 for tree marbling, 70

Buckthorn berries, 67

Burgundy: leather decoration in, 14

Burnishers, 63, 75

Calf leather, 16 : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 : colouring, 69, 72 for modelling, 29 for mosaic, 43, 56 : monochrome mosaic on, 45

Canson paper, 45, 58

Cape morocco, 17, 42, 78

Cardboard for use in cutting out inlay, 48 padding, 34

Carpets: leather, 81

Carthamine, 66

Carthamus Tinctorius, 66

Carton Jacquart, 45, 51

Carved leather, 16, 27-28 bookbinding, 14 : choice of design for, 27 : gold on, 27 in Dijon Museum, 14, 27

Carving : leather for, 17 mosaic in relief, 61, 62 : tools for, 27

Cassaigre tannin, 16

Catechol, 65

Cathedral style, 27

Chairs: leather, 84

Chamois leather, 16 : use and methods of decorating, 18

Chestnut tannin, 16

Chinese vermilion, 74

Choice of design and colour, 76-79

Choice of skins, 15-18

Chromate of baryta, 66

Chromate of zinc, 66

Coal-tar, 66

Cochineal, 66

Coffers: leather, 77-79, 82 : choice of design for, 78 : mosaic for, 78 : mounting leather for, 78 : outlining design for, 78 : padding relief for, 78 : punched groundwork for, 78

Colour : applying, to leather, 68-69 : choice of design and, 76-79 : combination of, 76-77 : for groundwork, 68, 77 : influence of light on, of leather, 16, 64 : influence of tanning process on, of leather, 15-16, 64 : introduction of, into decoration of leather hangings, 81

Colouring absorbent leather, 69 calf leather, 69, 72 cut leather, 26-27 hollows of cut and punched leather, 27, 35, 65, 68, 73-74, 78 : leather for, 69 leather for mosaic, 42, 69 leather: methods of, 68-75 modelled leather, 71-72 monochrome mosaic on calf, 45 morocco leather, 69 mosaic in relief, 62 oxhide, 69 pigskin, 69 sheepskin, 16 split sheepskins, 69 tinfoil to give it the appearance of being gilt, 89

Colours based on albumen, 67 based on glycerine, 67 for leather work, 64-68 for stencilling, 72 : oil, 67, 83 : powder, used with varnish, 73-74 : spirit, 67 : water, 67

Composition of ornament, 77-79

Copper nails: leather ornamented with, 84

Copper-plate etching on leather, 39

Cordouans, 80

Cordwainer, 14

Cork padding, 34

Cotton cord padding, 34

Couch-grass whisk, 70

Cowhide, 16 : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 for mosaic in relief, 61

Cuir bouilli, 28

Cushion for gold leaf, 74

Cut leather, 16, 25-27 : colouring, 26-27 : colouring hollows of, 27 68, 73-74 : opening the outline of, 23, 25-26

Cutting : leather for, 17 stamped leather, 39

Cutting out incrusted mosaic, 62-63 inlay: cardboard for use in, 48 inlay for mosaic, 46-49 inlay for mosaic in relief, 61 inlay for polychrome mosaic, 58-59 open-work leather, 40

Cutting-out knives, 40, 46-48

Damping leather, 19-20

Decolorants, 70-71, 76 on modelled leather, 71-72 : tracing design for, 71

Design based on chestnut tree, 76 based on sea subjects, 76 : detached portions of leather in, 77 : choice of, for bookbinding, 77 : choice of, for carved leather, 27 : choice of, for coffers, 77 : choice of, for large surfaces, 79 : choice of, for marbled leather, 77 : choice of, for modelled leather, 77 in leather hangings and furniture, 82-84 : Japanese school of, 79 : study of, 79

Design and colour: choice of, 76-79

Dijon Museum: examples of carved leather in, 14, 27

Dollage de gants padding, 34

Dyes, 64-74 : aniline, stability of, 64 : superposed, 65, 68, 76 : uncertain effect of, on leather, 77 : vegetable, stability of, 64

Embossed leather, _see_ Modelled leather

Encaustic: rubbing leather with, 65, 72-73

England: manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83, 85

Engraved leather, _see_ Cut leather

Europe: introduction of decorated leather into, 13, 14, 80

Flanders: manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83, 85

France : introduction of gilt or silvered leather hangings into, 85 : manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 85 : popularity of leather hangings and furniture in, 84

Garlande: Jehan de, author, 80

Germany: leather decoration in, 14

Ghadames: leather industry at, 80

Gilding, 74-75, 80-81, 83, 86 : bookbinders’ tools for, 75 : decline of art, 84-86 outline of incrusted mosaic, 63 : process described by Theophilus, 80-81

Gilt leather chairs, 84

Gilt or silvered leather hangings and furniture, 84, 85-86

Gilt panel for painting on, 87-88

Gloves for protecting hands from dyes, 68

Glycerine : colours based on, 67 inks, 72

Gobelin tapestries: leather hangings and furniture replaced by, 84

Gold, 68, 83 groundwork: origin of, 87 leaf, 28, 74-75, 83 leaf: brush for, 74 leaf: cushion for, 74 leaf first employed on leather hangings and furniture, 83 leaf: knife for, 74 : liquid, 75 on carved and embossed leather, 27 powder, 73, 74, 75 : punches used on, 28, 75 : shell, 28, 74, 75 : want of moderation in the use of, 87

Golden varnish : recipe for (Boudaroy), 86-87 : recipe for (Theophilus), 88

Gold-tooled leather bookbinding, 14

Gold-tooling, 28, 74-75 : powder for, 74

Gouache, 35, 68, 73, 74, 78

Grating: sprinkling, 70

Greens, 66, 67, 74

Greys, 65

Hammered leather, 16, 28

Hammering: leather for, 17

Hematoxylin, 66

Heraldic decoration on leather, 14, 83

Holland: manufacture of leather hangings in, 85

Hydrochloric acid, 30, 66, 71

Incising, 20-24, 26 for inserted mosaic, 60 for modelled leather, 22, 30 knives, 15, 20-24 oxhide, 22 slanting cut, 23, 24

Indigo, 67

Inks containing nitrate of silver, 72 for stamping leather, 39 for stencilling, 72 : glycerine, 72

Inlaid leather, _see_ Mosaic leather

Japanese school of design, 79

Kip-skins, 61

Knives : cutting-out, 40, 46-48 : gold, 74 : incising, 15, 20-24 : paring, 43 : stencil-cutter’s, 46, 61

Leather : absorbent quality of, 64-65 bed-furniture, 84 carpets, 81 chairs, 84 coffers, 77-79, 82 decoration in Burgundy, 14 decoration in dress, 13 decoration in Germany, 14 decoration in Spain, 13, 14, 80 decoration in style of Bérain, 84 decoration in the past, 13-14 decoration in war-like equipment, 13 decoration: introduction into Europe, 13, 14, 80 : first use of, for bookbinding, 14 hangings and furniture, 80-89 : heraldic decoration on, 14, 83 industry at Ghadames, 80 : methods of working in, 16, 19-41 : report of Committee on, for bookbinding, 90-95 : Spanish, 84 : varieties of, 16

Light: influence of, on colour of leather, 16, 64

Lignereux: Mons. de Saint André de, author of _Le Cuir d’Art français_, 28

Lithographic stone, 15, 44

Logwood, 66

Lyons: manufacture of gilt or silvered leather hangings at, 85

Madder, 66

Marble: slab of, 15, 44

Marbled leather: choice of design for, 77

Marbling, 69-70 : tree, 70

Metal block for stamping leather, 39

Metal ornaments on leather hangings, 81

Metallic salts, 66

Mimosa tannin, 16

Modelled leather, 16, 28-36 : choice of design for, 77 : colouring, 71-72 : decolorants on, 71-72 : incising for, 22, 30 in hangings and furniture, 83 : introduction into Venice, 14 : opening the outline of, 26, 29, 32, 33-34 : softening the outline of, 32-33 with punched background, 16, 28, 34-36

Modellers, 15, 29, 30, 38

Modelling, 30-34 : ball-shaped steel tool for, 31, 32 : leather for, 17, 29, 61 leather on plaster cast, 39-40 mosaic in relief, 61 reed decoration, 34 : sandbag for, 32 stamped leather, 39 : tools for, 29-32 : tracing design for, 32, 33 : wax for, 33-34

Mordants, 67

Morocco leather, 16 : Cape, 17, 42, 78 : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 : colouring, 69 : crushed, 17 for mosaic, 42, 58, 59 : grain of, 17 groundwork: pasting inlay on, 59 groundwork: polychrome mosaic on, 58-59 groundwork: tool for sticking inlay on, 59, 60 : paring, for inlay of polychrome mosaic, 58-59 : tanning materials used for, 15

Mosaic, 16, 42-63 bookbinding, 14 : calf leather for, 43, 56 : colouring leather for, 42, 69 : cutting out inlay for, 46-49 for coffers, 78 : incrusted, 62-63 : incrusted, cutting out, 62-63 : incrusted, gilding outline of, 63 : incrusted, outlining, 63 : incrusted, tracing design for, 62 in relief, 61-62 in relief: carving, 61, 62 in relief: colouring, 62 in relief: cowhide for, 61 in relief: cutting out inlay for, 61 in relief: depressing groundwork for inlay of, 61 in relief: leather for, 61 in relief: modelling, 61 in relief: tracing design for, 61 : inserted, 59-60 : inserted, incising leather for, 60 : inserted, outlining, 60 : leather for groundwork of, 17, 42-43 : leather for inlay of, 45 : monochrome, on calf, 45 : morocco leather as groundwork of, 42, 58, 59 : mounting inlay on paper lining for, 45-46 on modelled leather, 59 on modelled leather: paring leather for, 59 : outlining, 52-56 : pasting inlay on groundwork for, 49-50, 59 : paring leather for, 43-44 : pincers for, 50 : polishing, 56, 57 : polychrome, 57-59 : polychrome, cutting out inlay for, 58-59 : polychrome, morocco leather as inlay for, 58 : polychrome, on morocco groundwork, 58-59 : polychrome, outlining, 59 : polychrome, paring morocco leather for inlay of, 58-59 : polychrome, split sheepskins for, 58 : polychrome, stencil for marking out, 58 : polychrome, tracing design for, 57-58 : preparation of leather for groundwork of, 43-45 : removing paper lining from inlay of, 52 : roller for, 50, 51 : setting in the inlay of, 50-52 : tracing design for, 46

Mosaics of piqué leather, 13

Mosaïque par incrustation, _see_ Incrusted mosaic

Muriatic acid, 71

Nitrate of silver: inks containing, 72

Nitric acid, 71

Oak tannin, 15, 16

Oil colours, 67, 83

Openers, 15, 23, 25-26

Opening the outline of cut leather, 23, 25-26 of modelled leather, 26, 29, 32, 33-34

Open-work leather, 16, 18, 40, 41 : cutting out, 40 : groundwork for, 18, 40, 41 hangings, 40 in relief, 40 : plaited ornament on borders of, 40-41

Or basané, 83, 84

Outliners, 52-56

Outlining design for coffers, 78 incrusted mosaic, 63 inserted mosaic, 60 mosaic, 52-56 polychrome mosaic, 59

Outlining-wheels, 15, 35, 54, 56, 63

Oxalic acid, 71

Oxhide, 16 : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 : colouring, 69 : incising, 22

Padding relief, 34, 40 for coffers, 78

Panel: gilt, for painting on, 87-88

Paring knives, 43

Paring leather, 43-44 for inlay of polychrome mosaic, 58-59 for mosaic on modelled leather, 59

Paste: recipe for, for mounting leather on wooden panels (Theophilus), 82

Patine, 30, 64, 67, 72

Patines grasses, 67

Pearl-ash, 65

Pencils: 6H graphite, 15, 20

Permanganate of potash, 65

Pictures on leather, 82, 84

Picric acid, 66, 67, 68

Pied de biche, 30

Pigskin, 16 : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17-18 : colouring, 69 : in bookbinding, 17-18

Pincers for mosaic, 50

Pinks, 66

Piqué leather: mosaics of, 13

Plaited ornament on borders of open-work leather, 40-41

Plaster cast: modelling leather on, 39-40

Plaster casts for stamping leather, 39

Plaster padding, 40

Pointogravure, 16, 38 : tools for, 38

Polishing iron, 56, 57

Polishing mosaic, 56, 57

Pompon, 72

Portugal: manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83

Potash, 65, 66, 68, 69, 73, 77

Potash-lye, 65

Potassium, 65

Powder colours, : brush for, 74 used with varnish, 73-74

Presses for stamping leather, 38, 39

Pressing leather after pasting, 45

Punched backgrounds, _see_ Punched groundwork

Punched groundwork, 16, 28, 34-36 for coffers, 78 in leather hangings and furniture, 83 : modelled leather with, 16, 28, 34-36

Punched leather, 16, 28 : colouring hollows of, 35, 65, 68, 73-74, 78

Punches, 15, 28, 35, 78, 83 : patterns produced with, 35 used on gold, 28, 75

Pyrogravure, 16, 27, 28, 36-37 : apparatus for, 36-37 : leather for, 17, 18 : outlining incrusted mosaic by, 63

Quercitron, 66

Réaumur: Mons. de, 84, 86, 88

Red wood: extracts of, 66

Reds, 66

Reed decoration, 34 : padding for, 34 : tool for working, 34

Reserved ornament, 71-72 : colour for groundwork of, 77

Roller for mosaic, 50, 51

Rubbing leather, 36, 65, 67, 72-74, 77 : flannel brush for, 73 with encaustic, 65, 72-73 with varnish, 72-73 with wax, 72-73

Russia leather, 16 : characteristics and methods of decorating, 17 for modelling, 29

Saffron, 66

Salts : metallic, 66 of tin, 66

Sandbag for modelling, 32

Scraper, 46

Semis, 35

Setting in the inlay of mosaic, 50-52

Shaded groundwork, 42, 69

Sheepskin, 16 : characteristics and methods of decorating, 16, 17 : colouring, 16

Shell gold, 28, 74, 75

Shell silver, 74

Silver leaf, 86 powder, 74 : shell, 74 : use of, on leather, 83

Skins: choice of, 15-18

Soda, 65

Spain : leather decoration in, 13, 14, 80 : manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83, 85 : introduction of leather hangings and furniture into, 80

Spanish leather, 84

Spirit colours, 67

Split sheepskins : colouring, 69 for inlaying, 45, 56 for polychrome mosaic, 58

Sprinkling, 70-71 : brush for, 70 : grating for, 70 : preparation for reserving ornament during (Belleville), 71 : tracing design for, 71 : vaporiser for, 71

Stamped leather, 16, 38-40 chairs, 84 : cutting, 39 in hangings and furniture, 83, 84 : introduction into Venice, 14 : modelling, 39

Stamping leather, 38-40 : inks for, 39 : presses for, 38, 39 with copper-plate, 39 with metal block, 39 with plaster casts, 39 with stencil, 38

Stearine: plaster casts prepared with, 39

Steel clamps for holding leather, 31

Stencil-cutter’s knife, 46, 61

Stencilling, 72 : brush for, 72 : inks for, 72 : leather for, 18

Stone: lithographic, 15, 44

Study of design, 79

Sulphate of iron, 65, 67, 68, 69, 76

Sulphuric acid, 71

Sumach tannin, 15

Superposed dyes, 65, 68, 76

Tanning materials, 15, 16

Tanning process, 15 : influence of, on colour of leather, 15-16, 64 : leather prepared to receive dyes by the, 67

Theophilus, author of _Diversarum Artium Schedula_ : process of gilding described by, 80-81 : recipe for colouring tinfoil to give it the appearance of being gilt, 89 : recipe for golden varnish, 88 : recipe for paste for mounting leather on wooden panels, 82

Tools, 16 : bookbinders’, for gilding, 75 : effect of acids on steel, 30 for carving, 27 for modelling, 29-32 for pointogravure, 38 for pyrogravure, 36-37 for sticking inlay on morocco groundwork, 59, 60 for working reed decoration, 34

Tracing design, 19-20 for decolorants, 71 for incrusted mosaic, 62 for modelling, 32, 33 for mosaic, 46 for mosaic in relief, 61 for polychrome mosaic, 57-58 for sprinkling, 71 on flesh side of leather, 32, 33

Tracing-point, 15, 20

Tree marbling, 70 : brush for, 70

Turmeric, 66

Van Orley, painter, 83, 87-88

Vaporiser for sprinkling, 71

Varnish : recipe for golden (Boudaroy), 86-87 : recipe for golden (Theophilus), 88 : rubbing leather with, 72-73 : use of, with powder colours, 73-74

Vegetable dyes: stability of, 64

Vellum, 16 : characteristics and methods of decorating, 18 in bookbinding, 18

Venice : introduction of modelled and stamped leather into, 14 : manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in, 83, 85

Vermilion: Chinese, 74

Water-colours, 67

Wax for modelling, 33-34 padding, 34 : rubbing leather with, 72-73

Wheels : outlining, 15, 35, 54, 56, 63 : patterns produced with, 35

Xanthin, 65

Yellows, 66

Zinc: chromate of, 66

Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.

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TRANSCRIBER’S AMENDMENTS

Transcriber’s Note: Blank pages have been deleted. Some illustrations have been moved and the corresponding entries in the lists of illustrations updated. Footnotes have been moved to follow the referencing paragraph. The publisher’s inadvertent omissions of important punctuation have been corrected. Duplicative front matter has been removed.

The following list indicates any additional changes made. The page number represents that of the original publication and applies in this etext except for footnotes and illustrations since they may have been moved.

Key: {<from>}[<to>]:

Page Change

- {_To face Page_}[_Page_] 12 painted and gilt calf. _Le Roman de Tristan et {Iseul}[Iseut]._ 56 of wood covered with embossed leather, _cuir {bouill}[bouilli]_. 83 of repeating ornament for figures and {landscopes}[landscapes].

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End of Project Gutenberg's The Decoration of Leather, by Georges de Récy