Part 2

The practical horseman of experience learns that the horse with disproportionately small feet seldom stands much work without going sore from some unsoundness of these organs. So with the slender-pasterned horse. He is not only subject to strain at that point, but predisposed to ringbone. The horse light under the knee is apt to suffer from strains of the tendons and ligaments in that situation, as well as troublesome splints. Proportionately large joints give wearing ability to the legs. This is well exemplified in the case of hocks with plenty of tissue in them. The sire that transmits small hocks to his offspring has handed down to him one of the most prolific sources of unsoundness in these joints. Defects of formation of these joints are often a cause of trouble, as has already been pointed out, but not so much so in my experience as lack of size. Stating that a horse has plenty of timber under him does not cover all cases, as some horses have plenty of tissue in their front legs and are deficient in their hind ones. In addition to formation and quantity of tissue, “quality” is of vast importance in influencing the wearing ability of the legs and feet. Parents transmit with great faithfulness to their progeny defects in the quality of the horn of hoofs. Shelly, brittle hoofs are strongly predisposed to crack, developing sand and quarter cracks on slight provocation, and giving rise to that very troublesome inability of being unable to hold the shoes tightly. Brittle hoofs are not necessarily coarse in fibre. Hoofs of coarse fibre lack the density of structure which generally contributes to toughness. Undue size of foot, low heels and flat soles, with a tendency to be easily bruised, are apt to be associated with a lack of quality in the horn structure. A horse with bone of a spongy character or lacking in density is deficient in quality. Such an individual is predisposed to inflammatory diseases of bone, such as splints, sore shins, ringbone and spavin. The lack of quality in a horse is particularly well shown in the skin of his legs. The tendency to the development of cracked heels, stocked legs, mud fever and grease is very evident on slight provocation. Sires deficient in quality are apt to transmit to their progeny the tendency to what are called soft-legs, in which there is not only the inclination of the skin to swell up from little cause, but windgalls, puffy sheaths of tendons and boggy hocks are easily induced. If, then, we accept these statements with regard to quality, as it would appear that every practical horseman must, we must admit that coarseness or lack of quality is by no means an unimportant factor in contributing to hereditary predisposition to unsoundness. Temperament is the last of the four heads into which we divided the predisposing causes of hereditary unsoundness. Although it must be admitted that it has an influence, we look upon it as the least important of the four. The nervous horse that jumps and gets excited on slight provocation; the anxious horse that is always up in his collar and against the bit, are more taxing on the physical mechanism than easier-going horses. We cannot afford to quite ignore this question of temperament in selecting sires and dams, but if the legs and feet are well formed, have sufficient substance, and are made up of a good quality of tissue, they will generally stand any taxing that may result from a high-strung temperament.

HITCHING IN HORSES

Of the many defects of action that horses show, one that detracts very much from the gracefulness of movement in the trot and walk is “hitching.” It is a peculiar hopping movement which results from a lack of power, or from defective balance. It is said that good cooks are born, not made. Exactly the opposite is the case with “hitchers”; they are made, not born, although there is no doubt that some colts are foaled with a predisposition to “hitch.” Still, even then, it may be kept in abeyance by good handling. The causes of “hitching,” then, may be said to be predisposing and exciting. Of the predisposing ones the most prolific is the want of power and freedom of movement in the hindquarter. Cat-hammed horses, those with short hindquarters, and those that stand with their hocks too far behind them, are very liable to “hitch.” Bad driving is a cause that frequently contributes to this fault. Some drivers will make almost every young horse they handle get into the habit, for it becomes almost a habit in some individuals.

Starting off at too fast a pace, urging a horse beyond his speed, particularly if he has a heavy trap behind him, and allowing him to go uncollectedly from driving with a loose rein, are causes. Drivers that allow horses to rattle along with their heads loose, particularly if they are inclined to be free, will make many hitchers, especially amongst young horses and those in which there is a predisposition to the fault.

Besides the causes already discussed and really the most important of all, is the mouth, for a very large percentage of “hitching” is referable to that organ. Horses which carry their heads steadily, hold them straight, with no crossing of jaws or opening of the mouth, and which keep their tongues in position under the bit and have responsive, firm mouths, never “hitch” when they have proper driving. Any discomfort of the mouth caused by bruises, abrasions or excoriations, making a horse sideline or bore, is very apt, in the case of a very prompt horse, to cause “hitching.” On the other hand, horses that do not face the bit firmly on account of soreness of the mouth or from the bit being placed too low in the mouth or from lack of courage, or any cause that makes them go with unsteady heads, are apt to “hitch.” A driver or rider with what is called bad hands is also apt to make a horse “hitch.” A driver with bad hands either takes a heavy, unyielding grip of the reins, or else holds them unsteadily, either of which causes is apt to put a horse off his balance.

The uninitiated are apt to mistake “hitching” for lameness, and it is very hard to persuade them to the contrary, especially if a horse keeps doing it persistently. It is not an unsoundness, however, for there is no lesion necessarily of the extremity “hitched.” Habitual “hitching” is a fault or defect, just the same as other defects of action and “forging” are faults.

If a horse is a persistent “hitcher,” however, he might almost as well be lame, as far as the unsightliness of the gait is concerned. In good hands, however, there is not much fear of it becoming habitual, and if it has become so from any cause, it can usually be remedied by good handling.

In standing about sale and show rings, we frequently hear onlookers say that such and such a horse is going lame behind, when in reality he is only “hitching.” At sale and show times horses are frequently urged and pulled together to a degree very apt to put them off their balance, especially when they are called upon to keep making short turns. Some horses, even at the walk, will persistently “hitch” in being ridden in a ring when sharply bitted. Horses may be seen to drag and hop on one hind leg in going around a ring at a walk when ridden with bit and bridoon, but if a change is made to a snaffle bit they will go squarely, thus showing how a sharp bit will cause unsteadiness and irregularity of the gait in some light-mouthed horses.

In case there is any doubt as to whether irregularity of the gait is due to lameness or to “hitching,” it is easily settled by jogging the animal in question at a slow trot “in hand” without any bit in the mouth, or at most a plain snaffle, with the head loose and carried straight. It may be emphasized here that the only true test in the determination of the question as to whether a horse goes sound or not, unless the lameness is fairly pronounced, is to jog “in hand” as already explained. Horses are sometimes condemned as going lame in the show ring when it is impossible to determine with certainty whether they are lame or not until taken out of harness and run “in hand.” It is sometimes a help, in deciding whether a horse is slightly sore forward or not, to get on his back, when the increased weight on the legs will intensify the tenderness.

The idea of a horse “hitching” in front is sometimes ridiculed, but occasionally one may be seen to do it unmistakably, and it is usually the result of some discomfort in connection with the mouth. As has been already said, anything that puts a horse off his balance is liable to make him “hitch.” A horse may be said to be “balanced” when every leg bears its proper proportion of weight and also exerts its share of propulsion. The position of the head is very important in regulating balance. If it is carried too low, too much weight is thrown on the fore extremities; if too high, too much strain is put on the hind ones. It is most important that the head shall be carried steadily and in proper position, for a want of firmness in its carriage is apt to put a horse off his balance and consequently lead to “hitching.”

HORSESHOEING AND HORSES’ HOOFS

As with many other subjects relating to horseflesh, there is a wide diversity of opinion as to the treatment of the horse’s hoof, particularly as to that phase of it which has to do with shoeing. In New York, especially, there is a deeply rooted prejudice in favor of allowing the hoofs to grow out to very considerable proportions. If you ask some of the strong advocates of this practice their reason for it, you get the nonexplanatory answer that they like to see a horse with a good foot. The question then naturally presents itself: Does a luxuriant growth of horn constitute a good foot, and is a long hoof conducive to the welfare of the foot and that portion of the extremity above it? There is no doubt you can take liberties with a horse’s foot with impunity under some circumstances, but if you want a horse to do everyday work, the nearer you get a hoof to its proper dimensions the better for the foot and the leg above it. For ordinary work the hoof should be kept of such dimensions that every part of the lower surface of it shall bear its proportionate amount of weight, and that there shall be no disturbance in the proper relations of the various parts that make up the legs and feet.

Dealers keep their horses’ toes long because length of toe increases their action. A horse with long toes is bound to exert more muscular force in order to raise his feet off the ground and extend them in progression; consequently his action is increased. As they do not work their horses hard, but merely give them exercise enough to keep them well mannered to show to their customers, they do not as a rule experience the ill-results they would if they were worked fairly hard. The same remarks apply to heavy harness show horses, that are simply kept in condition to show all the style and action possible.

Everyday work, however, is another matter. The dealer and showman is right from his standpoint, but not from the standpoint of the owner who is looking for everyday service.

Too long a toe acts as a lever and very much increases the tension of the tendons and ligaments that support the fetlocks, rendering them liable to strain, and also increasing the tendency to windgalls.

Too long a toe is also a fertile cause of corns, as it increases very much the pressure on the heels and consequent liability to bruise the quick of the foot at that place, which bruise constitutes a corn.

Besides having the toes too long, the heels are allowed to grow down, taking all the pressure off the frog. Nature intended the frog to bear its proper proportion of weight, and, if it doesn’t do so, it shrinks, the heels contract, and the inner quarter curls in and acts as a wedge between the shoe and the quick, and is thereby another cause of corns. Too long a hoof hastens fatigue, as the increased exertion necessary in raising and advancing the foot in progression augments the expenditure of force. The tendency to “interfere” is also much increased.

This prejudice in favor of keeping the hoofs long has been brought about and encouraged largely by the example and expressed opinions of dealers. A dealer sells a horse with long hoofs, and the purchaser sends him to the forge. The shoer, unless he has been otherwise definitely instructed, and if he understands what is best for the horse’s legs and feet, will reduce the hoofs to their normal proportions. When the owner drives or rides his new purchase again, he finds the action curtailed, and thinks the horse is going sore. He applies to the seller of the horse, who tells him that he has had his feet cut away so much that it has made him sore. This might be the case in exceptional instances, but very rarely.

In addition to reduction of the hoofs in size, the shoes may be lightened, which further lessens the action. What are called “green horses” are very apt to go sore if put abruptly into work, from the fact that their tissues have not been by degrees hardened for work; in other words, they are not in condition, and it will take some weeks before they can be safely put into anything like hard work.

After reading the foregoing, it will naturally be asked: What is the guide in determining the dimensions to which the hoof should be reduced at the time of shoeing? The practised eye of the man who understands the natural poise of the horse’s leg can determine at a glance how much to reduce the hoof so that every part of the leg and foot will approximately bear its due proportion of weight. The direction of the line of weight in the extremities varies in different individuals and nature can be assisted by regulating the direction of this line in order that no part shall be unduly taxed. The horse with the straight pastern and high heel is apt to suffer from the ill-effects of concussion, while the oblique-pasterned horse is more likely to suffer from strain. The ill-consequences of these defects of formation can be neutralized in a measure by regulating the length of hoof according to circumstances. For instance, the disadvantage of long and oblique pasterns can be overcome in a measure by keeping the hoof shortened up as much as possible, thereby reducing the tension on the supporting tissues of the fetlock. In the same way the elasticity of tread can be promoted in a straight-pasterned horse by reasonable length of toe.

Nature in some instances supplies compensations for defects of formation. In the fore extremity, the oblique shoulder, long arm and forearm and smooth flexion of the joints may in a measure counteract the injurious consequences of calf-knees and unduly short and straight pasterns. Added to this there may be that lightness of step, with which some horses are endowed, that has its determining cause in the nervous system, and which so much aids the wearing ability of the legs and feet.

Fleming, who is a justly recognized authority on horseshoeing, gives as a guide to determine the amount a horse’s hoof should be reduced at the time of shoeing, that the hoof should be shortened by the rasp until it is flush with what is called the “white line.” The “white line” is that portion of the hoof that forms the connecting medium between the outer margin of the sole and the inner and lower margin of the wall. Its outline is very clearly defined in a freshly rasped hoof. Fleming, doubtless, assumes that the sole and white line have not been reduced with the knife, but have been allowed to remain, as nature intended them, of their normal thickness.

Just here it may be remarked that the practice of paring away the sole of the foot, or in other words, thinning it, is a pernicious one.

The shoer appears to like to do this, as it cuts very easily and gives, as he thinks, a “neat” appearance to the hoof. The owner appears to endorse this, as he is very careful to have his groom stop the feet, forgetting that he has permitted the shoer to remove a much more efficient stopping than any artificial one in the outer surface of the sole. This is very easy of explanation and illustration if one takes an unmutilated hoof. First of all it must be noted that the outer hard and tough crust, called the wall, grows out indefinitely, unless it is worn or broken off by contact with the ground or reduced by the instruments of the former. This is not the case with the sole, for it is so constituted that after it attains a certain thickness, by a process of nature it exfoliates of its own accord, thus maintaining its normal thickness. These outer scales that keep coming off are nature’s stopping. Why? Because by protecting the inner and deeper layer from the drying effects of the air, they maintain moisture that is necessary in the sole. If, by paring, you cut through and examine a normal sole, you will find that the part next to the quick (the part freshly secreted by the quick) is moist, and as you proceed to the surface of the sole it gradually gets dryer, the outer part being almost entirely free from moisture and admirably adapted to protect the inner and moister part until it is gradually forced outward by fresh growth from within and becomes in its turn a “stopping” for the inner and freshly formed layer of sole. What happens if the knife is used instead of nature being allowed to go on with its own process of desquamation? Why, the deeper parts of the sole become exposed to the action of the air before they are prepared for it by a gradual process of drying, and abruptly dry and contract. This is what causes the sole to become increasedly cupped, and the hoof to become contracted in a great measure. The stopping of horses’ hoofs is not always necessary if the sole is left, as it should be, in an unmutilated condition, unless horses are made to stand a great deal upon dry floors. Much of the fuss and waste of time and material involved in the stopping of horses’ hoofs are based on error. All that is necessary to remove the sole in a normal foot is accomplished when the rasp is flatly applied to the lower surface of the wall in reducing it to its proper dimensions. The thicker the sole the better, provided it does not project below the wall, or receive too much pressure from the shoe. One can readily understand how much more efficient a thick sole is as a protection to the underlying quick, especially on rough, frozen and stony roads, than a comparatively thin one.

Now, if the sole is left thick, as it should be, and in which case the white line would necessarily be, it is a good guide for the shoer, in the majority of cases, to rasp down to the white line. Another error frequently made, though not so common as mutilation of the sole, is cutting away the frog. It does not require a deep student of physiology of the foot to see almost at a glance the function of the frog. Take a normal hoof and examine the frog and you will observe that it is placed at the back of the hoof, where the major portion of the pressure comes. You further find that, unlike either the sole or the wall, it is endowed with elasticity equal to india rubber. It is very evident that it is intended not only to come in contact with the ground, but also to act as a buffer in lessening concussion. Now, what happens if you cut it away and leave the heel so high that it does not come in contact with the ground? Why, it shrinks and becomes as hard as wood, entirely unsuited to stand pressure without bruising the underlying quick, and no longer capable of performing its office of breaking concussion. Not only that, but with a thin, dried-up sole, the shrunken hoof draws the quarters with it, and you have contracted feet or at least contracted heels. After this mischief has been done through ignorance, then the horse must have that curer of all ills of the foot (according to some wise ones), spreaders, to overcome the contraction of the hoof.

Although horses are largely kept under artificial conditions, there is no reason why their hoofs should become contracted if rationally treated, unless some disease of the foot develops, such as navicular disease. Under such circumstances, the contraction is the result of disease, not the cause of it.

Another point that should be carefully watched in preparing the hoof for the reception of the shoe is to have it level. If either inside or outside of the hoof is left too long, it changes the direction of the line of weight and subjects some portion or portions of the extremity to undue strain or pressure and consequent liability to injury.

Horses that are turned out into soft fields or put into box stalls or barnyards, where there is not sufficient attrition to wear the hoof to its normal dimensions, should have it rasped down every month to its proper proportions. This particularly applies to young colts, and neglect of it is the initial step in causing hoofs of defective formation.

CORRECT ACTION IN HORSES