part 10

. Pop. 6533.

ELEVATION. In astronomy, the elevation of an object above the horizon is measured by the arc intercepted between the horizon and the object on the circle which passes through the object and the zenith. In geometry, solids can be represented by means of two projections; one on a horizontal plane, and the other on a plane perpendicular to the horizontal. The former is called the plan, and the latter the elevation.

ELEVATION OF THE HOST (Lat. _hostia_, a victim), in the ritual of the Mass, is the lifting up of the elements immediately after consecration, to be worshipped by the people. It was introduced into the Latin Church in the eleventh century, in consequence of the denial by Berengarius of the real presence in the sacrament. The Council of Trent ordered that the host should be worshipped with the highest adoration, that of _latria_, which is offered to God only.

EL'EVATOR, (1) a mechanical contrivance consisting of a series of boxes or buckets attached to a belt travelling round two drums, one above and one below, for hoisting grain, meal, coal, coke, &c. In America large buildings which contain such contrivances, and in which grain is stored, receive the same name. (2) An apparatus for raising or lowering persons or goods to or from different levels in warehouses, hotels, &c., consisting usually of a cage or movable platform worked by hydraulic power: also called a _lift_ or _hoist_.

ELF-ARROWS, ELF-BOLTS, or ELF-SHOT, popular names in Europe for stone arrow-heads and axes. They were worn as charms against lightning; cattle and men are said to have been struck and wounded by them. In the Far East they are 'thunder-stones'.

ELGAR, Sir Edward, English composer, was born at Broadheath, Worcestershire, 2nd June, 1857. For some time he acted as conductor of the Worcester Instrumental Society, and as organist at St. George's, Worcester, but when later he turned to composition he resigned both these positions. In 1892 he produced _The Black Knight_, and this was followed by several oratorios, cantatas, and other works, including _The Light of Life_, a short oratorio (Worcester Festival, 1896); _King Olaf_, a cantata (North Staffordshire Festival, 1896); _Imperial March_ (1897); _Te Deum_ (Hereford Festival, 1897); _Caractacus_ (Leeds Festival, 1898); and _Orchestral Variations_ (1899). In 1900 his famous sacred cantata, _The Dream of Gerontius_, was produced at the Birmingham Festival (repeated at D[:u]sseldorf in 1901 and at the Niederrheinische Musik Fest in 1902), and added immensely to his already considerable reputation. In 1902 the _Coronation Ode_ proved extremely popular, and in 1903 the Birmingham Festival introduced _The Apostles_, a fine oratorio, which, like the _Gerontius_, was honoured at the Niederrheinische Musik Fest the following year. In March, 1904, an 'Elgar Festival', lasting three days, was held at Covent Garden, London, at which, in addition to _The Dream of Gerontius_, _The Apostles_, and other compositions by Dr. Elgar, was produced _Alassio_, a new concert overture, the outcome of a visit to Italy. In 1904 Dr. Elgar was knighted. From 1905 to 1908 he was professor of music at Birmingham University. He has received musical and other degrees from Oxford, Cambridge, and Yale.

ELGIN, James Bruce, eighth Earl of, and twelfth Earl of Kincardine, Governor-General of India, born in 1811, died in 1863. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, he entered Parliament in 1841 as member for Southampton, and in the same year succeeded to the earldom. He was appointed Governor-General of Jamaica in 1842, and in 1846 Governor-General of Canada. In 1849 he was raised to the British peerage as Baron Elgin of Elgin. In 1857 he went as special ambassador to China, and concluded the Treaty of Tientsin (1858). In 1859 he became Postmaster-General in Palmerston's Cabinet, in 1860 was sent on a special mission to Pekin, and in 1861 became Governor-General of India.--Victor Alexander Bruce, ninth Earl of Elgin, son of the preceding, born 1849, died 1917, was also Governor-General of India (1894-9), and Colonial Secretary in the Campbell-Bannerman Ministry from Dec., 1905, to April, 1908.

ELGIN (el'gin), a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, capital of Elgin County, situated on the Lossie, about 5 miles from its influx into the Moray Firth, 70 miles N.W. of Aberdeen. The town largely consists of mansions and villas. The most interesting edifice is the cathedral, now in ruins, which was once the most magnificent in Scotland. It was founded by Bishop Andrew Moray in 1224; plundered and burned in 1390 by the 'Wolf of Badenoch', and again in 1402 by Alexander, third son of the Lord of the Isles; restored 1390 to 1424; and again plundered in 1568. Until 1918 the Elgin Burghs sent one member to the House of Commons. Pop. 8656.--_Elgin_, county of, also called Morayshire, is a maritime county, bounded by the Moray Firth, Banffshire, Inverness-shire, and Nairnshire; area, 340,000 acres. Along the sea-coast, which extends for more than 30 miles, the surface is flat, but inland it rises into hills of moderate elevation, intersected by fine and fertile valleys. The chief rivers are the Spey, Lossie, and Findhorn, the Spey and Findhorn having excellent salmon fishing. Inexhaustible quarries of freestone (rich in fossils) are worked. The climate is noted for its general mildness, dryness, and salubrity. The lower tracts of land are fertile and highly cultivated, the principal crops being wheat, oats, potatoes, and turnips. The great majority of farms are small. A portion of the surface is still covered with native forests. The county unites with Nairnshire in returning one member to the House of Commons, Pop. 43,427.

ELGIN, a town of the United States, in Illinois, on Fox River, 36 miles N.W. of Chicago. It has a watch-factory and various flourishing industries. Pop. 25,976.

ELGIN MARBLES, the splendid collection of antique sculptures brought chiefly from the Parthenon of Athens to England by the seventh Earl of Elgin (1766-1841) in 1814, and afterwards purchased by Parliament for the British Museum at the cost of L35,000. They consist of figures in low and high relief and in the round, representing gods, goddesses, and heroes; the combats of the Centaurs and Lapithae; the Panathenaic procession, &c. They exhibit Greek sculpture at its highest stage, and were partly the work of Phidias. The historical and artistic value of the Elgin marbles was at first doubted, and Lord Elgin himself was not spared. His act in removing the marbles was denounced as vandalism.

EL HASA, a fertile district of Eastern Arabia, on the Persian Gulf. It produces dates, wheat, millet, and rice. Pop. estimated at 175,000.

ELI, one of the Hebrew judges, the predecessor of Samuel. He was high-priest and judge for forty years, but was less successful as head of his own household. His two sons having been slain, and the ark taken in battle by the Philistines, the news proved so severe a shock that he fell and broke his neck, at the age of ninety-eight. Little is really known of the history of Eli, since he is only shown to us in the weakness of old age, unable to control his sons Hophni and Phinehas, whose wickedness disgusted and alienated the people.

ELI'JAH, the most distinguished of the prophets of Israel, flourished in the ninth century B.C., during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah, and until the beginning of the reign of Jehoram, his special function being to denounce vengeance on the kings of Israel for their apostasy. He incurred the anger of Jezebel, wife of Ahab, for slaying the prophets of Baal, but escaped to Horeb, afterwards returning to Samaria to denounce Ahab for the murder of Naboth. Elijah at length ascended to heaven in a chariot of fire, Elisha, his successor, being witness. See _1 Kings_, xvii to xxi, and _2 Kings_, i and ii.

ELIMINATION, in mathematics, the process of treating a given set of equations so as to deduce from them an equation free from a selected letter, or from several selected letters. For instance, if the system of equations

a_1x + b_1y + c_1z = 0, a_2x + b_2y + c_2z = 0, a_3x + b_3y + c_3z = 0,

has a solution in which one at least of x, y, z is different from zero, then

| a_1, b_1, c_1 | | a_2, b_2, c_2 | = 0. | a_3, b_3, c_3 |

(See _Determinant_.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Burnside and Panton, _Theory of Equations_; Salmon, _Higher Algebra_.

EL'IOT, George, the assumed literary name of Mary Ann, or, as she preferred to write the name in later years, Marian Evans, English novelist. She was the daughter of a Warwickshire land-agent and surveyor, was born at Griff, near Nuneaton, on 22nd Nov., 1820, and died on 22nd Dec., 1880. She received at Coventry an excellent education, comprising the classical and modern languages, and shortly after her twenty-first year became a convert to Rationalism. Her first literary undertaking was the completion of Mrs. Hennell's translation of Strauss's _Life of Jesus_ (1846). Towards the end of her task she seems, however, to have wearied of it, and when the work appeared she declared herself 'Strauss-sick'. After spending two years abroad, she boarded at the house of John Chapman, editor of the _Westminster Review_, of which she became sub-editor. It was not, however, until January, 1857, that she came prominently into public notice, when the first of a series of tales entitled _Scenes from Clerical Life_ appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_. The series came to an end in Nov., 1857, and in the following year the publication of _Adam Bede_ placed her in the first rank of writers of fiction. It was succeeded by _The Mill on the Floss_ (1860), _Silas Marner_ (1861), _Romola_ (1863), _Felix Holt_ (1866), _Middlemarch_ (1872), and _Daniel Deronda_ (1876). In addition to those prose works she published three volumes of poems, _The Spanish Gypsy_ (1868), _Agatha_ (1869), and _The Legend of Jubal_ (1874). Her last work published during her life was the series of essays entitled _The Impressions of Theophrastus Such_ (1879), but a volume of mixed essays was issued posthumously. For many years she was happily associated both in life and work with George Henry Lewes, though a legal union was impossible during the lifetime of Mrs. Lewes. In May, 1880, after Lewes's death, she married Mr. John Cross, but did not survive the marriage many months, dying rather suddenly at Chelsea.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Haton, _George Eliot in Derbyshire_; J. W. Cross (editor), _George Eliot's Life as Related in Her Letters and Journals_ (3 vols.); O. Browning, _Life of George Eliot_; Deakin, _The Early Life of George Eliot_; Sir Leslie Stephen, _George Eliot_ (in English Men of Letters Series).

ELIOT, Sir John, one of the ablest of the popular leaders of Charles I's reign, of an old Cornwall family, born in 1592, died in 1632. He entered Parliament in 1614 as member for St. Germans, winning immediate reputation as an orator. As vice-admiral of Devon he was energetic in suppressing piracy. In the three Parliaments of 1623, 1625, 1626, he made his way to the front of the constitutional party, joined Hampden and the rest in refusing contributions to the forced loan, and took a prominent share in drawing up the Remonstrance and Petition of Right. He was imprisoned in the Tower in 1629, and died in confinement. During his imprisonment he wrote a work on constitutional monarchy entitled _The Monarchie of Man_. Among his other works are: _An Apology for Socrates_, and _Negotium Posterorum_ (an account of the Parliament of 1625).

E'LIS, a maritime state of ancient Greece in the west of the Peloponnesus, bordering on Achaia, Arcadia, and Messenia, and watered by the Rivers Alph[=e]us and Pen[=e]us. Of its capital Elis (now Kaloskopi) there are few traces. Olympia, where the famous games were held, was near the Alpheus. Since 1899 Elis forms a nomarchy of Greece.

ELI'SHA, a Hebrew prophet, the disciple and successor of Elijah. Many miracles of prediction and cure, and even of raising the dead, are ascribed to him, but his figure is less original and heroic than that of his master. He held the office of prophet for fully sixty-five years, from the reign of Ahab to that of Joash (latter half of ninth century B.C.).

ELIX'IR, a word of Arabic origin (_al iksir_, the philosopher's stone), applied by the alchemists to a number of solutions employed in attempting the transmutation of metals into gold, and also to a potion, the _elixir vitae_, or elixir of life, supposed to confer immortality. It is still used for various popular remedies, for the most part composed of various aromatic and stimulative substances held in solution by alcohol.

ELIZABETH (_Carmen Sylva_), Dowager Queen of Roumania, born at Neuwied, principality of Wied, in 1843, died at Bucharest, 2nd March, 1916. In 1869 she was married to Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, who became King of Roumania in 1881. Queen Elizabeth, or, as she was generally known, Carmen Sylva (her pen-name), was not only a patron of Roumanian writers and artists, but herself a distinguished author. Among her works, which were all, with the exception of one, written in German, are: _The Bard of the Dimbovitza_, _Pilgrim Sorrow_, _A Real Queen's Fairy Tales_, and _From Memory's Shrine_. In 1914 she was made an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of Literature of Great Britain.

ELIZABETH, Queen of England, daughter of Henry VIII and of Anne Boleyn, was born at Greenwich, 7th Sept., 1533, and almost immediately declared heiress to the crown. After her mother had been beheaded (1536) both she and her sister Mary were declared bastards, and she was finally placed after Prince Edward and the Lady Mary in the order of succession. On the accession of Edward VI Elizabeth was committed to the care of the Queen-Dowager Catherine; and after the death of Catherine and execution of her consort Thomas Seymour she was closely watched at Hatfield, where she received a classical education under William Grindal and Roger Ascham. At the death of Edward Elizabeth vigorously supported the title of Mary against the pretensions of Lady Jane Grey, but continued throughout the whole reign an object of suspicion and surveillance. In self-defence she made every demonstration of zealous adherence to the Roman Catholic faith, but her inclinations were well known. On 17th Nov., 1558, Mary died, and Elizabeth was immediately recognized queen by Parliament. The accuracy of her judgment showed itself in her choice of advisers, Parker, a moderate divine (Archbishop of Canterbury 1559), aiding her in ecclesiastical policy; while William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, assisted her in foreign affairs.

The first great object of her reign was the settlement of religion, to effect which a Parliament was called on 25th Jan., and dissolved on the 8th May, its object having been accomplished. The nation was prepared for a return to the Reformed faith, and the Parliament was at the bidding of the Court. The ecclesiastical system devised in her father's reign was re-established, the royal supremacy asserted, and the revised Prayer Book enforced by the Act of Uniformity. While, however, the formal establishment of the reformed religion was easily completed, the security and defence of the settlement was the main object of the policy and the chief source of all the struggles and contentions of her reign. Freed from the tyranny of Mary's reign, the Puritans began to claim predominance for their own dogmas, while the supporters of the Established Church were unwilling to grant them even liberty of worship. The Puritans, therefore, like the Catholics, became irreconcilable enemies of the existing order, and increasingly stringent measures were adopted against them. But the struggle against the Catholics was the more severe, chiefly because they were supported by foreign powers; so that while their religion was wholly prohibited, even exile was forbidden them, in order to prevent their intrigues abroad. Many Catholics, particularly priests, suffered death during this reign; but simple nonconformity, from whatever cause, was pursued with the severest penalties, and many more clergymen were driven out of the Church, by differences about the position of altars, the wearing of caps, and such like matters, than were forced to resign by the change from Rome to Reformation.

Elizabeth's first Parliament approached her on a subject which, next to religion, was the chief trouble of her reign, the succession to the Crown. They requested her to marry, but she declared her intention to live and die a virgin; and she consistently declined in the course of her life such suitors as the Duc d'Alencon, Prince Erik of Sweden, the Archduke Charles of Austria, and Philip of Spain. While, however, she felt that she could best maintain her power by remaining unmarried, she knew how to temporize with suitors for political ends, and showed the greatest jealousy of all pretenders to the English succession. With the unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, were connected many of the political events of Elizabeth's reign. On her accession the country was at war with France. Peace was easily concluded (1559); but the assumption by Francis and Mary of the royal arms and titles of England led to an immediate interference on the part of Elizabeth in the affairs of Scotland. She entered into a league with the Lords of the Congregation, or leaders of the Reformed party; and throughout her reign this party was frequently serviceable in furthering her policy. She also gave early support to the Huguenot party in France, and to the Protestants in the Netherlands, so that throughout Europe she was looked on as the head of the Protestant party. This policy roused the implacable resentment of Philip, who strove in turn to excite the Catholics against her both in her own dominions and in Scotland. The detention of Mary in England (1568-87), whither she fled to the protection of Elizabeth, led to a series of conspiracies, beginning with that under the Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland, and ending with the plot of Babington, which finally determined Elizabeth to make away with her captive. The execution of Queen Mary (1587), though it has stained her name to posterity, tended to confirm her power among her contemporaries. The state of France consequent on the accession of Henry IV, who was assisted by Elizabeth, obviated any danger from the indignation which the deed had caused in that country; and the awe in which King James stood of Elizabeth and his dread of interfering with his own right of succession to England made him powerless. But Philip of Spain was not to be so appeased, the execution of Mary lending edge to other grievances. The fleets of Elizabeth had galled him in the West Indies, her arms and subsidies had helped to deprive him of the Netherlands; the Armada was already in preparation. Accordingly he called the Queen of England a murderess, and refused to be satisfied even with the sacrifice she seemed prepared to make of her Dutch allies. The Armada sailed on 29th May, 1588. The war with Spain dragged on till the close of Elizabeth's long reign.

During her reign the splendour of her government at home and abroad was sustained by such men as Burleigh, Bacon, Walsingham, and Throgmorton; but she had personal favourites of less merit who were often more brilliantly rewarded. Chief of these were Dudley, whom she created Earl of Leicester, and whom she was disposed to marry, and Essex, whose violent passions brought about his ruin. He was beheaded in 1601, but Elizabeth never forgave herself his death. Her own health soon after gave way, and she died on 24th March, 1603, naming James VI of Scotland as her successor.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. A. S. Hume (editor), _Calendar of State Papers_ (Spanish Series); J. Bruce (editor), _Letters of Elizabeth and James VI_; W. Camden, _History of Queen Elizabeth_; J. A. Froude, _History of England_; M. Creighton, _Queen Elizabeth_; E. S. Beesley, _Queen Elizabeth_.

ELIZABETH, a city of New Jersey, United States, 14 miles S.W. of New York, with which it has ample communication by railway and steamer. It is a favourite residence of New York business men. The Singer Sewing-machine Company has a large factory here, and there are also foundries and oil-cloth factories. Pop. 73,409.

ELIZABETH, ST., of Thuringia, daughter of Andreas II, King of Hungary, was born at Pressburg 1207, and in 1221 married to Louis IV, land-grave of Thuringia. She erected hospitals, fed a multitude of poor from her own table, and wandered about in a humble dress, relieving the wretched. Louis died on a crusade, and her own life terminated 19th Nov., 1231, in a hospital which she had herself established. The church over her tomb at Marburg is one of the most splendid Gothic edifices in Germany.

[Illustration: Elizabethan Architecture. Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire]

[Illustration: Elizabethan Architecture: an Interior

Reconstruction in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.]

ELIZ'ABETHAN ARCHITECTURE, a style of architecture which prevailed in England during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. It succeeded to the Tudor style, properly so called, with which it is sometimes confounded. The Elizabethan is a mixture of inferior Gothic and debased Italian, producing a singular heterogeneousness in detail, with, however, wonderful picturesqueness in general effect, and domestic accommodation more in accordance with the wants of an advancing civilization than was afforded by the styles which preceded it. The chief characteristics of Elizabethan architecture are: windows of great size both in the plane of the wall and deeply embayed, ceilings very richly decorated in relief, galleries of great length, very tall and highly-decorated chimneys, as well as a profuse use of ornamental strapwork in the parapets, window-heads, &c. The Elizabethan style is the last stage of the Tudor or Perpendicular, and from its corresponding in point of period with the Renaissance of the Continent has sometimes been called the English Renaissance. The epithet Jacobean has sometimes been given to the very latest stage of the Elizabethan, differing from the Elizabethan proper in showing a greater admixture of debased Italian forms. The princely houses which arose during the reign of Elizabeth are numerous, and many even yet remain to attest the splendour of the time. Of these may be mentioned Burghley House, Hardwick Hall, and Bramhall Hall.--Cf. Gotch and Brown, _Architecture of the Renaissance in England_.

ELIZABETH FARNESE (f[.a]r-n[=a]'z[=a]), Queen of Spain, daughter of Edward II, Prince of Parma, born 1692, died in 1776. On becoming the second wife of Philip V she surprised those who had counselled the marriage by assuming the practical headship of the kingdom, and her ambition and that of her minister Alberoni disturbed the whole of Europe. Carlyle calls her a "termagant tenacious woman".

ELIZABETHGRAD, a town of the Ukraine, on the Ingul, with an imperial palace, a theatre, manufactures of soap and candles, and several great fairs. Pop. 75,800.

ELIZABETH ISLANDS, a group of sixteen American islands south of Cape Cod, with a permanent population of about 150.

ELIZABETH OF VALOIS, or ISABELLA, Queen of Spain, was born in 1545, died in 1568. She was the daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. By the Treaty of Cateau-Cambr['e]sis she was destined to be the wife of the Infante, Don Carlos, but his father, Philip II, being left a widower, became fascinated and married her himself. The stories of a romantic relationship existing between Elizabeth and Don Carlos are entirely groundless, but have furnished tragic subjects to Otway, Campistron, Ch['e]nier, Schiller, and Alfieri.

ELIZABETH PETROVNA, Empress of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine, born in 1709 or 1710, died in 1762. She ascended the throne on 7th Dec., 1741, as the result of a conspiracy, in which Ivan VI, a minor, was deposed. Elizabeth is said to have rivalled her mother in beauty, and to have surpassed her in her love of pleasure, and her government was largely conducted by favourites. She was a patron of literature, founded the University of Moscow, and corresponded with Voltaire. A war with Sweden, in 1743, was advantageously concluded by the peace of [oA]bo. In 1748 she sent an army to assist Maria Theresa in the War of the Succession, and joined in the Seven Years' War against Prussia. She died before this war was concluded.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nisbet Bain. _The Daughter of Peter the Great_; A. S. Rappoport, _The Fair Ladies of the Winter Palace_.

ELIZABETHPOL, a town of Russia, in the Caucasus, capital of the government of same name, covering a great space of ground from the gardens and open areas it contains, but very unhealthy. Pop. 18,505.--The government has an area of 17,000 sq. miles, a pop. of 636,310. It is partly mountainous, partly steppes, and produces grain, cotton, tobacco, and wine.

ELIZABETH STUART, Queen of Bohemia, daughter of James I of England and VI of Scotland, born in Falkland Palace, Fifeshire, 1596, died on 13th Feb., 1662. Her marriage with the Palatine Frederick was celebrated at Whitehall in 1613. Her husband, then at the head of the Protestant interest in Germany, accepted in 1619 the Crown of Bohemia offered to him by the revolted Protestants of that country. After his defeat, however, by the imperalists at the battle of Prague in 1620, he and his wife were obliged to flee, first to Breslau and Berlin, and then to the Hague. Elizabeth returned to England at the Restoration with her nephew Charles II, but mingled very little in society. Elizabeth had thirteen children, of whom Charles Louis, the eldest surviving, was reinstated in the Palatinate by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. By her daughters, Elizabeth Charlotte and Sophia, she was the ancestress of Louis Philippe and of George I, and her sons, Rupert and Maurice, became famous Cavalier leaders.

[Illustration: Elk (_Alces Machlis_)]

ELK, MOOSE, or MOOSE DEER (_Alces Machlis_), the largest of the deer family, a native of Northern Europe, Asia, and America. The American form (to which the name moose is usually given) is sometimes separated from the European as _Alces americ[=a]nus_, but most naturalists find no specific difference between them. The elk or moose has a short compact body, standing about 6 feet in height at the shoulders, a thick neck, large clumsy head, and horns which flatten out almost from the base into a broad palmate form with numerous snags. In colour the elk is greyish brown, the limbs, sides of head, and coarse mane being, however, of a lighter hue. Its flesh resembles beef rather than venison. For the most part elks are inoffensive, and so exceedingly wary that they are approached only with difficulty. In America the Indians and half-breeds are the most skilful moose-hunters. By trampling down a restricted area of ground (moose-yard) and browsing on the edge of this, the moose is able to protect itself efficiently against the attacks of wolves. The moose has a wide range in Canada, extending from the Arctic Ocean and British Columbia to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; and it is found also in Maine. It feeds largely on the shoots of trees or shrubs, such as the willow and maple, and on bark, &c. In Sweden its destruction is illegal, and in Norway there are many restrictions upon the hunting of it.

[Illustration: Antlers and Skull of Irish Elk]

ELK, IRISH (_Megac[)e]ros hibern[)i]cus_, or _Cervus giganteus_), a large deer found in the Pleistocene strata, and distinguished by its enormous antlers, the tips of which are sometimes 11 feet apart. Though a true deer, its antlers differ from those of living species in that the beam is flattened into a palm. To sustain the great weight, unusually large and strong limbs and neck vertebrae were required. Its remains are found not only in Ireland but in Scotland and England, and on the Continent, where they occur in bogs, lacustrine deposits, brick-clay, and ossiferous caves.

EL KHARGEH. See _Khargeh_.

ELK'HART, a town of Indiana, United States, on Elkhart River, with railroad works and paper-mills. Pop. 19,282.

ELL (Lat. _ulna_, Gr. _[=o]len[=e]_, forearm), an old measure whereby cloths, stuffs, &c., are sometimes measured. The ell English is 5 quarters (45 inches), the ell Flemish 3 quarters (27 inches). In Scotland an ell contained 37.2 inches English.

ELL'AND, a town of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire, between Halifax and Huddersfield, with an old church and town-hall, manufactures of cottons and woollens, and quarries. It gives its name to a parliamentary division. Pop. 10,676.

ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, Lord, English lawyer, Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, born in 1750 at Great Salkeld, Cumberland, died in 1818. He was educated at the Charterhouse and at Peterhouse, Cambridge, and called to the Bar in 1780. Not long afterwards he took silk, and at the trial of Warren Hastings, in 1785, acted as leading counsel. The defence did not come on until the fifth year of the trial, but after eight years Hastings was acquitted and Law's success assured. In 1801 he was made Attorney-General, and in 1802 became Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, and was created baron. He held the office of Chief Justice for fifteen years, resigning in 1818.

ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, first Earl of, son of Lord Chief Justice Ellenborough (see above), born in 1790, died in 1871. He was educated at Eton and St. John's College, Cambridge, and in 1818, having succeeded his father as second baron, he entered the House of Lords. In 1818 he took office as Lord Privy Seal, and was President of the Board of Control from 1828-30, and again in 1834. In 1841 he accepted the governor-generalship of India, and arrived in Calcutta in 1842, in time to bring the Afghan War to a successful issue. The annexation of Seinde in 1843 was followed by the conquest of Gwalior, but the conduct of the Governor-General gave dissatisfaction at home, and he was recalled early in 1844. On his return, however, he was defended by Wellington, and received the thanks of Parliament, an earldom, and the Grand Cross of the Bath. He then held the post of First Lord of the Admiralty (1845-6), and was President of the Board of Control from Feb. to June, 1858. His dispatch censuring the policy of Lord Canning as Governor-General of India led to his resignation, and he never resumed office.

ELL'ICE ISLANDS, or LAGOON ISLANDS, a group of coral islands annexed to Britain in 1892, lying north of Fiji, and extending for 360 miles north-west to south-east. The islands were discovered by Maurelle in 1781. The inhabitants are of Samoan race and language, have long been Christians, and support themselves chiefly by the coco-nut. Pop. 3084.

ELLICHPUR (el-ich-p[:o]r'), a town of India, in Ellichpur district, Berar, once a large and prosperous town. There is a military cantonment within two miles. Pop. 27,500.

EL'LICOTT, Right Rev. Charles John, English divine, born 1819, died in 1905. Educated at Cambridge, he was professor of divinity in King's College, London, Hulsean lecturer and Hulsean professor of divinity at Cambridge, and Dean of Exeter, and in 1863 was appointed Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. He was for eleven years chairman of the scholars engaged on the revision of the New Testament translation, and published commentaries on the Old and the New Testaments, as well as sermons, addresses, and lectures.

ELLIOTT, Ebenezer, English poet, known as the 'Corn-law Rhymer', born in 1781 near Rotherham, Yorkshire, died in 1849. At the age of seventeen he published his first poem, _The Vernal Walk_, which was soon followed by others. In 1829 _The Village Patriarch_, the best of Elliott's longer pieces, was published. From 1831 to 1837 he carried on business as an iron merchant in Sheffield. His _Corn-law Rhymes_, periodically contributed to a local paper devoted to the repeal of these laws, attracted attention, and were afterwards collected and published with a longer poem entitled _The Ranter_. Commercial losses compelled him in 1837 to contract his business, and in 1841 he retired from it altogether. In 1850 two posthumous volumes appeared, entitled _More Prose and Verse by the Corn-law Rhymer_.

[Illustration: Ellipse]

ELLIPSE', one of the conic sections. The curve generated by a point which moves so that its distance from a fixed point bears a constant ratio (less than unity) to its distance from a fixed straight line. Kepler discovered that the paths described by the planets in their revolutions round the sun are ellipses, the sun being placed in one of the foci. To describe an ellipse: At a given distance on the surface on which the ellipse is to be described fix two pins, A and B, and pass a looped string round them. Keep the string stretched by a pencil, C, and move the pencil round, keeping the string at the same tension, then the ellipse EGFH will be described. A and B are the _foci_, D the centre, EF the major axis, GH the minor axis, and the fraction DA/DE the _eccentricity_ of the ellipse. A line drawn from any point in the curve perpendicularly to the axis is an ordinate to the axis. Any straight line drawn through the centre and terminated both ways by the curve is called a diameter.

_Ellipsoid_, a surface bearing the same sort of relation to a spherical surface as an ellipse bears to a circle. The name is also given to the solid bounded by such a surface.

The equation of an ellipsoid, referred to its principal axes, is

x^2/a^2 + y^2/b^2 + z^2/c^2 = 1.

Here a, b, c, are the lengths of the principal semi-axes. A plane section is an ellipse, but there are two particular directions of the section for which the ellipse reduces to a circle.

The ellipsoid has important applications in dynamics, as a means of interpreting algebraic formulae for physical quantities; examples are the ellipsoids of strain and of gyration, and Poinsot's momental ellipsoid.

Two ellipsoids in which the principal sections lie in the same planes, and have the same foci, are called _confocal_.

_Ellipsoidal Harmonics_ are mathematical functions by means of which certain physical problems in heat and electricity relating to ellipsoidal surfaces can be solved. For ellipsoids of revolution, see _Spheroid_.

ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS are generalizations of the circular functions _sine_, _cosine_, &c. If

u = integral from 0 to x of the function {dx}/sqrt(1-x^2) = sin^{-1}x,

we have x = sin u. Similarly, if

u = integral from 0 to x of the function {dx}/sqrt{(1-x^2)(1-k^2x^2)},

we may write x = sn u, [sqrt](1 - x^2) = cn u, [sqrt](1 - k^2x^2) = dn u. These are Jacobi's elliptic functions. They obviously reduce to sin u, cos u, 1, when k is 0. The circular functions have the period 2[pi]; the elliptic functions are _doubly_ periodic, having both a real and a pure imaginary period when k^2 is real and less than 1. Like the functions _sine_ and _cosine_, the elliptic functions have _addition theorems_, e.g.

sn(u + v) = {sn u cn v dn v + sn v cn u dn u}/{1 - k^2sn^2u sn^2v}.

Another method and notation has been introduced by Weierstrass, and is now much used. The functions are needed for the solution of many physical problems, such as those of the motion of a top and of a pendulum.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. G. Greenhill, _Elliptic Functions_; Appell and Lacour, _Fonctions Elliptiques_; Whittaker and Watson, _Modern Analysis_.

ELLIS, Alexander John, English philologist, born 1814 (name originally Sharpe), died in 1890. He was a distinguished graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, was elected to the Royal Society in 1864, and was long a prominent member of the Philological Society, being more than once its president. Though phonetics was the subject in which he most highly distinguished himself, he was equally at home in mathematical and musical subjects. His chief published work is _Early English Pronunciation_ (in five parts), between 1869 and 1889; but his publications in the form of books, pamphlets, papers, and articles on phonetics, music, and mathematics are numerous.

ELLIS, George, English man of letters, born in 1753, died in 1815. Educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge, he became one of the junta of wits concerned in the well-known political satire, _The Rolliad_, and contributed to the _Anti-Jacobin_. He also wrote a preface, notes, and appendix to Way's translation of Le Grand's _Fabliaux_, and published _Specimens of the Early English Poets, with an Historical Sketch_ (1790), and _Specimens of Early English Metrical Romances_ (1805). He was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott.

ELLIS, William, English missionary, born 1794, died 1872. He was sent out to the South Sea Islands in 1816 by the London Missionary Society, and returned in 1825, one result of his labours being _Polynesian Researches_ (1829). From 1830 to 1844 he was secretary to the society, and afterwards on its behalf made several visits to Madagascar, the longest being from 1861 to 1865. These visits led him to publish _Three Visits to Madagascar_ (1858), _Madagascar Revisited_ (1867), and the _Martyr Church of Madagascar_ (1870).

ELLIS ISLAND, a small island in the upper New York Bay. Sold by the New York State to the United States, in 1808, it was for a long time used as a powder magazine, but in 1891 was made an immigrant station.

ELLO'RA, or ELO'RA, a ruined village, Hindustan, Deccan, Nizam's Dominions, 13 miles north-west of Aurangabad, famous for its rock and cave temples excavated in the crescent-shaped scarp of a large plateau. They run from north to south for about a mile and a quarter, and consist of five Jain caves towards the north, seventeen Brahmanical caves at the centre, and towards the south twelve Buddhistic caves. Of the temples some are cut down through the rock, and left open above like isolated buildings, others are excavated under the hill in the manner of caves properly so called. The interior walls are often richly carved with mythological designs. The most magnificent of the whole is the Hindu temple called Kailasa or Cailasa, the central portion of which forms an isolated excavated mass or immense block 500 feet in circumference and 100 feet high. It is surrounded by galleries or colonnades at the distance of 150 feet, in which the whole Hindu pantheon is cut in the perpendicular rock. Another fine temple, much smaller, but cut under the hill, is the Buddhist cave of Visvakarma, the only one excavated with a curved roof. The date of the caves is not certainly known, but they were probably the work of the reigning families at the neighbouring Deoghir, now Daulatabad, which, prior to the Mohammedan conquest, A.D. 1293, was the capital of a powerful Hindu principality.--Cf. Fergusson and Burgess, _The Cave Temples of India_.

ELLORE, a town of India, Godavari district, Madras presidency, once the capital of the Northern Circars. Pop. 29,500.

ELLWOOD, Thomas, an early writer among the Quakers, born in 1639, died in 1713. About 1660 he was induced to join the Society of Friends, and soon after published _An Alarm to the Priests_. He was imprisoned on account of his religion, but subsequently became reader to Milton, and upon reading the MS. of _Paradise Lost_ is said to have suggested to the poet the idea of writing the _Paradise Regained_. In 1705 and 1709 he published the two parts of his _Sacred History_. His works include a poetical life of King David, the _Davideis_, _Forgery no Christianity_, and an autobiography, _The History of the Life of Thomas Ellwood: written by his own hand._

[Illustration: Common Elm (_Ulmus campestris_)

Fruit, flowers, and leaves.]

ELM, a genus of trees (Ulmus; nat. ord., Ulmaceae), consisting of eighteen species, natives of the northern temperate zone and mountains of Tropical Asia. They have bisexual flowers with a campanulate calyx, as many stamens as there are divisions in the limb of the calyx, and two styles. Two species are common in Britain, _Ulmus campestris_ and _Ulmus mont[=a]na_, with many varieties. The _Ulmus campestris_, or common elm, is a fine tree, of rapid and erect growth, and yielding a tall stem, remarkable for the uniformity of its diameter throughout. It is very common as a timber tree in England; but as it rarely produces seed it is questionable whether it is indigenous. It is a native of the south and middle of Europe, and the west of Asia. The average height of a mature tree is 70 or 80 feet, but some reach a height of 150 feet. The wood is brown, hard, of fine grain, not apt to crack, and is used for many purposes. The tree generally attains maturity in seventy or eighty years. _Ulmus mont[=a]na_ (the mountain or wych elm), a native of Scotland, grows to a less height than the English elm, is of slower growth, and yields a much shorter bole, but it is far bolder in its ramification and more hardy. It usually attains to the height of about 50 feet. It does not produce suckers, like the English elm, but yields seed freely. The timber is strong and elastic, and the tree often yields large protuberances of gnarled wood, finely knotted and veined, and much esteemed for veneering. _Ulmus glabra_, the smooth-leaved elm, is a variety common in some parts of Britain. It first appeared about the middle of the eighteenth century. The most ornamental tree of the genus is _Ulmus mont[=a]na_, variety _pend[)u]la_, the weeping elm. The American or white elm (_Ulmus americ[=a]na_) is abundant in the Western States, attaining its loftiest stature between lat. 42deg and 46deg; here it reaches the height of 100 feet, with a trunk 4 or 5 feet in diameter, rising sometimes 60 or 70 feet before it separates into a few primary limbs. Its wood is not much esteemed. The red or slippery elm (_Ulmus fulva_) is found throughout a great extent of country in Canada, Missouri, and as far south as lat. 31deg; it attains the height of 50 or 60 feet, with a trunk 15 or 20 inches in diameter; the wood is of better quality than that of the white elm. The leaves and bark yield an abundant mucilage. The wahoo (_Ulmus al[=a]ta_), inhabiting from lat. 37deg to Florida, Louisiana, and Arkansas, is a small tree, 30 feet high. The branches are furnished on two opposite sides with wings of cork 2 or 3 lines wide; the wood is fine-grained and heavy.

ELMI'NA, a British town and seaport on the west coast of Africa, 8 miles west of Cape Coast Castle. It was acquired by Britain in 1872 with the other Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast, when it was claimed by the King of Ashanti, the result being the Ashanti Wars of 1873-4. Pop. 12,500.

ELMI'RA, a town of the United States, N. York, on the Chemung River; with a college for women, founded in 1855, the State reformatory, and a fine court-house. Its industrial establishments comprise rolling-mill, blast-furnace, foundries, and machine-works. Pop. 37,176.

ELMO'S FIRE, ST., a meteoric appearance often seen playing about the masts and rigging of ships. If two flames are visible (Castor and Pollux) the sailors consider it a good omen; if only one (Helena), they regard it as a bad one. The name is derived from St. Elmo, or St. Erasmus, who was broken on the wheel A.D. 304.

ELMSHORN, a town in Schleswig-Holstein, 20 miles north-west of Hamburg, on the Kr[:u]ckau, a navigable stream. Pop. 14,790.

ELMSLEY, Peter, D.D., English scholar, born in 1773, died in 1825. Educated at Oxford, he was one of the original contributors to the _Edinburgh Review_, and wrote occasionally, at a subsequent period, in the _Quarterly_. He finally settled at Oxford, on obtaining the headship of St. Alban's Hall and the Camden professorship of ancient history in 1823. He published editions of the _Oedipus Tyrannus_ (1811), _Heraclidae_ (1815), _Medea_ (1818), _Bacchae_ (1821), and _Oedipus Coloneus_ (1823).

EL OBEID. See _Obeid_.

ELODEA, a genus of submerged water-plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharitaceae. _E. canadensis_, the Canadian water-weed, was accidentally introduced into Britain about 1840, and spread throughout Europe with extraordinary rapidity, and entirely by vegetative reproduction, as only the [female] plant exists on this side of the Atlantic. The plant is much used for physiological experiments, e.g. for showing the movements of protoplasm.

ELO'HIM (plural of _Eloah_), one of the Hebrew names for God, of frequent occurrence in the Bible. Elohim is used in speaking both of the true God and of false gods, while Jehovah is confined to the true God. The plural form of Elohim has caused a good deal of controversy, some considering it as containing an allusion to the doctrine of the Trinity, others regarding it as the plural of excellence, others holding it as establishing the fact of a primitive polytheism. The Elohistic passages in the _Pentateuch_, or, in other words, the passages in which the Almighty is always spoken of as Elohim, are supposed to have been written at an earlier period than those in which he is spoken of as Jehovah. The Elohistic passages are simpler and more primitive in character than the Jehovistic; thus _Gen._ i, 27 is Elohistic; _Gen._ ii, 21-4 is Jehovistic.

EL PASO ('the pass' or crossing), a town of the United States, in Texas, at an important ford or crossing of the Rio Grande del Norte, where there is now a railway bridge, with extensive railway connections and large trade with Mexico, the smaller Mexican town of same name being on the opposite bank of the river. Pop. (including suburbs), 39,280.

ELPHINSTONE. Hon. Mountstuart, Indian administrator, son of the eleventh Lord Elphinstone, born in Scotland in 1778, died in 1859. He joined the Bengal Civil Service in 1795, was Ambassador to the Afghan Court in 1808, Resident at the Court of Poonah from 1810 to 1817, and British commissioner to that province from 1817 to 1819, when he became Governor of Bombay. During a government of seven years he established a code of laws, lightened taxes, and paid great attention to schools and public institutions. He resigned in 1827. A college established by the natives was called after him Elphinstone College. He was the author of an _Account of the Kingdom of Cabul and its Dependencies_ (1815), and a _History of India_ (1841). He was offered the governor-generalship of India in 1835, and afterwards that of Canada, both of which he declined.

ELPHINSTONE, William, a Scottish prelate, founder of King's College and University, Aberdeen, born at Glasgow in 1431, died in 1514. He was educated at Glasgow College, and served four years as priest of St. Michael's in that city. He then went to France and became professor of law, first at Paris and subsequently at Orleans, but before 1474 he returned home at the request of Muirhead, Bishop of Glasgow, who made him commissary of the diocese. In 1478 he was made commissary of the Lothians, and in 1479 Archdeacon of Argyle. Soon after he was made Bishop of Ross; and in 1483 was transferred to the see of Aberdeen. In 1484 and 1486 he was commissioned to negotiate truces with England, and in 1488 was Lord High-Chancellor of the kingdom for several months. He was next sent on a mission to Germany, and after his return held the office of Lord Privy Seal till his death in 1514. In 1494 he obtained a papal bull for the erection of the university of King's College at Aberdeen.

ELSINORE' (Dan. _Helsing[:o]r_), a seaport of Denmark, in the Island of Seeland, at the narrowest part of the Sound, here only 3-1/2 miles broad, 24 miles north by east of Copenhagen, opposite Helsingborg in Sweden, and connected with it by train-ferry. Near Elsinore is the castle of Kronberg, built by Frederick II of Denmark about 1580, and commanding the Sound. The castle, now chiefly used as barracks, is associated with Shakespeare's _Hamlet_. Before the abolition of the Sound dues in 1857 all merchant ships passing through were bound to pay toll here. Pop. 13,990.

ELSTER two German rivers, the White or Great Elster, a tributary of the Saale; the Black Elster, a tributary of the Elbe.

ELSWICK (els'ik), a suburb of Newcastle, England, containing the great ordnance-works of Armstrong, Mitchell, & Co. Pop. 58,352.

ELTON, Charles Isaac, English jurist and archaeologist, born 1839, died 1900. He was educated at Cheltenham and Oxford, became a barrister and a member of Parliament, and wrote various works on legal and other subjects, the most important being _Origins of English History_. In this work he traces the development of England and its inhabitants, from the earliest times regarding which we have any knowledge, to the acceptance of Christianity by the Anglo-Saxons, the investigation of the evidence furnished by Greek and Roman writers, and the discussion of prehistoric ethnology and archaeology being especially thorough. Other works are: _Commons and Waste Lands_, and _W. Shakespeare: His Family and Friends_.

ELU'TRIATION (Lat. _elutriare_, to wash out), the process of separating the finer particles of a clay, earth, or similar mass, from the coarser, consisting in stirring up the substance in water, letting the coarser particles subside, running off the liquid containing the finer particles, and then waiting till they subside.

ELVAS, a fortified city of Portugal, province of Alemtejo, near the Spanish frontier, 12 miles north-west of Badajoz, on a height flanked by two others, each crowned by a castle. It has a cathedral, partly Moorish and partly Gothic, and a Moorish aqueduct, a magnificent work which brings water from a distance of 15 miles. Pop. 10,645.

ELY ([=e]'li), an episcopal city of England, in the county of Cambridge, on an eminence on the left bank of the Ouse. The ecclesiastical structures comprise the cathedral, one of the largest in England, and the churches of St. Mary, and the Holy Trinity, the last belonging to the time of Edward II, and one of the most perfect buildings of that age. The superb cathedral occupies the site of a monastery founded about the year 673 by Etheldreda, daughter of the King of East Anglia. Its entire length, east to west, is 517 feet, and its west tower is 270 feet high. The whole structure comprises an almost unbroken series of the various styles of architecture which prevailed in England from the Conquest to the Reformation, yet with no loss of impressiveness as a whole. It was begun in 1083, completed in 1534, and since 1847 has undergone extensive additions and restoration. A fine gateway, built in the reign of Richard II, forms the principal entrance to the cathedral precincts. There are a few manufactures, but most of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural labour. Pop. 7917.

ELY, ISLE OF, a portion of the county of Cambridge, separated by the Ouse from the rest of the county, and forming itself a sort of county. It is about 28 miles long by 25 miles broad; area, 239,259 acres. The name is also given to a smaller tract, about 7 miles long by 4 miles broad. The soil is very fertile. Pop. 69,752.

ELYMUS, a genus of grasses, natives chiefly of the north temperate zone. The British species, _E. arenarius_ (lyme grass) is a good sand-binder.

ELYS'IUM, or ELYSIAN FIELDS, among the Greeks and Romans the regions inhabited by the blessed after death. They are placed by Homer at the extremities of the earth, by Plato at the antipodes, and by others in the Fortunate Islands (the Canaries). They were at last supposed to be in the interior of the earth, where Virgil described them as being. The happiness of the blessed consisted in a life of tranquil enjoyment in a perfect summer land, where the heroes, freed from all care and infirmities, renewed their favourite sports.

ELY'TRA, the horny cases into which the front wings of beetles are modified, and which meet in a straight line down the middle of the back. The membranous hind-wings are here the organs of flight, and when not in use are folded longitudinally and transversely, and tucked away under the elytra.

ELZE (el'tse), Karl, German writer, distinguished for his studies in English literature, born 1821, died 1889. He studied in Leipzig and Berlin, was long a teacher in the gymnasium of his birth-place, Dessau, and in 1875 was appointed to the chair of English language and literature at Halle. Among his writings were valuable biographies of Sir Walter Scott and Lord Byron (the latter translated into English), and a biographical and critical work on Shakespeare, also translated into English (1888).

EL'ZEVIR, or ELZEVIER, the name of a family of publishers and printers, residing at Amsterdam and Leyden, celebrated for the beauty of the editions of various works published by them, principally between 1595 and 1680. Louis, the founder of the family (born 1540, died 1617), settled in Leyden, and between 1583 and his death produced about 150 works. Five of his seven sons followed his business:--Matthaeus at Leyden; Louis (II) at the Hague; Gilles at the Hague and afterwards at Leyden; Joost in Utrecht; and Bonaventure, who in 1626 associated himself with Abraham, the son of Matthaeus. From the press of Abraham and Bonaventure issued the exquisite editions of the classics which have made the name of Elzevir famous. Of these the _Livy_ and _Tacitus_ of 1634, the _Pliny_ of 1635, the _Virgil_ of 1636, and the _Cicero_ of 1642 are perhaps the most beautiful. The Elzevir books are distinguished by the types and the choice of the paper rather than by the critical preparation of their texts.

EMANATION, in a specific sense, an idea at the centre of many philosophic systems which seek to explain the universe as an eternal efflux or emanation from the Supreme Being, comparable with the efflux of light from the sun. The idea of emanation came from the East, and traces of the doctrine are found in the system of Zoroaster. It had a powerful influence on the ancient Egyptian philosophy, as also on that of the Greeks, as may be seen in Pythagoras. It was subsequently developed by Plotinus,the Gnostics, Manicheans, Pantheists, and other sects.

EMAN'UEL THE GREAT, King of Portugal, born in 1469, died in 1521. He ascended the throne in 1495, and during his reign were performed the voyages of discovery of Vasco da Gama, of Cabral, of Americus Vespucius, and the heroic exploits of Albuquerque, by whose exertions a passage was found to the East Indies, the Portuguese dominion in Goa was established, and the Brazils and Moluccas were discovered. The commerce of Portugal, under Emanuel, was more prosperous than at any former period. The treasures of America flowed into Lisbon, and the reign of Emanuel was justly called 'the golden age of Portugal'. He died at the age of fifty-two, deeply lamented by his subjects, but hated by the Moors and the Jews, whom he had expelled from the country. He was a patron of learned men, and himself left memoirs on the Indies. He married three times: in 1497 Isabella, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, heiress of Castile; in 1500 her sister Maria; and in 1519 Eleonora of Austria, sister of Charles V.

EMBALMING (em-b[:a]m'ing; Gr. _balsamon_, balm), the process of so treating dead bodies with aromatic and antiseptic substances as to preserve them from corruption and decomposition. The ancient Egyptians employed this art on a great scale, embalming not only human corpses, but also the bodies of cats, ibises, crocodiles, and other animals held sacred. The mummy of King Mer-en-r[=e], who lived about 2500 years before our era, found in 1880, was in an excellent state of preservation. Other peoples, such as the Assyrians and Persians, also followed the practice, though hardly equalling Egyptian methods. The abdomen was emptied through an incision, and the brains drawn through the nostrils by means of a special instrument. The ancient Peruvians appear to have injected and washed the corpses with a fluid that flows from imperfectly burned wood, in which pyroligneous acid, creosote, and other antiseptics are present. Pliny alludes to the use of a similar fluid by the Egyptians. In more recent times bodies have been preserved for centuries by embalming, especially when they have remained at a low and uniform temperature and have been protected from the air. The corpse of Edward I, buried in Westminster Abbey in 1307, was found entire in 1770. Canute died in 1036, and his body was discovered very fresh in Winchester Cathedral in 1776. The bodies of William the Conqueror and of his wife Matilda were found entire at Caen in the sixteenth century. Of the various modern artificial means of preserving bodies, impregnation with corrosive sublimate appears to be one of the most effective, next to immersion in spirits. An injection of sulphate of zinc into the blood-vessels is also stated to be satisfactory; while natron, various spices, and other aromatic compounds are sometimes employed. The original reason for embalming was most probably the preservation of the body to await a resurrection and a future life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Budge, _The Mummy_; G. Elliot Smith, _A Contribution to the Study of Mummification in Egypt_; Myers, _Textbook of Embalming_.

EMBANK'MENT, a mound of earth, &c., thrown up either for the purpose of forming a roadway at a level different from that of the natural surface of the ground, or for keeping a large body of water within certain limits. When constructed wholly of earth or clay, it is triangular in cross-section, with the apex cut off parallel to the base line, the angle of the sloping sides varying with the nature of the material used. Thus the slope of loose rubble, chalk, stone, loamy sand, or gravel requires about 1-1/2 base to 1 vertical; dry, loose, and ordinary clay, 2 horizontal to 1 vertical, while some clays require a much wider base. To prevent subsidence on marshy or peaty soils, either the weight of the heart of the embankment is diminished, as in Holland, by introducing layers of reeds or fascines, or artificial foundations are prepared. The embankment may be prevented from slipping laterally by forming steps in the earth of the subsoil, or by cutting deep trenches at the feet of the slopes. In cases where embankments are raised for the storage of water, a 'puddle-dike', that is, a water-tight wall, must be inserted through the whole depth of the bank down to the impermeable strata beneath. To resist the action of wind and rain, or of the waters of a slow-flowing stream, the banks should in all possible cases be covered with turf. Among the largest embankments hitherto executed are those on the banks of the Po, the Meuse, the Scheldt; on the shores of the Netherlands; the Oberh[:a]user embankment on the Augsburg and Lindau Railway, the Gadelbach cutting on the Ulm and Augsburg line, and the Tring cutting on the London and North-Western Railway.

EMBAR'GO, in commerce, an arrest on ships or merchandise by public authority; or a prohibition of State, commonly on foreign ships, in time of war, to prevent their going out of or coming into port. A breach of embargo, under knowledge of the insured, discharges the underwriters of all liability.

EM'BASSY, in its strict sense, signifies a mission presided over by an ambassador, as distinguished from a legation or mission entrusted to an envoy. An ambassador, as the representative of the person of his sovereign, can demand a private audience of the sovereign to whom he is accredited, while an envoy must communicate with the Minister for Foreign Affairs.

EMBER-DAYS, in the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches, fast-days occurring at the times in the year appointed for ordinations. As now observed they are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after the first Sunday in Lent, after the feast of Pentecost or Whitsunday, after the festival of the Holy Cross (14th Sept.), and after the festival of St. Lucia (13th Dec.). The weeks in which these days fall are called _Ember-weeks_.

EMBER-GOOSE (_Colymbus septentrionalis_), an aquatic bird, known also as the great northern diver and loon. The latter name, however, is also applied to the great crested grebe.

EMBERIZ[=I]'DAE, a family of small perching birds, typical genus Ember[=i]za. It includes the buntings, the snow-flake, the yellow-hammer, and reed sparrow. The ortolan belongs to this family. By some naturalists it is classified as a sub-family of the finches.

EMBEZ'ZLEMENT is the appropriation, by a clerk or servant, to himself, of money or property put into his hands in trust. In English law it is a felony punishable by penal servitude for not more than fourteen years, or by imprisonment; and in the case of a male under the age of sixteen, by whipping in addition to the imprisonment.

EM'BLEMENTS (Fr. _emblaver_, to sow with grain), in law, the crops actually growing at any time upon land. They are considered in law as personal property, and pass as such to the executor or administrator of the occupier, if the latter die before he has actually cut, or reaped, or gathered the same.

EM'BOLISM is the obstruction of a blood-vessel by an embolus, the name given to a blood-clot or other body carried by the blood-stream, and obstructing the circulation at the point of lodgment. An embolism in a vital organ gives rise to serious symptoms which may cause death in a short time, or more remotely by the production of gangrene or pyaemia.

EMBOS'SING, the art of producing raised figures upon plane surfaces, such as on leather for bookbinding; on paper for envelopes; on wood or bronze, in architecture or sculpture. Embossing in needlework is effected by embroidery over figures padded with wool felt.

EMBRA'CERY, an attempt to corrupt or influence a jury by money, promises, letters, entertainments, persuasions, or the like.

EMBRA'SURE, in fortification, an opening in the breastwork or parapet of a battery or fortress, to admit of a gun being fired through it.

EMBROI'DERY (O. Fr. _embroder_, from _bord_, border), figured work in gold, or silver, or silk thread, wrought by the needle, upon cloths, stuffs, or muslins. In embroidering stuffs a kind of stretching-frame is used, because the more the piece is stretched the easier it is worked. The art was common in the East in very ancient times. The Jews appear to have acquired it from the Egyptians; Homer makes frequent allusion to it; and Phrygia was celebrated for its embroidery, which was in great demand at Rome. The Nineveh mural reliefs in the British Museum show Assyrian robes with floral ornaments, and a relief (now in the Louvre, Paris) from the palace of Darius I shows Persian robes with embroidery. The Anglo-Saxons had a Continental reputation, and from the eleventh to the sixteenth century the art of pictorial needlework was of the highest importance both as a recreation and as an industry. Embroidery is commonly divided into two classes: white embroidery applied to dress and furniture, in which the French and the Swiss excel; and embroidery in silk, gold, and silver, chiefly in demand for ecclesiastical vestments. The Chinese, Hindus, Persians, and Turks excel in such work.--Cf. Christie, _Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving_.

EMBRUN ([.a]n-br[.u]n), a picturesque walled town, France, department Hautes-Alpes, on a rocky eminence on the Durance. It was sacked successively by Vandals, Huns, Saxons, and Moors, by the Protestants in 1573, and by the Duke of Savoy in 1692. It has a fine cathedral. Pop. 3556.

EM'BRY, an immature organism, especially in the earlier stages of development from the fertilized ovum onwards. The embryo of a mammal (except in the egg-laying duck-bill and spiny ant-eater), which develops internally, is known as a _foetus_. The dormant plantlet in a seed is also known as an embryo.

EMBRYOL'OGY, the branch of biology concerned with the fertilization of the ovum and its development into the adult. Aristotle and Galen made some observations on the subject, as regards animals, while Harvey and his successors considerably advanced our knowledge, but as a distinct and important subject embryology only dates from the nineteenth century. In the course of its development an organism repeats the evolution of its group in an abbreviated fashion, thus furnishing a clue to its actual affinities. The subject also throws light on the problems of heredity.

[Illustration: Almost Ripe Embryo-sac of Lilium Martagon

A, Antipodals. P, Polar nuclei. E, Egg-cell. S, Synergidae.]

EMBRYO-SAC, the name given to the megaspore of seed-plants. In Angiosperms the ripe embryo-sac is typically a large ovoid sac enclosed in a thin membrane and lined by cytoplasm; it contains seven or sometimes eight nuclei with associated masses of cytoplasm, distributed in a characteristic manner. At the apical end, next the micropyle, is the egg-apparatus, comprising the egg-cell or ovum flanked by the two synergidae or helping-cells, while the basal or chalazal end is occupied by the three antipodal 'cells'. The cavity of the sac is filled with cell-sap traversed by stout protoplasmic strands, suspended in which, near the centre, are two polar nuclei, or a single fusion-nucleus formed by the union of these. A characteristic feature of Angiosperms is the process of 'double fertilization'. The pollen-tube contains two male gametes, both functional; one fertilizes the egg-cell, the resulting zygote or oospore giving rise by cell-division and growth to the embryo; the other unites with the fusion-nucleus (or the two polar nuclei), and the product is the origin of the special nutritive tissue or endosperm, which is used up by the embryo, either during ripening of the seed (exalbuminous seeds), or at germination (albuminous seeds). See _Gymnosperms_; _Ovule_.

EM'DEN, a town of Prussia, province of Hanover, near the mouth of the Ems, occupying a low flat intersected by numerous canals. It was raised to the rank of a free Imperial city in 1595, was made a free port in 1751, was incorporated with the kingdom of Hanover in 1815, and in 1866 was united to Prussia. The principal building is the great church, built in 1455. The harbours admit large vessels, and several canals run inland. It exports grain, dairy produce, and gin, and has shipbuilding yards, and manufactures hosiery and leather. Pop. 24,000.

EM'ERALD, a variety of beryl, a well-known gem of pure green colour, somewhat harder than quartz; specific gravity, 2.67 to 2.73. It is a silicate of aluminium and the rare element glucinum or beryllium, which was detected in it by Vauquelin after it had been discovered by the same chemist in the beryl. Its colour is due to the presence of chromium, of which there may be 0.2 to 0.3 per cent present. Its natural form is either rounded or that of a short six-sided prism. It is one of the softest of the precious stones, but is not acted on by acids. Emeralds of large size and at the same time free from flaws are rare and more valuable than diamonds or rubies; the largest on record is said to have been possessed by the inhabitants of the valley of Manta in Peru when the Spaniards first arrived there. It was as big as an ostrich egg, and was worshipped as _the mother of emeralds_. The ancients, who valued them, especially for engraving, are said to have procured them from Ethiopia and Egypt. The finest are now obtained from Colombia. The Oriental emerald is a variety of the ruby, of a green colour, and is an extremely rare gem.

EMERALD GREEN, a vivid light-green pigment, an aceto-arsenite of copper, used both in oil and water-colour painting. It is extremely poisonous. Hydrated chromium sesquioxide is another mineral emerald green. There is also an aniline dye of this name.

EMERALD LORE The emerald as a sacred stone was anciently believed to blind a serpent which gazed at it, but to strengthen human eyes, and was, according to Theophrastus, worn as a ring-stone on account of this property. It was confused with 'false emerald', a kind of malachite. This fact explains the reference to ancient kings presenting blocks of emerald 1 or 2 cubits long to temples. The Babylonian name was _barraktu_, the Sanskrit _marakata_, the Hebrew _bareket_ or _barkat_, the Greek _maragdos_ or _smaragdos_.

EMERGENCES, in botany. See _Hairs of Plants_.

EM'ERSON, Ralph Waldo, an American poet and prose writer, born at Boston, 25th May, 1803, died 27th April, 1882. He graduated at Harvard in 1821, for five years taught in a school, and in 1829 became minister of a Unitarian Church in Boston, but in 1832 resigned his charge. He spent the greater part of 1833 in Europe, and on his return began his career as a lecturer on various subjects, in which capacity he acted for a long series of years. In 1835 he took up his permanent residence at Concord, Mass., and in 1836 published a small volume called _Nature_. He was one of the original editors of _The Dial_, a transcendental magazine begun in 1840. Two volumes of his essays were published, in 1841 and 1844, and his poems in 1846. His miscellaneous addresses had been published in England in 1844, and on visiting Great Britain in 1847 he was welcomed by a large circle of admirers. In 1850 he published _Representative Men_; in 1856, _English Traits_; in 1860, _The Conduct of Life_; in 1869, _May Day and Other Poems_, and _Society and Solitude_; in 1871, _Parnassus_, a collection of poems; in 1876, _Letters and Social Aims_. Emerson showed certain similarities with Carlyle, of whom he was a friend and correspondent. Their correspondence appeared in 1883. He was not only one of the most original and influential writers that the United States have produced, but also one of the most helpful and influential ethical teachers of the nineteenth century. His gospel of self-reliance, his insistence on the duty of self-respect, and the obligation to listen to the voice of one's own soul, have exerted a wide influence which has grown steadily.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. E. Cabot, Emerson's Complete Works (11 vols.); G. W. Cooke, _Ralph Waldo Emerson: his Life, Writings and Philosophy_; J. Elliott Cabot, _A Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson_; R. Garnett, _Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson_; G. S. Woodberry, _Ralph Waldo Emerson_; J. A. Hill, _Emerson and his Philosophy_.

EM'ERY (formerly _emeril_, from O. Fr. _emeril_; Gr. _smiris_, emery), an impure variety of corundum, of blackish or bluish-grey colour, chiefly found in shapeless masses and mixed with other minerals. It contains about 82 per cent of alumina, and a small portion of iron; is very hard; is practically infusible, and is not attacked by acids. The best emery is brought from the Levant, chiefly from the Island of Naxos. It is employed in cutting and polishing precious stones; in smoothing the surface of the finer kinds of lenses preparatory to their being polished; in the polishing of marble; by cutlers, locksmiths, glaziers, and other artisans. For all these purposes it is pulverized in large iron mortars or in steel mills, and the powder, which is rough and sharp, is carefully washed and sifted into eight or ten different degrees of fineness. Emery-paper and emery-cloth are made by laying a thin coat of glue upon the fabric, and dusting the emery from a sieve of the required size.

EMET'IC is a substance given to produce vomiting, either acting directly on the nerves of the stomach, or indirectly through the bloodstream on the vomiting centre in the brain. In the first group are common salt, mustard, ipecacuanha, and sulphate of zinc; and apomorphine, which is given hypodermically, is an example of the second. Emetics are not now so widely used, as in many cases the stomach can be more effectively emptied and then washed out by the passage of the stomach-tube.

EM'ETINE is an alkaloid present in ipecacuanha. It is a powerful emetic, and whether given by the mouth or hypodermically produces vomiting with nausea and depression. It acts chiefly as a local irritant to the lining of the stomach. In minute doses it stimulates expectoration from the lungs.

[Illustration: Emeu or Emu (_Dromaeus novae-hollandiae_)]

EMEU, or EMU, a large flightless running bird (_Dromaeus novae-hollandiae_, and _D. irroratus_), formerly dispersed over the whole Australian continent, but now almost extinct in many districts. It is allied to the cassowary, but is distinguished by the absence of a 'helmet' on the top of the head. It nearly equals the ostrich in bulk, being thicker in the body, though its legs and neck are shorter. Its feet are three-toed (the ostrich has two toes), and its feathers, which are double, are of a dull sooty-brown colour, those about the neck and head being of a hairy texture. The wings are small and useless for flight, but the bird can run with great speed. The flesh of the young emeu is by some considered a delicacy. The emeu is a bird of the plain, the cassowary of the forest. It is easily tamed, and may be kept out of doors in temperate climates. It feeds on vegetable matter, fruits, and roots.

EMEU WREN (_Stipit[=u]rus malach[=u]rus_), a small Australian bird allied to the warblers, somewhat similar to a wren, but having the tail-feathers long, soft, and thinly barbed, similar to emeu feathers.

EMIGRATION, the movement of individuals or groups from one state or country to a colony or another country, to be distinguished from _migration_, which describes the movement of peoples or races from one geographical area to another, and from _colonization_, which implies the foundation of a new state or extension of the sway of the colonists' state of origin. Thus the term does not strictly apply to the migrations of prehistoric times; nor to the movements of the Indo-European races (to which reference occurs in the Old Testament) which took place before the state as a territorial conception had developed; nor does it describe the great barbarian invasions of the early Christian era. There was comparatively little emigration among the Greeks and Romans, movement among the former being usually for the foundation of colonies or new states, and among the latter as a means of consolidating conquests. In Europe up to the seventeenth century, emigration was sporadic, notable instances being the movement from Flanders to England in the fourteenth century, and of Protestants from France to England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the seventeenth century, with the growth of European colonies in America and the East, there was much emigration to those places, notably from Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain to America, and from the Netherlands to the East. In the eighteenth century the movement slackened, but in the nineteenth century, largely as the result of the industrial revolution and the decay of agriculture, the great era of emigration began, especially from the United Kingdom. During the nineteenth century the main stream has flowed westward into America from Europe. Particularly important have been the emigration of Irish to the United States, and of Germans to South America. There has also been considerable movement from Russia into the United Kingdom, in many cases as a half-way house to the United States. In the East, emigration from China and Japan to the United States and Australia, and from India to British tropical colonies, has been important. It is noticeable that the Latin and Yellow races as a rule emigrate with the idea of returning ultimately to their native country; with the Anglo-Saxon, Teutonic, and Slav races the aim of a permanent domicile is predominant.

The most important causes of emigration are love of adventure, political or religious difficulties, and economic pressure. Forced emigration, in the shape of transportation, was formerly of some importance, especially in the case of America and Australia, but is now negligible; and before the European War, emigration from Russia was chiefly for political or religious reasons. To-day economic forces are the most powerful. The direction of the flow of emigration is partly determined by its causes. When these are political or religious, emigrants go where they expect to find freedom, as with the Huguenots in the seventeenth century. When economic forces are at work, emigration takes place towards newer and less developed countries, where pressure on the means of subsistence is less marked than elsewhere. Assistance given to emigrants, such as grants of land, loans of capital, and passages at reduced rates also has an influence, likewise the regulations of the countries concerned regarding emigration and immigration. In Australia and the United States, regulations forbidding the entrance of Yellow races have checked the movement of Chinese and Japanese to those countries; and the Government of India discourages emigration save under adequate safeguard for proper pay and treatment.

The results of emigration vary with the economic and other circumstances of the countries concerned. The country from which the movement takes place loses intellectual and physical labour power which the other country gains; but may benefit by relief given to a congested labour market. This was the case with the Netherlands in the seventeenth century, and the United Kingdom in the early nineteenth century. The general tendency is for emigration to benefit the world as a whole by enabling labour to go where it can be most productively employed. This increases world production, opens up new markets, and so indirectly benefits the older countries. Sometimes, however, emigration may cause an industry merely to be transferred from one country to another, as in the case of the fourteenth-century Flemish emigration to England. The importance of these results of emigration in any particular case depends on the class of people who emigrate, and on the volume of emigration. Deportation of criminals obviously benefited only the deporting country. Emigration on political or religious grounds has frequently deprived one country of, and given to another, a vigorous and industrious stock, as in the case of the French Huguenots driven from France to England in the late seventeenth century by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Economic pressure tends to send abroad agricultural and other unskilled labour. The majority of emigrants from Great Britain in the nineteenth century belonged to this class. Youth and adaptability, however, are more important qualities for an emigrant than a high level of skill in any trade; and it is probable, therefore, that on the whole emigration has relieved Europe of labour whose supply was in excess of the demand for it, and has never given newer countries the material they require. The political consequences of emigration may also be important. Some writers claim that it has assisted the spread of democracy. Whether this is an advantage is a matter for individual judgment. But emigration may certainly have much influence in creating and maintaining friendly relations between States; or, as shown by Irish influence in the United States, it may embitter the feeling between them.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mayo-Smith, _Emigration and Immigration_; S. C. Johnson, _History of Emigration from the United Kingdom to North America, 1763-1912_.

['E]MIGR['E]S ([=a]-mi-gr[=a]s), a name given more particularly to those persons who left France during the Revolution of 1789. At the head of these emigrants stood the royal princes of Cond['e], Provence, and Artois, the first of whom collected a part of the fugitives to co-operate with the allied armies in Germany for the restoration of the monarchy. At Coblentz a particular court of justice was established to settle causes relating to the French _['e]migr['e]s_. The corps of Cond['e] was finally taken into the Russian service, and was disbanded in the Russian-Austrian campaign of 1799. When Napoleon became emperor he granted permission to all but a few of the emigrants to return to their country; but many declined to return until after his downfall. By the Charter of 1814 they were shut out from the recovery of their estates and privileges; and though, by a law of 27th April, 1825, some compensation was decreed to them, the grant was withdrawn again after the July revolution.

EMILIAN PROVINCES, a term applied to certain Italian provinces annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia in 1860. They comprised the northern part of the States of the Church (Romagna) and the Duchies of Modena and Parma.

EM'INENCE, an honorary title formerly applied to the Emperor and higher officials of the Empire, but restricted in 1630 by Pope Urban VIII to cardinals. Up to that time they had been called _illustrissimi_ and _reverendissimi_.

EMIR (em'[=e]r), the title given by Mohammedans to independent chiefs or princes, _Amir_ or _Ameer_ being the same word (the _Amir_ of Afghanistan). When associated with other words it may designate various dignitaries. Thus the caliphs styled themselves _Emir-al-Mumenin_, Prince of the Faithful; _Emir-al-Omrah_, Prince of Princes, was the title of governors of certain provinces. The title is also given in Turkey to all the real or supposed descendants of Mohammed, through his daughter Fatimah.

EMMERICH (em'e-ri_h_), a town, Rhenish Prussia, on the right bank of the Rhine, 5 miles N.E. of Cleves. It joined the Hanseatic League in 1407. It carries on an active trade chiefly with Holland. Pop. 13,418.

EM'MET, Robert, an Irish rebel, born at Cork in 1778. He was expelled from Trinity College, Dublin, in 1798, on the ground of exciting disaffection and rebellion, and having become an object of suspicion to the Government, quitted Ireland. He returned there on the repeal of the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, and became a member of the Society of United Irishmen for the establishment of the independence of Ireland. In July, 1803, he was the ringleader in the foolish rebellion in which Lord Kilwarden and others perished. He was arrested a few days afterwards, tried, and executed. His fate excited special interest from his attachment to Sarah Curran, daughter of the celebrated barrister. Their sad fates were commemorated by his college friend, Moore, in _Oh, Breathe Not his Name_, and _She is Far from the Land where her Young Hero Sleeps_.

EMOTION, a term variously used by psychologists; sometimes as one of the divisions of feeling, the other being sensation; sometimes as opposed to feeling when the latter is identified with sensation, and sometimes as distinct from both sensation and feeling, when the last term is rigidly confined to the sense of pleasure or pain. In any of these uses, however, emotions are distinguished from sensations in that sensations are primary forms of consciousness arising by external excitation, are comparatively simple and immediately presentative phenomena, and are definite in character and capable of localization; while emotions are secondary or derived forms of consciousness, are complex and representative, and are vague and diffused. Sensations are said to be 'peripherally initiated', while emotions are centrally initiated. When, in addition to its being distinguished from sensation, it is also distinguished from feeling, emotion is applied to the whole physical condition accompanying the sense of pleasure or pain (feeling). The muscles of the body and the organic functions of the system are often considerably influenced by emotion, which naturally seeks an outward expression unless held in check by what Darwin has called serviceable associated habits.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Bain, _The Emotions and the Will_; J. McCosh, _The Emotions_.

EMPED'OCLES (-kl[=e]z), a Greek philosopher of Agrigentum, in Sicily, born about 490 B.C. He is said to have introduced the democratic form of government into his native city, and the Agrigentines regarded him with the highest veneration as public benefactor, poet, orator, physician, prophet, and magician. Aristotle states that he died in obscurity, at the age of sixty years, in the Peloponnesus; but he is also said to have thrown himself into the crater of Mount Etna, in order to make it be believed, by his sudden disappearance, that he was of divine origin, and had been translated to heaven alive (cf. Matthew Arnold's _Empedocles on Etna_). According to Lucian, however, his sandals were thrown out from the volcano, and the manner of his death revealed. Empedocles held earth, water, fire, air, as the four fundamental and indestructible elements from whose union and separation everything that exists is formed. To these material elements are added the two moving or operative principles of love and hatred, or attraction and repulsion. He wrote his philosophy in verse; of his chief work, _On Nature_, about 400 lines out of the original 5000 are preserved.

EM'PEROR (from the Lat. _imper[=a]tor_; in Ger. _Kaiser_, from _Caesar_), the title of the highest rank of sovereigns. The word _imperator_, from _imper[=a]re_, to command, in its most general sense signified the commander of an army. After the overthrow of the Roman republic _imperator_ became the title of the rulers or emperors, and indicated their supreme power. Victorious generals were still, however, sometimes saluted with the title _imperator_, in its original sense. With the fall of Rome the title was lost in the West, but was kept up in the Eastern or Byzantine Empire for nearly ten centuries. In 800 it was renewed in the West when Charlemagne was crowned, by Leo III, as 'Carolus Augustus, the God-sent, pious, and great emperor of Rome'. It was, however, for many centuries considered necessary to be crowned at Rome, in order to be formally invested with the title of _emperor_. The imperial dignity became extinct in the East after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, but the title was adopted by Peter I of Russia in 1721. Napoleon I adopted the old idea of an empire as a general union of states under the protection, or at least political preponderance, of one powerful state; and he was followed in this by his nephew, Napoleon III. In 1806 the first German Empire, 1000 years old, became extinct, and the German Emperor, Francis II, adopted the title of Francis I, Emperor of Austria. In Dec., 1870, the second German Empire was formed, King William of Prussia having accepted the imperial office and title offered him at Versailles. This empire came to an end in Nov. 1918. Britain is considered as an empire, the crown as imperial, and the Parliament is styled the _Imperial Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland_. Queen Victoria assumed the title of _Empress of India_ in 1876, but the British sovereign has not the imperial title in reference to the home dominions. The sovereigns of Japan and Morocco are often, though with little propriety, called _emperors_.--Cf. Articles _Imperator_ and _Princeps_ in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_.

EMPEROR MOTH (_Saturnia pavonia_) a British moth belonging to a family Saturniidae, of which some Indian species produce tussore silk. The colour is greyish-brown, with a faint purple tinge. The wings are about 3 inches in expanse, and in the centre of each is a large eye-like spot. The larva is of a bright-green colour, and studded with large rose-coloured or yellow tubercles.

EMPETRA'CEAE, a small nat. ord. of heath-like Dicotyledons, of which the type is the crow-berry.

EM'PHASIS, in rhetoric, a special stress or force given to some syllable, word, or words in speaking, in order to impress the hearers in some desired manner, thus differing from _accent_, the position of which is fixed.

EMPHYSE'MA is a distention of the tissues with air or other gases. Several forms are recognized: _pulmonary emphysema_, due to dilatation of the minute air-passages with loss of elasticity of the lung tissues; _surgical emphysema_, due to distention of the subcutaneous tissues by air, seen in certain wounds and injuries; _atrophic emphysema_, due to a senile condition of the lung tissues.

EMPIRE DAY, a British imperial celebration which is held annually on the 24th of May, the birthday of Queen Victoria. The celebration was officially held for the first time in 1904, and has since gained wide recognition, mainly owing to the unremitting efforts of the twelfth Earl of Meath.

EMPIR'IC (Gr. _empeiria_, experience) was used in medical history to denote one of a sect of physicians who held that observation and experience were the basis of medicine. The modern use of the term, medically, is restricted to one who practises medicine without any professional education or training.

EMPIRICISM (Gr. _empeiria_, experience), the philosophical theory according to which sense-experience is the source of all knowledge, i.e. that we can investigate the world only through the experience of our senses. It denies the existence of any _a priori_ possibility of knowledge, and maintains that the mind is at first a _tabula rasa_, a clean slate, upon which all the characters are inscribed by experience. The term empiricism is, however, now applied to any philosophical system which finds all its material in experience. The philosophy of empiricism has been particularly developed by English writers of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, such as Locke, Hume, and J. S. Mill. John Locke was the first to express the view in a systematic form. Among more modern empiricists are William James and John Dewey.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Green, _Prolegomena to Ethics_; James, _Essays in Radical Empiricism_.

EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY ACT, a British Act of Parliament passed in 1880, by which, within certain limits, an injured workman or, in event of his death, his relatives or representatives may claim from the employer compensation for injuries received in his service. The law on this subject was improved by the Workmen's Compensation Act (1897) and its amending Act (1900). These applied to those employed on, in, or about railways, factories, mines, quarries, engineering works, buildings, and to agricultural labourers. An Act of 1906 added other classes of workers, including domestic servants. The maximum compensation on death is three years' earnings or L150, whichever is larger, but not more than L300. Contracting-out is carefully safeguarded. The maximum weekly benefit was raised from L1 to L1, 5s. in 1917, and L1, 15s. in 1920, in cases of total incapacity. Recommendations by the Board of Trade Departmental Committee were made public in July, 1920. These suggest greater powers of Government control, compulsory insurance, and greatly increased compensation in cases of death and total incapacity.

EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS were first established on a considerable scale in the United Kingdom by the Labour Exchanges Act, 1909. They were to some extent based upon the German public labour exchanges, which came into being after 1893 in most large towns, and were either municipal or maintained by voluntary associations and supported by the municipality. Their chief object was to put employers and work-people into touch with a view to employment. Before 1909 a few public employment bureaus had been established in Great Britain. An Act of 1905 established distress committees in boroughs and urban districts, which were given power to establish labour exchanges. These powers were in some cases exercised, either by taking over existing bureaus or establishing new ones. Only in London was the system of importance. The 1909 Act gave the Board of Trade power to establish labour exchanges; and, by regulations under the Act, the United Kingdom has been divided into divisions in each of which are a number of exchanges of different grades. The system is industrial and not eleemosynary, aiming solely at providing a recognized market-place for labour. No fees are charged, and use of the exchanges is voluntary. Work-people may register at an exchange between certain hours, and, when a suitable vacancy occurs, the applicant is sent to the employer. Applications for work-people are generally received by telephone, and are recorded if no suitable applicant is available. An important part of the work of the labour exchange is in connection with Unemployed Insurance, under