Part 1
Transcriber’s Note: Some of the kanji characters in this book appear to have no modern equivalent and a close but not identical character--a “best guess”--has been substituted. These are shown e.g. {蹄}. Illustrations of the characters are included in the HTML version.
The author’s list of emendations has not been addressed: it seems more useful to the reader left as it is.
PRIMITIVE & MEDIAEVAL JAPANESE TEXTS
TRANSLITERATED INTO ROMAN WITH INTRODUCTIONS NOTES AND GLOSSARIES
BY
FREDERICK VICTOR DICKINS, C.B. SOMETIME REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
WITH A COMPANION VOLUME OF TRANSLATIONS
反以將之說詳而學博 MENCIUS 也約說
OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1906
HENRY FROWDE, M.A. PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD LONDON, EDINBURGH NEW YORK AND TORONTO
TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE
SIR ERNEST SATOW, G.C.M.G.
MINISTER TO CHINA SOMETIME MINISTER TO JAPAN
HI NI MUKAHI HI NO DE NO HIKARI HI NO IRI NO HINA NI I-WATASHITE HIZHIRI SHIRUSERI
KASANE-GOHI [五ひ] KA MO
PREFACE
The following texts are exact transliterations of the _Kana yomi_ of the Manyôshiu, and of the _yomi_ of the mixed Japanese script of the Taketori Monogatari, the Preface to the Kokinwakashiu, and Takasago, according to the system devised by Sir Ernest Satow and adopted by Professor Chamberlain.
The translations of the texts are given in a companion volume, where full explanatory introductions and notes will be found.
The following abbreviations are employed: (K.) Professor Chamberlain’s translation of the Kojiki; (N.) Dr. Aston’s translation of the Nihongi; (Fl.) Professor Florenz’s part translation of the Nihongi; (Br.) Captain Brinkley’s Japanese-English Dictionary; (I.) Kotoba no Izumi; (T.A.S.J.) Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.
The texts contained in the present volume are:--
1. The _nagauta_ or _chôka_ (long lays) of the Manyôshiu, the earliest of the Japanese Anthologies, compiled about 760 A.D., with their _kaheshi uta_ or _hanka_ (envoys). The text used is that of Kamochi Masazumi in his magnificent edition, Manyôshiu Kogi, the Ancient Meaning of the Manyôshiu, written during the first half of the nineteenth century but published in 1879.
2. The Taketori Monogatari, Story of the Old Wicker-worker. The text used is that of Tanaka Daishiu, published about 1838.
3. The Preface of Ki no Tsurayuki to his famous Anthology--the second of the old anthologies--known as Kokinwakashiu--Anthology of Japanese Verse Old and New--written about 922 A.D. The text is that of Kaneko Genshin in his edition of 1903.
4. The _utahi_ of Takasago, perhaps the earliest of the medieval miracle-plays (Nô), composed in the fifteenth century. The text used is that of the Yôkyoku Tsûge, edited by Ohowada Kenjiu, and published by the Hakubunkwan in 22 Meiji (1889).
Appended to 1. are some _tanka_ from the Kokinshiu and the Hyakunin Isshiu (1214 A.D.), and in the volume of translations examples of _hokku_ or the half-stanza, the so-called Japanese epigram, are given with their translations.
A careful perusal, twice or thrice repeated, of the short grammar and the following section on the Language of the Manyôshiu comprised in the Introduction, with the aid of the List of Makura Kotoba, the Glossary, and the companion volume of translations, will meet nearly all the difficulties of the _romanized_ texts, and enable the reader to appreciate sufficiently the charm of these ancient lays, of which the more unique elements escape translation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
EMENDATIONS viii
INTRODUCTION (Short Grammar, Language, Script) ix
SPECIMEN OF SCRIPT xxxv
MAP OF THE WORLD, AS KNOWN TO THE JAPANESE OF THE MYTHICAL ERA xxxvi (By kind permission of Professor Chamberlain, from his translation of the Kozhiki, being the Supplement to vol. x of the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.)
MOTTO OF THE AUTHOR OF THE KOGI PREFIXED TO THAT WORK _to face page_ 1
MANYÔSHIU 1
KOZHIKI UTA 194
NIHONGI UTA 194
KOKINSHIU UTA 195
HIYAKUNIN UTA 196
INTRODUCTION TO TAKETORI 198
TAKETORI 200
KOKINSHIU ZHIYO 240
TAKASAGO 246
MAKURA KOTOBA 257
GLOSSARY 279
APPENDIX I. 333
” II. ADDENDA TO MAKURA KOTOBA 334
” III. ADDENDA TO GLOSSARY 337
EMENDATIONS
For the necessity of these emendations I am wholly responsible.
In a few of the earlier lays the lines are not properly indented. In one or two cases the category is wrongly printed as part of the _dai_--as under Lay 1.
In a very few instances a capital letter is mistakenly used--thus _Tsuma_ for _tsuma_.
In the following instances it is better to print place-names with initial capital--Kashihara, Ohotsu, Shirokane, Chitose, Kagu, Katsu, Tagi, Kamu, Yuki.
Where _eta_ is found it should be read _eba_.
Some few cases of _u_ for _a_, _u_ for _n_, _u_ for _i_, _a_ for _o_, _e_ for _i_, or the reverse, occur--they are quite obvious. Occasionally words are joined which on the whole are better separated, as _Kata nashi_, or the reverse.
MANYÔSHIU.
Lay 20, 4, _omi_, dele _o_.
24, 62 n., for _yum ino_ read _yumi no_.
26, 65, for _wo_ read _mo_.
27, 52, for _imo gara_ read _imo ga na_.
28, 56, for _no_ read _ni_.
29, n. 3, dele (hauka I).
36, 6, for _Fugi_ read _Fuji_.
69, 20, for _kaha_ read _kuha_.
100 (_dai_), read _i tsu tose_.
104, 29, read _taharete_.
105, 41, read _haha_.
107 (_dai_), read _Naniha_.
113, 8, read _kagahi_.
123, 16, for _momo_ read _onomo_.
124, 11, for _hitase_ read _hitasa_.
124, 20, for _skikame_ read _shikame_.
126, 12, for _aho_ read _ahi_.
165, 7, for _afuteshi_, read _afubeshi_.
166, 10, for _kimi_ read _kuni_.
195, 4, for _mi_ read _nu_.
196, 33, } for _nakazu_ read _nakayu_. 180, 8, }
Page 147 above 212 insert--MAKI XVII, KAMI. Same heading to pp. 149, 151.
Lay 221, 28, for _no_ read _mo_.
223, 51, for _yoki_ read _yohi_.
230, 17, for _hashike_ read _hashiki_.
263, 53 n., for ‘lightly’ read ‘gravely, seriously’.
Page 194, l. 5, for _no_ read _ni_.
200, l. 7, for _to_ read _wo_.
201, last line, for oha read oho.
205, l. 13, read _notamahamu_.
206, l. 5, read _nagareki_.
207, l. 9, for _mi_ read _no_.
224, n. 3, for ‘right’ read ‘night’.
237, bottom line, read _Hitori_.
238, l. 8, _mono hito goto_ is better.
239, l. 8 (from bottom), read _gushite_.
245, l. 6, for _niho_ read _nihohi_.
INTRODUCTION
SHORT GRAMMAR OF OLD JAPANESE
The pronunciation of Old Japanese follows a very simple scheme. There are the five vowels, _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and no diphthongs, and the following consonants and digraphs _b_, _ch_, _d_, _dz_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _m_, _n_, _r_, _s_, _sh_, _t_, _ts_, _w_, _y_, _z_, _zh_. The syllables are all open, and consist of
(1) The five vowels.
(2) _b_, _k_, _m_, _n_, _r_, followed by all the vowels.
(3) _s_, _y_, _z_, followed by _a_, _e_, _o_, _u_.
(4) _h_, _w_, followed by _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_.
(5) _d_, _t_, followed by _a_, _e_, _o_.
(6) _f_, followed by _i_, _u_.
(7) _ch_, _j_, _sh_, _zh_, followed by _i_.
(8) _ts_, _dz_, followed by _u_.
Sixty-four open syllables in all, out of 105 possible ones, of which and their various agglutinations the whole language is made up.
The vowels are pronounced as in Italian, _a_ being the accented _a_, _e_ and _o_ the open sounds. The vowel _u_ is English _u_ in _put_, never as in _rut_ or _lute_. The vowels _a_, _e_, _o_ are half-long, _i_ and _u_ are shorter, and _u_ shortest of all. Value is given to each syllable, subject as above, with scarcely any ictus (as in French), but the last syllable of a word, especially in _u_, is always weakest, and the penultimate rather the strongest.
The consonants are pronounced as in English, _h_ well aspirated, but rather forward, even between vowels, _z_ as in _zany_, _zh_ as the _s_ in _pleasure_, _f_ may have descended from an original _p_, with _h_ and _w_.
The scheme, according to that of the _Oxford Dictionary_, would be--
a a e e i i o o u u b b ch tʃ d d dz dz f f g g h h j dʒ k k m m n n r r s s sh ʃ t t ts ts w w y y z z zh ʒ
The Chinese and Japanese languages differ from Aryan and Semitic forms of speech in the total absence of all concords dependent upon number, person, case, and gender, in the like default of relative words, and (from Aryan speech) in the absence of _narratio obliqua_. They further differ in the almost complete absence of any morphological moods or tenses. Chinese has, broadly speaking, no accidence at all; the grammar is a syntax teaching the right order and use of vocables (used as words), double vocables (constituting words), and the few form-words (empty words the Chinese call them) which serve as variously connective particles. In Japanese there is a very scanty accidence of the few adjectives the language possesses, and a more complete one of the verb; but the verbal forms are all (with an exception or two) resolvable into locutions, more or less agglutinated, scarcely constituting true inflexions. Hence, morphologically, even in Japanese there is neither mood nor tense, but there is an approach to both of the highest value to the language, giving it, in conjunction with a goodly number of particles, an articulation and plasticity wanting to Chinese. From the above considerations it will be readily understood that the power of expression even in Japanese is far inferior to that of Western speech. The imagery is, of necessity, extremely limited in range and flat in tone. It seems to me, however, of greater range and higher quality than in Chinese. But neither Chinese nor Japanese possesses a tithe of the capacity of Aryan and Semitic languages to express human thought and feeling, and describe the works of man or the appearances of nature.
Ὦ δῖος αἰθήρ, &c., thought and words, are absolutely unintelligible to the whole Far East.
Nevertheless the poetry of the two great Far Eastern languages has its charm, especially the early poetry of Japan, but that charm, depending as it does largely upon suggestiveness rather than definite statement, and upon characteristic form and decoration rather than content, can only be felt by those who are able to read the texts. The Japanese texts, apart from the labour of decipherment, in themselves present no difficulty, once their simple grammar and construction understood, and in their romanized dress, with the brief grammar that is now subjoined, and the other aids offered in the present volume and its accompanying volume of translations are, it is hoped, made accessible to the English reader who cannot give several years to the acquisition of the complicated scripts which Dai Nippon has taken over, by necessity rather than choice, from the Middle Kingdom.
The following sketch of the grammar of Old Japanese is intended merely to elucidate the texts, principally those of the Manyôshiu and the Taketori.[1] By Old Japanese is meant the unsinicized language of the Kojiki and Nihongi (as read _japonicé_) and particularly of the _uta_ quoted in those works, of the _norito_ or rituals, and of the texts above mentioned. There are no texts illustrating earlier stages of the language, and all etymologies are doubtful, both on that account and because the elements of Old Japanese are mere agglutinations (more or less contracted) of only sixty-four open syllables.
Japanese (by which expression Old Japanese is here always intended) has no affinity with Chinese, a language consisting of disconnected elements (simple or compound), for in it agglutination has to some extent contracted into inflexion or quasi-inflexion, and it possesses in addition a large number of particles which give it a plasticity not found in Chinese. In my opinion, had the development of Japanese not been arrested by Chinese influences about the middle of the first millennium, it might have won a far higher place than it occupies in the hierarchy of human speech.
This agglutinative inflexion is practically confined to the verb, and--to a slight extent--to nouns adjective, simple or verbalized. What may be called the stem of the verb shows a pure vocalic inflexion in _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_ or _u_. The stem in _u_ is the form usually found in native and foreign dictionaries--in Lemaréchal’s it is the stem in _e_ or _i_. To the stem the various locutions are suffixed to construct the forms representing, logically, moods and tenses as well as negative, causative, and potential-passive ‘voices’.
The stems in _e_, _i_ and _o_ are used as imperatives; _koge_, row!, _mi_, look!, _ko_ come!, often with addition of the vocative particle _yo_ (or _ro_)--_miyo_, _koyo_. They are also used as ‘indefinite’ (Chamberlain) forms, mood and tense being determined by that of the principal verb in the sentence. Before proceeding further it is well to state that in the regular Japanese sentence the principal verb is always at the end, the object (if expressed) in the middle, and the subject (if expressed) at the beginning of the sentence, while words of qualification precede the words qualified. In poetry however, especially in the Manyôshiu, inversions are common.
All syllables in Japanese are open, and the terminal syllables of the stems are the consonants _b_, _f_, _g_, _k_, _m_, _n_, _r_, _s_, the digraph _ts_, _w_, _y_, and _z_ followed by the vowels _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_ (also _u_ without consonant as in _suu_, _e_ stem _suwe_, to place). Before _i_ _ts_ becomes _ch_, and before _e_ and _a_ _t_, before _i_ _s_ becomes _sh_ and _z_ _zh_; before every vowel except _u_ _f_ becomes _h_. All verbs have the stem in _u_, most verbs have also the stem in _a_ and _i_, some have also the stem in _e_ only, some in _i_ only. There are a very few irregular verbs. The following list of verbs and their stems will illustrate the above remarks:--
_yerabu_, _yerabi_, _yerabe_, _yeraba_ choose _omofu_, _omohi_, _omohe_, _omoha_ think _kogu_, _kogi_, _koge_, _koga_ row _sugu_, _sugi_ pass _fuku_, _fuki_, _fuke_, _fuka_ blow _tomu_, _tome_ stop _tsukanu_, _tsukane_ bind _toru_, _tori_, _tore_, _tora_ take _watasu_, _watashi_, _watase_, _watasa_ pass over _tatsu_, _tachi_, _tate_, _tata_ stand _su[w]u_, _suwe_ place _suyu_, _suye_ be rancid _sufu_, _suhe_ suck _mazu_, _mazhi_, _maze_, _maza_ mix _miru_, _mi_ (_mire_) see _suru_, _shi_, _se_ (_sure_) do _kuru_, _ki_, _ko_, _kure_, _ke_, _kere_ come [_wu_] _woru_, _wi_, _wiru_, _wore_, _wora_ be in, at
The Japanese verb has neither number nor person, the forms that follow therefore are indefinite as to number and person. The locutions--or more strictly the complements that with the stem make up the locution--are given below as suffixed to the stem.
Two moods may be distinguished. One I call Independent, in which form the verb is unconnected with any other verb, the other Dependent, in which the verb is connected with some verb in the Independent mood.[2] Mr. Chamberlain calls them Indicative and Oblique respectively.
There are in each mood three forms or quasi-tenses--a present, temporally indefinite; a past denoting action or state completed at or before the present or some indicated past time; and a future denoting action, &c., that may or will be completed at a future (or past-future) time. Each of these tenses in the Independent mood has a predicative or simpler form and a relative form--as relating to some noun. It is the simpler form, identical with the stem in _u_, which is found in the dictionaries (in Lemaréchal’s the stem in _a_, _i_, or _e_ is found). The relative form ends in _uru_ (modern _iru_ or _eru_). Thus _toki sugu_, time passes; _suguru toki_, tempus quod fugit (some verbs in _uru_ are transitive as _tatsu_, stand, _tatsuru_, make stand, set up). Only those verbs which have _e_ or _i_ stems throughout appear to possess this relative form;[3] in verbs with _i_ and _a_ stems this morphological distinction does not exist.
The Past has four forms, each double (P. predicative, R. relative).
(1) P. _ki_, R. _-shi_.
(2) P. _tari_ (_te-ari_), R. _-taru_ (_te-aru_).
(3) P. _-tariki_, R. _-tarishi_ (composed of (2) and (1)).
(4) P. _-nu_, R. _-nuru_.
[_ki_ (_kuru_) = come (cp. Ital. _vien fatto_); _shi_ (_suru_) = do; _te_ = stem of _tsu_, _tsuru_, continue; _ari_ is an irr. P. form of _aru_, be; _nu_ is an old verb = be.] In _i a_ verbs there is a past in P. _-eri_, R. _-eru_ (see below).
The Future is formed by suffixing _mu_ (or _namu_) to stem or _naramu_ (_ni [nu] aramu [aru]_) to R. form if any.
SCHEMATIC EXAMPLES.
_kogu_, row (with oars or sculls).
Stems. Present. Past. Future. _kogu_ _kogu_, P. & R. _kogiki_, P. _kogamu_, P. _kogi_ _kogishi_, R. (_koginamu_) _koga_ _kogitari_, P. _kogu naramu_ _kogitaru_, R. [_tomuru naramu_, R.] _kogitariki_, P. _kogitarishi_, R. _koginu_, P. _koginuru_, R. _kogeri_, P. _kogeru_, R.
_tomu_, stop, and _sugu_, pass, are conjugated like _kogu_, except that _tomu_ replaces _i_ and _a_ of _kogu_ forms by _e_, and _sugu_ by _i_.
In the Dependent mood the forms are constructed with the help of _-ba_ (the particle _ha_, voiced). _Shikaba_ (etym. of _shika_?), _tareba_, _taraba_ (_te areba_, _-araba_), _naba_ (_nu_) and _naraba_ (_ni araba_).
SCHEMATIC EXAMPLES.
_kogeba_, as, since, when, &c., row.
_kogaba_, _koginaba_, _koginaraba_, if row.
_kogishikaba_, _kogitareba_, as, since, when &c., rowed.
_kogitaraba_, _kogishi naraba_, if rowed.
Of _tomu_, _sugu_, the Dependent Mood is similarly conjugated preserving the _e_ and _i_ vowels, and for _tomeba_ using _tomureba_ for _tomaba_ _tomeba_, for _sugiba_ _sugureba_, for _sugaba_ _sugiba_.
The negative voice (there are no negative words = not, no, none). The Present Independent is formed by changing the _-mu_ of future into _-zu_ or _-zaru_ (_zu aru_), P. and _-nu_, R. Thus _kogu_ (_kogamu_), _kogazu_, _kogazaru_, _koganu_; _sugu_, _sugimu_, _sugizu_, &c.
In the past _-zu_ becomes _zariki_, P., and _-zarishi_, R.; in the future _-zaramu_ or _-zhi_, P. and R. (_kogazaramu_, _kogazhi_).
There is a second future with sense of obligation exemplified as follows:--_kogu_ (not _koga_) _-mazhiku_ (indefinite), _-mazhi_, P., _-mazhiki_, R., _-mazhikariki_, P., past fut. _-mazhikarishi_, R., past fut. _-mazhikereba_, conditional, when as, &c., and _-mazhikuba_, hypothetical, if, &c.
In the Dependent Mood we have:--
_koganeba_, _kogazareba_, as, when, &c., not-row.
_kogazuba_, if not-row.
_kogazarishikaba_, as, when, &c., not-rowed.
_kogazariseba_, _kogazarishi naraba_, if not-rowed.
The Imperatives are:--
_Kogazare_ (_kogazu are_); _kogu nakare_ (_naku are_); _koguna_, _kogu koto nakare_ (row-thing do-not), _na kogi so_, _yume kogu na_ (emphatic imperative). But _na_ with _i_ or _e_ stem is an affirmative imperative _kogi na_, do row!
There is another past in _tsu_[4], _tsuru_ as _kogitsu_, _kogitsuru_, and a continuative form in _tsutsu_, _kogitsutsu_, while rowing. Also a form in _-keri_, P. and _-keru_, R. with a dependent _-kereba_ as _kogikeru_, _kogikereba_. This _keri_ form seems equivalent to a perfect definite, have rowed. Its etymology must be _ki -ari_; of _tsu_ the stem would be _te_, which added to stem in _i_ or _e_ makes forms such as _kogite_, _tomete_, which are continuative indefinites almost equal to ‘whilst’, _kogite_, _yuku_, whilst-row-go, i.e. row to (a place).
The negative form of _-te_ is _-de_, _kogade_, or _-zu_, _-zu ni_, _-zu shite_, as _kogazu_, not-row, _kogazu ni_, in, or by not-row, _kogazu shite_, not-row-do, all meaning essentially whilst-not-row.
The particles _mo_, too, _to mo_, that too (with variant _domo_) _keredomo_ (_ki-ari-to-mo_), following or suffixed to verb-forms, give a concessive force, although, even though, &c., _beku_, with sense of must, can, will, ought, is suffixed to the _u_ stem, thus _kogubeku_ is must, or ought to row, or will row--the forms of _beku_ are _beshi_, P.; _beki_, R.; _bemi_, _bekariki_, P.; _-shi_, R.; _bekereba_, _bekuba_, _bekarazu_, &c.; _beku mazhiku_ almost = _bekarazu_.
Causative verbs (often used as transitives or as honour-forms) are easily recognized. Thus _nageku_, sigh, lament, _nagekasu_; or forms derived from _su_ (_suru_), do, are added--_shimuru_, _seshimuru_, _sasuru_. Thus _yaku_, burn, _yakasu_, _yakashimuru_; _suru_ (_se_), do, _sesasuru_, make-do.
_Nu_ (_ni_) is an old verb ‘be’. _Ni_ + _aru_ = _naru_, become, be at, of, in. The future _namu_ is a common auxiliary suffix. _Namu_ may become _namashi_, by composition with _mashi_, more, a suffixed optative particle. Another optative is formed by adding the slight interrogative particle _ya_ to the form in _-aba_ as _yukabaya_, should like to go; sometimes the future form is in _-ramu_ (_aramu_?) added to the _u_-stem, as _aruramu_ for _aramu_, _kofuramu_ for _kohamu_ (_kohimu_), will love. _Aru_, be, is peculiar in that its P.-form is _ari_ not _aru_.
The verb _miru_, see, keeps the _mi_ throughout, _miru_, _miki_, _mishi_, _mimu_, _miba_, _mitsu_ (past), _mizu_, _minu_, _mizhi_, _mide_, &c.; but _mireba_, _miredomo_, _miru_ or _miheku_, &c. So _hi(ru)_, dry, _i(ru)_, shoot, _(w)i(ru)_, be in or at, _ki(ru)_, wear _ni(ru)_, be like, _ni(ru)_, boil. See Chamberlain, p. 66. By adding _u_, _uru_ (get) with or without _aru_ (be) verbs passive and potential are obtained. Thus _yaku_ (burn) + _ari_ + _uru_ = _yakaruru_, so we have _homeraruru_ (_homu_, praise), _sugiraruru_ (_sugu_, pass), _miraruru_ (_miru_, see). Or we have _miyuru_, see-get = seem, so _omoyuru_, _omoheru_ (from _omofu_, think), or _omoharuru_ (see Glossary, _omofu_, &c.), _iheru_ (_ihi-uru_), is said, &c. From _aru_ (be) lengthened to _arafu_, we get _araharu_, _araharuru_, _arahaseru_, be manifest or make manifest.
Other passive-like forms are _iyu_ (_i_), shot, _oyu_ (_oi_), grown old, _omohoyu_ (_omofu_), thought. There is a form in _-aku_, thus _ifu_, say, _ihaku_--even the future has it, _kakemu_, will utter, _kakemaku_, and the past _omoheraku_, the morphological origin of which is unknown. It seems to give a substantival character to the verb; _ihaku_, the saying (is); _omoheraku_, what was thought (is): also a frequentative (rare) in _mi_, _wemi-mi, wemazu mo_, smiling and not smiling.
Under _koso_ will be found the verbal forms used with that particle.
Of the verb _su_ _suru_, do, the principal forms are:--
Independent Mood.
_shi_, _su_, _suru_, (_koso_) _sure_. _seri_, _seru_ (_koso_), _sere_. _shiki_, _seshi_ (_koso_), _seshika_. _shitari_, &c., _shitariki_, &c. _shitsu_, _shitsuru_ (_koso_), _shitsure_. _semu_, _suramu_ (_koso_), _-e_, _-e_. _shitaramu_, _shitsuramu_, &c.
Dependent Mood.
_sureba_, _seshikaba_, _shitareba_. _seba_, _senaba_, _shitaraba_. _suredo_ (_mo_). _suru mo_, _shite mo_. _seshikado_, _shitaredo_, _seshi_ (_mo_). _sebaya_. _shitsutsu_, &c.
Negative Voice.
_sezu_, _senu_ (_koso_) _sene_. _sezhi_, _sezaru_, and derived forms. _sezuba_, _senedo_. _sezare_, _suna_, _na se so_, &c.
Of the verb _ku_ _kuru_, come, the principal forms are:--
Independent Mood.
_ki_, _ku_, _kuru_, _kure_. _kishi_, _koshi_ (_kiki_ not found), _kishika_, _koshika_. _kitari_, &c., _kitariki_, &c. _kinu_, _kinuru_, &c., _kitsu_, _kitsuru_, &c. _komu_, _kuramu_, _kinamu_, &c. _koyo_. _kubeku_.
Dependent Mood.
_kureba_, _kishikaba_, &c. _koba_, _kinaba_. _kuredo_ (_mo_), &c. _kobaya_. _kitsutsu_. _kite_.
Negative Voice.
_kozu_, _konu_, &c. _kozhi_. _kozareba_. _koneba_. _kozare_. _kuna_. _kuruna_. _na ko so_.
The other forms of _kuru_ are easily formed from those of _suru_, replacing _se_ and _su_ by _ko_ and _ku_.
There are not many true adjectives. Such have a sort of positional inflexion--a predicative form in _-shi_, _akashi_, be red, a form used chiefly with verbs (but also indefinitely) in _-ku_, _akaku naru_, become red, and a form in _-ki_, used mainly with nouns, _akaki mono_, red thing. There is also a form in _-mu_, _-mi_, which has a verbal force denoting a state or condition.
Adjectives may also be verbalized by the addition of _aru_, be, and many of its forms with obvious contractions.
Lastly, adjectival expressions are formed by adding _naru_, be or become, to adjectival stems _yaharaka_, _yaharaka-naru_, soft, gentle.
Nouns substantive (and pronouns) are absolutely devoid of gender or case, and only occasionally have a plural suffix _ra_ or _tachi_ or _nodo_ or _domo_.
Pronouns are few, and--the personal pronouns especially--are little used, the subject of the verb being generally unexpressed and left to be gathered from the context.
First person _a_, _wa_, _are_, _ware_, _waga_, _wago-_, _wagi-_.
Second person _na_, _namuji_, _nase_, _imashi_, _imo_.
Third person _a_, _are_, _kare_ (_is_, _ille_, Aston). _so_, _sore_ (_iste_, Aston). _ko_, _kore_ (_hic_, Aston).
Interrogative Pronouns.
_Ta_, _tare_, who? _na_, _nani_, what? _izure_, _izu_, which, what? _ika_, what manner? ποῖος. _iku_, what number? &c., πόσος.