CHAPTER VIII

Troubadours and Minnesingers Brought Music to Kings and People

Except for the first few chapters in this book, we have told you of music made by men who wanted to improve it. You have seen how the fathers of the Church first reformed music, and gave it a shorthand called neumes; before that, the music laws of the Egyptians, the scales and modes of the Arab, the Greek scales which the churchmen used in the Ambrosian and the Gregorian modes. Then came the two-lined staff, and the beginnings of mensural or measured music by which they kept time. Then you saw how two melodies were fitted together and how they grew into four parts. All this we might call “on purpose” music. At the same time, in all the world, in every country, there was Song ... and never have the world and the common people (called so because they are neither of the nobility nor of the church) been without folk song which has come from the folks of the world, the farmers, the weavers, and the laborers.

The best of these songs have what the great composers try to put into their music—a feeling of fresh free melody, design, balance, and climax, but more of this in the chapter on Folk Song.

This chapter is to be about Troubadours, Trouvères, and Minnesingers, who have left over two thousand songs. In most of these, they made up both words and music, but sometimes they used new words made up for folk tunes that everyone knew, or for melodies from the plain-chants which they had heard in church; sometimes they used the same melody for several different poems, and often they set the same words to several melodies. Many of these troubadour songs and _minnelieder_ became the people’s own folk songs.

But now you must hear of the folk who lived hundreds of years before these poet singers. Unknowingly, out of the heart and soul and soil of their native lands, they made songs and sang poetry and played sometimes other peoples’ song, scattering their own wherever they went.

From these traveling singers and players, in all countries, came the professional musicians who were minstrels, bards, troubadours, etc., according to when, where and how they lived.

THE WHY OF THE MINSTREL

The people sang and played not only because they wanted to, or because they loved it, but because they were the newspaper and the radio of their time, singing the news and doings of the day. These minstrels who traveled from place to place “broadcasted” the events. No music was written down and no words were fastened by writing to any special piece. The singer would learn a tune and when he sang a long story (an epic) he would repeat the tune many times so it was necessary to find a pleasing melody, or singers would not have been very welcome in the courts and market places. These musical news columns entertained the people who had few amusements. The wandering minstrels with their harps or _crwth_ (Welsh harps), or whatever instrument they might have used in their particular country, were welcomed with open arms and hearts.

This sounds as if these singers and players traveled, and indeed they did! They sprang up from all parts of Europe and had different names in different places. There were bards from Britain and Ireland, skalds from the Norse lands, minstrels from “Merrie England,” troubadours from the south of France, trouvères from the north of France, jongleurs from both north and south who danced and juggled for the joy of all who saw them, and minnesingers and meistersingers in Germany.

DRUIDS AND BARDS

Centuries before this, Homer the great Greek poet was called the Blind Bard and he chanted his poems, the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, to the accompaniment of the lyre, the favorite instrument of the Greeks. But when we speak of bards in this chapter we mean the poets and musicians of ancient Britain, when that island was inhabited and ruled by the Druids, 1000 B.C. We do not know when the bards first began to make music or when they were first called bards, but it is certain that for many centuries before the Christian era, these rude, barbarous people of the countries we know as Wales, England, Ireland and Scotland, had many songs, dances and musical instruments.

Look at a map of France, and see how much like a teapot it is shaped. The western part, the spout, is Brittany! As its name shows, this part of France was inhabited by the same race of people as were in Britain, they spoke the same language, had the same religion and made the same music. These people were Celts and their priests were called Druids. Much we said about primitive people is true of these early Britons. They expressed their feelings, and tried to protect themselves from Nature and human foes by means of religious rites and ceremonies in which music and dancing played the leading part.

They had no churches, but held religious services in the open under the oak trees. They piled boulders on top of each other to form altars, or built large circular enclosures of huge flat rocks, inside of which they gathered for worship, or to assist at some ceremonial in which sacrifices of animals and occasionally of human beings were made. These human sacrifices occurred once a year at the Spring Festival which was celebrated in much the same fashion as in Greece. These masses of stone are found not only in the British Isles, the most famous of which is Stonehenge (which was recently bought by an American), but there are also many of these so-called _cromlechs_ and _menhirs_ in Brittany.

It is curious how often men and women do the same things at times and places so completely separated that they could not have been influenced by each other, but did what was natural for them. It seems that between the state of being primitive or savage and of being cultured, mankind must pass through certain states of mind and certain bodily actions common to all men. In tracing the growth of any habits and actions of people,—in government, religion, amusements, art, music, manners and customs, and language, we find the same customs constantly repeated among different races. If you remember this point, you will be interested to watch, in this book, the difference between these experiences common to all mankind and those which later on, were caused by the influence that one race had on another through meeting, through conquest and through neighborly contact.

The bards belonged to the priesthood and were Druids. They sang in verse the brave deeds of their countrymen, praises of the gods and heroes, and legends of war and adventure, accompanying themselves on primitive harps, or on an instrument something like the violin without a neck, called a _crwth_. They wore long robes and when they were acting as priests, these were covered with white surplices somewhat like the gowns of our own clergy. From a bit of information handed down by the bards, we learn that in Ireland, the graduate bard wore six colors in his robes, said to be the origin of the plaid of the Scotch Highlanders; the king wore seven colors; lords and ladies, five; governors of fortresses, four; officers and gentlemen, three; soldiers, two, and the people were allowed to wear only one. Even their dress seemed important and marked the rank!

There were three kinds of bards: priestly bards who took part in the religious rituals and were also the historians, domestic bards who made music in honor of their masters, and heraldic bards whose duties were to arouse patriotism through songs in praise of their national heroes. They had to pass examinations to become bards, and the lower ranks were tested for knowledge and ability before being promoted to the higher ranks. Recently there has been a revival in Wales of the _Eisteddfod_, or song contests of the Druids.

“Minstrelsy,” or singing to the _crwth_ or harp, lived on long after Druidism had been replaced by the Christian faith. Did you ever wonder where the custom came from of mistletoe at Christmas time? Or of dancing around a Maypole? Or building bonfires for May-day and St. John’s eve? Celebrating All-Hallowe’en with pumpkins and black cats? And of having Christmas trees? Well, these customs are all relics of Druidism of 2000 or more years ago.

SKALDS

In the land of the fierce Vikings or Norsemen, who inhabited Scandinavia, Iceland and Finland before and during the Middle Ages, there were bards called Skalds or Sagamen. They recited and sang stories telling of their Norse gods, goddesses and heroes, Woden, Thor, Odin, Freya, Brynnhild, and of the abode of the gods, Walhalla. These ballads formed the national epics called _sagas_ and _eddas_, from which Richard Wagner drew the story for his immortal music dramas, the Nibelungenlied.

Odin, who was considered a Norse god, probably was a Saxon prince who lived in the 3rd century, A.D. He revived the Norse mythology and rites with the aid of minstrels, seers, and priests. His teachings lasted until the reign of Charlemagne, a devout Christian, who put an end to pagan rites.

In the 5th century came the Saxons, Hengist and Horsa, descendants of Odin, and much of Britain fell under their rule; with them, came the skalds whose duty it was to celebrate the deeds of their lords. They appeared at the great state banquets, and also on the battle fields, encouraging the warriors with their songs of heroism, and comforting the wounded soldiers.

When the Danes, the Angles and the Jutes came to Britain in this same century, the country was called England or Angle-land. Harpers and gleemen followed in the footsteps of the Scandinavian skalds. These musician-singers went as honored guests from court to court, and received valuable presents. A popular gleeman was given the title of poet-laureate, and crowned with a laurel wreath.

The songs were taught orally and learned by heart, as there was no notation at this early date (500 A.D.). They accompanied themselves on small harps which could be carried easily. The harp was handed around the banquet table so that each guest in turn might sing a song as his share of the entertainment. Singing and composing poetry were a necessary part of a gentleman’s education.

The “Venerable” Bede (Chapter VII) wrote that “Cædmon the poet (600 A.D.) never could compose any trivial or vain songs, but only such as belonged to a serious and sacred vein of thought ... he was not practised in the art of verse. So, oft, in an entertainment, where for the sake of merriment it had been agreed that each in turn should sing and harp, as the dreaded instrument was seen approaching, he arose in shame from the supper table and went home to his house.” However, we learn that Cædmon who was a serving man, had a vision in which an angel asked him to “sing the beginning of creatures,” and when the vision had passed, he remembered the heavenly song, and thus Cædmon ceased to be shy, became the first great poet of England and was permitted to be a monk.

As the gleemen and harpers were not fighting men, they had many privileges not granted to the warriors. They passed, unchallenged, through the fighting camps, and we have any number of stories of kings and warriors disguising themselves as harpers in order to get information about their enemies. A secret service system of the Middle Ages!

In 878, Alfred the Great had been robbed of power and authority by the Danes, so disguised as a gleeman and armed only with a harp, he went into the Danish encampment. The royal minstrel was received cordially, and while the Danish king was listening to the songs, the harper (Alfred) was getting the information he needed, and soon made a surprise attack with his troops and was victorious. This is spying with musical accompaniment!

The Battle of Hastings (1066) caused great changes not only in learning, customs, language, music, other arts and politics, but in life itself. The French who, under William of Normandy conquered Britain, were leaders in composing poetry and song, and they brought over to Britain all their talents. Now romance began and with it the art of glorifying in song and verse, deeds of valor and the charms of lovely ladies. And here the troubadours and trouvères make their entrance into our story.

France had had songs of deeds and action called _Chansons de Geste_, which were tales of the brave Charlemagne, celebrating his victory over the invading Moors from Spain. One of the greatest of these was the _Chanson de Roland_. Other songs or ballads on religious, historical, chivalric, or political subjects took the place of our modern newspapers and were powerful at the courts and among the people in the towns. When a man in court circles did anything that some one objected to, one of the minstrel-poets was hired to make up a song about it, which was sung everywhere until the news was well circulated, and the person punished, often undeservedly. However it made the men of those days think twice before doing things against the rights of others, for they were really afraid of these songs that were spread among their friends and enemies.

In the Battle of Hastings, Taillefer, a famous soldier-minstrel, led the attack of the Normans, singing songs of Roland and of Charlemagne. He struck the first blow in the fight, and was the first one killed, but he went to his death singing. Tales of our own soldiers in the great war tell us the same about the need and love of music.

CHANSON DE ROLAND

The _Chanson de Roland_ is the national epic poem of France, and dates back to this Norman period. It celebrates the death at Roncevals, of Roland, Count of the “Marsh” of Bretagne, in Charlemagne’s expedition against Spain in 778. The work is divided into three parts. The first tells of the fight between the French (Christians) and the Saracens (Spanish Arabs), of the valor of Oliver and of Roland, of the latter’s death, of Charlemagne’s miraculous victory over the Saracens. The second part is a poem not based on fact, in which Charlemagne fights Baligant, the chief of all the pagans of the Orient; the western chief is victorious over the pagan chief, who is utterly defeated and killed. This poem pictures the victory of Christianity over Paganism. In the third part, the revenge is carried further, by Charlemagne’s taking the Saracen city Saragosse, and bringing back with him to France another of the leaders, Ganelon, who was tried and condemned to death.

This is the leading French work of the Middle Ages, as it sums up the greatest idealism, and brings to us that which they considered most vital—the call of patriotism, of honor and of duty.

GREAT CATHEDRALS AND FEUDAL CASTLES

About this time began the building of the great Gothic churches in France, England, and Germany. Rome had fallen, paganism had gone, and the spirit of Christianity was taking great hold of the people’s hearts. As a result of this feeling to praise God suitably the great churches which we copy even today were built.

If “architecture is frozen music,” you can understand why music and architecture developed at the same time.

This was also the age of Feudalism, when the noblemen lived in castles with moats and drawbridges, and owned vast tracts of land and whole villages. People were retainers, vassals and serfs, with no freedom and no property rights except what the lords gave them. They even had to give their masters much of the produce of the lands which they cultivated. Of course, these feudal lords besides having to be fed and guarded had to be entertained, and had to know what was going on in the outside world. So, the minstrels and bards were cordially welcomed, and wandered from castle to castle, receiving presents of money or clothes, jewelry, horses, and sometimes even houses.

WHAT TROUBADOURS LEARNED THROUGH CRUSADES

Every year during the early centuries of the Christian era, hundreds of pilgrims journeyed to the Holy Land undergoing much hardship on the way. They thought through this pilgrimage to be forgiven for their sins, and win the approval of the Church, then far more powerful than the kings. Toward the end of the 11th century, Mohammedans had seized Palestine, and prevented the Christian pilgrims from doing penance or worshipping at the Holy Sepulchre. This led to a series of expeditions against the Mohammedans in Palestine in which all the Christian countries of Europe united. These expeditions were called the Crusades (1095–1271), and they have been celebrated in story and song ever since. The Crusades gave the rough uncultured men of the Western world the chance to hear the poetry and the songs of the Arabs (Chapter VI), who at that time were the most advanced in culture and arts. Although the Oriental music with its complicated rhythms must have been hard to learn, the Crusaders brought back much of real value and beauty,—a new way of singing, new subjects for poems, and two new instruments, a kind of guitar and _el oud_, in Europe called lute. The lute had a strong influence on popular music, for it was the most commonly used instrument for centuries.

ROMANCE LANGUAGES

Latin had been the language of France because the Romans lived there so long, but later it became mixed with the rough dialect and speech of the Franks and other Gothic barbarous tribes and was much changed. From this mixture came rustic Latin, or _Romanse rustique_, and modern French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese are still called Romance languages. A new poetry was born in Provence, the south of France, and in Normandy in the north, written in this _Romanse rustique_, and the oldest French songs were called _lais_, lay or ballad. The great ruler Charlemagne collected these _lais_ of barbarian period and the trouvères and troubadours had wonderful old songs of heroism to choose from.

In Provence they said “oc” for “yes” and in Normandy, “oui.” So, the language of the south of France was called “langue d’oc” and of the north “langue d’oui.”

TROUBADOURS, TROUVÈRES, JONGLEURS

The troubadours, whose very name brings to mind a charming picture of romance, chivalry and adventure, were the poet-composers of Provence a land of sunshine where men were brave and courteous, and women beautiful and gracious. The words _troubadour_ and _trouvères_, come from _trobar_, _trouver_, meaning to find or to invent, for these troubadours and trouvères were the inventors or composers of poems which they set to music.

They wrote their songs on the four-lined staff in square notes, without written accompaniment. The accompaniments played on the lute, the guitar, the vielle, or sometimes the harp, were probably made up by the _jongleur_, (_joglar_, _jouglar_, in English,—juggler) who sang the songs, had trained bears, danced and played tricks. Then as now there were composers and performers. The troubadours and trouvères were as a rule, nobles and even royalty. Five kings belonged to their number, the greatest of them were Richard Cœur de Lion, William Count of Poitiers, Alfonso, Thibaut de Champagne, and King of Navarre.

The troubadour seldom sang his own songs, as this was the jongleur’s duty. There were many more jongleurs than troubadours, and they belonged to a much lower grade of society. The jongleurs traveled from place to place, from castle to castle, with their instruments slung across their backs, and their songs in a little bag at their side. They were heartily welcomed wherever they went, but if they found the doors of the castles closed to them, they soon gathered a crowd in the public squares, where they performed to the joy of the townspeople.

Can you imagine the pleasure these strolling entertainers gave to the people who did not have motors, movies, radios, gramophones and theatres for their amusement? How happy the custodian of the castle must have been when he looked across the moat and lowered the drawbridge for the welcome minstrels!

The jongleurs grew so numerous, and their music became so poor that they were nuisances, little better than outlaws and beggars. How easily a good thing can be overdone!

In the 14th century they banded together in perhaps the first musical union on record. They appointed leaders, called kings of the minstrels or jugglers. At first they were hired by nobles and troubadours as entertainers with the rank of servants. Even the monasteries received them with joy during the early days; later they were denounced by the Church, and forbidden to enter the monasteries, for they had sung of evil things instead of lovely things and had acted unseemly. During Lent, they were forbidden to appear in public, so they wisely used that time to go to schools of minstrelsy, where they learned new songs, and tried their skill at composing. In these schools they were also taught to play their instruments. Sometimes we hear of women minstrels, who sang, played the flute, danced, and performed tricks to the endless delight of the audience. (See lining of the cover of this book.)

The jongleurs, at their best, seem to have “gotten in” everywhere,—at the courts of kings, in all the tournaments, festivals, pilgrimages, and weddings. A wedding wasn’t complete without them! At the knightly tournaments and jousts, the minstrel was a most necessary person, for, did he not take the place of newspapers, and give accounts to a waiting world of the results of the exciting tournaments?

Massenet, the French composer, wrote a lovely opera called _The Juggler of Notre Dame_, from one of the old miracle tales of a young juggler sheltered by the monks of Notre Dame. Everyone brought rich gifts to place at the feet of the Virgin Mary, but being a pauper, he had nothing but his songs, dances and tricks, which he offered the Virgin by going through them as best he could in front of the shrine. So shocked were the monks by his seeming lack of respect, that they wanted to drive him out! At this moment the miracle took place. The image of the Virgin came to life and stretched forth her arms protectingly to the young juggler, showing that she accepted his offering given in all sincerity and simplicity.

As all the countries of Europe took part in the Crusades, the troubadours’ songs were heard by others than the French, and their music spread rapidly. Richard, the Lion-Hearted, King of England, was a famous Crusader and a troubadour of skill. He invited jongleurs over from France, one of whom, Blondel de Nesle, became his devoted companion during the Crusade of 1193, and saved Richard’s life. Richard was taken captive by Leopold, Duke of Austria, and was cast into a dungeon. The English did not know where to look for their monarch, but Blondel undertook the search, going from place to place, singing songs which he and the king had written together. One day as he sang, from the tower of a castle came a voice which he recognized as Richard’s, singing the same song! And soon the royal troubadour was released.

THE TROUBADOURS

This new art of poetry and song was called “The gay science of chivalry and love-service.” Indeed many of the poems about knightly adventure were addressed to some fair lady, real or imaginary, known or unknown. Curious as it may seem, the names of most of these songs came from the Arabian, because the Europeans met them during the crusades and during the Arabs’ conquests and roamings in Europe.

The names tell you what the songs were about. _Chanson_ and _canzo_ both mean song, and we see these names today on our concert programs. There were story telling songs called the _chansons de toile_, songs of linen, which told of the lovely damsels at work weaving, of their beauty, and of their thoughts, for the women of castle and cottage alike wove the cloth out of which the clothes were made. Then, they had dramatic songs and dancing songs called _estampies_ (from which comes our word stamping); the _reverdies_, or spring songs, to celebrate the Spring festivals; the _pastorelles_ in which the heroine was always a charming shepherdess; the _sera_ or _serenade_, an evening song; the _nocturne_, a night song, and love songs were often sung under the beloved ladies’ windows! The _alba_ was a morning song. The _sirvantes_, or songs of service, sung in praise of princes or nobles, or telling of public happenings were important. These were often accompanied by drums, bells, pipes and trumpets.

We have debating societies in our schools and colleges, and questions of the day are discussed in the newspapers, but in the troubadours’ day, debates were made into songs, sung by two people, and were called _tensons_. Many curious and rather foolish questions were made the subjects of these songs.

Sometimes these popular songs found their way into the Church, and were made into fine church music, and sometimes a bit of melody from the Church went through the hands of a troubadour poet and was turned into a _rounde_, _ballata_, _sera_, or _pastorella_.

This poetry and song of Provence lasted until the middle of the 14th century, for in the twelve hundreds the revolts against the abuses of the Church rose to such seriousness that massacres took place, towns were destroyed and many nobles and troubadours lost their lives.

TROUVÈRES

Shortly after the troubadours began to compose, in the north of France came the trouvères who profited much from the music and poetry of their southern brothers.

However, the trouvères did not have the warm, lovely dialect of the southern troubadours. As they were closer to the Church, their songs were more religious, had less variety of subjects, and the melodies were like Church music.

Although the troubadours did much to shape the rhyming stanzas in poetry, the trouvères helped in the gradual forming of the later French and Flemish schools of music, as you will see.

The jongleurs played on an instrument called the _vielee_ which was great-grandfather to our violin. The short pieces played before the songs and accompanied by dances, were the first pieces of instrumental music in the Middle Ages. The combination of song, instrument and dance was called _balerie_ or _ballada_ from which comes our dance _ballet_. There was also a piece called _rounde_, _rota_, or _rondo_, composed so that different voices and the instrument came in at different points, each singing or playing the same tune, but arranged so that the parts sounded well together. Perhaps you know _Frère Jacques_ or _Scotland’s Burning_ or _Three Blind Mice_. These are rounds.

One of the most beautiful rounds in existence is an English song which dates from 1250, the period of all this “gay science,” and it is looked upon as a masterpiece. It is supposed to have been written either by John Forsete, a monk, or by Walter Odington. It was written in the old square neumes on a six line staff. The name of this “Six Men’s Song” or round for six voices, is _Summer is icumen In_.

One of the best known trouvères was Adam de la Hale who wrote _Robin et Marion_, said to be the very first comic opera. It was performed at the court of Naples in 1285.

The trouvères collected tales of Normandy, Brittany, and of Charlemagne’s reign, and so preserved valuable musical and literary material.

So these troubadours and trouvères made the age of Chivalry romantic and beautiful to us who came long after them, in spite of much unpleasantness, prejudice, war, massacre and hardship.

MINNESINGERS

Along the river Rhine in Germany near that part of France where the trouvères sang, lived the Minnesingers. They sang love songs,—_minne_ was the old German word for love. Like the troubadours the minnesingers were of the nobility, but they rarely hired jongleurs or anybody to perform their songs; they sang them themselves, playing their own accompaniments on lutes or viels (viols).

Many songs expressed adoration of the Virgin, and others praised deeds of chivalry. Differing from other minstrels, they made songs about Nature and Religion full of feeling, fancy and humor, but the minnesongs were not so light-hearted or fanciful as those of their French neighbors. They had marked rhythm, beauty of form and simplicity, and were more dramatic, telling the exploits of the Norse heroes in many a glorious story.

Their story was far more important to them than the music which for a long time was like the stern plain song of the Church. “We should be glad they were what they were, for they seem to have paved the way for the great Protestant music of the 16th century,” says Waldo Selden Pratt in his _History of Music_.

You can get an excellent idea of the minnesong in Wolfram von Eschenbach’s _Oh Thou Sublime Sweet Evening Star_, which Wagner wrote in the spirit of the ancient minnesingers in the opera _Tannhäuser_. Tannhäuser was a real minnesinger, taking part in a real song contest, held by the Landgraf (Count) of Thuringia, 1206–7, who offered his daughter Elizabeth’s hand to the winner, whatever his rank. We find Elizabeth also in Wagner’s _Tannhäuser_, so when you hear it you will know that it is history as well as beautiful music! How remarkable that, in the days of feudalism, when the nobles practically owned the so-called common people, talent for music and verse stood even above rank! After all there is no nobility like that of talent. Even in the 13th century this was understood, and to either commoner or peer winning the song tournament, the lady of rank was given in marriage.

Wolfram von Eschenbach, the minnesinger, visited the courts and sang in many tournaments. Giving Wagner a character for the opera _Tannhäuser_ was not all he did as Eschenbach wrote a poem from which Wagner drew the story for his _Parsifal_.

Walther von der Vogelweide, one of the most famous minnesingers, was so fond of birds, that when dying he asked for food and drink to be placed on his tomb every day for the birds. There are four holes carved in the tombstone; and pilgrims today, when they visit this singer’s grave, still scatter crumbs for them, who probably in their bird histories record that Walther loved song even as they!

Prince Conrad, Konradin he was called, son of the last Swabian King, was the last famous minnesinger. Everyone battled for other people’s countries and lands then, and so Conrad, heir to the crown, joined a Sicilian rebellion against France, and was killed by a troubadour, the Duke of Anjou.

MASTERSINGERS

After poor Conrad’s time, the art of minnesinging declined, but as people must have music, a new activity sprang up among the people or “folk” instead of among the gentry and knights. The folk who took part in this were called the Meistersingers or mastersingers and their story is very thrilling and picturesque.

This was the day of the Robber Baron, when Germany was broken up into little kingdoms and principalities. Any rich and powerful noble could start a war to steal away the rights of another ruler, and become ruler himself. This was no pleasant state of affairs for the people, for they were in constant terror of death, of the destruction of their crops, or new taxes. Life became so perilous that people left the farms and went to the cities for protection. The feudal system began to fail, for the people would no longer be slaves, and gradually took up trades and formed themselves into guilds. The warring nobles had neglected music for conquest, so these workers and artisans, hungry for it, formed music guilds as well as trade guilds, drew up rules for making music and poetry, and held prize competitions. In these music guilds there were six grades of membership: first, member; second, scholar or apprentice; then, friends of the school; singer, poet, and finally mastersinger or _Meistersinger_. You can get a real picture of their day in the greatest comic opera ever written, Wagner’s _Die Meistersinger_, and you can make the acquaintance of Hans Sachs, the most famous Meistersinger (1494–1576).

Heinrich von Meissen, known as _Frauenlob_ (Praise of Women), is said to have founded the Meistersinger movement over a hundred years before Hans Sachs’ time.

Til Eulenspiegel, whose merry pranks have been delightfully told in music by Richard Strauss, a present day composer, was also a Meistersinger.

The origin of the name “Meistersinger” is disputed. One historian tells us that it was given to every minnesinger who was not a noble,—in other words, a burgher-minstrel. The other historian claims that the title _Meister_ or master was given to any one who excelled in any act or trade, and afterwards came to mean all the guild members.

From the 14th century to the 16th, hardly a town in Germany was without music guilds and Meistersingers. Although they lost power then, the last guilds did not disappear until 1830, and the last member died in 1876. They must have passed the long winter evenings pleasantly for they met, and read or sang poems of the minnesingers or new ones composed by the members themselves. These guilds must have been great fun, for they had badges and initiation ceremonies and the kind of celebrations one loves in a club.

They had complicated, narrow-minded rules called _Tablatur_ which today seem quite ridiculous, so much has music matured and thrown off the chains which once bound it!

When the guilds grew too large to be held in the different homes, the churches became the meeting places for practise and for the contests.

The highest praise we can give the Meistersingers is that they carried the love of music and song into every German home and made it a pastime of domestic life. Their influence spread not only through Germany, but throughout all lands. The composers who followed were glad to have their songs from which to draw inspiration for the popular religious songs at the time of the Protestant Reformation. Even though they did not make up any very great words or music, they spread a love for it and made people feel that the following of music as a career was worthy and dignified.

It is interesting to know before we close this chapter, that the English, well into the 16th century, after the passing of the troubadours, trouvères, minnesingers and mastersingers, still celebrated the exploits of the day in ballads called the Percy Reliques.

VIELLE OR HURDY-GURDY

If you had lived in the Middle Ages you would have seen the strolling players traveling around with a queer looking instrument known by many different names,—_vielle_, _organistrum_, _Bauernleier_ (peasant lyre), _Bettlerleier_ (beggar’s lyre) or _hurdy-gurdy_. This was a country instrument, not often seen in cities, and was shaped like the body of a lute without a long neck. It had wire strings, sometimes gut, and a set of keys; the sound was made by turning a little crank at the bottom. The _vielle_ or _hurdy-gurdy_ is a cross between the bowed and the keyed instruments. In the 12th century it was called the _organistrum_, a large instrument which took two men to play. It flourished in the 18th century throughout Europe.

And so, now on to folk songs, although we would like to linger in this romantic period of wandering minstrels.