Part 16

In the respiratory organs also, menstrual changes frequently occur. According to _von Ott_, respiratory capacity attains a maximum shortly before menstruation, and diminishes rather rapidly during the flow; the expiratory power is similarly affected. In the larynx, according to _Bottermund_, great swelling of the posterior wall occurs during menstruation, whereby the closure of the glottis is hindered, and a rapid onset of fatigue ensues in the muscles that perform this action when the woman sings or speaks; the fulness of the voice is also diminished. More or less extensive swelling of the thyroid body[32] occurs during the menstrual period. According to _Fliess_, in most women, the inferior, sometimes the middle and the inferior nasal turbinate bodies are greatly swollen; sometimes also the tubercula septi are swollen. It is said that the right half of the nose is more frequently and more intensely swollen than the left half. Epistaxis is sometimes observed at the menstrual periods.

In the urinary organs, the influence of the menstrual period is manifested by a change in the urine. According to _Schrader_, the elimination of urea is diminished shortly before menstruation; according to _Laval_, the elimination of uric acid undergoes a sudden diminution on the second day of the flow, followed by an increase on the third day, subsequently rising above the normal level. This change is to be attributed, not to any excitation of the genital organs, but to the loss of blood.

_Hebra_ already drew attention to the connection between diseases of the skin and the physiological and pathological processes occurring in the female genital organs; and emphasized the fact that for the cure of certain eruptions, local treatment of the disorder of the reproductive organs was requisite. He gave four examples of such eruptions: 1, an acute attack of eczema, which disappeared only after the removal of a badly fitting pessary; 2, in a chlorotic girl, two large red spots on the cheeks disappeared when menstruation was established; 3, improvement of a skin-affection when a coexisting disorder of the genital organs received appropriate treatment, followed by recrudescence of the skin trouble when the genital disorder became more severe; 4, a case of obstinate seborrhœa, lasting for many years, which disappeared only when the patient became pregnant, for the first time, seven years after her marriage.

Similar cases have been recorded by subsequent observers, and numerous monographs have been published on menstrual skin-eruptions. _Schramm_, for instance, reports the case of a woman in whom at each menstrual period tubercles and papules appeared on the backs of the hands and on the neck; and the same author mentions another case in which during menstruation red papules arranged in rows appeared on the back. _Wilhelm_ observed dark blue macules, the size of hazelnuts, which appeared on the thighs shortly before menstruation and disappeared when the flow was over. Of two cases of menstrual disorder of the skin reported by _Stiller_, in one, an itching eruption appeared on the upper and the lower extremities; in the other, small red papules appeared on the dorsum of the hands and feet. Other cases of menstrual skin-eruptions were published by _Joseph_, _Pauli_, _Janovsky_, and _Schwing_. Sometimes at the menstrual periods severe pruritus vulvæ occurs, due, no doubt, to the temporary increase in the secretion of the menstrual passages, and to the more active influence exercised by this secretion on the vulva.

In two cases in which the menstrual flow was in abeyance, _Heitzmann_ observed affections of the skin. In one of these, a young woman aged twenty who had not yet begun to menstruate, there appeared every four weeks isolated papules surrounded by a bright red areola, itching so violently that scratching resulted. In the other, macules the size of a lentil, of a light red or dark red color, appeared, and lasted two or three days; when menstruation became regular, fresh crops no longer formed.

_Schauta_, in a case of chronic oöphoritis, observed the regular recurrence of urticaria at each successive menstrual period. The suffering being very great, the rest at night being greatly disturbed during the periods of eruption, and the patient’s general health declining more and more in consequence, extirpation of the ovaries was undertaken, and the operation resulted in a complete cure. _Schauta_ further observed that in cases of obstinate skin-affections of unknown causation occurring in persons of the female sex, some disorder of the genital organs was nearly always present; moreover, in many of these cases, as soon as the genital disorder was cured by appropriate measures, the skin-affection disappeared spontaneously and without any further treatment. He had been able to collect twenty-six cases of this nature, in which an indubitable connection obtained between disease of the skin and disease of the reproductive system. The forms of affection of the genital organs chiefly noticed in this association were, retroflexion and retroversion of the uterus, erosion and ectropium or eversion of the cervix (chronic cervical catarrh), chronic endometritis, oöphoritis, and salpingitis, and finally with especial frequency uterine myomata; the skin-diseases observed were, acne, eczema, disorders of pigmentation, psoriasis, lichen, and urticaria.

During menstruation we observe not infrequently a number of changes in the skin, such as hyperidrosis, acne, seborrhœa, erythema, and the form of dermatitis known as erysipelas of menstruation; sometimes also effusion of blood into the skin as a form of vicarious menstruation, and peculiar forms of cutaneous œdema. In many women during menstruation the secretion of sweat is markedly increased every month; in exceptional cases, menstruation is vicariously replaced by profuse sweating. In association with menstruation we frequently observe excessive secretion of the sebaceous glands, especially of those of the hairy scalp. Often urticaria manifests itself as a recurrent menstrual eruption. In cases of scanty menstruation and of amenorrhœa, discoloration and excessive pigmentation of the skin may occur, sometimes taking the form (as also in pregnancy) of chloasma uterinum. Sometimes also in these cases the formation of dark rings round the eyes, already seen in slighter degree as an accompaniment of normal menstruation, is excessive.

In the organ of vision, changes associated with menstruation have been recorded by various observers. Hordeolum menstruale (menstrual stye) may recur month after month at the menstrual periods as an exacerbation of a chronic conjunctivitis. Herpes of the ocular or palpebral conjunctive and eczematous affections may be connected with menstruation; also exophthalmos may occur during menstruation in association with swelling of the thyroid body and palpitation of the heart (_H. Cohn_); again, as an accompaniment of normal menstruation, severe papillitis with retinal hæmorrhages may occur (_Heber_). According to the investigations of _Finkelstein_, a limitation of the field of vision may be noticed during menstruation, beginning on the first, second, or third day of the flow, attaining its greatest intensity on the third or fourth day of the flow, and gradually disappearing during the three or four days next ensuing.

The organ of hearing is stated by _Haug_ to be affected during menstruation, inasmuch as congestive redness and swelling of the external ear, of the external auditory meatus, and of the skin over the mastoid process, sometimes occurs; occasionally also, periodic neuralgia manifests itself at the menstrual periods.

In the circulatory organs, as already mentioned, normal menstruation quite frequently manifests its influence by the production of disorders of greater or less severity, referable to the stimulus of ovulation. In 8.5 per cent. of the women of whom I have made inquiries with regard to this matter, palpitation of the heart of variable severity occurred during menstruation, and was most frequent and most severe on the first and second days of the flow. Associated with the palpitation in some cases were, vasomotor disturbances, transient feelings of heat, a sense of congestion in the head, and profuse perspiration without apparent cause. The day before the commencement of the flow, the blood-pressure rises considerably, but falls rapidly during the flow. This menstrual rise in blood-pressure is accompanied by a rise in temperature and an increase in metabolic activity. The influence of menstruation on the heart is most powerfully displayed in cases in which for some reason a disturbance occurs of the normal appearance or normal course of menstruation.

Disorders of menstruation likely to give rise to cardiac disorders are, amenorrhœa, menorrhagia, and dysmenorrhœa.

Amenorrhœa is especially apt to induce cardiac disorder in cases in which, in consequence of some sudden impression, such as a fright or a severe chill, menstruation, which began at puberty in normal fashion and subsequently recurred with perfect regularity, has undergone sudden and complete suppression; also in cases in which severe anæmia or obesity has rapidly led to the onset of amenorrhœa. In such cases, attacks of tachycardia sometimes occur, it may be at irregular intervals, or it may be exhibiting a menstrual rhythm, the cardiac affection manifesting itself always a few days before the date at which menstruation ought to begin. In these cases, also, systolic murmurs are not infrequently audible.

In cases in which menstruation is very painful, the dysmenorrhœa may give rise to attacks of colic or to convulsive seizures, whether the dysmenorrhœa is itself due to inadequacy or to complete suppression of the flow, to metritis, to anteflexion, to new growths in the uterus, or, finally, to diseases of the ovaries or to pathological disorders of ovulation. Among the various disorders associated with dysmenorrhœa, heart troubles are not infrequent, most often taking the form of reflex neuroses, evoked by the stimulus of the pain in the genital organs; but it has also been asserted that an acute dilatation of the heart occurs in these attacks.

Very threatening cardiac symptoms as an accompaniment of severe dysmenorrhœa have been seen by me especially in the case of two women, one of whom was in the thirties and the other in the forties. The attacks took the form of increased frequency of the heart’s action, with severe cardiac dyspnœa on trifling exertion, sense of suffocation, and intense anxiety. This severe cardiac and respiratory distress was a sequel to the appearance of severe dysmenorrhœa, and was relieved as soon as the course of menstruation became regular and painless; but the cardiac trouble recurred in association with each successive attack of dysmenorrhœa. In one of these two women, the dysmenorrhœa was the result of extreme anteflexion of the uterus; in the other woman, the cause of the dysmenorrhœa was not apparent. I was unable to decide with certainty whether in these cases an acute dilatation of the heart occurred. French authorities, who describe similar cardiac trouble resulting from diseases of the liver and the stomach by the name of _asystolic gastrohépatique_ (_Potain_), give the following explanation of its mode of occurrence. The intra-abdominal plexus of the sympathetic is stimulated, this stimulus is reflected to the lungs, in which organs it gives rise to vaso-constriction, resulting in increased tension in the lesser circulation; in consequence of this the right heart has difficulty in emptying itself, when weak it undergoes dilatation, and a moderate or extreme tricuspid insufficiency ensues. We have to do, then, in these cases, with reflex symptoms, with a reflex arc, the starting point of which is the sensory nerve-terminals in the abdomen, the afferent tract of which is formed by the sympathetic and pneumogastric nerves, and the efferent tract of which passes along the pulmonary sympathetic nerves.

In other cases of dysmenorrhœa we observed signs of cardiac weakness; the pulse was small, very frequent, and barely perceptible, the face became suddenly pale, the hands and feet were cold; complete syncope sometimes occurred.

Menorrhagia sometimes leads to cardiac symptoms, owing to the severity of the anæmia which follows extensive and long-continued loss of blood; sometimes, however, the heart troubles associated with menorrhagia are reflex manifestations, dependent on the disease which has also caused the menorrhagia, endometritis, it may be, new growths, lukæmia, or scurvy. Sometimes here also we observe transient attacks of acute dilatation of the heart.

Nervous disturbances during menstruation, which are so frequent that _Emmet_ regards it as abnormal for a menstruating woman to be entirely free from pain and from uneasy sensations, are divided by _Windscheid_ into two classes, general nervous disorders, and local nervous manifestations. Among general disorders, the commonest is a general bodily incapacity; in women, who in other respects are quite healthy, during menstruation everything will be too great an exertion, and fatigue speedily ensues on the performance of occupations which at other times are undertaken without the slightest difficulty. Another common nervous disorder is an uneasy sensation in the head, it may be a feeling of weight or pressure, sometimes described as a feeling as if an iron band were compressing the forehead. Slight mental irritation is commonly present also, the woman is capricious, her mental equilibrium is disturbed. Very common also are vasomotor disturbances, transient feelings of heat, a sense of congestion in the head, or an outbreak of perspiration. Among local nervous disturbances, _Windscheid_ enumerates, pains in the back (occasionally and erroneously described as spinal irritation), sacrache, pains in the lower extremities, which by preference generally take the course of the great sciatic nerves. Pains in the abdomen also frequently accompany menstruation; these may be diffused over the whole abdomen, or may predominate in the two hypochondriac regions. Disorders of the sense-organs sometimes occurring during menstruation are, the flickering of objects before the eyes, photophobia, and tinnitus aurium. The heart may also be affected with palpitation in association with these nervous disturbances; the stomach may exhibit associated disorder in the form of cardialgia, or more frequently in the form of vomiting, this latter being very frequent at the outset of the flow. Less common is profuse diarrhœa, pain in the anus, or spasm of the sphincter ani.

The intensity of such nervous manifestations during menstruation is dependent upon the woman’s general state of nutrition, upon the degree of instability of her nervous system, and upon her occupation. Robust and powerful women, regularly employed in the open air, such as the wives and daughters of farmers and agricultural laborers, are much less affected by the nerve-weakening influences of menstruation than the sedentary and anæmic town-dwelling women, whether these latter belong to the higher classes of society and are addicted to nerve-straining enjoyments, or to the class of shop-girls, seamstresses, and factory-women, whose employment is apt to lead to nervous exhaustion.

As regards the forms of neuralgia most apt to accompany menstruation, _Windscheid_ mentions trigeminal neuralgia as the commonest, especially affecting the first division of the nerve, and producing localized pains which are to be distinguished from the headaches already mentioned. They are characterized by their intensity and their persistence in spite of anti-neuralgic treatment, and by their spontaneous disappearance as soon as menstruation is over. According to the same author, the relations between hemicrania and the process of menstruation are indisputable; at the very least it must be admitted that menstruation predisposes to an attack of hemicrania.

Cases also occur in which convulsions almost invariably accompany menstruation, convulsions which are to be regarded as symptoms of hysteria.

The extraordinarily powerful influence which the menstrual stimulus exercises on the mind is shown by the frequency with which the slighter psychopathic states occur as an accompaniment even of normal menstruation, these manifestations being sometimes melancholic in type, sometimes maniacal or erotic, and, when of long duration, leading ultimately to pronounced mental disorder. This influence of the menstrual stimulus is yet more potent in cases in which important changes in the course of menstruation have occurred, in cases, for instance, of suppressed, painful, or irregular menstruation. In this connection, however, in order to avoid a confusion of cause and effect, we must carefully bear in mind, that it is a much commoner causal sequence for psychical disorders to disturb the normal course of menstruation, than for disorders of menstruation to evoke psychical disorders. This view has only quite recently become established, and for this reason it is necessary to regard such data when obtained from the writings of the older gynecologists in a somewhat critical spirit.

By the modern alienist, the influence of the menstrual reflex on mental affections is recognized only in cases in which a proper valuation of the predisposing causes has been made, in such cases as the following: First, we have to recognize the modifying influence exercised by the menstrual stimulus on established psychoses, inasmuch as these latter not infrequently undergo cure when previously irregular menstruation has become regular, and, moreover, the recurrence or the first appearance of menstruation has often a powerful influence on the course of some established mental disorder. In some cases this influence is a strikingly favorable one on psychoses that have developed before the commencement of menstruation, or during the suppression of that function; it may be, however, and, indeed, more frequently is, an unfavorable influence, inasmuch as such a psychosis, on the first appearance or on the reappearance of menstruation, may assume a menstrual type, the attacks becoming more frequent or more violent with the successive recurrence of each menstrual or premenstrual period. This is the history of the typical menstrual psychosis.

Again, certain processes of the sexual life, disorders of menstruation, diseases of the genital organs, operations on these organs, and the processes of the climacteric, influence the origin and the character of mental disorder, generally giving rise to chronic affective insanity (insanity of the emotions and feelings) or to paranoia (chronic delusional insanity, insanity of the intellect). The menstrual stimulus must in these cases be regarded as a psychopathically exciting physical cause.

Further, physical disturbances may equally affect the menstrual function and the functions of the mind, rendering the exact causal sequence in such cases a difficult one to determine; and, conversely, the circumstances that restore the normal working of the mind may also regulate the menstrual function.

Finally, we may have to do with isolated sporadic occurrences in which the exciting influence of menstrual processes may be traced. Thus, for the outbreak of a periodical menstrual psychosis, an especial temporal predisposition must exist, connected with the great developmental epoch of the sexual life.

There is, for instance, a group of transitory states occurring during menstruation, and taking the form of disorders of the intelligence or of explosive emotional states; such may be witnessed, not in those suffering from psychopathic predisposition, but in quite healthy individuals.

The successive menstruations as they recur regularly throughout the course of the sexual life may, just like the first menstruation, though with diminished intensity, give rise to manifestations of nervous and mental disorders. In many women who are in other respects healthy, we see during menstruation, hemicrania, nervous irritability, ill-temper, low-spiritedness, and even hysterical and epileptic attacks; these occur chiefly on the first and second days of the flow, and disappear altogether toward the end of the period. These manifestations are more severe in individuals weakened by profuse losses of blood or by chronic disorder in various organs, more severe also in those predisposed to such disturbances in consequence of neuropathic inheritance, more severe in women suffering from menorrhagia and dysmenorrhœa, and from any kind of mental stress.

In his work on the influence of the so-called menstrual wave on the course of mental disorders, _Schüle_ remarks that the mental equilibrium even of a perfectly healthy woman is not a stable one, but is subject to a series of oscillations. “The menstrual period,” he continues, “has a distinct influence on woman’s mental equilibrium. Even in those whose nervous system is a healthy one, menstruation evokes a state, now of depression, now of excitement; in neurotic women, on the other hand, menstruation may give rise to nervous diseases which may equally exhibit the characteristics of depression or the characteristics of excitement. In nervously predisposed women, the influence of regularly established menstruation, even when the circumstances are favorable, is pretty much the same as the influence of menstruation when it first makes its appearance; the influence is merely somewhat weaker in so far as the woman has learned to endure and to be patient. The menstrual state, in nervously predisposed women, evokes the particular neurosis to which the individual happens to be liable. The disorders most commonly met with in this association are, hysteria, hemicrania, swimming in the head, epileptic paroxysms, toothache, and neurasthenia.”

Especially frequent during menstruation is hemicrania. Sometimes hemicrania may begin a day or two before menstruation, as a prodromal sign, and may accompany its whole course, becoming, however, less severe toward the end of the flow. Hysteria most commonly manifests itself in association with menstruation by a depressed emotional state, by tearfulness, by complaints made without sufficient grounds, by globus hystericus or clavus hystericus; sometimes also by paroxysms of muscular spasm; very rarely by hystero-epileptic seizures. Epilepsy may occur either by day or by night. Nocturnal seizures usually occur without any apparent external cause, as a result of the central stimulus; diurnal attacks, on the other hand, have usually some external exciting cause. Often, however, years may elapse without any attack of major epilepsy occurring, the disease manifesting itself in one or more of the many varieties of the minor form (_petit mal_), as transient absences of mind, attacks of vertigo, etc.

The nervous disturbance in a menstruating woman may be so great as to lead to the production of psychoses. The question of the existence of a menstrual insanity _sui generis_ has been answered by many alienists in the affirmative; by others, however, who see in the alleged cases nothing specific, it has been answered in the negative. The relation of menstruation to the mental disorder may be a double one: 1, menstruation may occur repeatedly in the course of an already established mental disorder; 2, menstruation and its morbid variations may favor the occurrence of psychoses that exist already in a latent form, and may lead to the origination of psychoses to which the organism is predisposed.

In the former connection, _Brierre de Boismont_ undertook an investigation which showed that in women suffering from mental disorder, an exacerbation of that disorder was to be observed during menstruation. _Schlager_, who regards the menstrual process as possessing when anomalous a high significance for the development and course of mental disturbances, observed that in 33 per cent. of women suffering from mental disorder, the menstrual state had an unfavorable influence upon the course of that disorder, inasmuch as it led to an increased irritability; in the rest of the cases, however, menstruation was without influence upon the course of the ordinary chronic psychoses. In the cases that were unfavorably influenced, epileptic attacks usually became more frequent, and chronic melancholia became much more profound. _Schröder_ observed in chronic forms of melancholia that during menstruation the sadness became intolerable and was associated with a suicidal tendency; in chronic maniacal forms of mental disorder, the excitement underwent an increase during menstruation. _Von Krafft-Ebing_, as a result of his investigations into insanity during menstruation, came to similar conclusions with regard to the unfavorable influence of the menstrual process. _Algeri_ likewise states that menstruation notably aggravates the cerebral symptoms in the course of mental disorders.

Other authors, _Marcé_ and _Kowalewski_ for instance, whilst emphasizing the powerful influence exerted by menstruation on any existing psychosis, point out that in some instances, as in states of mental and physical depression, this influence is for the worse; but in other instances, especially in states of maniacal excitement, the condition of the patient undergoes notable amelioration during menstruation. _Schäfer_ also, in his researches into the relations between the processes of menstruation and psychoses, discovered that anomalies in the course of menstruation ran almost parallel with anomalies in the course of mental activity.