Part 9

Kamma (ear ornament).--An exogamous sept of Motati Kapu.

Kammalan (Tamil).--The original form of the name Kammalan appears to have been Kannalan or Kannalar, both of which occur in Tamil poems, e.g., Thondamandala Satakam and Er Ezhuvathu, attributed to the celebrated poet Kamban. Kannalan denotes one who rules the eye, or one who gives the eye. When an image is made, its consecration takes place at the temple. Towards the close of the ceremonial, the Kammalan who made it comes forward, and carves out the eyes of the image. The name is said also to refer to those who make articles, and open the eyes of the people, i.e., who make articles pleasing to the eyes.

A very interesting account of the netra mangalya, or ceremony of painting the eyes of images, as performed by craftsmen in Ceylon, has been published by Mr. A. K. Coomaraswamy. [69] Therein he writes that "by far the most important ceremony connected with the building and decoration of a vihara (temple), or with its renovation, was the actual netra mangalya or eye ceremonial. The ceremony had to be performed in the case of any image, whether set up in a vihara or not. Even in the case of flat paintings it was necessary. D. S. Muhandiram, when making for me a book of drawings of gods according to the Rupavaliya, left the eyes to be subsequently inserted on a suitable auspicious occasion, with some simpler form of the ceremony described.

"Knox has a reference to the subject as follows. 'Some, being devoutly disposed, will make the image of this god (Buddha) at their own charge. For the making whereof they must bountifully reward the Founder. Before the eyes are made, it is not accounted a god, but a lump of ordinary metal, and thrown about the shop with no more regard than anything else. But, when the eyes are to be made, the artificer is to have a good gratification, besides the first agreed upon reward. The eyes being formed, it is thenceforward a god. And then, being brought with honour from the workman's shop, it is dedicated by solemnities and sacrifices, and carried with great state into its shrine or little house, which is before built and prepared for it.'" The pupils of the eyes of a series of clay votive offerings, which were specially made for me, were not painted at the potter's house, but in the verandah of the traveller's bungalow where I was staying.

The Tamil Kammalans are divided into three endogamous territorial groups, Pandya, Sozia (or Chola), and Kongan. The Pandyas live principally in the Madura and Tinnevelly districts, and the Sozias in the Trichinopoly, Tanjore, Chingleput, North and South Arcot districts, and Madras. The Kongas are found chiefly in the Salem and Coimbatore districts. In some places, there are still further sub-divisions of territorial origin. Thus, the Pandya Tattans are divided into Karakattar, Vambanattar, Pennaikku-akkarayar (those on the other side of the Pennaiyar river), Munnuru-vittukarar (those of the three hundred families), and so forth. They are further divided into exogamous septs, the names of which are derived from places, e.g., Perugumani, Musiri, Oryanadu, Thiruchendurai, and Kalagunadu.

The Kammalans are made up of five occupational sections, viz., Tattan (goldsmith), Kannan (brass-smith), Tac'chan (carpenter), Kal-Tac'chan (stone-mason), and Kollan or Karuman (blacksmith). The name Panchala, which is sometimes used by the Tamil as well as the Canarese artisan classes, has reference to the fivefold occupations. The various sections intermarry, but the goldsmiths have, especially in towns, ceased to intermarry with the blacksmiths. The Kammalans, claiming, as will be seen later on, to be Brahmans, have adopted Brahmanical gotras, and the five sections have five gotras called Visvagu, Janagha, Ahima, Janardana, and Ubhendra, after certain Rishis (sages). Each of these gotras, it is said, has twenty-five subordinate gotras attached to it. The names of these, however, are not forthcoming, and indeed, except some individuals who act as priests for the Kammalans, few seem to have any knowledge of them. In their marriages the Kammalans closely imitate the Brahmanical ceremonial, and the ceremonies last for three or five days according to the means of the parties. The parisam, or bride's money, is paid, as among other non-Brahmanical castes. Widows are allowed the use of ordinary jewelry and betel, which is not the case among Brahmans, and they are not compelled to make the usual fasts, or observe the feasts commonly observed by Brahmans.

The Kammalan caste is highly organised, and its organisation is one of its most interesting features. Each of the five divisions has at its head a Nattamaikkaran or headman, and a Karyasthan, or chief executive officer, under him, who are elected by members of the particular division. Over them is the Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran (also known as Ainduvittu Periyathanakkaran or Anjijati Nattamaikkaran), who is elected by lot by representatives chosen from among the five sub-divisions. Each of these chooses ten persons to represent it at the election. These ten again select one of their number, who is the local Nattamaikkaran, or one who is likely to become so. The five men thus selected meet on an appointed day, with the castemen, at the temple of the caste goddess Kamakshi Amman. The names of the five men are written on five slips of paper, which, together with some blank slips, are thrown before the shrine of the goddess. A child, taken at random from the assembled crowd, is made to pick up the slips, and he whose name first turns up is proclaimed as Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran, and a big turban is tied on his head by the caste priest. This is called Uruma Kattaradu, and is symbolic of his having been appointed the general head of the caste. Lots are then drawn, to decide which of the remaining four shall be the Anjivittu Karyasthan of the newly-elected chief. At the conclusion of the ceremony, betel leaf and areca nut are given first to the new officers, then to the local officers, and finally to the assembled spectators. With this, the installation ceremony, which is called pattam-kattaradu, comes to an end. The money for the expenses thereof is, if necessary, taken from the funds of the temple, but a special collection is generally made for the occasion, and is, it is said, responded to with alacrity. The Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran is theoretically invested with full powers over the caste, and all members thereof are expected to obey his orders. He is the final adjudicator of civil and matrimonial causes. The divisional heads have power to decide such causes, and they report their decisions to the Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran, who generally confirms them. If, for any reason, the parties concerned do not agree to abide by the decision, they are advised to take their cause to one of the established courts. The Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran has at times to nominate, and always the right to confirm or not, the selection of the divisional heads. In conjunction with the Karyasthan and the local heads, he may appoint Nattamaikkarans and Karyasthans to particular places, and delegate his powers to them. This is done in places where the caste is represented in considerable numbers, as at Sholavandan and Vattalagundu in the Madura district. In this connection, a quaint custom may be noted. The Pallans, who are known as "the sons of the caste" in villages of the Madura and Tinnevelly districts, are called together, and informed that a particular village is about to be converted into a local Anjivittu Nattanmai, and that they must possess a Nattamaikkaran and Karyasthan for themselves. These are nominated in practice by the Pallans, and the nomination is confirmed by the Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran. From that day, they have a right to get new ploughs from the Kallans free of charge, and give them in return a portion of the produce of the land. The local Nattamaikkarans are practically under the control of the Karyasthan of the Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran, and, as the phrase goes, they are "bound down to" the words of this official, who possesses great power and influence with the community. The local officials may be removed from office by the Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran or his Karyasthan, but this is rarely done, and only when, for any valid reason, the sub-divisions insist on it. The mode of resigning office is for the Nattamaikkaran or Karyasthan to bring betel leaf and areca nut, lay them before the Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran, or his Karyasthan, and prostrate himself in front of him. There is a tendency for the various offices to become hereditary, provided those succeeding to them are rich and respected by the community. The Anjivittu Nattamaikkaran is entitled to the first betel at caste weddings, even outside his own jurisdiction. His powers are in striking contrast with those of the caste Guru, who resides in Tinnevelly, and occasionally travels northwards. He purifies, it is said, those who are charged with drinking intoxicating liquor, eating flesh, or crossing the sea, if such persons subject themselves to his jurisdiction. If they do not, he does not even exercise the power of excommunication, which he nominally possesses. He is not a Sanyasi, but a Grihastha or householder. He marries his daughters to castemen, though he refrains from eating in their houses.

The dead are, as a rule, buried in a sitting posture, but, at the present day, cremation is sometimes resorted to. Death pollution, as among some other non-Brahmanical castes, lasts for sixteen days. It is usual for a Pandaram to officiate at the death ceremonies. On the first day, the corpse is anointed with oil, and given a soap-nut bath. On the third day, five lingams are made with mud, of which four are placed in the four corners at the spot where the corpse was buried, and the fifth is placed in the centre. Food is distributed on the fifth day to Pandarams and the castemen. Sradh (annual death ceremony) is not as a rule performed, except in some of the larger towns.

The Kammalans profess the Saiva form of the Brahman religion, and reverence greatly Pillaiyar, the favourite son of Siva. A few have come under the Lingayat influence. The caste, however, has its own special goddess Kamakshi Amma, who is commonly spoken of as Vriththi Daivam. She is worshipped by all the sub-divisions, and female children are frequently named after her. She is represented by the firepot and bellows-fire at which the castemen work, and presides over them. On all auspicious occasions, the first betel and dakshina (present of money) are set apart in her name, and sent to the pujari (priest) of the local temple dedicated to her. Oaths are taken in her name, and disputes affecting the caste are settled before her temple. There also elections to caste offices are held. The exact connection of the goddess Kamakshi with the caste is not known. There is, however, a vague tradition that she was one of the virgins who committed suicide by throwing herself into a fire, and was in consequence deified. Various village goddesses (grama devata) are also worshipped, and, though the Kammalans profess to be vegetarians, animal sacrifices are offered to them. Among these deities are the Saptha Kannimar or seven virgins, Kochade Periyandavan, and Periya Nayanar. Those who worship the Saptha Kannimar are known by the name of Madavaguppu, or the division that worships the mothers. Those who revere the other two deities mentioned are called Nadika Vamsathal, or those descended from men who, through the seven virgins, attained eternal bliss. Kochade Periyandavan is said to be a corruption of Or Jate Periya Pandyan, meaning the great Pandya with the single lock. He is regarded as Vishnu, and Periya Nayanar is held to be a manifestation of Siva. The former is said to have been the person who invited the Tattans (who called themselves Pandya Tattans) to settle in his kingdom. It is traditionally stated that they emigrated from the north, and settled in the Madura and Tinnevelly districts. An annual festival in honour of Kochade Periyandavan is held in these districts, for the expenses in connection with which a subscription is raised among the five sub-divisions. The festival lasts over three days. On the first day, the image of the deified king is anointed with water, and a mixture of the juices of the mango, jak (Artocarpus integrifolia), and plantain, called muppala pujai. On the second day, rice is boiled, and offered to the god, and, on the last day, a healthy ram is sacrificed to him. This festival is said to be held, in order to secure the caste as a whole against evils that might overtake it. Tac'chans (carpenters) usually kill, or cut the ear of a ram or sheep, whenever they commence the woodwork of a new house, and smear the blood of the animal on a pillar or wall of the house.

The Kammalans claim to be descended from Visvakarma, the architect of the gods, and, in some places, claim to be superior to Brahmans, calling the latter Go-Brahmans, and themselves Visva Brahmans. Visvakarma is said to have had five sons, named Manu, Maya, Silpa, Tvashtra, and Daivagna. These five sons were the originators of the five crafts, which their descendants severally follow. Accordingly, some engage in smithy work, and are called Manus; others, in their turn, devote their attention to carpentry. These are named Mayas. Others again, who work at stone-carving, are known as Silpis. Those who do metal work are Tvashtras, and those who are engaged in making jewelry are known as Visvagnas or Daivagnas. According to one story of the origin of the Kammalans, they are the descendants of the issue of a Brahman and a Beri Chetti woman. Hence the proverb that the Kammalans and the Beri Chettis are one. Another story, recorded in the Mackenzie manuscripts, which is current all over the Tamil country, is briefly as follows. In the town of Mandapuri, the Kammalans of the five divisions formerly lived closely united together. They were employed by all sorts of people, as there were no other artificers in the country, and charged very high rates for their wares. They feared and respected no king. This offended the kings of the country, who combined against them. As the fort in which the Kammalans concealed themselves, called Kantakkottai, was entirely constructed of loadstone, all the weapons were drawn away by it. The king then promised a big reward to anyone who would burn down the fort, and at length the Deva-dasis (courtesans) of a temple undertook to do this, and took betel and nut in signification of their promise. The king built a fort for them opposite Kantakkottai, and they attracted the Kammalans by their singing, and had children by them. One of the Deva-dasis at length succeeded in extracting from a young Kammalan the secret that, if the fort was surrounded with varaghu straw and set on fire, it would be destroyed. The king ordered that this should be done, and, in attempting to escape from the sudden conflagration, some of the Kammalans lost their lives. Others reached the ships, and escaped by sea, or were captured and put to death. In consequence of this, artificers ceased to exist in the country. One pregnant Kammalan woman, however, took refuge in the house of a Beri Chetti, and escaped decapitation by being passed off as his daughter. The country was sorely troubled owing to the want of artificers, and agriculture, manufactures, and weaving suffered a great deal. One of the kings wanted to know if any Kammalan escaped the general destruction, and sent round his kingdom a piece of coral possessing a tortuous aperture running through it, and a piece of thread. A big reward was promised to anyone who should succeed in passing the thread through the coral. At last, the boy born of the Kammalan woman in the Chetti's house undertook to do it. He placed the coral over the mouth of an ant-hole, and, having steeped the thread in sugar, laid it down at some distance from the hole. The ants took the thread, and drew it through the coral. The king, being pleased with the boy, sent him presents, and gave him more work to do. This he performed with the assistance of his mother, and satisfied the king. The king, however, grew suspicious, and, having sent for the Chetti, enquired concerning the boy's parentage. The Chetti thereon detailed the story of his birth. The king provided him with the means for making ploughshares on a large scale, and got him married to the daughter of a Chetti, and made gifts of land for the maintenance of the couple. The Chetti woman bore him five sons, who followed the five branches of work now carried out by the Kammalan caste. The king gave them the title of Panchayudhattar, or those of the five kinds of weapons. They now intermarry with each other, and, as children of the Chetti caste, wear the sacred thread. The members of the caste who fled by sea are said to have gone to China, or, according to another version, to Chingaladvipam, or Ceylon, where Kammalans are found at the present day. In connection with the above story, it may be noted that, though ordinarily two different castes do not live in the same house, yet Beri Chettis and Kammalans so live together. There is a close connection between the Kammalans and Acharapakam Chettis, who are a section of the Beri Chetti caste. Kammalans and Acharapakam Chettis interdine; both bury their dead in a sitting posture; and the tali (marriage badge) used by both is alike in size and make, and unlike that used by the generality of the Beri Chetti caste. The Acharapakam Chettis are known as Malighe Chettis, and are considered to be the descendants of those Beri Chettis who brought up the Kammalan children, and intermarried with them. Even now, in the city of Madras, when the Beri Chettis assemble for the transaction of caste business, the notice summoning the meeting excludes the Malighe Chettis, who can neither vote nor receive votes at elections, meetings, etc., of the Kandasami temple, which every other Beri Chetti has a right to.

It may be noted that the Deva-dasis, whose treachery is said to have led to the destruction of the Kammalan caste, were Kaikolans by caste, and that their illegitimate children, like their progenitors, became weavers. The weavers of South India, according to old Tamil poems, were formerly included in the Kammiyan or Kammalan caste. [70] Several inscriptions show that, as late as 1013 A.D., the Kammalans were treated as an inferior caste, and, in consequence, were confined to particular parts of villages. [71] A later inscription gives an order of one of the Chola kings that they should be permitted to blow conches, and beat drums at their weddings and funerals, wear sandals, and plaster their houses. [72] "It is not difficult," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [73] "to account for the low position held by the Kammalans, for it must be remembered that, in those early times, the military castes in India, as elsewhere, looked down upon all engaged in labour, whether skilled or otherwise. With the decline of the military power, however, it was natural that a useful caste like the Kammalans should generally improve its position, and the reaction from their long oppression has led them to make the exaggerated claims described above, which are ridiculed by every other caste, high or low." The claims here referred to are that they are descended from Visvakarma, the architect of the gods, and are Brahmans.

From a note by Mr. F. R. Hemingway, I gather that the friendship between the Muhammadans and Kammalans, who call each other mani (paternal uncle) "originated in the fact that a holy Muhammadan, named Ibrahim Nabi, was brought up in the house of a Kammalan, because his father was afraid that he would be killed by a Hindu king named Namaduta, who had been advised by his soothsayers that he would thus avoid a disaster, which was about to befall his kingdom. The Kammalan gave his daughter to the father of Ibrahim in exchange. Another story (only told by Kammalans) is to the effect that the Kammalans were once living in a magnetic castle, called Kanda Kottai, which could only be destroyed by burning it with varagu straw; and that the Musalmans captured it by sending Musalman prostitutes into the town, to wheedle the secret out of the Kammalans. The friendship, according to the story, sprang up because the Kammalans consorted with the Musalman women."

The Kammalans belong to the left hand, as opposed to the right hand faction. The origin of this distinction of castes is lost in obscurity, but, according to one version, it arose out of a dispute between the Kammalans and Vellalas. The latter claimed the former as their Jatipillaigal or caste dependents, while the former claimed the latter as their own dependents. The fight grew so fierce that the Chola king of Conjeeveram ranged these two castes and their followers on opposite sides, and enquired into their claims. The Kammalans, and those who sided with them, stood on the left of the king, and the Vellalas and their allies on the right. The king is said to have decided the case against the Kammalans, who then dispersed in different directions. According to another legend, a Kammalan who had two sons, one by a Balija woman, and the other by his Kammalan wife, was unjustly slain by a king of Conjeeveram, and was avenged by his two sons, who killed the king and divided his body. The Kammalan son took his head and used it as a weighing pan, while the Balija son made a pedler's carpet out of the skin, and threads out of the sinews for stringing bangles. A quarrel arose, because each thought the other had got the best of the division, and all the other castes joined in, and took the side of either the Kammalan or the Balija. Right and left hand dancing-girls, temples, and mandapams, are still in existence at Conjeeveram, and elsewhere in the Tamil country. Thus, at Tanjore, there are the Kammala Tevadiyals, or dancing-girls. As the Kammalans belong to the left-hand section, dancing-girls of the right-hand section will not perform before them, or at their houses. Similarly, musicians of the right-hand section will not play in Kammalan houses. In olden days, Kammalans were not allowed to ride in palanquins through the streets of the right hands. If they did, a riot was the result. Such riots were common during the eighteenth century. Thus, Fryer refers to one of these which occurred at Masulipatam, when the contumacy of the Kamsalas (Telugu artisans) led to their being put down by the other castes with the aid of the Moors.

The Kammalans call themselves Achari and Paththar, which are equivalent to the Brahman titles Acharya and Bhatta, and claim a knowledge of the Vedas. Their own priests officiate at marriages, funerals, and on other ceremonial occasions. They wear the sacred thread, which they usually don on the Upakarmam day, though some observe the regular thread investiture ceremony. Most of them claim to be vegetarians. Non-Brahmans do not treat them as Brahmans, and do not salute them with the namaskaram (obeisance). Their women, unlike those of other castes, throw the end of their body-cloth over the right shoulder, and are conspicuous by the nose ornament known as the nattu.