part 3

, p. 69.)

[Illustration: WINE JAR--"TINAJA." SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]

These references are not, however, sufficient to identify the kind of pottery made at that time in Cataluña. It is highly probable that lustred ware was also made there to a great extent, not only because it was the most characteristic produce of the Peninsula, but also because this ware was exported to a great extent, and highly esteemed.

The most important examples of Spanish terra-cotta which have reached us are _tinajas_, large jars for holding wine and oil.

One of the best _tinajas_ which I know is at the South Kensington Museum, No. 330-'66. (See woodcut.) It is a wine jar, amphora-shaped, and ornamented with incised pattern of vine leaves, and stamped diaper of a Gothic character. This and similar specimens have always been found in Andalusia and the province of Toledo, and hence we may infer that the chief centres of this industry existed at Toledo and Seville. They continue to be made there, and are used for the same purposes as in the Middle Ages, for keeping stores of wine, oil, meat, grain, etc.

Belonging to this section of objects of a large size, are some specimens of glazed earthenware made for brims of wells. I only know four or five examples in the local museums of Toledo and Cordova; the font of the church of San Salvador, Toledo, belongs also to the same pottery. The brim of a well, at the South Kensington Museum, No. 1763-'71, is of the same manufacture. It was bought at Toledo for three guineas at a shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green earthenware, with ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round, which appear to be of the 14th century (see woodcut on next page). The inscription, which is repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words:

[Illustration: Arabic

"The power, the excellence, and the peace."]

There is no difficulty in affirming that this form of earthenware was made at Toledo, for Marineo Siculo, in his interesting volume treating of "De las Cosas Memorables de España," Alcala, 1539, says, "much coarse green and white pottery is made at Toledo."

[Illustration: BRIM OF WELL FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]

The manufacture of tiles, as was the case with so many other industries in Spain, was imported by the Arabs. In the Middle Ages it attained great importance, and has never ceased in Spain up to the present day. The earliest tiles (_azulejos_) made in Spain are composed of small pieces let into the wall, forming geometrical patterns. The proceeding is similar to that employed by the workers of Byzantine mosaic,--tile decoration undoubtedly took the place of this mosaic work in Moorish buildings. It is difficult to fix the precise period when they were first made, but it must have been posterior to the 10th century, when Moorish architecture underwent a radical change in its system of decoration. The oldest tiles which exist in Spain are at the Palace of the Alhambra, Granada. They belong to the 14th century. The great variety of their design may be seen in Owen Jones' "Plans and elevations of the Alhambra," London, fol. 1842, and the fine work published by the Spanish government, "Monumentos Arquitectonicos." We can judge of the style adopted by two interesting fragments, both of which came from the Alhambra, No. 1104-'53, No. 324-'64, South Kensington Museum.

The earliest mention which I have found of this manufacture occurs in a letter from Doña Juana de Mendoza, the wife of the Almirante de Castilla, which is addressed to the lady abbess of the nunnery of Santo Domingo at Toledo. She begs that a large number of "azulejos" of different colours, black, white, yellow, and green should be sent to her. She alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was expecting a master potter from Seville to place these tiles in their proper places. This shows us that it was only in the province of Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into geometrical sections and mosaic patterns. This letter is not dated, but it is bound up with other documents of 1422, and evidence exists to prove that both the Almirante and his wife were dead in 1431. The locality for which the tiles were required was probably Palencia; the convent of Santa Clara was built by them at that time, and they both were buried there. It was extremely difficult to cut and join together these tiles; the workmen who did so had to pass through a regular examination in compliance with the municipal ordinances drawn up in the 15th century; without this requisite they were not allowed to exercise their trade.

We know, from documents existing at the Archives of the Alhambra, at Granada, that tiles were made there at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century. We find the names of Antonio Tenorio, Gaspar Hernandez, and Pedro Tenorio working there at that time as master potters.

The use of these _azulejos_ was not restricted to Moorish buildings; they were largely employed to decorate the walls of Christian churches, convents, palaces, and private houses. The style of work, however, soon changed, for instead of being made of mosaic work, they were formed of a single piece like the ordinary tiles, but imitating the Moorish colours. In the 16th century designs of the Renaissance style alternated with these, although the system and colouring continued the same. This style continued in vogue until the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610. A fine collection may be seen at the South Kensington Museum of 200 tiles, in which upwards of 150 varieties of design will be found, Nos. 308-'66 and 367-'66. Their chief characteristic is that only pure colours are used without gradations or half tints. Lustred reflets are very seldom met with in tiles; the only examples I know are two beautiful plaques of the 14th century of a pale lustre which are on either side of the entrance door of the Moorish saloon called Cuarto Real de S^{to}. Domingo, at Granada; some small polygons of copper-coloured lustre at the Tower of la Cautiva, Granada: some few details in the coats of arms which are let into the tiles which adorn the walls of the Chapel at the Alhambra, and some few tiles with the arms of the Mendozas at the Casa de Pilatos, Seville.

A few dishes belong also to the 15th century, ornamented with the same colouring as the tiles without metallic lustre, and generally decorated with fantastic animals. They are very scarce. Two examples exist at the South Kensington Museum, Nos. 1459 and 1461-'70. They probably were made at Seville; all those I have seen come from there, and we know that the pottery from Seville was much esteemed. In Pedro de Medina's "Libro de Grandezas y Cosas Memorables de España," Sevilla, 1549, fol. Iii., he says, "In this town of Triana much excellent pottery of Malaga is made, coloured white and yellow, and of different sorts and kinds. This pottery is made in about fifty houses, and it is exported from here to many localities. In the same manner excellent _azulejos_ are made, of great variety of colour and design. And likewise fine reliefs of men and other things. Great quantities of these _azulejos_ are taken to different localities."

At the introduction of Italian forms of art in Spain, at the beginning of the 16th century, artistic pottery divided itself into two schools--one kept to the traditional designs and strong tones of colour, the other used shaded colours, and especially yellow and blue tints, at times imitating Italian maiolica, but always following the decoration characteristic of the Renaissance style.

The Italian influence, and its finest results in Spain may be favourably studied in Seville, in the tile decorations of the chapel at the Alcazar, the doorway of the convent of Santa Paula, and a remarkable sepulchre decorated with tiles at the church of St. Anne at Triana. All these tile decorations are signed by the same person, and it would be difficult to find any more remarkable.

The _azulejos_ at the Alcazar represent a picture in the manner and style of Pietro Perugino; they are admirable in colour and design. Those which decorate the sepulchre at the church of St. Anne have the following inscription, "_Niculoso Francesco italiano me fecit, en el agno del mil ccccciii._" Some very interesting tiles also may be seen in one of the rooms in the lower part of the Alcazar; they are marked in the following manner: A.V.S.T.A.--A.V.G.W.S.T.A. 1577-1578. On the floor of the pavilion of the Emperor Charles V. in the garden there are also some fine tiles which are signed Juan Hernandez, 1540.

We find mention in Cean Bermudez of a painter of _azulejos_ named Juan Flores, a native of Flanders; he painted tiles for the royal palaces of Madrid, the Pardo and Segovia; he was appointed Maestro Azulejero by Philip II. in 1565.

Returning to other examples of earthenware we meet with the ancient manufactures of the Balearic Islands, although it is not easy to determine the kind of pottery which was really made there. Bernardo da Uzzano, in 1442, made a commercial treaty, (vide Davillier, "Faïences Hispano Moresques," p. 26), in which he mentions the "faïence" made at Mallorca and Minorca, which "was exported to a very large extent." The royal Ordinances for the island of Iviza, which have not been mentioned by either of these authors, state that the principal traffic and the greatest industry of ancient times of the island of Iviza consisted in some vessels of the finest earthenware, well baked and curiously worked, of which an innumerable quantity were sent off to Africa and other places, not only on account of the excellence of their worth, which was admirable, but the speciality of the clay, which preserved from poison. ("Reales Ordinaciones de Iviza," Palma, 1751).

Manufactures of pottery also existed in a great number of localities in Spain; the most important centres were at Talavera, Valencia, and Triana. Judging by the manner in which different authors praise the earthenware of Talavera, its productions were evidently the most esteemed. The earliest mention we find of Talavera pottery occurs in a MS. volume dated 1560--a history of this town, in which mention is made of "white, green, blue and other coloured Talavera ware." In the inventory of the effects of D^{na}. Juana, a sister of Philip II., 1573, several objects of "white earthenware of Talavera" are mentioned. In a report drawn up by order of Philip II. 1576, it is stated that Talavera "produced fine white glazed earthenware-tiles, and other pottery, which supplied the country, part of Portugal and India." Father Ramon de la Higuera in his "Republicas del Mundo," 1595, mentions the ware of Talavera in terms of the highest praise. In a MS. history of Talavera written in 1651, (Bib. Nac. Madrid, G. 112,) the author, Father Alfonso de Ajofrin, says that "the pottery is as good as that of Pisa, a large number of _azulejos_ are also made to adorn the front of altars, churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and small specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight different kilns. Four other kilns are kept to make common earthenware. Red porous clay vases and drinking cups are baked in two other kilns, in a thousand different shapes in imitation of birds and other animals, also _brinquiños_ for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was brought them." In another MS. history of Talavera (Bibl. Nac. G. 187) we find mention of "perfect imitations of oriental china," and that the pottery made there, "was used all over Spain, and sent to India, France, Flanders, Italy and other countries, and was esteemed everywhere for the perfection of the colouring and brilliancy of the glaze."

This information may be increased by quoting another interesting MS. on the history of this town (Bib. Nac. F. 142) in which the writer, Fr. Andres de Torrejon, who professed in the convent of Santa Catalina in 1568, says:--"The earthenware pottery made here has reached to a great height of perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups, _bucaros_ and _brinquiños_ are made of different kinds, dishes and table centres, and imitations of snails, owls, dogs and every kind of fruits, olives, and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection, and the imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are most excellent. Every one wonders that in so small a town such excellent things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made with tin and sand, it is now found to be more acceptable than coloured earthenware, so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this town although they have in their houses dinner services of silver, buy earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, it is now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as silk."

"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides the great variety of objects which they make, the different medals which they place upon them, they have invented some small _brinquiños_ of so small and delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also made of the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture of this pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who eat the pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their confessors to check this custom."

In a volume of "Relaciones Topograficas de los Pueblos de España hechas en 1576," (MS. in fol. t. ii.) we find, in speaking of Talavera, that the author says: "What is most excellent there is the white pottery, and tiles and other objects of this earthenware with which the kingdom and part of Portugal are provided."

In Larruga's "Memorias Politicas y Economicas," (vol. x. Madrid, 1741,) we find, p. 22, that "the manufactory of fine earthenware of Talavera de la Reyna continued to make much pottery of importance until 1720: eight kilns existed then, which employed more than 400 persons, men, women and children. These manufactories possessed at that time large sums of money. From that time this industry decayed to such an extent, that in 1730 only four kilns existed where pottery of a very inferior kind was produced."

The industry was revived later on in the century, but the finest specimens are of an earlier date. Larruga adds, in p. 17, vol. x., of his "Memorias," that "Talavera ware is of a lighter clay than the imitations of this earthenware which were made in other localities."

Pottery of a similar kind was also made in different other localities of Spain. Mendez Silva says that at Puente del Arzobispo, near Toledo, "fine pottery is manufactured in about 8 kilns, which produce more than 40,000 ducats yearly." ("Relacion General de España," Madrid, 1645, fo1. 32.) Paton likewise in his "Historia de Jaen," 1628, writes that "the white unglazed earthenware made at these towns, is very remarkable for the curious manner in which they imitate different figures of animals, such as porcupines, fish, syrens, tortoises, &c." Objects of a similar kind are still made in Spain.

The English traveller Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation during the years 1760-1761," London, 1763, p. 263, says, "the pottery fabrics are very numerous and excellent, particularly Talavera." And in "Annales de l'Espagne," by Alvarez de Colmenares, Amsterdam, 1741, we find, p. 187, in speaking of Talavera, that "On y fait des ouvrages vernissés d'une façon ingénieuse, avec des peintures de bon goût; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes Orientales; on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce négoce rend plus de 50,000 ducats par an."

Udal ap Rhys in his "An Account of the Most Remarkable Places and Curiosities in Spain and Portugal," London, 1749, in speaking of Talavera says, "It is noted also for a very curious kind of earthenware that is made in imitation of China."

Although we find by the remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors that earthenware of every description was made at Talavera, the specimens which are more generally met with may be divided into two groups, which are painted on a white ground, either in blue, or in colours in the manner of Italian maiolica. The most important examples which have reached us consist of bowls of different sizes, dishes, vases, tinajas, holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decorations. Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast extent, the colouring was successful but the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the time, and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste so general in Spain in the 18th century. The imitations of Italian maiolica are effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese, orange, blue and green.

Several specimens of this manufacture are in the South Kensington Museum; among these may be noted--

No. 327-'76. A large vase painted in blue with cavaliers and men on foot in a hilly landscape, on the shoulder are the words "Silva Coronel."

No. 1282-'71. Holy-water vessel, with raised flowers and scrolls of foliage with polychrome decoration.

No. 1281-'71. Soup tureen and cover, white, with raised scrolls and groups of painted flowers.

No. 351-'76. Another soup tureen with cover and stand, painted with garlands and the arms of Portugal. On the cover is a group of fishes and shells in relief.

No. 1279-'71. A bowl decorated within with a bull-fight; outside are storks and trees in green, orange, and manganese. (See woodcut.)

[Illustration: EARTHENWARE BOWL. TALAVERA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]

Several pottery works were established in Spain in the 18th century, all of them, in the same manner as the earlier fabriques, modified the system of decorating their wares. In some instances the colours and designs of Italian maiolica were imitated, others copy the blue faïences of Pisa, Genoa, and Savona, while others adopted the styles of Moustiers, Nevers, and Rouen, or English earthenwares.

Ten or twelve manufactories existed at Toledo in the 17th century which imitated Talavera ware; in the 18th they hardly produced anything of importance. Ignacio de Velasco in 1735 founded one at great expense at Toledo in which imitations of Genoese pottery were chiefly made. At the death of Ignacio in 1738, these works passed to his son George; in 1742 Francisco Hernandez directed them, and in 1747 imitated Japanese models. Several specimens proceeding from Toledo, at the South Kensington Museum, painted blue on a white ground, in the style of Savona and Japan, belong to this period.

In 1755 thirteen pottery kilns existed at Puente del Arzobispo near Toledo; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very inferior in artistic merit.

Earthenware pottery was made at Segovia from a very early period, chiefly for domestic use, until a manufactory was founded by two brothers--Manuel and Tomás Ledesma in 1752--they had seen some specimens which were made at Bolonia for Isabel Farnesio, the widow of King Philip V., and they endeavoured to imitate them. In 1774 they tried with a most unsatisfactory result to imitate English wares. This industry fell into decay towards the end of the century, and only ware of a very common description was made there.

Talavera ware was also imitated at Zamora. At the middle of the 18th century works existed there where pottery was made in the manner adopted at Alcora with few results, for soon after it was established the master potter, who was at the head of these works, left the locality. ["Memorias," Larruga, Vols. 13 and 34.]

The further we advance into the 18th century, the more we find the tendency in Spanish ceramic art to imitate the pottery most in vogue in other countries. Francisco Cavalli, a potter of Ruidoms, won a prize at Tarragona in 1787, for his excellent imitations of brown and white Genoese ware. [MS. fol. Bibl. de S. Magestad el Rey, S. 2, E. B. pt. 8.]

The efforts made by King Charles III. towards increasing industrial arts in Spain, contributed to the reproductions and efforts made to imitate foreign wares. When the king founded in 1768 the villages of La Carolina and La Carlota in Andalucia, he ordered that pottery works should be set up there. At the same time that he established at Madrid the important porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, he wished that earthenware works should exist in the same locality, where specimens should be made in imitation of the best work produced elsewhere. The king was most anxious to revive to a great extent the almost extinct industry of metallic lustred pottery, and thanks to this we are able to know most accurately the receipt and manner in which this lustre was applied. In the same volume in which I found these documents, [Brit. Mus. MS. Egerton, 507], are two reports addressed to Count Florida Blanca in 1786, by Iriarte and Vargas, who were instructed to facilitate the development of this industry. The first report contains information relating to the pottery works of the county of Stafford; the second tells us that in the building of San Isidro el Real, essays had been made to reproduce English wares, and the lustred productions of Manises, with an idea of establishing inside or outside of Madrid pottery works on a large scale, under the protection of Count Florida Blanca. Iriarte and Vargas were of opinion that these works should be established far from Madrid, suggesting as the best spot El Viso in La Mancha, owing to the excellent quality of the clay. Don Sebastian Schepers, a son or brother of Cayetano Schepers, was at the head of these works. Cayetano was the chief modeller at the Retiro manufactory. Their imitations of English earthenware did not succeed; the varnish turned out badly, and they determined to bring out English workmen. Their imitations of gold lustred ware were eminently successful, so much so that competent judges declared it was equal to what was made at Manises. Pottery works where earthenwares of different descriptions were made existed also at this time in Madrid; the best were those of Rodriguez and Reato, mentioned in Larruga's "Memorias Economicas."

At the end of the 18th, and beginning of the 19th century, Valencia and Aragon supplied the country with painted tiles. One of the finest examples of this class which have reached us is the pavement of the chapter house of the cathedral of Saragossa, on which landscapes, medallions, and animals are finely designed in the Italian renaissance style. In a shield may be read the following inscription:

Real^{s} Fb^{cas} D E Dª Maria Salb adora Disdier Bru f^{t} Año 1808.

Valencia has been much renowned for its manufacture of painted tiles, _azulejos_, which continue to be made there in a very creditable manner at the present time. J. Townsend, in his "Journey through Spain in the Years 1786-1787, London," 1792, says: "I was most delighted with the manufacture of painted tiles. In Valencia their best apartments are floored with these, and are remarkable for their neatness and elegance. They are stronger and more beautiful than those brought from Holland." In a "Nouveau Voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1789, p. 56, the author says: "L'industrie des Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les productions de leur sol. Il contient une espèce de terre, dont ils font ces carreaux de faïence colorée connus sous le nom de azulejos, et qu'on ne fabrique qu'à Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en revêt leurs lambris; on y peint les sujets les plus compliqués, tels par exemple qu'un bal masqué, une fête de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la seule qui ne puisse être fixée sur cette espèce de faïence. Elle s'altère par la cuisson." In "Voyage en Espagne, 1797-1798," Paris 1801, the author says, p. 245: "Les plats sont faits de faïence bleuâtre ou toute autre couleur orné de figures d'oies."

Before we pass to describe another most important branch of Spanish pottery the unglazed earthenware must be mentioned, which from a very early period has constituted and still constitutes a most important branch of its industry. This pottery, generally used for cooling water, consists of white porous vessels of which a large modern collection may be seen at the South Kensington Museum proceeding from Andujar and La Rambla (Andalusia). This industry remains in precisely the same state as in the time of the Arabs.

The earthenware vessels called _Bucaros_ are similar to these. This porous pottery was made to a very large extent at Talavera. It was imported originally from America; the great centre existed at Mejico. The paste of this ware is unglazed and whitish, black or red--when painted the colours chosen are generally red, black, and gold. It was made in Spain as early as the 16th century, and we constantly find _Bucaros_ alluded to in documents of this period. In the inventory of the effects belonging to D^{na} Juana, the sister of Philip the Second, drawn up in 1573, _bucaros_ made at Lisbon, Estremoz, and Montemayor in Portugal, and those of Ciudad Rodrigo and Castille, are also mentioned. Madame d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon, [MDCXCIII.], mentions the habit of Spanish ladies of eating this porous clay. At the South Kensington Museum there are several good specimens of red pottery of this kind, Nos. 285 to 318--'72, which, as we have remarked were made at Talavera and Toledo.

ALCORA POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.

Don Buenaventura Pedro de Alcantara inherited in 1725 the estates belonging to the title of Aranda in the province of Valencia. Count Aranda found that the inhabitants of the village of Alcora made coarse earthenware of every description, and that their vicinity to the sea coast favoured exportation; he determined, therefore, upon establishing in 1726 a manufacture of pottery there, in which fine wares might be made in imitation of those imported from Italy, Germany, France and England. The count's efforts were so successful that in less than two years specimens of different kinds of Alcora pottery were exported to a very large extent.

No account has hitherto been published which gives any idea of the importance of this manufactory, nor have the names of the artists who worked there been known, or the works which they executed. Wishing to ascertain this, I applied to the Duchess of Hijar, the present representative of the house of Aranda, and permission was granted me, thanks to the kindness of the Duchess's _Apoderado general_, Sr. Robles, to look through the Archives, where the accounts, contracts, and details of the manufactory are kept. This has enabled me to give an idea of the importance of this industry, and the names of the artists who worked there, which have been ignored until the present time by writers on ceramic art.

Count Aranda spent in 1726 about £10,000 in establishing the manufactory of Alcora, and in May, 1727, the first specimens appeared, consisting of pottery made "in the manner of China, Holland, and other localities." The manufactory was at that time under the superintendence of Dn. Joaquin Joseph de Sayas and Joseph Ollery, a Frenchman, chief draughtsman and carver, who was engaged at a good salary in 1726, and brought to Alcora from Moustiers by the painter, Edward Roux. In 1728 Count Aranda increased his salary owing to the "excellent manner in which Ollery has worked at Alcora, the fine and numerous models which he constructed, which have contributed to make my manufacture the first in Spain."

Five painters and two modellers from Cataluña and six Valencian painters and two modellers joined these French artists. The personnel of the fabrique was completed with eleven potters from the locality. The French painters, M. Pierre Maurissy and M. Gras, and the master of the modellers, M. Sebastian Carvonel, were engaged in 1728 for two years to work at the manufactory. Ollery only appears in the lists up to 1737. The Count granted him a yearly pension of 500 francs besides his salary, "for his especial zeal in the improvement of the manufactory, and his great skill in directing the construction of every kind of work." From this date until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish artists worked at Alcora.

The Count was able from the year 1729 to circulate the pottery made at Alcora through the Spanish dominions, free of custom-house duties. The government granted him several other privileges and the manufactory continued to improve, and spared no pains to import the foreign shapes and designs which were most acceptable. No Spanish pottery manufactory could compare with Alcora in the excellence and beauty of its work.

Among the obligations of the artists engaged, whether Spaniards or Frenchmen, was that of teaching drawing and modelling to a certain number of pupils. A special Academy was created for this purpose, which at one time held more than one hundred pupils, who were constantly renewed and increased with those who appear henceforward in the works at Alcora. In 1736 there were fifty-six painters, eleven masters, twenty workers at the wheel, and twenty-five apprentices. In this same year, 1736, specimens of pottery made at Alcora were sent "to all the dominions of Spain, Rome, Naples, Malta, many Italian cities, Portugal, and some provinces of France."

The manufactory produced yearly about 300,000 specimens of different kinds. The ordinances are interesting which in 1732-1733 prescribe, "that in our manufactory only pottery of the most excellent kind should be made, similar to the Chinese, to be equally fine as to the earths employed, that the models and wheels should be perfect, the drawing of a first-rate kind, and the varnish and colours excellent, and the pottery light and of good quality, for it is our express wish that the best pottery should only be distinguished from that of an inferior kind by the greater or less amount of painting which covers it."

Miguel Soliva, Christobal Cros, Francisco Grangel, Miguel Vilar, Christobal Rocafort, Vicente Serrania, and Joseph Pastor were the best painters at Alcora in 1743; they decorated a fine dinner service made for the Tribunal of Commerce, and the large slabs for the Convent of Las Descalzas Reales at Madrid, representing the Virgin as the Divine Shepherdess.

Pottery painted with metallic lustre was made in 1749. We find among the receipts used in that year one brought from Manises for this object.

We find it also stated in the communications which passed between the Tribunal of Commerce and the count in 1746, that "the perfection of the earthenware of Alcora consisted in the excellent models which had been made by competent foreign artists, the quality of the earth and receipts brought at great expense from abroad." Joseph Ochando is mentioned in that year as an excellent painter, and Juan Lopez as the best carver and modeller. This document tells us "that from the earliest period of the manufacture pyramids with figures of children, holding garlands of flowers and baskets of fruits on their heads, were made with great perfection, likewise brackets, centre and three-cornered tables, large objects, some as large as five feet high, to be placed upon them, chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of different kinds, and animals of different sorts and sizes. The entire ornamentation of a room has also been made here; the work is so perfect that nothing in Spain, France, Italy or Holland could equal it in merit."

The objects which were made to a great extent at this time consisted in:

Vases of different shapes.

Small pots, Chinese fashion.

Teapots and covers, Chinese fashion.

Teapots and covers, Dutch fashion.

Cruets, complete sets, Chinese style.

Entrée dishes.

Salt-cellars, Chinese style.

Escudillas (bowls) of Constantinople.

Barquillos (sauce bowls), Chinese style.

Bottles, in the Chinese manner.

Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds with good painted borders in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_); some were designed in the Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes.

Trays and refrigerators.

In 1750 Count Aranda passed the pottery works on to a private company, in whose hands they remained until 1766. We know the pottery continued to be excellent. Unfortunately almost all the details of this period are missing from the Archives. One of the few documents remaining is a contract drawn up in October, 1741, with François Haly (the name of this artist is given by Baron Davillier), a Frenchman, in which he agreed to work at the manufactory during a period of ten years with a yearly salary of over 1000 francs, under the following conditions:

"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which he had undertaken to make." He agreed to give up his receipts, and it was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter working by his side, and that if in one year Haly's porcelain was satisfactory the Count undertook to make him a present of 1000 livres (_tornoises_).

Towards the middle of the century, porcelain was made for the first time at Alcora. A contract was drawn up on 24th March, 1764, with a German, called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in the pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists at the Archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under the following conditions:"

"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of the Works from being present at all the essays made."

"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares; likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black.

"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what he has asserted may be verified."

From the original documents which exist we gather that Knipfer was chiefly famed for his excellence in the painting and decoration of porcelain.

François Martin was engaged in 1774 for his skill in preparing different pastes for manufacturing porcelain and pipeclay. He agreed to make "hard paste porcelain, Japanese faïence, English paste (pipeclay), and likewise to mould and bake it. The necessary materials were to be provided by the Count of Aranda." His expenses were to be paid if the specimens he presented to the competent authorities gave a satisfactory result, and his salary was to be increased to 1200 francs a year.

Knipfer and Martin greatly added to the importance of the works made at the manufactory. Don Pedro Abadia, the Count's steward, an intelligent man, possessing great scientific knowledge, who had studied this subject in Paris and London, writes to the Count that the presence of both these artists was of absolute necessity at Alcora, "until the workmen who were near them perfected themselves." For owing to the carelessness of the managers of the porcelain works in 1776 Count Aranda wrote from Paris, during his embassy there: "My pottery of Alcora, notwithstanding every effort which has been made, the money spent, and foreign masters which have been brought over, gets worse every day instead of improving." Abadia repeats this in his reports. Porcelain of other kinds decidedly improved. He says also that the pipeclay which Martin had found at Alcora was the best in Europe.

In my opinion, a large number of unmarked white biscuit and demi-porcelain figures which are so constantly found in collections belong to this period of the manufactory of Alcora. They have hitherto been classified with very great difficulty, and attributed to the porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, without any reason which justifies this opinion. For the help of collectors I will mention the subjects which they represent, which I have found in a document, dated 1777, of the figures and groups and other objects made during that year.

FIGURES OF DEMI-PORCELAIN.

Figures of tritons.

" of soldiers, two sizes.

" " one-third _palmos_ high.

" of the four seasons (two sizes).

" of dancers.

" of tritons in form of children.

" with brackets.

" of different animals.

" of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.

Dancing figures in the German style.

Figures of Neptune.

Figures of shepherd and shepherdess.

" of the Moorish king, Armenius.

" of the four parts of the world, two sizes.

" of peasant and his wife.

Small figures holding musical instruments.

Figures representing different monarchies.

" " historical personages.

" " the history of Alexander the Great, two sizes.

" " Marius Curtius, two sizes.

" of elephants.

" of a man mounted on an elephant.

" representing Chinese figures.

" of Heliogabalus.

" of a general on horseback.

" of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.

Large figures representing Julius Cæsar.

Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.

Groups of Chinese figures.

Snuff-boxes, sugar basins, inkstands.

Rabbits, horns, and pug dogs for holding scent.

Small scent bottles.

Needle cases.

Large vases with foot and cover.

Brackets.

Walking-stick handles.

Knife handles.

Tea-spoons.

FIGURES OF WHITE BISCUIT CHINA.

Figures representing Spanish costumes, two sizes.

Groups of two figures.

Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.

Figures of the four seasons, two sizes.

We find also the following figures of painted and glazed porcelain:

Four seasons, two sizes.

Groups of two figures.

Figure of a Moorish king.

" of musicians and huntsmen.

Figure of peasants.

" of Chinese.

Small figures of a gardener and female companion.

Figures of soldiers in the German style.

In 1780 four rival pottery works were established in the neighbourhood which copied and imitated the pottery made at Alcora. The two most important were at Rivasalbes and Onda, the other two at Alcora itself. Many of the artists who belonged to the works established by Count Aranda worked at the rival factories; among them were Mariano Causada, Joaquin Ten, Francisco Marsal, Vicente Alvaro, Christoval Mascarós, Francisco and Miguel Badenas, and Nadal Nebot; some of these artists returned to the Count's manufactory. In order to distinguish the genuine pottery from imitations, orders were given, with the authorization of the Tribunal of Commerce, that the pottery made there should be marked henceforward with the letter A; no special mark had hitherto been used at the manufactory, the artists very often signed the specimens they made with their monograms or signatures, of which those most frequently met with will be found accompanying the list of artists' names, for the help of collectors; all of them have been copied from original documents. It is interesting for collectors to bear in mind, that all specimens which are marked with the letter A are _posterior_ to 1784. The pottery works founded in imitation of the manufactory belonging to Count Aranda came to an end before 1790, some by special agreement with the owners themselves, and others by the express orders of the authorities, in virtue of the privileges granted to the Count.

Mr. Martin died at Alcora in the month of May, 1786. Knipfer left soon afterwards, and was succeeded by a French artist, M. Pierre Cloostermans, a skilful man, and well versed in the manufacture of porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them. According to his contract, which was drawn up in Paris in 1787, "Pierre Cloostermans, chemiste, natif de Paris, demeurant à Paris, Rue de Clery, au coin de celle Montmartre," agreed to "live for thirty years at Alcora as director and workman, to make soft and hard porcelains, and all the necessary colours with which to paint and decorate it."

He also promised to make good pipeclay pottery and marbled wares which were to be as excellent as those of Strasburg. The expenses of his journey were paid, his sons were to be employed in the works, and it was stipulated that if the works increased to a great extent, 500 pounds (Valencian money), was to be added to his yearly salary. It was against the Count's express desire that pottery of an exclusively artistic character should be produced at Alcora; his chief object was to improve the industry itself. In one of his letters to Abadia, written in October, 1789, he says: "I wish to export the porcelain of my manufactory, but chiefly in common objects, such as cups of different kinds, tea and coffee services, etc. These may be varied in form and colour, the principal point being that the paste should bear hot liquids, for we Spaniards above everything wish that nothing we buy should ever break. By no means let time be wasted in making anything that requires much loss of time. The chief object is that the pastes should be of first-rate excellence and durability."

Cloostermans suffered much discomfort and annoyance from other workmen at Alcora, who were envious of his merit: they put every difficulty in his path, insulted him daily with pasquins, accused him of not fulfilling his religious duties, and annoyed him incessantly. His letters are full of these complaints. Count Aranda treated him with every consideration. During Cloostermans' stay at Alcora, the pottery made improved greatly in artistic merit. Figures and groups of many kinds were attempted, and even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably imitated. In 1789, among other pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two hard paste porcelain cups, adorned with low relief in the English style." The most important one was moulded by Francisco Garcés, the garlands and low reliefs by Joaquin Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the covers by an apprentice, helped by Cloostermans. The composition of these objects was suggested by Abadia, who brought some specimens from Paris which came from England.

Cloostermans sent the Count in 1789 a number of objects of different kinds made of porcelain. Among them the most interesting were "a tea and coffee service painted and gilt of glazed porcelain, and ten unglazed figures. Those painted by Albaro are marked A, those by Escuder, E, and by Mas, M, and Cloostermans' son." A large and varied collection of marbled wares and toys were sent at the same time. Cloostermans' marbled wares are pronounced superb.

Count Aranda writes in July, 1790, to Diez Robles alluding to a large collection of pots for plants, which were made at Alcora for the King, decorated with the royal arms. Another series are still to be met with at the Royal Gardens; they are of pipeclay, and ornamented with rams' heads.

In 1784 the Count sent two potters, Christoval Pastor and Vicente Alvaro, to Paris to study the last improvements in porcelain. They returned in 1789, and the porcelain they made was much commended and highly approved. They write to the Count in September, 1789: "We know that Don Domingo has sent your Excellency 97 objects made by us, marked No. 3, 1, No. 4, No. 3, with a dot, and No. 3 with the letter 'P'; No. 4 with the letter 'H,' all made by me in clay, and varnished with the greatest care. Three flask-stands and two toothpick-stands were made by me, Pastor, before I went to Paris. The marble wares, Nos. 3 and 4, and other similar objects with gold lines, are also made by me."

In 1784, Mariano Garcia of Valencia made some experiments before the Directors of laying on gold, and different shades of purples. A number of specimens were sent to the Count, but Knipfer did not approve of the plan adopted, and it was afterwards abandoned.

Marbled wares of different colours were made at Alcora in vast quantities in 1790. A large depôt was established in 1791 of Alcora ware in the Calle de Luzon at Madrid. The printed prospectuses which were issued give a long and detailed list of the different productions of the manufactory, which chiefly consisted of dinner and tea services, and other objects of domestic use.

In 1792 nearly 100 painters and modellers existed at the manufactory; 45 were employed to work in porcelain and pipeclays, and 26 were apprentices.

Cloostermans was forced to leave Alcora in April, 1793, owing to certain disturbances which occurred at Valencia, when, owing to a proclamation of the Captain-Generals, he and other Frenchmen residing in the province of Valencia, were ordered to leave the country. The Count gives instructions that Cloostermans should want for nothing on his journey; he writes ordering that 3000 reales should be given him, and his yearly pension of 1200 pounds (_tornoises_). Cloostermans left with his three sons after giving up the receipts and other documents connected with the manufactory. In 1795 permission was given that Frenchmen might return to Spain, and he resumed his post in the manufactory.

The principal efforts at Alcora since Knipfer, Martin, and Cloostermans entered the manufactory, had been centred in making porcelain and pipeclay wares of different kinds. A great number of essays with foreign earths were made; and all those of a suitable kind which were known in Spain. Count Aranda was always most anxious that Spanish materials should be used in the manufactory; he says, in a letter written in 1790, "the Kaolin of Cataluña may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be Kaolin, and if not used these works must be closed." This Kaolin had been found by Christobal Pastor and Vicente Albaro on their return from Paris.

Baron Davillier has been good enough to inform me that he has found mention of some objects of Alcora wares which Count Aranda sent as a present to his friend Voltaire, at Ferney.

From 1789 to 1797 the following kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:--

Hard paste porcelain (French).

Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.

Porcelain of pipe-clay (English).

Blue pipe-clay porcelain.

Marbled pipe-clay porcelain.

_Bucaro_, painted and gilt.

Strasburg Ware.

Porcelain painted _en froid._

Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.

PORCELAIN (FRITA).

Porcelain painted with gilt lines.

" " without gold.

Porcelain (frita), canary colour.

Boxes in relief.

" plain.

Porcelain (frita), painted with marble wares.

Plain boxes of the same kind.

Porcelain (frita), of blue and brown ground.

Cups and saucers of a similar kind.

BISCUIT PORCELAIN.

Figures.

Vases.

Pedestals.

White porcelain (frita) cups of different kinds.

" " ornamented and plain.

Boxes with busts.

Boxes with ornamentations in relief.

Figures.

Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.

Large figures of the Four Seasons.

Flower vases with rams' heads.

Plain boxes.

Boxes with ornaments in relief.

WHITE PORCELAIN.

Plates, cups, etc.

Figures of different kinds.

PAINTED PORCELAIN.

Cups, saucers, plates, etc.

Cream pots.

Plain snuff boxes, or in the shape of a dog.

Fruit stands in relief.

In 1799 we find mention made of partridges modelled by Christoval Mas, and Clemente Aycart much commended for his dogs, ducks, tortoises and frogs.

Joseph Ferrer writes to the Duke of Hijar in the same year, that "he had just seen a bust of D^{n} José Delgado, a trifle smaller than the one previously sent of your excellency." These busts and some medallion portraits were made of porcelain _frite_. Ferrer complains in the same letter that Delgado the manager had asked for a fine jug and basin of Sèvres, which had been given by the King of France to the late Count, and that he had been obliged to hide it away with some English specimens which were in the warehouse.

Count Aranda died in January, 1798, and was succeeded by his son the Duke of Hijar. Cloostermans died the same year; Vicente Prats is stated to be the best painter and decorator at Alcora at this date. In an extract drawn up of the state of the pottery works in 1798, it appears that 200 workmen were employed, and pottery of every description was made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the English ones, and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made in large quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the English in brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained, a large number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this period.

In 1800, the Duke of Hijar, who succeeded the Count of Aranda in the management of the manufactory, writes to D^{n} Josef Ferrer, saying: "As I do not know the authors of the pipe-clay porcelain or that of other kinds which is sent here, I beg you to order the master workmen of porcelain and common pottery to engrave, in making it, the initials of their names, as it will enable me to distinguish the good from the bad."

Twelve porcelain baths with the arms of Spain in blue were made at Alcora for Queen Maria Louisa in 1800.

The Duke of Hijar ordered in 1800 that a dinner-service should be made there for his use. He sent instructions that it should be of the same kind as a tea-service previously sent to his son the Duke of Aliaga. The painter chosen to decorate it was Mariano Alvaro, and the designs selected by Ferrer were taken from the Loggie of Raphael.

In the same year some cases of pottery were sent to the Duke; in one of them was a fine soup tureen modelled by Josef Ferrer, Cloostermans' son, Pierre, writes at this time, asking to be appointed to the post left vacant by his father's death; his petition however was not granted.

We have already seen that pottery and porcelain continued to be manufactured in the present century at Alcora in the same manner as in the 18th century, but owing to the French invasion of 1808 this industry suffered the consequences of war, and the work done there greatly diminished in excellence and quantity. Even before this the Director, D^{n} José Delgado complains in several documents of the bad state of the manufactory, the Directors who replaced him, D^{n} Juan Bautista Cabot and D^{n} Pedro Bezarco, write continually repeating the same thing. After the French were turned out of Spain, the industry was revived and strengthened by fresh artists from the porcelain manufactory of Madrid. D^{n} Luis Poggetti was appointed drawing master there in 1815, and D^{n} Domingo Palmera master of ornamental art, both these artists had worked at Buen Retiro, Poggetti as Director of pietre dure, and Palmera as second-class sculptor. After this time the manufactory of pottery at Alcora ceased to produce artistic works, and limited itself to send out common wares for domestic purposes; this system continued until 1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to D^{n} Ramon Girona, who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to improve the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been made at Alcora of late years.

One of the most important results of the present study is the necessity of changing the classifications of a great number of specimens which have been believed to be manufactured at Moustiers and other localities in France, but which in fact were made at Alcora. It is sufficient to mention the names of Grangel, Cros, Soliva, and Vilar, which one of the best informed writers on Ceramic industry, Baron Davillier, has discovered on different specimens of pottery, and which, in his "Hist. des faïences et porcelaines de Moustiers, etc., Paris, 1863," he considers to be the names of artists who worked in France, although all of them belonged exclusively to Alcora, as will be seen in the subjoined list of artists' names. I am in hopes, also, that many errors may be corrected in future, touching French and English pottery, which was imitated to a great extent, and with much success at Alcora.

We gather also by this information that an immense number of objects were made of pipeclay porcelain, in imitation of English wares; and, in my opinion, a great quantity of objects of white pipeclay porcelain which have been found of late years in Spain are of Alcora manufacture. They have been hitherto classified by amateurs as Leeds pottery. We find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided distinction is made between white and straw-coloured pottery. This indication may be sufficient to distinguish it from English wares.

Townsend, in "A Journey to Spain in the years 1786-1787," London, 1792, p. 255, says: "At Alcora, in the neighbourhood of Valencia, a manufacture of porcelain has been successfully established by Count Aranda, and deserves encouragement. I was much pleased with their imitations of gilding. It is very natural, and the manager informed me that after many years' trial it was found to be durable."

[Illustration: EARTHENWARE PLAQUE, ALCORA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]

Specimens exist of Alcora ware and porcelain at the South Kensington Museum.

Nos. 1051, 1052-'71. Two fine plaques, painted with mythological subjects of Pomona and Galatea, the borders raised in form of a frame, with scroll ornaments [see woodcut of No. 1052].

No. 341-'76. A porcelain cup and saucer, blue ground, gilt; painted with flowers in white medallions.

No. 333-'76. A plate painted with sprigs, and containing models of fruit in full relief.

A LIST OF THE DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTORY OF POTTERY AND PORCELAIN OF ALCORA FROM ITS FOUNDATION, 1726, UNTIL THE BEGINNING OF THE PRESENT CENTURY.

DIRECTORS.

Dr. Joaquin Joseph de Sayas, 1727.

Joseph Ollery, 1727 to 1733.

Manuel de Molina, 1727 to 1735.

Cayetano Allue, 1727 to 1750.

Marcial Guirandeta, 1778 to 1783.

Juan Villalonga, 1789.

Pierre Cloostermans, 1789.

Domingo Abadia, 1789.

Gabriel Berenguer y Cebrian, 1789.

Josef Ferrer, 1799.

Josef Delgado, 1800.

ARTISTS.

Abella, Francisco, 1750, at Alcora.

Alvaro, Cristobal, 1750.

Alvaro, Joseph, paints pottery in 1743, 1750.

Alvaro, Vicente, el mayor, works at the wheel in 1750.

Alvaro, Vicente, painted with Knipfer in 1783; he was sent by Count Aranda in 1784 to Paris to learn the making of porcelain; he returned to Spain in 1789, and continued to work at Alcora.

Alvaro, Tiburcio, painted with Knipfer in 1783.

Andrés, Cristoval, modeller and carver in 1783.

Andrés, Francisco, modeller in 1783.

Andrés, Francisco, modeller, 1743 to 1750.

Andrés, Gabriel, painter, 1743 to 1750.

Andrés, Gabriel, figures as one of the leading painters in 1794.

Andrés, Jaime, painter, from 1728 to 1737.

Andrés, Mariano, paints from 1739 to 1750.

Andrés, Mariano, works in 1789.

Andrés, Miguel, painter, 1743 to 1750.

Aparicio, Manuel, painter, 1750.

Arqua, Vicente, 1750.

Aycart, Clemente, sculptor, worked at the porcelain works in 1789.

Aycart, Roque, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Aycart, Ventura, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Bachero, Vicente, painted porcelain in 1789.

Badenas, Cristoval, painter, 1727 to 1750.

Badenes, Francisco, establishes with Miguel Badenas pottery works, where pottery was made in imitation of Alcora: it was put a stop to by agreement in 1789.

Badenes, Miguel; see Francisco.

Beltran, Pedro, retouched painting on porcelain in 1783 to 1789.

Berenguer, Cristoval, painter, painted from 1727 to 1750.

Blasco, Bautista, painted from 1727 to 1750.

Blasco, Francisco, painted from 1731 to 1738.

Blasco, Joaquin, painted in 1750.

Blasco, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735; he painted in 1750.

Blasco, Manuel, painter, 1728 to 1750.

Blasco, Vicente, painted 1727 to 1750.

Buxadós, Ildefonso, painted 1727 to 1750.

Buxadós, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783.

Calvo Perales, Joseph, painter from 1727 to 1750.

Calvo, Manuel, painter of common pottery in 1783.

Calvo, Ramon, painted common earthenware from 1750 to 1783.

Campion, Juan, a Frenchman, worked at the wheel in 1743.

Carnicer, Juan, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789.

Carnicer, Vicente, modeller from 1783 to 1789.

Carbonel, Sebastian, a Frenchman; he modelled in 1728.

Catalá, Cristoval, modelled in 1783.

Catalá, Juan, 1750.

Catalá, Manuel, 1750.

Catalá, Pascual, painter from 1729 to 1750.

Catalá, Pedro Juan, painted common pottery in 1783.

Caussada, mayor, Jacinto, painted from 1727 to 1750.

Caussada, menor, Jacinto, from 1727.

Caussada, Joseph, a son of Jacinto, painted from 1743 to 1750. He ran away from the manufactory and went to work at Talavera, and was brought back to Alcora.

Caussada, Mariano. It was proposed that he should be turned out of the manufactory, owing to his having gone over to the works established at Onda, where he gave them the receipts of the colours and varnishes used at Alcora; he returned to Alcora in 1789.

Caveta, Pascual, painter, 1743.

Chiva, Cristoval de, painted porcelain in 1789.

Chiva, Joseph, painted from 1727 to 1738.

Chiva, Manuel, painted in 1789.

Cloostermans, Pierre, a French artist; he entered the manufactory in 1787, and continued to work there until his death in 1798.

Cloostermans, a son of Pierre's, was an excellent painter on porcelain in 1789.

Corrás, Ignacio, a native of Cataluña, painted from 1727 to 1728.

Coll, Jaime, a native of Cataluña, painted from 1727 to 1736.

Cros, Cristoval, painted from May, 1727 to 1743; he was one of the best artists who painted at Alcora.

Cros, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Cros, Manuel, 1750.

Cros, Pascual, painted from 1727 to 1736.

Cros, menor, Vicente, painted porcelain from 1750 to 1789.

Cros, Vicente, 1735 to 1750.

Datos, Gaspar, modeller, 1731 to 1750.

Datos, Julian, modeller, in 1783.

Datos, Ramon, painted in 1750.

Datos, Vicente, 1750.

Escuder, Vicente, painted with Knipfer from 1783 to 1789.

Fabra, Francisco, painted from 1730 to 1743.

Fabra, Vicente, painter, 1727 to 1735.

Falco, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1743.

Falco, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1735.

Feliu, Vicente Tomas, painter, from 1727 to 1750.

Feliu y Thomas, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783.

Ferrer, Joaquin, a carver, who worked with Mr. Martin from 1783 to 1789.

Ferrer, Esteban, painted porcelain in 1789.

Ferrer y Carnicer, Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783. In December, 1789, he had an oven on his own account at Alcora, the only one which remained out of four which had been established four years previously there.

Ferrer, menor, Vicente, 1750.

Ferrer, Vicente, painted from 1727 to 1743.

Flor, Antonio, painted common pottery from 1750 to 1783.

Fores, Joseph, painter, 1727.

Fornench, Joseph, painted in 1739.

Fornench, Phelipe, painted common pottery in 1783.

Fornench, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Fornench, Phelipe, painter, 1727 to 1750.

Fuste, Salvador, painter, 1727.

Galvez, Juan, modeller, 1731 to 1735.

Garcés, Joaquin, painter. He worked with Joaquin Ter at the manufactory which he established at Alcora, and returned to the Counts in 1789.

Garcés, Francisco, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin in 1783, and was considered by Cloostermans, in 1789, his most able workman.

Garcés, Joseph, painter, 1727.

Garcés, Pedro, 1743.

Garcia, Mariano, a native of Valencia. He went to Alcora to try a system of gilding and purple which he had invented, which produced an unsatisfactory result.

Gasch, Agustin, painter from 1728 to 1750, although he was absent from the works from 1735 to 1741.

Gasch, Bruno, a son of Juan's, worked at the wheel from 1743 to 1750.

Gasch, Cristoval, worked with the turners, 1731 to 1741, and joined the painters until 1750.

Gasch, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1729 to 1750.

Gasch, mayor, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Gasch, Joseph, painter, 1731 to 1735.

Gasch, Juan, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1750.

Gasch, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Gasch, Miguel, the son of Juan, painted in 1743.

Gasch, Vicente, 1750.

Gasch, Correo Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Gardo, Juan, painter and modeller, 1731 to 1735.

Gil, Francisco, modeller, 1783.

Giner, Manuel, painter, 1727.

Gomez, Cristoval, painter on common pottery, 1783.

Gomez, Francisco, modeller, 1731 to 1750.

Gomez, Vicente, painter, 1750, 1783.

Gomez, menor, Vicente, worked at the wheel and painted from 1783 to 1789.

Gorris, Joseph, 1750.

Granell, Cristoval, painter, 1729, 1750.

Granell, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735.

Granell, Vicente, 1731 to 1750.

Grangel, Francisco, pintor, painted from 1727 to 1783. In 1743 the finest work was given to him.

Grangel, Juan, painted from 1727 to 1750.

Gras, Monsieur, painter, 1728.

Haly, François, 1751.

Herrando, Francisco, 1727.

Herrando, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1736.

Herrando, Juan, painted from 1729 to 1735.

Herrando, Manuel, modeller, 1783.

Herrando, Pascual, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1743.

Herrando, Thadeo, 1750.

Huguet, Cristobal, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Huguet, Francisco, worked at the wheel and modelled in porcelain from 1783 to 1789.

Huguet y Mascarós, Joseph, painter, 1783 to 1794.

Huguet, Vicente, painter. He worked at the manufactory established by Joaquin Ten at Alcora, and returned to Count Arandas in 1789, and continued there in 1794.

Huguet Serra, Joseph, modeller in 1783.

Ibañez, Juan, painter from 1727 to 1735.

Knipfer, Juan, a native of Saxony, 1783.

Lazaro, Joseph, painter, 1727.

Lopez, Julian, 1792.

Llorente, Francisco, 1750.

Lloscos, Joaquin, painter, 1783.

Llosca, menor, painter, 1783.

Malanco, Nicolas, painter, 1727.

Marin, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1736.

Marques, Miguel, painter, 1794.

Marras, Francisco, painter and modeller in 1727.

Marsal, Bautista, painter from 1727 to 1743.

Marsal, Francisco. He worked at Alcora, and left it for the manufactory of Onda; in 1783 he returned to Count Aranda's works.

Marti, Miguel, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Martin, Francisco, modeller in 1783.

Martir, Pedro, worked at the wheel in 1739.

Mas, Cristoval, modeller from 1783 to 1789.

Mas, Francisco, painted common pottery in 1783.

Mas, Julian, a skilful painter on porcelain in 1789.

Mas, menor, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783.

Mas, Manuel, painted from 1727 to 1750.

Mas, Pedro, painter in 1743.

Mascarós, Cristobal, painter from 1728 to 1750.

Mascarós y Thomas, Cristoval, painted on pottery from 1783 to 1794.

Mascarós, Francisco, 1743 to 1750.

Mascarós, Joseph, painted porcelain in 1789.

Mascarós, José, painter in 1735 to 1736.

Mascarós, Pedro Martin, painted from 1729 to 1736.

Mascarós, Vicente, worked at the wheel from 1750 to 1780.

Masso y Fabra, Vicente, painted in 1727.

Massó, Joseph, 1750.

Massó y Fabra, Francisco, painter, 1739, 1750.

Massó Nadal, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750.

Mallol, Joaquin, modeller, 1783.

Mallol, Cristoval, modeller in 1783.

Mallol, Vicente, modeller, 1783.

Maurisi, Pedro, a Frenchman, began to work in 1728.

Mezquita y Chiva, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Mezquita, Francisco, painted in 1750.

Mezquita, Jaime, painter, 1731 to 1750.

Mezquita, Pascual, painter from 1727 to 1735.

Miguel, Vicente, 1750.

Miralles, Vicente, worked in clay from 1731 to 1743.

Moliner, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Moliner, Miguel, painted from 1728 to 1750.

Moliner, Vicente, modeller in 1783.

Monfort, Agustin, modeller in 1783.

Monfort, Pablo, modeller in 1783.

Montemenor, Joseph, modeller in 1783.

Montolin, Jacinto, painter, from 1731 to 1750.

Montolin, Juan, painter, the son of Jacinto, from 1735 to 1750.

Montolin, Juan, varnisher and painter in 1783.

Montolin, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789.

Montolin, Vicente, painter of common pottery in 1783.

Montolin, Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750.

Moya, Crisostomo, retouched porcelain in 1789.

Nadal, Felix, 1727 to 1735.

Nadal, Juan, master at the wheel, painter and carver from 1727 to 1737.

Nadal, Miguel, 1783.

Nadal, Nebot, works from 1743 to 1783.

Navarro, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783, and painted porcelain in 1789.

Nebot, Bautista, painter, 1794.

Nebot, Cristoval, modeller, 1750.

Nebot, Cristoval, menor, 1794.

Nebot, Francisco, 1750.

Nebot, Francisco, painter in 1794.

Nebot, Joseph, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1740.

Nebot, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1794.

Nebot, Juan, painter, 1750 to 1783.

Nebot, Miguel, painter, 1783 to 1794.

Nebot, Narciso, painter, 1794.

Negre, Deodato, painter, 1727.

Negre, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1783 to 1794.

Negre, Julian, worked at the wheel in 1794.

Negre, Manuel, modeller, 1783 to 1794.

Negre, Ramon, painter, 1783 to 1794.

Negre, Vicente, modeller, 1727.

Nondedeu, Cristoval, modeller, 1729.

Nondedeu, Miguel, turner, 1731 to 1743.

Ochando, Joseph, draughtsman and carver, from 1727 to 1742.

Olery, Joseph, director of the works from 1735 to 1737. In August, 1729, he was appointed principal draughtsman.

Pacor, Bartolomé, painter, 1728 to 1735.

Palau, Francisco, painter, from 1727 to 1750.

Palmera, Domingo, master of ornamental art, 1815.

Pardo, Cristoval, turner, from 1727 to 1750.

Pardo, Francisco, 1750.

Pardo, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1750.

Pardo, Vicente, master at the wheel in 1728.

Pastor Bartolo, Antonio, painter, 1750.

Pastor Butoni, Antonio, painter, 1750.

Pastor, Bartolomé, a brother of Vicente's, from 1729 to 1750.

Pastor, Bautista, varnisher, 1783.

Pastor, Cristoval, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin from 1783 to 1789.

Pastor, Gaspar, 1750.

Pastor, Joseph, painted in common pottery and porcelain from 1783 to 1789.

Pastor, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750; his name appears in 1743 among the best artists of Alcora.

Pastor, Vicente, painter, from 1728 to 1743.

Pastor, Vicente, painter, was pensioned in Paris by Count Aranda in 1784; he returned to the works in 1789, and continued there for several years afterwards.

Peña, Vicente, modeller, 1783.

Perales, Ramon de, painter, 1750.

Periz, Joseph, modeller, from 1727 to 1731.

Periz, Joseph, mayor, painter, from 1750 to 1783.

Periz, Joseph, menor, modeller, 1783.

Perpiñan, Cristoval, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1740.

Perpiñan, Vicente, modeller, from 1731 to 1743.

Pinazo, Andres, draughtsman and carver, 1727.

Poggetti, Luis, drawing master, 1815.

Porcar, Cristoval, painter, from 1727 to 1735.

Porcar, Pascual, modeller, from 1729 to 1735.

Prast, Antonio, painter of common pottery in 1783.

Prats, Cristoval, modeller, 1783.

Prats, Cristoval, turner, from 1731 to 1750.

Prats, Francisco, modeller, from 1750 to 1783.

Prats, Fulgencio, painter, 1783.

Prats, Vicente, painter, from 1750 to 1794. In 1789 he ranked among the first artists at Alcora.

Querol, Vicente, 1743.

Querol, Joseph, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750.

Querol, Manuel, painter, from 1750 to 1783.

Rech, Joseph, a native of Cataluña, painter, in 1727.

Redolat, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789.

Ribot, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1735.

Ricart, Antonio, turner, from 1729 to 1735.

Ricart, Clemente, modeller, in 1783.

Ricart, Joaquin, modeller, in 1783.

Robert, a Frenchman, painted in 1729.

Rocafort, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750; he was one of the best artists at the manufactory in 1743.

Roman, Juan, painted from 1731 to 1735.

Roman, Manuel, painted from 1735 to 1750.

Romualdo, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750.

Roux, Edouard, a French painter, who worked at Alcora, where he had been brought by Ollery in 1728 until 1735.

Rules, Joseph de, turner, from 1731 to 1735.

Saborit, Cristoval, modeller, in 1783.

Saborit, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1736.

Saborit, Joaquin, painter, 1783.

Saborit, Joaquin, painted from 1728 to 1750.

Saborit, Manuel, modeller, in 1783.

Sagao, Rafael, draughtsman and carver, 1727.

Salvada, Joseph, 1789.

Sancho, Joaquin, painted in 1783.

Serrania, Cristoval, 1750.

Serrania, Vicente, painted from 1728 to 1743.

Soliva, Joaquin, painted pottery in 1783, and retouched porcelain in 1789.

Soliva, Miguel, painted from 1727 to 1750. In 1743 he was considered the best artist at Alcora.

Soriano, Joseph, turner from 1731 to 1735.

Soriano, Nicasio, turner from 1731 to 1735.

Sorolla, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Tarazona, menor, Cristoval, modeller, 1783.

Tarazona, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750.

Tarazona, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1783.

Tarragó, Joseph, painter from 1728 to 1735.

Tarragó, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750.

Ten, Francisco, modeller in 1783.

Ten, Joaquin, painter from 1732 to 1750. In 1789 he closes the pottery works which he had established in imitation of those of Alcora.

Ten, Joseph, 1750.

Ten, Jaime, painter from 1735 to 1750.

Terra, Cristobal, modeller, 1783.

Terra, Vicente, varnisher, 1783.

Thomas, Antonio, modeller, 1783.

Thomas, Gaspar, 1750.

Thomas, Joaquin, modeller in 1783.

Thomas, José, 1750.

Thomas, José, worked at the wheel in 1783.

Thomas, Juan, 1743, 1750.

Thomas, Mateo, 1750.

Thomas Feliu, Vicente, painter from 1729 to 1740.

Thomas, Vicente, 1783.

Torres, Cristoval, painter from 1728 to 1750.

Torres, Juan, from 1731 to 1735.

Vadenes, Cristobal, 1770.

Valentin, Pedro, painter from 1727 to 1743.

Vilar, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1750.

Vilar, Cristobal, sculptor, works in porcelain in 1789.

Vilar, Francisco, 1750.

Vilar, Joseph, modeller in 1783.

Vilar, Miguel, painter from 1727 to 1743.

Vilar, Pedro, worked in the ovens from 1735 to 1750.

Vilar, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1789.

Vilar y Bordoñan, Cristobal, modeller in 1783.

Vilar y Bordoñan, Mariano, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789.

Vilar Perpiñan, Cristobal, painted from 1739 to 1743.

Vilar Ricart, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1735.

Vilar Porcar, Cristobal, painter, 1727.

Vilar Ricart, Joseph, painter from January, 1731, to 1735.

Vilar Porcar, Joaquin, painter from 1727 to 1735.

Vilar Saboret, Joaquin, painter in 1729.

Yguet, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783.

Zaragoza, Friar, worker in porcelain, 1799.

MARKS AND SIGNATURES OF THE PAINTERS WHO WORKED AT ALCORA.

From 1727 to 1784 no special mark was used at Alcora. In several instances specimens were signed with the painter's name or initials.

In order to distinguish the qualities or sizes, coloured numbers were frequently added.

From 1784 the letter A in gold or colours was used to mark the pottery and porcelain made at Alcora.

The following marks were used after 1784. The a underlined, [A=], sometimes in blue.

A number and letter, No. 4 A, G 8; No. 3 P. In 1799 the pottery made by Friar Joseph de Zaragoza was marked M. O. X.

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MADRID.--BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN.

In 1759 King Charles III. came from Naples, having inherited the Spanish crown on the death of his brother Ferdinand VI. Soon after his arrival he determined to establish a porcelain manufactory at Madrid in the same style as one which in 1736 he had founded at Naples. The documents which exist relating to this manufactory at the archives of the Royal Palace, Madrid, Alcala, Ministry of Finance, etc., state that before the King left Naples, he ordered the following letter to be written to the Secretary of State, Richard Wall, on September 11, 1759: "Likewise the workmen and utensils used at the royal manufactory of porcelain of Capo di Monte must be embarked from Naples to Alicant, in the vessels prepared for that purpose, in order to continue from there the journey to Madrid. The necessary conveyances are to be provided, and the expenses to be charged to his Majesty's account."

Charles III. landed at Barcelona on the 17th of October, 1759, and we find a letter written by order of the King, by the Marquis of Esquilace to Secretary Wall, in November of the same year, in which he says that the King had heard of the arrival in Spain of the workmen from Capo di Monte, and gives orders that money should be supplied to the Director, Don Juan Thomas Bonicelli. Wall answers that he "will give orders and help the workmen who are to establish the manufactory, and let them have every facility to examine different sorts of earths and localities which may suit them, and that the Director, Bonicelli, should have the money he might require."

It appears also that 300 gold ducats were given to Giuseppe Gricci, "modeller," in absence of Bonicelli. The King ordered Wall to be informed that he understood that a place had been found near Madrid to establish these works, and that he was anxious to see a plan of the exact locality. Giuseppe Gricci drew the plan of the spot chosen, and was paid 100 gold doubloons for works connected with the manufactory. Bonicelli sends the following list of workmen who had arrived from Naples to the King.

Cayetano Schepers, chief composer.

Pablo Forni.

Joseph Gricci, principal modeller.

Carlos Gricci.

Esteban Gricci, modeller.

Cayetano Fumo, "

Basilio Fumo, "

Joseph Fumo, "

Carlos Fumo, "

Macedonio Fumo, "

Joseph Santorum, "

Juan Bescia, "

Bautista de Bautista, "

Antonio Morelly, "

Salvador Nofri, "

Phelipe Esplores, "

Ambrosio de Giorgi, "

Pedro Antonio de Giorgi, "

Pablo Frate, "

WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE KILNS.

Jenaro Bonincosa.

Nicolas Rocio.

Pasqual Rocco.

Juan Frate.

Baldo de Beneditis.

Vincenzio Frate.

Matheo Mayni.

Giorchino Amable.

Joseph Esclavo.

Antonio Aquaviva Esclavo.

WORKMEN WHO POUNDED THE COLOURS.

Francisco Conte.

Nicolas Conte.

Angelo Lionelli.

Joseph Caramello.

Joachim Pataroti, carver in pietri dure.

WORKMEN EMPLOYED AT THE WHEEL.

Joseph Grossi.

Nicolas Botino.

Juan Remini, gold beater.

Pedro Chevalier, mounter.

PAINTERS.

José de la Torre.

Juan Bautista de la Torre.

Nicolas de la Torre.

Fernando Sorrentini.

Mariano Nani.

Jenaro Boltri.

Nicolas Donadio.

Antonio Provinciale.

Joseph del Coco.

Carlos Remissi.

Francesco Simini.

Xavier Brancacio.

Joseph Esclavo.

Francisco Esclavo.

On the 19th of December, 1759, Don Carlos de Borbon, the King's architect, presented him with the plans of the porcelain manufactory. The spot selected was inside the gardens of the Royal Palace of Buen Retiro. Ponz tells us in his "Viage," Vol. VI. p. 108, that the building was large and of regular architecture. We know it cost 179,130 reals.

Don Carlos de Borbon was a black slave who had been captured with other blacks during the reign of Ferdinand VI. The Queen-mother sent them to Naples, and Charles III. gave them an artistic education.

Don Carlos Antonio became the King's architect. On the 22nd of May, 1760, the building was finished, the money then spent amounted to upwards of 145,000 reals, and Larruga tells us, in his Memorias, "The King spent in establishing this manufactory £115,000, with a yearly cost to keep it up of £20,000."

William Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation during the years 1760-1761," London, 1763, says, p. 262: "At Madrid is lately set up a manufacture of porcelain in the gardens of the King's palace at the Retiro, wrought by artificers brought from Saxony." Documents exist proving that in 1760-1761, they were already working there. Townsend, in his "Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787," London, 1792, says, Vol. II., p. 278:--

"I tried to obtain admission to the china manufacture, which is likewise administered on the King's account, but His Majesty's injunctions are so severe that I could neither get introduced to see it, nor meet with any one who had ever been able to procure that favour for himself. I was the less mortified upon this occasion because, from the specimens which I have seen, both in the palace at Madrid, and in the provinces, it resembles the manufacture of Sèvres which I had formerly visited in a tour through France."

In the "Nouveau voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de l'état actuel de cette monarchie," Paris, 1789, Vol. I. p. 233, the author tells us, how "Le monarque actuel à établi dans leur interieur une fabrique de porcelaine, dont l'entrée est jusquà present interdite à tout le monde. On veut sans doute que ses essais se perfectionment dans le silence, avant de les exposer aux yeux des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent encore se voir que dans les Palais des Souverains, ou dans quelques Cours d'Italie, auxquelles il les envoie en presens."

We find in a "Nouveau voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1805, p. 34, in describing this porcelain manufactory that the author says; "Cet établissement tres couteux ne travaille que pour le Roi et a son compte; il en sort des vases d'une beaute et d'un fini qui ne le cedent point à ceux de Sèvres."

Citoyen Alquier, in 1800, the envoy of the French Republic, was allowed to visit the manufactory.

We do not know the precise date when porcelain began to be manufactured at the Retiro. Clarke, writing in 1761, says the works had begun, and in 1764 pupils attended the classes at the Academy of S^{n} Fernando. Larruga, in his "Memorias," says that as soon as the building was finished, china was made under the superintendence of Don Cayetano Schepers; the works, during his superintendence, proved very unsatisfactory, to his great astonishment, as the same process and workmen were employed as at Naples. Schepers attributes it to squabbles between the Spanish and Italian workmen. Sebastian Schepers, from 1783, a son of Cayetano's, tried various experiments with different clays of the country.

The porcelain made at Buen Retiro was kept for the first thirty years for the exclusive use of the royal family, or to be sent as presents to foreign courts. Nothing was offered for sale until January, 1789, after Charles III.'s death, 1788, when Charles IV. determined that the china manufactured at Buen Retiro might be sold. Even in Spain the specimens of this china are very scarce; it is only at the palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, the Escorial and La Granja that an idea can be formed of the perfection of this manufacture.

The director at that time was Don Domingo Bonicelli, a son of Don Juan Bonicelli. Don Domingo chose a room within the Retiro, which was arranged at a cost of £350, in which to exhibit the objects for sale. Another room was taken in the Calle del Turco, which is mentioned in "Noticias varias y curiosas de Madrid," Valero Chicarro, 1762-1793, which we find was closed in 1800, as the "objects manufactured at the Retiro were simply for ornament, and could only be bought by very rich persons." Southey in his "Letters from Spain," London, 1797, p. 118, says, "The old palace of Buen Retiro is converted into a royal porcelain manufactory; the prices are extravagantly high, but they have arrived at great excellence in the manufacture. The false taste of the people is displayed in all the vases I saw there, which though made from Roman models, are all terminated by porcelain flowers."

Every kind of porcelain was made at Buen Retiro, hard and soft paste, white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled in the style of Capo di Monte. A great many existed imitating the blue jasper ware of Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured and biscuit, groups, and single figures, and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great quantities of tiles for pavements were also made there, which may still be seen at the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez; they are mentioned in the accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We find in these same accounts interesting details of the objects made monthly. In January, 1808, a large number of figures were made, including 151 heads for the table centre which was made for the king, 306 objects ornamented with paintings, 2,056 tiles, 577 objects of less artistic importance, such as dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens which exist are in the Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the Palaces of Madrid and Aranjuez of which the walls are completely covered with china plaques and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable manner with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is covered with a bold ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in high relief, painted with colours and gold with the most exquisite details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese decoration. The chandelier is in the same style. Upon a vase on the wainscot to the right of the entrance door is the following inscription:

JOSEPH GRICC^{I} DELINEAV^{it} ET SCUL^{it} 1763.

This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the roof we find,

AÑO 1765;

probably the year the work was terminated. Antonio Conca, in his "Descrizione Odeporica della Spagna in cui spezialmente si da notizia delle cose spettanti alle Belle Arti," Parma, 1793, Vol. III., p. 310, says, "Il Gabineto abbelitto di porcellana della Fabbricca del Retiro ha meritato le bodi de curiozi viaggiatori." We also find in p. 119, "Un altro Gabinetto vien chiamato della Cina pel sud principal ornata di bei putti, di bassi relievi, e di altre opere di porcellana della nuova Real Fabbricca del Ritiro." Ponz, in his "Viage de España," Madrid, 1782, describes the room at the Palace of Madrid, saying, "it is covered with large plaques of porcelain made at Buen Retiro. In some are represented figures of children copied from models, and between each compartment looking-glasses are let in." (See woodcut.)

[Illustration: ROOM DECORATED WITH BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN, IN THE PALACE AT MADRID.]

From the establishment of the manufactory in 1759 by Charles III. until 1803 the styles adopted at Capo di Monte had been followed. At the beginning of this century Dn. Bartolomé Sureda went to Paris to learn the manner in which Sèvres porcelain was made. On his return in 1803 he was appointed director of the works at Buen Retiro and endeavoured to imitate the paste and brilliancy of decoration of Sèvres. Two workmen came over from Paris--Victor Perche, and Vivien.

Among the finest specimens of this period of the manufactory are a splendid clock and four vases, two mètres high, with porcelain flowers, which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases are placed in the four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with large biscuit figures. A large number of vases exist at the royal Palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and Escorial, of Retiro china. They are often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers. The blue of the imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the biscuit work so fine as the English. Gold is often added to these specimens.

We find at the archives of the Ministry of Finance interesting details of a dinner service made in 1798 for Charles IV., and a centre-piece, which probably is that now in the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez.

When the French made their entry into Madrid in the spring of 1808 they took possession of the position occupied by the royal manufactory. In July of the same year it continued in the hands of the French, who forced open the doors of the laboratory. Porcelain continued, however, to be made there during the reign of Joseph I.; we find in "Travels through Spain and part of Portugal," London, 1808, p. 23, that, the author says, "the gardens of the Buen Retiro are open to the public. In the neighbourhood of these the royal porcelain manufacture is carried on in a large white building." Lord Blayney, in his "Narrative of a Journey through Spain and France in 1810-1814," London, 1814, says that "the royal manufactures of tapestry and porcelain have declined since the death of Charles III. and have now entirely ceased."

We find in "Paseos por Madrid," Madrid, 1815-8, p. 87, it stated that "The English, at the second entry of our troops in Madrid, ruined this building in order that it should not be used as a fortress by the French troops."

Richard Ford, in his "Handbook for Travellers in Spain," London, 1845, says, "Everything was destroyed by the invaders, who turned the manufactory into a fortification, which surrendered with 200 cannon, Aug. 14th, 1812, to the Duke of Wellington. Ferdinand VII., on his restoration, re-created La China, removing the workshops and ware rooms to the Moneloa."

The South Kensington Museum contains an interesting collection of Buen Retiro porcelain of different kinds, of which may be named:

No. 344-'66. A vase of biscuit porcelain, two-handled, with frieze of classic dancing figures and flowers.

Nos. 333, 4-'66. Two small vases for tea, white porcelain, covered with flowers in relief.

No. 892-'75. A pair of vases painted with young bacchanals in rose camaïeu, and gilt.

No. 893-'75. A pair of draped female figures, each holding a cornucopia, standing on an altar-shaped plinth.

No. 894-'75. A clock case, white porcelain, of rock and scroll work, with flowers and groups of amorini.

No. 332-'76. A group of Ariadne and the panther.

No. 1068-'73. A pair of tall vases, with gilt serpent handles, the necks fluted with gold, the upper part of the body painted with classic groups, and with coloured scroll foliage in relief, the lower part painted with leaves and scrolls on white ground. (See woodcut on next page.)

[Illustration: BUEN RETIRO VASE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]

MARKS USED AT THE PORCELAIN MANUFACTORY OF BUEN RETIRO.

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The usual mark in blue.

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In blue, and sometimes in violet and gold.

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Cayetano or Carlos Fumo. The initials and date are graved in the clay under the glaze; the fleur-de-lis is pencilled in blue. On a fine group of children playing with a goat.

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This mark is graved in the clay, under the glaze, on a fine group modelled by Salvador Nofri.

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Ochogavia? graved in the soft clay on a figure.

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1798, Sorrentini? These marks are pencilled in red on a pink cup and saucer, with landscapes painted _en grisaille._

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Pedro Antonio Georgi? The initials P. G. are gilt; the M crowned in red; the V and M graved in the clay; on a cup and saucer buff coloured.

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Provinciale? The letters Po are graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue; on two saucers, beautifully painted with children.

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Probably the initial of the king. On two jardinières; the interlaced C's graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue.

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On two large vases imitating Wedgwood's blue and white jasper, with white biscuit flowers.

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On a group of biscuit Retiro porcelain of two figures representing Painting. The same mark appears on a figure of Apollo, about one foot high. This mark is stamped on the porcelain; the letters are in relief tinted rose colour.

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At the room decorated with Buen Retiro plaques at Aranjuez. It appears on a vase in relief, which is placed on the basement to the right on entering. The date 1765 appears on the ceiling, probably the year when the work was finished.

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Graven on the clay on a white soft paste bracket painted with coloured flowers belonging to Count Valencia de D^{n} Juan.

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On a cup at the Museo Arqueologico, Mad., painted with landscapes. The initials are of Pedro Antonio Giorgi, who painted from 1802 to 1808.

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Engraved on the clay on a plaque of blue biscuit porcelain imitating Wedgwood jasper ware, representing a mythological subject.

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On a dessert plate representing a vine leaf at the Museo Arqueologico. The initials appear to be those of Felipe Gricci, a son of the first modeller José, who came with Charles III. from Naples.

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Fleur-de-lis graven in the clay on a fine group of three figures.

LIST OF DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE ROYAL MANUFACTORY OF THE BUEN RETIRO FROM ITS FOUNDATION, IN 1759, UNTIL 1808:

DIRECTORS.

Bonicelli, Juan Thomas, principal Director at the establishment of the manufactory in 1759.

Bonicelli, Domingo. In 1786 he was Director; in 1796 he solicits his retirement, and died soon after.

Cristobal de Torrijos, appointed Director in 1797, after the death of Don Domingo Bonicelli.

Sureda, Bartolomé, Director in 1804, and continues in 1808.

PRINCIPAL MODELLERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS, POSSESSING THE SECRETS OF THE FABRICATION (SECRETISTAS).

Schepers, Cayetano, first Modeller in 1759.

Gricci, Carlos, son of Joseph Gricci, came to Spain, 1759. He appears in a list of artists employed in 1764: he died 1795.

Gricci, Felipe, 1785. In 1802 he was first Modeller.

Forni, Antonio, second Modeller in 1802.

SCULPTORS.

Agreda, Esteban, born at Logroño, 1759. He obtained several prizes at the Academy of San Fernando; employed in 1797, and continued to work there in 1808.

Avila, Ceferino de, employed 1799, and continued there in 1808.

Avila, Juan de, 1771, and continued there in 1808.

Bautista, Bautista de, 1759.

Bautista, Cayetano, 1785.

Bautista, Juan Lopez, employed from 1799 to 1808.

Benedictis, Cayetano, 1785, 1802.

Benincasa, Miguel, 1778, and continues to work in 1808.

Benincasa, Vicente, 1785.

Bergaz, Alonso, 1764.

Bescia, Juan, 1759.

Borbon, Geronimo, 1802

Borbon, Genaro, 1784 and 1808.

Caravielo, Miguel, 1785.

Chaves, Alonso, born at Madrid in 1741. In 1760 was appointed Modeller, and in 1763 obtained a Second Prize at the Academy, and a First Prize in 1766.

Chaves, Justo, 1785.

Esplores, Felipe, 1759.

Estebe, Antonio, 1778 and 1808.

Flores, Josef, 1785.

Forni, Pablo, 1759.

Francholy, Angel, 1776 to 1808.

Francholy, José, 1804 to 1808.

Francholy, Luis, 1785.

Frate, Carlos, 1785 to 1802.

Frate, Josef, 1785.

Frates, Juan, 1794 to 1808.

Frate, Pablo, from 1759 to 1785.

Frates, Mateo, 1797 to 1808.

Frates, Mateo, born at Madrid in 1788. First Prize of the Academy in 1805; in 1829 was appointed Director of the China establishment at the Moncloa.

Frates, Francisco, 1764 to 1808.

Fumo, Basilio, in 1759 was Director of the China manufactory; in 1779 he was appointed a Member of the Academy of San Fernando; died in 1797.

Fumo, Carlos, 1759.

Fumo, Cayetano, 1759.

Fumo, Joseph, 1759; died in 1799.

Fumo, Macedonio, 1759, and continues in 1802.

Fumo, Bernabé, 1802.

Giorgi, Pedro Antonio de, 1759, and continues in 1785.

Giorgi, Carlos, 1785 to 1808.

Giorgi, Ambrosio de, 1759.

Giorgi, Antonio, 1795 to 1808.

Gricchi, Joseph, 1759. In 1766 was appointed Honorary Director of the Academy of San Fernando; died in 1769.

Gricci, Esteban, 1759.

Guijarro, Dionisio, 1798 to 1808.

Llorente, Manuel, 1764 to 1785.

Morelly, Antonio, 1759 to 1785.

Nofri, Salvador, 1759 to 1785.

Nofri, Justo, 1778 to 1808.

Nofri, or Noferi, Juan, 1802.

Ochogavia, Manuel, 1764. Born in Galicia in 1744; in 1760 won a Second Prize of Sculpture at the Academy, and in 1763 a First Prize.

Palmerani, Domingo, 1795, 1808.

Palmerani, Angel, 1799 to 1808.

Penaba, Joseph, 1793 to 1808.

Rodriguez, Antonio, 1797 to 1808.

Sancho, Dionisio, 1788. Born at Cienpozuelos in 1762; won a Prize at the Academy in 1793; was appointed a Member of the Academy, 1796; in 1810 he went to Mexico, where he died, 1829.

Santorum, Joseph, 1759.

Sorrentini, Fernando, 1785 to 1808.

Sorrentini, Rafael, 1785.

Sorrentini, Francisco, 1802.

Valentin, José, 1779 to 1808.

Valentin, Miguel, 1785.

PAINTERS.

Alonso, Francisco, 1764.

Boltri, Genaro, 1756. Born in Naples in 1730; in 1759 he came to Madrid with Charles III.'s household, and worked at the Retiro; died in Madrid in 1788.

Brancasio, Xavier, 1759.

Brancacho, Domingo, 1762 to 1803.

Branga, Ignacio de, 1800, painter of figures; he continues there in 1808.

Camaron, Josef, 1802. Born at Segorbe in 1760; in 1776 he won a prize of painting at Valencia; he was pensioned to Rome, and appointed Painter in Ordinary to the King.

Castillo, Fernando del, born at Madrid in 1740. He was appointed Painter at the manufactory, and worked there until his death in 1777.

Coco, Joseph del, 1759.

Cruz, Mariano de la, 1807, 1808.

Domeu, Carlos, 1785.

Donadio, Nicolas, 1759.

Giorgi, Pedro Antonio, 1802.

Martinez, Antonio, 1764.

Martinez, Pedro, 1796 to 1808.

Nani, Mariano, 1759. His wife received a pension from 1804, probably the year of his death.

Peshorn, Jorge, 1788, and continues working in 1802.

Provinciale, Antonio, 1759 and 1785.

Quirós, Juan José, 1802.

Rimini, Carlos, 1759.

Romero, Juan Bautista, 1800. Flowers and fruit; appears in lists of 1802.

Rubio, Joseph, 1799 to 1808.

Semini, Francisco, 1759.

Soriano, Joaquin, 1799. Landscape painter in 1800; continues in 1808.

Sorrentini, Josef, 1756, probably from Capo di Monte. In 1802 he asks for a retiring pension.

Sorrentini, Fernando, 1759.

Sorrentini, Pablo, 1764 to 1808.

Sorrentini, Gabriel, 1769 to 1808.

Sorrentini, Manuel, 1785 to 1802.

Torre, Joseph de la, 1759.

Torre, Nicolas de la, 1759. In 1802 asks for a retiring pension.

Torre, Raphael de la, 1759.

Torre, Juan Bautista de la, 1759 and 1808.

Torre, Josef de la, 1785 and 1802.

Torre, Francisco de la, 1796 to 1808.

Torre, Julian de la, 1802.

Velasquez, Castor, 1807, and continued in 1808. Born in Madrid in 1768 and obtained a prize at the Academy in 1787.

VARIOUS ARTISTS EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTORY.

Agreda, Manuel, Sculptor, a brother of Esteban Agreda; he superintended the making of biscuit china; born at Haro in 1773; won prizes at the Academy; and was employed at the Manufactory from 1805 to 1808.

Bautista, Juan, employed to make porcelain flowers from 1785 to 1808.

Bautista, Francisco, appears in 1802 as maker of porcelain flowers.

Bautista, Sebastian, appears in 1802 as a maker of porcelain flowers.

Chevalier, Pedro, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1759, and continued to work at the Manufactory in 1763.

Escalera, Josef, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1781, and continued to work at the Manufactory in 1808.

Perche, Jaime Victor, French workman brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from 1803 to 1809.

Vivien, French workman, brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from 1803 to 1809.

At the same time that porcelain was made at Retiro and Alcora, other manufactories of a similar kind were established in Spain; but none of them could compete with these. The most important was established at Sargadelos, Galicia, in 1804. One of the finest specimens which have reached us of this manufactory is a large bas relief representing the massacres of the Spaniards by the French in Madrid on the 2nd of May, 1808.

GLASS.

Since the South Kensington Museum purchased the largest collection of old and modern Spanish glass in Europe, the taste for and study of this branch of industry has increased to a very great extent. It is evident that this manufacture attained great importance during the three last centuries, and possibly existed at an earlier period; and that glass objects made in Spain possess a special and distinct character, different to those made in other countries. Before the objects at the Kensington Museum were collected, the existence of this industry in Spain was comparatively unknown.

The earliest mention of glass works in Spain will be found in Pliny, who, while explaining the proceedings which were employed in this industry, says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and Spain: "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenae temperantur."--L. XXXVI. cap. 66.

The next allusion to this industry will be found in the works of San Isidoro. This eminent man lived in the 7th century, and after quoting the observations of the Roman author, gives us to understand that this industry existed before his time in Italy, France, and Spain: "Olim fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima pila mola que terebatur." [Divi. Isid. Hisp. Etymologiarum, I. XVI. cap. 16.] It is evident, therefore, from this passage, that glass was made to a large extent in the Spanish Peninsula during the Roman period. This is confirmed by the number of specimens which are constantly found in ruins. We learn also that the manufacture had ceased to exist in the seventh century.

Glass vessels of the Roman period found in Spain are similar in form and manufacture to those which we know were made in France and Italy. This is not to be wondered at, if we remember that the Romans imposed their artistic forms on the countries they conquered. It is impossible to classify the specimens of this industry into determined localities. The study of the glass paste may, at some future period, give materials for such a classification.

One special characteristic of Roman glass may be taken into account to be applied to Spanish glass of a later period. We find ancient specimens constantly ornamented with a sort of thread or line which runs all over the vase. These lines are sometimes made of transparent glass, and sometimes of white opaque glass, termed in Italy _latticinio_ from its milky whiteness. When the industry of glass making was revived in Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, classical forms were copied in this as in other industries; this line ornamentation was copied on a much smaller scale in Italy than in Spain, where it constituted the chief and constant characteristic of glass making. It is an interesting fact that objects of a traditional Moorish form have the greatest amount of lines of this style of ornamentation. We cannot, until this subject is more thoroughly investigated, do otherwise than infer either that the tradition of this industry was preserved in Spain, or that the Arabs imported this style of decoration from the same localities from which it had been copied by the Romans centuries before.

The comparison of these different styles of glass making can be carried out in a most satisfactory manner in London by examining the fine specimens of glass in the British Museum (Slade collection), and the old Spanish glass at South Kensington.

We have no specimens of glass of the Visigothic period. If, as is most probable, glass was used by the Visigoths, they may have imported it from the East, for the text I have quoted from the works of St. Isidore seems to prove that this industry had ceased to exist in his time. The glass paste of different colours must, however, be mentioned, which is set in gold in the Visigothic crowns found at Guarrazar, near Toledo. It imitates precious stones, and was very generally used during the Byzantine period; its occurrence here makes it appear probable that at any rate the tradition of this industry existed in Spain.

From the 8th to the end of the 15th century, during the Mahomedan domination, I infer that the industry of glass making became as important in Spain as that of pottery. No specimens, however, of the earlier period have reached us, and we must judge of what it was from the glass vessels in the Kensington Museum, belonging to the Renaissance period, which preserve their Oriental form, and are of a different style to that of Venice and other localities in Europe.

A most interesting fact, which confirms this theory, will be found in a translation made from Hebrew to Arabic of a work which treats of the virtues of precious stones, _Lapidario_ [MS. Biblioteca del Escorial], quoted by Rico y Sinobas in "Almanaque de la Industria," 1873. We do not know exactly when the author Abolais lived, but in the prologue to this MS. it is mentioned that D^{n}. Alfonso el Sabio found this book at Toledo, and gave orders to a Jew called Juda Mosca, and a priest, Garci Perez, to translate it into Spanish. The translation was terminated in 1250. Technical details are given in this volume concerning the substances which are employed in glass making, and some of the minerals found in Spain which are used in painting or enamelling it, but as this work was written to explain the properties of minerals, as they were understood in the author's time, he does not enter into any interesting details, or describe the forms of these objects. Another allusion to glass making in Spain will be found in Al Makkari, the Arabian author of "Mohamedan Dynasties in Spain," [London, 1840, 2 vols. 4to], who quotes an Oriental writer of the 13th century, who says, "Almeria was also famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils, whether of iron, copper, or glass." (Vol. I. p. 51.)

The tradition of this industry has been undoubtedly preserved at Almeria until the present day, for in this province, and in the adjoining villages of the province of Granada, we find that specimens are to be met with, which possess a marked Oriental form, and are completely free from the influence of Italian models which existed in other localities. The most characteristic specimens consist of jars of two, four and eight handles, bowls with ribs and handles, pilgrim's bottles, etc., of which interesting examples exist at the South Kensington Museum. Woodcuts of several of these are given.

All these objects are decorated with a serrated ornamentation of buttons, trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already alluded which were placed there after the object was made, in the Roman style. The paste is generally of a dark green colour, and when we find these same features in vessels of white clear glass, we may affirm that they are contemporary imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are very seldom to be met with in the provinces of Almeria and Granada, and are generally found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover, a common condition of Oriental art that its general form complies with a geometrical tracery, and we never find as in Italian works of art, forms and capricious ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the general lines, and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole.

[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY.]

I have been unable to find the glass industries of this period mentioned by any contemporary author, but I owe to the courtesy of S^{r}. Romero Ortiz some interesting details which have been taken from the archives of certain villages, which although of a more modern date prove that this industry existed in these localities. At about 14 miles from the Puebla de D^{n}. Fadrique, there is a locality called Pinar de la Vidriera, where traces of ovens and scoriæ exist belonging to an ancient glass manufactory, which is likewise mentioned in documents of the municipality as continuing to work in 1620. At Castril de la Peña, a manufactory yet exists where glass is still made, and which has existed from time immemorial in the village. The building itself is decorated with the escutcheon of the family of Hernando de Zafra, one of the secretaries of Queen Isabel, late in the 15th century, who must have purchased it with other lands which he possessed there, towards the year 1492. A gallery, one mile long, which exists at the entrance of the town from whence the sand has been extracted for this manufacture, gives an idea of the antiquity of this industry in this particular locality. It has been calculated that about two tons of sand were used at these glass works every month. At Royo Molino, in the province of Jaen, a very ancient building still exists, now half in ruins, which has been used until very lately as a glass factory. At Maria, in the province of Almeria, several glass manufactories have existed. The oldest, it is believed, was about two miles from the town, and is called traditionally "del Campo," but I have not found mention of it in any document. Three glass ovens existed inside the town: one was established by Vicente Botia, towards the year 1750, which lasted until 1790. Juan Martinez established at about this period an industry of a similar kind near the former one, which continued to work until 1854. The same green glass has been constantly made in these localities, the same forms have been copied, the only difference between the older and more modern specimens consisting in the coarser and heavier quality of the glass.

[Illustration: PILGRIMS' GLASS BOTTLE.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.]

In treating of the glass manufactures in Spain, where Italian models were imitated to a very great extent, we find very few allusions in contemporary authors of the Middle Ages; it may be because glass vessels were chiefly used with wooden and pottery utensils by the poorer classes, and metal utensils of all kinds by those who were able to afford them. At any rate, it is only towards the end of the Middle Ages that we meet with information concerning this industry, which continues uninterrupted until the present day.

Barcelona is one of the towns distinguished for the antiquity and excellence of its glass. In a municipal edict of 1324, we find a special prohibition that the glass ovens should not be inside the city, owing to the danger they might cause to the rest of the population. In 1455, permission was granted to the _vidrieros_, glassmakers, to form a guild under the patronage of St. Bernardino, and from this period some of its members figure as holding municipal charges. Capmany, "Memorias," Vol. I. p. 134. According to this author, the special Ordinances of this corporation are not known, but only those which were given by the municipality in 1659. He adds that the master _vidrieros_ required six years of apprenticeship and practice to be admitted to work.

From the 15th century several authors praise the glass made at Barcelona. In a MS. by Jeronimo Paulo, who writes in 1491, a description in Latin of the most remarkable things at Barcelona, he says, "they also send to Rome and other places many glass vessels of different sorts and kinds which may well compete with those of Venice." In the account of Philip le Bel's journey to Spain on his marriage with Queen Joanna we find the following mention of the town of Barcelona: "Et sont là faicts les plus beauls ouvrages de voires (verres) et de cire qui soient faicts au monde. Le Jordi (19 Janvier, 1503) Monsigneur alla au dehors de la ville vioir ung jour où on faict voires (verres) de cristallin très beaus." ["Collection des Voyages," Bruxelles, 1876, Vol. I., p. 257.] Marineus Siculus, who writes early in the 16th century says, "the best glass made in Spain is that of Barcelona," and Gaspar Barreiros in his "Chorographia," [Coimbra, 1569,] tells us, "they made excellent glass at Barcelona, almost equal to the Venetian." At the beginning of the 17th century the authors, Jaime Rebullosa, in his "Descripcion del mundo," [Barcelona, 1603, 8vo,] and Luis Nuñez in "Hispania," [Antverpiæ, 1607, 8vo, p. 279,] continue to praise the glass made at Barcelona, and from that period we find its merit and the vast quantity which was exported constantly alluded to. The fame of Spanish glass must have been justified, for in the "Viage del Cardinal Infante," by Aedo, printed in 1639, we find it stated that when the Infant Cardinal was at Barcelona, in 1632, he went with his galleys to Mataró, four leagues from Barcelona, to see the "glass made there which was so abundantly sold all over the country." The Spanish translator of "La Piazza universale di tutte le professioni," [Madrid, 1615,] adds the name of Barcelona to the Italian author's mention of glass objects made in Venice, saying, "This industry has reached such a degree of excellence at Murano and Barcelona that nothing can be compared to it; there is nothing now which cannot be made of glass and crystal, even cabinets have been made, and castles with their towers, battlements, artillery, and fortifications." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion de España, [Madrid, 1654, p. 243,] repeats the same idea when he says they made at Barcelona, "fine glass which might compete with the Venetian." This industry continued in Cataluña to a great extent in the last century, and was praised by the following writers. The author of the "Atlante Español," [Vol. IV., Madrid, 1778-1795,] tells us that "they continued to make excellent glass at Barcelona, in imitation of the Venetian, with which it might compete," and that this industry was carried out to a great extent at Mataró, Cervelló, and Almatret, all three towns of Cataluña; he says that in this last mentioned town the glass made was "so excellent, and the number of workmen employed was so large, that an oratory had been built in order that the workmen should hear mass there."

The constant comparisons which we find between the glass made at Barcelona with that of Murano suggests two things--that Spanish glass must have been of a first-rate order, and that the form of the glass vessels was similar to those made at Venice. It is highly probable that a great part of the specimens of glass of different kinds which are classified as Italian in several collections, are really Spanish, although it is extremely difficult to point out the difference. In this, as in other branches of industry, the mania for classifying has gone too far, and comparative studies of a more concrete order are necessary; until these are made, the principal fact to be borne in mind in classifying glass vessels is to compare them with objects of a similar manufacture which have been made until very lately in Cataluña, and of which an extremely interesting collection exists at the South Kensington Museum, proceeding from Barcelona, Mataró and Cervelló, (Nos. 149 to 193) which will enable the amateur to see how the industry of glass-making has continued traditionally to be preserved in that province. See woodcut opposite representing a glass bottle, also the central vessel in woodcut on p. 238.

Among the specimens of old Spanish glass we may consider to have proceeded from Cataluña the following examples, forming part of the collection acquired in 1873. Bottles, Nos. 249 to 262, cups, Nos. 336 to 339, and tumblers, Nos. 303 to 305, 312 to 314, and 328, '29. Among these, there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality. The most characteristic are the _arruxiadós_, or _borracha_, a vessel spirally ribbed with several narrow spouts, used by the peasant girls of the villages to sprinkle rose water in the festival of the patron saint of the district; the _porrones_, a bottle with a long spout, used by the peasantry for drinking wine; the _cantaro_, a jug, funnel shaped with wide mouth, handle and curved spout, and the _pilas de agua bendita_, a holy water vessel of different shapes.

[Illustration: GLASS BOTTLE.--MODERN SPANISH.]

Very few details have reached us of the famous glass works which existed at Cadalso, in the province of Toledo; we know, however, that the glass made there was as excellent as that made at Cataluña, and was compared in a similar manner to the Venetian. The unknown author of "El Crotalon," published by the Spanish Bibliophiles, from a rare MS., in 1871, writing in the time of the Emperor Charles V., mentions "the fine glass made at Cadalso." Marineus Siculus also writes in 1517 in his "De las Cosas Memorables de España," [Alcala de Henares, 1539, fol., Vol. I.,] that "Glass was made in several towns of Castile, the most important of them being Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom." It would appear therefore that this glass manufactory was already established in that locality in the 16th century, and we frequently meet with allusions to the excellence of its productions in contemporary authors. The town itself has continually been called "Cadalso de los vidrios." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion general de España," [Madrid, 1645, p. 40] says: "They make in three glass ovens fine glass of beautiful colours and forms, which can compete with the Venetian." At the South Kensington Museum, there are two fine specimens of glass made at Cadalso--No. 1068, '73, a drinking vessel of white glass, the upper part in form of the Spanish vessel called "bucaro," ribbed and streaked with colours; the stem pineapple shape, with remains of gilding (this is represented in the woodcut); and No. 1082, '73, a bowl of plain glass, the lower part spirally waved, and decorated with scale pattern in gold and coloured dots. Both these objects proceed from a nunnery in a village near Cadalso.

[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]

Larruga says in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1791, Vol. X., p. 53,] that "two glass ovens existed at Cadalso, which belonged to the Marchioness of Villena; they are worked by the inhabitants of this town. One of the ovens has fallen into disuse from the beginning of the present (18th) century, and the fame of the glass made there, formerly so renowned for its clearness and variety of the objects made, has declined. In examining the state of this industry during the reign of Charles II. we find how much it had fallen off, for Dn. Antonio de Obando in 1692, undertook to reestablish it, and to make glass vessels, and window glasses as had been made there formerly. It appears that 200 dozens of objects of different kinds were sent out from there yearly." The vase, No. 333, '73 represented in the woodcut is an example of the coloured glass of Cadalso.

[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY.]

Glass ovens existed from a very early period in the central provinces of Spain, which probably imitated from the 16th century the productions of Cadalso. We know from papers at the Archives of the Convent, of two of these which paid a yearly rent to the monastery of San Jeronimo de Guisando, from 1478 to 1480. One of these glass works was situated at the Venta del Cojo on the borders of Escalona, and the other at the Venta de los Toros de Guisando.

It is evident that a glass manufactory existed at Toledo, from some accounts which I have found in the Archives of the Cathedral, in which Bartolomé Lopez, vidriero, is mentioned in 1546--Pedro Fernandez in 1590, and Tomas Nuñez in 1660; as furnishing glass vessels, principally lamps for the cathedral. Tomas Nuñez is also paid for "three crosses of crystalline glass." In a letter written in 1690 to Count Gondomar, the celebrated ambassador to James I., (Archives of the Palace at Madrid), I find a glass manufactory mentioned which existed at Cebreros in the province of Segovia. The writer says, "Your lordship knows we have a glass oven here; this week we have made the glass called crystalline, of which I send in a basket sixteen specimens for my lady Dna. Costanza."

Larruga tells us in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1792, Vol. XVI., p. 222,] "That in 1680 a glass manufactory was established at San Martin de Valdeiglesias, where glass in the Venetian style was made--the glass was excellent. This manufactory was under the direction of Diodonet Lambot a native of Namur. He was succeeded by Santiago Bandoleto, who was by no means as skilful. Glass ovens were also established at the Torre de Estevan, Hambroz, under the direction of Guillermo Torcada." At Recuenco, in the province of Cuenca, glass works existed at the beginning of the 16th century; but in 1722 Don Fernando Lopez de Aragon established a manufactory on a large scale. The glass made there was used by the king and the greater part of the rich people at Madrid. In 1739 two other glass works existed there, which continued their operations during the rest of the century. In the same province several glass ovens existed towards the middle of the last century. The principal ones were established in the villages of Arbetota, Vindel and Armallones; only coarse specimens were made there, but at an earlier period their productions had been, Larruga tells us in the nineteenth volume of his "Memorias," very important. The glass works which we find mentioned in the "Atlante Español," [Madrid, 1795,] were also of a very inferior quality; they were established at the end of the last century at Busot, in the province of Alicante, Hinojares and Carolina, province of Jaen. The "Correo de España," [Vol. I. Madrid, 1771,] mentions an important glass manufactory which existed at Andorra near Alcañiz, and one where glass of an inferior quality was made at Cabra, in the province of Cordova. Cabanilles, "Historia y descripcion del reino de Valencia," Barcelona, mentions the existence from a very early period of glass works at Olleria, a village of the kingdom of Valencia.

The only mention which I have found in which Seville appears as a centre of this industry, is an interesting allusion to the village of Cala, which was represented in a festival which was given to Philip II. in 1578, "with a crystal glass in its hand, and several others at its feet, because a famous glass oven existed there." ["Recibimiento que hizo Sevilla al Rey Don Phelipe." Por Juan de Mallara, Sevilla, 1570, p. 89.]

In the 17th century, during the reign of Philip IV., the glass made at Valdemaqueda in the province of Avila was very celebrated. In a royal schedule, dated 1680, which states the price at which things were sold at Madrid, "the glass made at Barcelona, Valdemaqueda, and Villafranca" are mentioned. We find the glass of Valdemaqueda was sold for a higher price than that made at the other localities.

The principal value of these extracts is to prove that the industry of glass-making existed in these localities; none of the authors mentions the principal characteristics by which the vessels made may be classified. Those made at Almeria and Barcelona are more easily known, for they have kept until very recently their general character; while at Cadalso and other localities of the centre of Spain, the tradition of the Italian models has quite disappeared. In one fact every author agrees, namely, that the glass made in those provinces closely resembled the Venetian, and was completely different to the system followed by the Arabs. It is, therefore, highly probable, as I have already stated, that a large number of objects of glass of different kinds, which have been hitherto considered Italian, were made in Spain.

[Illustration: VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND RIBS.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.]

The following observations may serve as a guide in the difficult task of classifying this group. The specimens of glass vessels most generally met with in the neighbourhood of Cadalso are:--

Objects of white transparent glass, sweetmeat dishes ornamented with ribs, buttons, and reticulated rims with touches of gold.

Objects of clear greenish glass of a paler hue than is made in the province of Almeria, decorated with blue, or some opaque colour (see woodcut); in some instances part of the object is decorated with a rough crackled surface.

Objects of opaque glass with different colours, vases, glasses, cups and saucers, of thin milk-white texture with blue spots, or imitations in the Japanese style of different colours. Vases for holding flowers, and other objects, of dark blue glass, milk-white cups, glass and other objects ornamented with lines of red or blue of a thicker paste than the preceding ones.

Although these objects are copied from Venetian models, they are coarser in every detail, they are heavier and thicker, and the delicate and elegant ornamentation which we find on Italian specimens is almost always wanting, we seldom find examples of the beautiful _millefiori_ chalcedony or tortoise-shell paste, and the outline of these objects is symmetrical and Oriental in style.

* * * * *

The royal glass manufactory at La Granja de San Ildefonso, was founded on the remains of an important one which had been established some years before, under the protection of Philip the 5th, at the Nuevo Bastan, in the province of Madrid.

Towards the years 1712 to 1718, this king commissioned D^{n}. Tomas del Burgo and D^{n}. Juan B. Pomerague to establish glass-works at the Bastan; twenty foreign workmen were brought over with this purpose, with their families, and the necessary implements. These gentlemen did not carry out the undertaking to the king's satisfaction, and in 1720 his majesty gave D^{n}. Juan de Goyeneche special privileges that he might "make every kind of glass manufacture up to the height of twenty inches, and have these glasses worked and polished, embroidered and covered with metal; to make looking-glass and similar decorations, and every kind of glass vessels, and white glass for window-panes, and every sort of glass vessel of different kinds and forms which have been invented in the present time, or likely to be invented in this art." In order to carry this out, the king allowed them to have as many foreign masters and workmen as they might require, with the sole condition that a fourth part of the workmen employed should be Spaniards. It was prohibited that any industry of a similar kind should be established in Spain for thirty years, or that glass made abroad should be imported into the country.

After a long series of annoyances of every kind, Goyeneche succeeded in meeting with the king's approbation, but as fuel was very scarce at the Bastan, he removed the glass works to Villanueva de Alcorcon, in the province of Cuenca. From the ruins of this glass manufactory, Larruga says in his "Memorias," [vol. xiii., p. 274], "was founded the splendid glass manufactory of San Ildefonso."

Ventura Sit, a native of Catalonia, constructed an oven there, which worked from 1728 to 1736 with great success. Queen Doña Isabel encouraged Sit, and the king ordered him to make some glasses which might serve for mirrors. Those he made at first were small, but Sit began by making them 30 inches long and ended by making them as large as 145 inches. The machine for polishing them was invented by a Catalan called Pedro Fronvila.

The section of glass vessels of a superior quality began to work in 1771. Glasses, bottles, and objects of all kinds were made there under the direction of a glass worker called Eder, a Swede, and Sivert, a Frenchman. Another section where the same quality of glass was made was directed by Don Segismundo Brun, a native of Hanover, but who had been brought up from a very early age at La Granja. It was this artist who invented gilded glass _a feu_. A large number of foreign artists worked at this manufacture; they impressed their special style on the objects they made, which were similar to those of the same kind manufactured in France, England, and Germany.

From the time of Ventura Sit, towards the year 1734, the manufactory of glass at La Granja belonged to the crown, and continued under the protection of the Spanish kings, who spared no expense to obtain its development. Early in the present century this industry began to decay. Towards 1828 it passed into private hands, and continued to work until 1849. The manufactory is now closed, although there is some talk of reviving this industry.

[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]

The glass objects made at La Granja possess a very marked French style, which renders them liable to be mistaken for French and German productions of a similar kind. The greater part of the objects which were made were of white clear transparent glass, richly cut and engraved, or ornamented with gold (see woodcut). The cut glass is generally engraved with inscriptions, views, flowers, and devices, and until very lately has been made there in a rougher style. Coloured and enamelled glass has also been made there, but not to so great an extent. Glass for window panes and mirrors were ordered for the Royal palaces. Lustres of all kinds of white and coloured glass were also made there in the Venetian style, richly ornamented with coloured flowers. A small chandelier of this kind is in the South Kensington Museum (No. 998, '73), the only example I have seen of a lustre of latticinio glass. In the collection of old Spanish glass at the Museum will be found a sufficient variety of specimens of this manufacture to give an idea of the different styles made at La Granja. A fac-simile of one of the engraved mirrors and a fine cut glass will be found in "Museo Español de Antiguedades, vol. IX."

Besides glass vessels and objects of a similar kind, painted glass windows have been made in Spain from a very early time, of which most important specimens exist at Toledo, Leon, and other Spanish cathedrals. The proceedings employed in this industry are too well known to require repetition in this volume. The industry was undoubtedly imported by foreign workmen from France and the north of Europe, and as was the case with other industries it took root in the country, and a large number of Spanish artists followed and took part in this industry.

* * * * *

In order to convey an idea of the height of this industry in Spain, I give a list of the painters who worked on glass which I have collected from the following works, to which I refer the student who may wish for further details on the subject. Cean Bermudez, "Dicc. Hist. de los mas ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en España. Madrid, 1800." Villanueva, "Viage á las Iglesias de España." Piferrer, "Recuerdos y Bellezas. Mallorca." "Documentos Ineditos." Zarco del Valle.

GLASS PAINTERS IN SPAIN.

Years in which they worked Artists. Residence.

1682. Alcalde, Francisco Burgos. 1504. Aleman, Cristoval Toledo. 1458. Aleman, Pedro Toledo. 1645. Alonso, Francisco Burgos. 1544. Arce, Juan de Burgos. 1581. Arce Burgos. 1613. Argete, Luis de Leon. 1424. Aragan, Maestro Joan Leon. Arfian, Antonio Sevilla. Arteaga, Matias Sevilla. 1516. Ayala, Francisco Palencia. 1605. Babel, Jorge Madrid. 1442. Baldovin, Maestro Leon. 1519. Bernal, Juan Sevilla. 1533. Borgoña, Jorge Palencia. 1439. Bonifacio, Pedro Toledo. 1562. Bruges, Carlos Cuenca. 1602. Campo, Diego del Madrid. 1522. Campa, Juan Toledo. 1674. Chilberri, Pierres de Segovia. 1509. Cuesta, Juan de Toledo. 1513. Cordova, Gonzalo de Toledo. 1538. Cotin, Gaspar de Burgos. 1459. Cristoval, El Maestro Toledo. 1566 to } Dangles, Sebastian Mallorca. 1573 } 1676. Danis, Juan Segovia. 1565. Diaz, Diego Escorial. 1418. Dolfin, El Maestro Toledo. 1485. Enrique, Maestro Toledo. 1566. Estaenheyl, Ulrrique Madrid. 1565. Espinosa, Francisco de Escorial. 1565. Espinosa, Hernando de Escorial. 1551. Ferrera, Rodrigo de Leon. 1526. Fernandez, Pedro Sevilla. 1557. Flandes, Arnao de Sevilla. 1494. Fontanet, Gil Barcelona. 1459. Frances, Pedro Toledo. 1571. Galceran, Il Maestro Escorial. 1518. Gelandia, Bernardino de Sevilla. 1608. Guillermo, Maestro Leon. 1571. Guasch, Juan Tarragona. 1674. Herranz, Francisco Segovia. 1520. Holanda, Alberto de Burgos. 1548. Holanda, Geraldo de Cuenca. 1535. Holanda, Nicolas de Burgos. 1509. Jacques, Juan Sevilla. 1427. Juan, Maestro Burgos. 1510. Juan, Hijo de Jacobo Sevilla. 1458. Juanico Toledo. 1428. Loys, Maestro Toledo. 1600. Ludeque, Diego de Madrid. 1569. Menandro, Vicente Sevilla. 1538. Ortega, Alonso de Toledo. 1534. Ortega, Juan de Toledo. 1458. Pablo, Fray Toledo. 1459. Pedro, Maestro Toledo. 1639. Perez, Sebastian Leon. 1559. Pesquera, Sebastian de Sevilla. 1600. Pierres, Antonio Madrid. ---- Resen, Pelegrin ---- 1565. Resen, Renerio Madrid. 1500. Rolando, Alberto de Avila. 1500. Rolando, Nicolas de Avila. 1624. Ruiz, Valentin Burgos. 1625. Ruiz, Simon Burgos. 1368-- } Sacoma, Francisco Mallorca. 1369. } 1420 to } Sala, Antonio Mallorca. 1447. } 1542. Salcedo, Diego de Palencia. 1512. Santillana, Diego Palencia. 1498. Santillana, Juan de Burgos. 1392. San Amat, Juan Lerida. 1503. Troya, Vasco de Toledo. 1579. Valerio, Octavio Malaga. 1562. Valdivieso, Diego de Cuenca. 1497. Valdivieso, Juan Burgos. 1538. Vergara, Arnao de Sevilla. 1521. Vergara, Nicolas de Burgos. 1606. Vergara, Nicolas de, El Mozo Toledo. 1574. Vergara, Nicolas de, el Viejo Toledo. 1590. Vegara, Juan de Toledo. 1518. Vivan, Juan Sevilla. 1605. Volui, Gil Leon. 1509. Ximenez, Alexo Toledo. 1458. Ximeno. Toledo.

TEXTILE FABRICS.

The silence of San Isidoro on the subject of textile fabrics in Spain would lead us to suppose that this industry only became important during the Arab domination; the Moors probably imported this industry into Spain from the earliest times of their conquest. A great number of provinces were famed then for the excellence of their textile fabrics; the most important of them, according to the testimony of Moorish and Christian writers, was Almeria. The Cordovese historian, Ash Shakandi, who wrote at the beginning of the 13th century, says: "Almeria is an opulent and magnificent city, whose fame has spread far and wide; the inhabitants are very elegant in their dress. Almeria is the greatest mart in Andalus, Christians of all nations came to its port to buy and sell, and they had factories established in it. From thence the Christian merchants who came to its port travelled to other parts in the interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such goods as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colours are manufactured in Almeria," [Moh. Dyn. in Spain, I. 52]. Almakkari adds, [p. 51]: "But what made Almeria superior to any other city in the world was its various manufactures of silks and other articles of dress, such as the _dibaj_ [silken stuff of many colours], a sort of silken cloth surpassing in quality and durability anything else manufactured in other countries; the _tiraz_ or costly stuff on which the names of sultans, princes, and other wealthy individuals are inscribed, and of which no less than 800 looms existed at one time; of more inferior articles such as the _holol_ (striped silks) and brocades, there were 1000 looms, the same number were continually employed in weaving the stuffs called _iskalátón_ (scarlet). There were also 1000 for weaving robes called Al jorjáni (Georgian), and another 1000 for weaving robes called Isbahani, from Isfahan, and a similar number for Atabi. The manufacture of damask for curtains and turbans for the women, of gay and dazzling colours, employed a number of hands equal to that of those engaged in the manufacture of the above mentioned articles."

An oriental author asserts that Abd-ul-Rahman II. A.D. 825-852 was the first sultan of his race who introduced into Spain the use of the _tiraz_ [_ib._ Vol. II. 434]. Another explains that Atabi took the name of a suburb of Bagdad "where were made the stuffs called _otabi_, composed of cotton and silk of different colours." [Consult Dozy, 'Dict. des vêtements.']

Ash Shakandi also mentions Malaga as famous for its textile fabrics; he says--"Malaga is also famous for its manufactures of silks of all colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a suit made out of them will cost many thousands; such are the brocades with beautiful drawings, and the names of khalifs, amirs, and other wealthy people, woven in them." [Moham. Dynast. Vol. I. 49.] Further on the same writer adds, "As at Malaga and Almeria, there are at Murcia several manufactures of silken cloth called _al washiu thalathat_, [variegated, of many colours.] It is likewise famous for the fabric of carpets called _tantili_, which are exported to all countries of the east and west; as also a sort of mat, of the brightest colours, with which the Murcians cover the walls of their houses." [_ib._ p. 69.]

Arabic texts are frequently met with which allude to the manufactures of textile fabrics of Granada, Seville, and other towns, in which their productions are praised, and there is no doubt that they were very remarkable; for Christian authors of the middle ages refer to them so continually. Students who wish for a more extensive idea of this subject must remember the quotations and information given by Francisque Michel concerning Spanish stuffs, [Recherches sur le Comm., la Fabric. etc., des Etoffes, etc. Paris, 1852.] He tells us--"Nous trouverons tout d'abord les pailles d'Almérie, ville de la côte meridionale d'Espagne, qui jouissait d'une réputation proverbiale pour la beauté et la finesse de ses tissus de soie, vantés dans mille endroits de nos vieilles chansons de geste, de nos anciens poëmes" [Vol. I. p. 284]. Further on he continues [Vol. I. p. 286], "à l'époque à laquelle appartiennent les textes, et même auparavant, la culture et la fabrication de la soie étaient des plus prospères à Almérie et en général dans le royaume de Grenade. 'Du royaume de Grenade vient cire, soie, figues, etc.' ... ce qu'il y a de bien certain, c'est que les étoffes d'Espagne étaient célèbres dès le 9^{e} siècle. Anastase le Bibliothécaire en parle en quatre endroits sous le nom de _spaniscum_; et en placant ce tissu à la suite de _fundatum_ et du _stauracin_ il nous donne suffisamment à entendre qu'il était de grand prix, et de soie comme eux. Un biographe de Saint Ansegise, mort en 835, placé de même une couverture d'Espagne, _stragulum_, _Hispanicum unum_, à la suite de tapis ou teintures.

"Il est malaise de déterminer la matière des étoffes qu'un écrivain byzantin du 12^{e} siècle nous dit fabriquées en Espagne et aux colonnes d'Hercule--tout nous permet de croire qu'elles étaient de soie de tout ou en partie, ou du moins qu'elles étaient comptées parmi les tissus précieux.... Saragosse produisait aussi des draps d'or--et nous trouvons au 13^{e} siècle que le géographe Edrisi pouvait dire qu'il y avait dans le seul territoire de Jaen 3000 villages où l'on élevait des vers de soie. Nous savons qu'à Seville, sous la domination des Maures, elle comptait 6000 métiers pour ces étoffes de soie. Les règlements municipaux dont les royaumes de Grenade et de Seville ont été l'objet suffisaient pour nous apprendre que l'industrie de la soie fut florissante durant le moyen âge. Nous signalerons les draps d'or et de soie que D. Pedro de Luna en 1327 apporta à l'infante Léonore, s[oe]ur d'Alphonse XI., à l'occasion de son mariage, et nous savons qu'un ministre de Pedro le cruel possédait à Toledo 125 coffres de drap d'or et de soie."

Edrisi in his "Déscrip. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne," [Leyde, 1866,] writing in the 12th century, says p. 239: "Almérie était la ville principale des Musulmans à l'Espagne des moravides. Elle était alors très industrieuse, et on y comptait entre autres 800 métiers à tisser la soie, où l'on fabriquait des étoffes connus sous le nom de _holla_, de _debady_, de _siglaton_, d'_espahani_, de _djordjani_: des rideaux ornés de fleurs, des étoffes ornés de clous, de petits tapis, des étoffes connus sous les noms de _attabi_, de _mi djar_."

To complete this historical information, and especially in order to add details as to the technical character of this manufacture, the Rev. Daniel Rock's interesting introduction to "Textile Fabrics, a Descriptive Catalogue, London, 1870," must be consulted; although, notwithstanding the learned author's remarks, it is extremely difficult, in my opinion, to classify textile fabrics proceeding from Syria, Sicily, or the Spanish Arabs, as all, whether imitations or originals, are similar in manufacture.

M. Michel and Dr. Rock enter into numerous details concerning the ancient names of stuffs, and in order further to illustrate this subject I venture to propose a different etymology than the one given by these writers of the word Samit, Samitum, or Xamet, which, although slightly different in orthography, is met with everywhere in Europe. My opinion is that it means stuff made at Damascus, for the word Sham [Illustration: Arabic writing] is applied to the name of this town as well as to that of Syria, and the appellative Shami and Shamit [Illustration: Arabic writing] appears in the lexicon to express what comes from Damascus or Syria.

The oldest specimen which I know of Spanish Arab textile fabric, is a woollen fragment of very fine quality embroidered in colours, which is at the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is about 1-1/2 yards long, by 18 inches wide. In medallions embroidered in silks are represented seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, birds, and quadrupeds. In two borders occurs the following inscription, repeated in cufic characters: "In the name of God, clement and merciful: The blessing of God and happiness for the caliph Iman Abdallah Hixem, favoured of God, prince of believers."

[Illustration: Arabic]

Hixem reigned from A.D. 979 until the first years of the 11th century. This fragment was found inside a small casket on the altar of a church in the town of San Esteban de Gormaz, province of Soria, where it was probably taken as a war trophy: it may be classified as a stuff called _tiraz_ [Illustration: Arabic], the skirt of a robe. An oriental author tells us that among the customs which contribute to give splendour to sovereignty is that of putting the name, or some other sign belonging to kings on the stuffs of their robes; that these inscriptions are woven into the material with gold or coloured thread of a different hue to the ground, and that royal robes were always made of _tiraz._ The caliphs of Cordova had a place set apart in their palaces where this stuff was kept: this custom lasted until the 11th century when it disappeared, and was re-established in the 13th century with the kings of Granada. (Moh. Dyn. vol. i., pp. 356 and 397; Mus. Esp. de Ant. vol. vi. pp. 464 and 465.)

Another most important object, although less ancient than the former one, is an Arabian banner which is traditionally believed to have been taken from the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas, A.D. 1212. This banner, which is preserved at the monastery of Las Huelgas of Burgos, is ten feet high by seven feet three inches wide. It is made of a crimson stuff, covered with an ornamentation woven and embroidered in gold and colours. In the centre is a large circle, placed within a square, which is enlarged in parallel bands. The four largest bands, which are also the last, are covered with inscriptions in blue African characters. The upper part of this banner is prolonged with several bands, one of which has inscriptions of a similar kind to those already mentioned; other borders contain several sentences in small African letters. The lower part is also prolonged and is terminated by eight points cut in a semicircle, inside which there are discs with illegible inscriptions. Three violet coloured lions, similar in form to those which appear on the arms of Leon, may be seen on three of the sides of the square. In the large circle in the centre of this banner, appears eight times repeated the word "The Empire," [Illustration: Arabic]. This inscription is embroidered or woven in Cufic characters, in a similar style to those at the Alhambra; it is a strange circumstance that the letters appear on the wrong side, as if this was the back of the stuff; the word which seems to be required to complete this sentence, "God," is also wanting. The large inscriptions in blue of the five bands reproduce Suras of the Koran, and pious sentences in one of the small ones on the upper part. S^{r.} Fernandez, who has published an article on this banner in Mus. Esp. [vol. vi., p. 469], thinks he finds a date which corresponds with the year A.D. 1140. I am not, however, satisfied with his interpretation of the inscription contained in the large centre circle, or the date he gives; for comparing the ornamentation of this specimen with other textiles, and the designs used in Moorish architecture, it appears to me that it must be considered as belonging to the 14th century. This may be easily accounted for by some historical mistake in the tradition respecting it at the convent of Las Huelgas. It is highly probable that King Alfonso XI. may have given this banner to the convent, and have been mistaken for King Alfonso VIII.; the conqueror of the battle of Las Navas.

The specimens of Spanish moresco stuffs in the Kensington Museum, will be found numbered 51, 121, 124, 125, 152, 160, 180, 241, 244. (V. Dr. Rock's Catalogue.)

The artistic industry of silk manufactures which was initiated in Spain by the Arabs, continued to flourish during the Middle Ages and a great part of the Renaissance. Malaga and Almeria were important centres, but later on this industry was chiefly centred at Granada. The silk fabrics made at Seville, Toledo, Murcia and Valencia were much esteemed. The Moorish style of ornamentation in embroideries and stuffs must soon have fallen into disuse. Owing to the materials of similar kinds imported from Italy, France, Flanders, and other countries, these manufactures were imitated to a great extent, as may be gathered by the immense number of specimens which are still to be met with in Spanish churches. The cathedral of Toledo is quite a museum of objects of this kind, but all the textiles there are woven in the European manner.

The Moorish style in stuffs was preserved at Granada longer than in any other town in Spain. In 1502, ten years after its conquest by the Christians, we find it stated in the "Voyage of Philip le Beau," the father of the Emperor Charles V.: "Grenade est fort marchande, principallement de soyes, car les marchans y achattent la pluspart des soyes que l'on maine en Italie, pour faires les draps de soyes. Le lieu où on les vendt est nommé le Sacquatin. Auprès de ce lieu est une place appellée l'Allecasserie, où on vendt les draps de soyes ouvrés à la Moresque, qui sont moult beaus pour la multitude des couleurs et la diversité des ouvrages, et en font une grande marchandise." ["Collect. de Voyages, par M. Gachard, Bruxelles," 1870, i. 205.] Navagiero, who visited Spain twenty years after, tells us in his "Viaggio fatto in Spagna" [Vinegia 1563, p. 21]: "One enters a place called Alcaiceria which is enclosed within two doors, and full of alleys where the Moors sell silks and embroideries of every kind" [p. 29]: "All sorts of cloths of silks are made there; the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all over Spain; they are not so good as those which come from Italy. There are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them well; they make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The velvets are not bad, but those that are made at Valencia are better in quality."

Dr. Rock considers the following specimens in the Kensington Museum to have been made at Granada: Nos. 26, 27, 60, 65, 73, 128, 161, 166.

Larruga tells us in his "Memorias" [vol. vii. 205], that the silk manufactures established at Toledo consumed in 1480 about 450,000 pounds of silk: they decreased about forty years afterwards. In the ordinances issued from that town in 1494, which were confirmed by the Emperor Charles V. we find that the following stuffs were made at Toledo:

"Stuffs of gold and silver which are made in the same manner as satin.

"Satins woven with gold.

"Satins brocaded with silk and gold or silver flowers.

"Silver serges with double filigree.

"Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge.

"Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, spring silver with silk flowers.

"Embroidered stuffs.

"Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_.

"_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with silver watering.

"Plain silk stuffs woven with silver or gold called _restaño_.

"Silk stuffs woven with gold or silver called _relampagos_.

"Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.

"Plain filigree serges.

"_Velillo_ of silver.

"Satin woven with gold and silver.

"Brocades of different kinds.

"Church vestments.

"Silver _primaveras_.

"Serges for church vestments."

("Ord. Ant. de Toledo," Tol. 1858, p. 223).

Until the middle of the 17th century, Larruga tells us in vol. vii. p. 208 of his "Memorias," the silk manufacture of Toledo was one of those most highly esteemed in Spain; from this time it was superseded by the manufactures of Seville, Granada, Valencia, and others. These cheapened their productions; but Toledo insisted on keeping to the old Spanish yard and weight in every kind of stuffs. In 1651 fifty looms belonged to this manufacture, although most of them were established in the suburbs. In this year there was a great decrease in the price of the coin, and the Genoese introduced a large quantity of silk stuffs, so much so that only twenty looms could be kept working at Toledo. After this, in 1663, 2061 looms existed there.

The silk manufacture of Toledo continued to lose its importance in consequence of the vast importations of foreign silks, but the traditions of this industry have never disappeared from the city. Larruga, who enters into this subject at great length in the seventh and eighth volumes of his "Memorias," mentions the silk manufacture of D^{n}. Miguel Gregorio Molero, "who made from the year 1714, under his direction and that of Christoval de Morales, his father-in-law, a large quantity of silk fabrics of wide and narrow materials of every kind, and stuffs woven with silver and gold." It is an interesting fact that the manufactory of Molero continues to work in the present day, and gold and silver stuffs are made there for ecclesiastical purposes similar in design and manufacture to the early established one of 1714; specimens exist at the South Kensington Museum of the silks made at Toledo by Molero.

Towards the middle of the 18th century the most important centre of artistic silks existed at Talavera, where it was established on a very large scale by King Fernando VI. and supported by the state. It was founded in 1748 under the superintendence of a Frenchman called Jean Roulière, who was educated at Lyon, a great mechanician, who entered the manufactory with a yearly salary of £450, and 4 per cent. of the sale. Fine church vestments were made there, and the richest stuffs woven with silver and gold for decorating apartments and furniture, of which a vast quantity remain in the palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, the Escorial and La Granja. In 1762 the Spanish government handed over this manufactory to the firm of Uztariz and Company; it remained in their hands until 1780, and at this period it continued to be worked for five years by the state; in 1785 it passed to the superintendence of the Tribunal of Commerce entitled Cinco Gremios Mayores de Madrid. The French invasion of 1808 and general decay of the country contributed towards the extinction of this industry.

In a similar manner to the silk manufactures established at Toledo, silks of all kinds were made at Seville, Granada, Murcia, and other provinces, to a very great extent during the 16th and 17th centuries. This industry continues in the present day, and specimens exist at the South Kensington Museum, made in 1874, which recall the ancient style of these stuffs.

EMBROIDERIES.

It is probable that the history of embroidery in Spain followed the same steps as that of gold and silver stuffs, owing to the great similarity which exists between these industries, as may be seen by the banner called de las Navas, which is composed of both these materials. Ornamentation in the Oriental style must have fallen sooner into disuse than in woven fabrics owing to the fashion of introducing figures in ecclesiastical vestments, which much before the Renaissance period became so general in Europe. The first mention which I find of the existence of this artistic industry appears in the Ordenanzas de Sevilla, 1433; it refers to regulating this industry, and preventing certain frauds, by which we may infer its existence from an earlier period. Similar dispositions appear in one of the Ordinances of Toledo, dated 1496, and as sumptuary laws were continually issued we have constant references to the existence of this industry: [consult "Sempere, Hist. del Lujo," vol. ii. 8vo]. These legal prohibitions did not, however, reach church vestments; after the aggrandizement of the monarchy by the conquest of the New World such enormous sums were spent on these objects, that notwithstanding the ravages of time, wars, disturbances of all kinds, and vandalisms and neglect, the cathedrals of Toledo and Seville, and many other churches, are museums of this style of art.

The art of embroidery was imported by Italians and Germans early in the 16th century, in the same manner as wood carving, metal work, and other industries. The comparative study of embroideries of different kinds which are preserved in churches and museums in other countries confirms this theory; some have been made in the north and others in the south, while their historical origin may be traced to Italy. In Spain itself this comparison may be made, and the Germanic influence is most apparent. At the cathedral of Burgos there is a fine series of ecclesiastical vestments which Bishop Alonso de Cartagena gave to the cathedral on his return from the council of Bâle, 1431-43. Another series of most important specimens is at Toledo, a present to Cardinal Mendoza by the German emperor Frederic in 1489. In both these instances we find that the embroidery is identical with what was made in Spain at this period, until they changed the Gothic for the Italian Renaissance style.

I must mention two splendid altar frontals of foreign workmanship which exist in Spain, one of them is at the chapel of the Disputation of Barcelona; it represents St. George slaying the dragon. This embroidery is in high relief, and is so perfect in every detail that it appears to be chiselled. Another altar frontal of the same style is at the Colegiata of Manresa, Cataluña; on this one the Crucifixion is represented, with eighteen other subjects, taken from the Old and New Testaments. This frontal is signed--_Geri Lapi Rachamatore Me fecit in Florentia._

Almost all Spanish towns of importance are distinguished for their embroidery, Toledo, Seville and Valencia are especially so; Ciudad Rodrigo figures as an important centre of this industry during the 16th century. We find the sentence, "obra de Ciudad Rodrigo" applied to embroidery of gold thread, [Acad. de la Historia, MS. C. 122.] Father Siguenza tells us in his "Hist. de la orden de San Jeronimo" that this style of embroidery was exclusively Spanish, and probably the remains of the Moorish influence. The principal localities where embroideries and artistic work of every kind can be studied are the cathedrals of the towns we have mentioned, which were great centres of artistic industries in other times, and the monastery of the Escorial. The collection at the cathedral of Toledo alone is sufficient to illustrate this subject.

About forty sets of splendid vestments exist at this cathedral which are embroidered with the most exquisite taste, belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries. Each set generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, altar frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces. The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints, are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MS. The _manga_, or case which hangs round the processional cross given by Cardinal Ximenez, is one of the most splendid specimens of this collection. As a fine specimen of embroidery on a large scale must be mentioned the _dosel_ or canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabel, also at the cathedral of Toledo, which is interesting as being the same which was used in the reception of the English envoys Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan who were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince Henry with the Infanta D^{na.} Catalina. The ambassadors describe it in the following manner: "After the tilting was over, the kings returned to the palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and entered a large room: and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and Aragon, and covered with the device of the king, which is a ... (blank in original), and his motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto Monta.'" ("Memorials of King Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, Lon. 1858, p. 348.)

The most remarkable specimen of embroidery which exists in Spain, not so much on account of its artistic merit as for the enormous value of the materials employed, is the mantle of the Virgin del Sagrario at Toledo. It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most effective ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of the 17th century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented it to the church. S^{r.} Parro in his exhaustive volume of "Toledo en la Mano," [vol. i., p. 574,] describes it in the following manner: "It is made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side of enamelled gold, emeralds and large rubies; a variety of other jewels are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which were employed in this superb work of art, no less than 257 ounces of pearls of different sizes, 300 ounces of gold thread, 160 ounces of small pieces of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds were used."

A fine altar frontal of a similar kind embroidered in corals may be seen in the same room where this mantle of the Virgin is kept at the cathedral of Toledo.

We find in Madame de Villars' letters, [p. 39, Paris, 1823,] the description of a similar embroidery. Writing in 1680 she says, "Ce que j'ai vu de plus riche, de plus doré, de plus magnifique, est l'appartement de la reine. Il y a entre autres meubles dans sa chambre, une tapisserie, dont ce qu'on y voit de fond, est de perles. Ce ne sont pas des personnages, on ne peut dire que l'or y soit massif, mais il est employé d'une manière et d'une abondance extraordinaires. Il y a quelques fleurs: ce sont des bandes de compartimens; mais il faudrait être plus habile que je ne suis pour représenter les choses, pour vous faire comprendre la beauté que compose le corail employé dans cet ouvrage. Ce n'est point une matière assez précieuse pour en vanter la quantité; mais la couleur et l'or qui paraissent dans cette broderie, sont assurément ce qu'on aurait peine à décrire."

From the period when these embroideries were made until the middle of the 18th century, Spanish embroideries lost much of their artistic character, although the work itself continued equally excellent. During the whole of the 17th century, a style of embroidery became very general in Spain, which appears to have been copied from eastern importations by the Portuguese or the Spanish possessions in America. The specimens most generally met with in Spain are chiefly bed covers, the ground of which is either linen or satin, embroidered in chain stitch, with figures and exotic birds and animals. Their effect is very rich, and the ornamentation is arranged generally in circles. Specimens exist in England of this kind of work; for example, a quilt, said to have been made for an Archbishop of Toledo, lent by Lady Cornelia Guest to the Special Exhibition of Embroidery held at South Kensington in 1873.

At the Mus. Arq., Madrid, is a fine quilt of this kind embroidered with maize-coloured silk on linen, with representations of figures and animals.

Embroideries were made in Spain to cover furniture. Sedan chairs, coffers, &c., were ornamented in this manner. At the Kensington Museum there is an interesting example of a trunk with silver lock, covered with embroidery, which was given towards 1680 by Count Olivares to the nuns at Loeches. Some fine embroidered tapestries belonging to the same collection are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid. A varied collection of ecclesiastical vestments of the kinds described may also be studied at the museum. (V. Nos. 78, 79, 84, 673, 1194, 1195, 1250, &c., in Dr. Rock's Catalogue.)

The sumptuary laws, and especially the Decrees issued by Philip IV. in 1622, prohibited any display or ostentation in costume, and embroideries were confined to ecclesiastical purposes. In the middle of the 18th century embroideries were introduced in the costumes of men and women when French fashions were imported into Spain. Although many of them came from France, they were imitated in Spain to a large extent. A guild of embroiderers was formed in 1779, who submitted their statutes to the Tribunal of Commerce. We find that Madrid was the principal centre of this industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the Escorial and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens of this industry.

The following list of Spanish embroiderers is taken from Cean's "Dic. de Prof de las Bellas Artes;" Martinez, "Hist. del Templo Cat. de Burgos;" Suarez de Figueroa, "Plaza Universal," etc.

Years in which they worked. Artists. Residence.

1603. Alcala, Fr. Fernando de Escorial.

1526. Alonso, Esteban Toledo.

1688 to } Arroyo, Diego de Burgos. 1715. }

1594. Aspe, Simeon de Burgos.

1646. Ansin, Francisco de Burgos.

1500. Barcelona, Fr. Rafael de Escorial.

1599. Berrio, Francisco de Burgos.

1452. Bilbao, Juan Burgos.

1514. Burgos, Pedro Toledo.

1574 to } Camiña, Alonso Burgos. 1580. }

1580 to } Camiña, Miguel, a son of Alonso Burgos. 1593. }

1580. Castillo, Juan del Madrid.

1571. Cordova, Fr. Francisco Escorial.

1616. Corral, Felipe de Toledo.

1514. Covarrubias, Marcos de Toledo.

1422. Fernandez, Garcia Burgos.

1422. Fernandez, Pedro Burgos.

1645. Garcia de Jalon, Juan Burgos.

1500. Gil, Francisco Madrid.

1688. Gomez, Juan Sevilla.

1514. Hernandez, Alonso Toledo.

1630. Landa, Alonso de Burgos.

1625. Martinez de Manurga, Sebastian Burgos.

1521. Monte, Cornieles de Burgos.

1576. Montserrate, Fr. Lorenzo scorial.

1580 to } Ochandiano, Andrès Burgos. 1593. }

1595. Ortiz de Zarate, Pedro Burgos.

1565. Palenzuela, Francisco de Burgos.

1591. Palenzuela, Jeronimo Burgos.

1500. Perez, Gabriel Madrid.

1580. Perez, Juan Madrid.

1514. Rica, Hernando de la Toledo.

1500. Rosales Toledo.

1500. Rosicler, Luís de Madrid.

1514. Ruiz, Martin Toledo.

1716 to } Ruiz, Antonio Burgos. 1734. }

1585. Rutinez, Diego Escorial.

1563. Salas, Juan de Granada.

1718. Santos Martires, Fr. Esteban de los { Cardeña { Burgos. 1561. Sarabia Burgos.

1514. Talavera, Juan de Toledo.

1500. Toledo, Fr. Juan de Escorial.

1752. Transmontana, Fr. F. Javier de Burgos.

1684. Valle, Antonio del Burgos.

1500. Vega, Felicis de Madrid.

1563. Villegas, Nicolas de Granada.

1502. Xaques, el Maestro Toledo.

TAPESTRIES.

The manufacture of tapestry or carpets was introduced into Spain by the Arabs. The earliest historical information which I have been able to find relating to this industry occurs in Edrisi, an oriental author of the beginning of the 12th century, ["Descrip. de l'Afr. et de l'Esp., trad. de Dozy el Goeje,"] when speaking of Chinchilla in the province of Alicante, he says: "On y fabrique des tapis de laine qu'on ne saurait imiter ailleurs, circonstance qui dépend de la qualité de l'air et des eaux." In mentioning Cuenca, he says: "Les tapis de laine qu'on y fait sont d'excellente qualité," p. 237. Although we find very few descriptive details of this industry, it is undoubtedly the fact that in a wide zone which comprehends from the kingdom of Valencia until that of Granada, carpets have been constantly made; for even in the present day this industry is alive in a number of towns, where not only the old technical proceedings are continued, but also much of the primitive character of the designs and colours. In confirmation of this, I find frequent mention in books and MSS. of the 16th century of carpets of Letur, made in the kingdom of Murcia, Alcaraz, and Baeza.

The first time I find this industry mentioned by Christian authors is in Francisque Michel's work on "Étoffes de Soie," vol. i., p. 292; he says: "A une époque qu'il nous serait difficile de préciser un poète Latin vantait les teintures précieuses à sujets, et les tapis d'Espagne."

"Tunc preciosa suis surgunt aulaea figuris.

"Ac in se raptis ora tenent animis.

"Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis.

"Hinc rubras, virides inde ferunt species."

At the cathedral of Gerona an extremely interesting tapestry of the 12th century may be seen, which may have been made in the locality.

[Illustration: TAPESTRY AT THE CATHEDRAL OF GERONA; REPRESENTING THE CREATION, &C.--SPANISH, 11TH CENTURY. _To face p. 267._]

This tapestry is about 4-1/2 yards wide by 4 yards high. The composition represents the Genesis. In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ holding an open book, on which appear the words, _Sanctus Deus_, and on each side _Rex fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux._ In the larger circle are the words, _In principio creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta quæ egerat et erant valde bona._

The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve. In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out. The accompanying engraving, though imperfect and inaccurate in some of its details, gives a general idea of this work.

Although this tapestry is embroidered with crewels on linen, it appears advisable to include it in the description of Spanish tapestries, owing to its similarity and general aspect to other tapestries. It is easy for students of Spanish works of art of the Middle Ages to fix the period and style to which this example belongs. Several remarkable illuminations exist in Spain representing the Apocalypse which were painted in the X. XI. and XIIth. centuries, which have already been alluded to in other articles of this work. The figures of the tapestry of Gerona are disposed in a precisely similar manner to the miniatures of the 12th century. They are in the same style as the paintings on the ceiling of the chapel of St. Catalina, at St. Isidoro of Leon, which were painted at that period. There can be therefore no doubt that they belong to that period and style. Several MSS. may be mentioned to further illustrate the subject. An excellent specimen is at the cathedral of Gerona, those at the National Library, Museo Arqueologico, and Academia de la Historia, Madrid, Escorial, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris--and especially the fine MS. at the British Museum (Add. II. 695),--dated A. D. 1109, referred to in the chapter on Arms, page 90. The illuminations of this volume are extremely similar to the design of this tapestry. Plate 83, twelve inches by eight, within a circle, representing Christ holding a book in his hand, may be given as an example.

I do not find any information of a later date which suggests the existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the Middle Ages. There are constant allusions to the splendid tapestries which were brought from Flanders, many of which are at the Royal palace of Madrid. The earliest mention I find is a memorial printed without date, in which Pedro Gutierrez, tapestry maker of Salamanca, asks Philip II. to protect this industry. He evidently gained his object, for in the documents published by S^{r}. Cruzada in his "Tapices de Goya," [Madrid, 1870,] it appears that in 1578 Queen Doña Ana appointed him to work in her Camara as tapestry maker to make _reposteros_[B] and Philip II. in 1582 confirms this appointment. Gutierrez worked at this period, at Salamanca and Madrid. He was succeeded in his charge in 1625 by Antonio Ceron, who established this industry definitively in the Calle de Santa Isabel at Madrid. The fine picture by Velasquez, at the Madrid Gallery, "The Weavers," which represents the interior of the tapestry manufactory, belongs to this time. We find this industry soon fell into decay. In 1694 a Belgian named Juan Metier tried to revive it, but without success; the same thing occurred with Nicolas Hernandez, a tapestry maker of Salamanca, in 1707.

[B] Reposteros is the ancient name given to the hangings which are placed outside the balconies on state occasions in Spain. Several splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries may still be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees, of which those belonging to the Conde de Oñate and Marques de Alcañices at Madrid are the most remarkable for their artistic design.

The tapestry manufactory of Santa Barbara at Madrid was founded soon after; it was the most important of all, and continues to produce excellent work in the present day. It appears that Jacobo Vandergoten of Antwerp was engaged expressly by the king; he began to work in 1720, and continued there until his death in 1724. He was succeeded by his sons, Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian, who worked in _basse lisse_ looms until 1729, when a Frenchman, Antonio Lenger mounted a _haute lisse_ one.

On the occasion of the temporary removal of the court to Seville, the king established a tapestry manufactory there in 1730; Jacobo Vandergoten was put at the head of it, and the painter, Andres Procaccini, helped him in the direction of the manufactory. It only lasted three years, at the end of which the artists returned with their implements to establish themselves in the old tapestry manufactory of the Calle de Santa Isabel: and continued to work there until 1744, at that time they again joined the works at Santa Barbara.

Three of the brothers Vandergoten were already dead in 1774. Cornelius alone was alive. In the same year the Spanish artists, Antonio Moreno, Domingo Galan, Tomas del Castillo, and Manuel Sanchez were placed at the head of these works, under the superintendence of Sanchez, who continued there until his death in 1786, when he was succeeded by his nephew, Livinio Stuck. This manufactory was much neglected at the end of the last century; it was destroyed by the French in 1808, and was rehabilitated in 1815 under the direction of a son of Stuck. This family continues to work there in the present day. The carpets made at the manufactory of S^{ta.} Barbara are of the highest excellence and artistic order.

Very fine tapestries have been made at this manufactory during the last century, some after original cartoons of excellent painters and others reproductions of ancient Flemish ones belonging to the royal collections. During the years 1721 to 1724 the tapestries representing pastoral subjects after Teniers were woven there, and a series of hunting subjects which still exist at the Pardo and palace of Madrid. The excellent copy of the series of tapestries representing the conquest of Tunis, after cartoons by William Pannemaker were made partly at Seville and partly at Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara. The tapestries representing scenes from the life of Don Quixote, designed by the painter Procaccini, were also made at the looms of Santa Barbara.

Fine carpets in the Turkish style were made there under the superintendence of Cornelius Vandergoten, who excelled in this special industry. Carpets also in the French style of the Gobelin manufactory were made at the same time. The best specimens of carpets and tapestries of the manufactory of Santa Barbara, will be found at the palaces of the Escorial, the Pardo, and Madrid. The series made from cartoons of Teniers and the Spanish painter Goya are extremely interesting. A complete collection of photographs of the foreign and Spanish tapestries at the palace of Madrid will be found in the Art Library of the South Kensington Museum.

LACE.

It is not easy to give a clear idea of the history of the manufacture of ancient Spanish lace; the principal reason being that this industry was carried out by private persons, who never formed themselves into Guilds or corporations, as was the case during the middle ages and Renaissance period with those who devoted their time to other arts and industries. We find in the Royal Ordinances constant references to weavers, silver and goldsmiths, tailors, etc., but in none do we find the manufacture of lace mentioned. The most important Ordinances relating to Spanish industries are those published at Toledo and Seville in the 15th and 16th centuries, and at Granada in the 16th and 17th centuries, and in none of them do we find lace even alluded to. In the innumerable laws which appeared from the middle ages until the 18th century for the object of reforming costumes and checking their excessive luxury no mention is made of lace; when it is referred to, it is only when _puntas_ or _entredoses_, edgings or insertions, are mentioned in which gold and silver are introduced. We never find any allusion in contemporary writers to the fine heavy thread lace, sometimes called Point d'Espagne or Point de Venise, the origin of which has been a source of so much doubt to collectors of the present day.

The only thing which we can do therefore at the present, until this subject is more fully investigated, is to assert that lace of different kinds has been made from the very earliest times in Spain, and do our best to classify the different kinds by the differences which we observe in those of other localities.

Father Fr. Marcos Antonio de Campos in his "Microcosmia y Gobierno Universal del Hombre Cristiano," [Barcelona, 1592, p. 225,] says: "I will not be silent and fail to mention the time lost these last years in the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with gold and silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that 100 and 1000 of ducats were spent in this work, which, besides destroying the eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering consumptive the women who worked it, and preventing them from spending their time with more advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time, were wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask myself, after this fancy has passed away, will the lady or gentleman find that the chemises that cost them 50 ducats, or the _basquiña_ (petticoats) that cost them 300, are worth half their price, which certainly is the case with other objects in which the material itself is worth more." This quotation is interesting as proving that lace was made during the 16th century. The friar, in following the prevalent fashion of preaching against luxury and extravagance, shows us that this industry must have reached to a great height in order to be an object of censure.

From the 16th century until the end of the 18th we find this manufacture continued in Spain, but that foreign lace of different kinds was likewise imported to a great extent, although we may affirm that black lace especially was made in Spain during the whole period.

We find lace mentioned by ancient Spanish authors under the following names: _punta_, _randa_, _cadeneta_, _entredos_, _red_, _deshilado_, _franja_, _blonda_, and _encaje_, which may be translated as edging, or points, réseuil, chain stitch, insertion, netting, ravelling, fringe, blonde, and lace.

M. H. de Cocheris in his introduction to "Patrons de Broderies," Paris, 1872, says that "gold and silver laces were made at Paris and Lyons." The four books which are reproduced in this volume mention Lyons as being a great centre of this particular branch of industry. Gold and silver lace was, however, also made and copied in Spain during the 17th century. We find in the "Pragmatica y Nueva Orden cerca de los Vestidos y Trajes, asi de Hombres como de Mugeres," [fol. Madrid 1611, p. 5,] "May we be allowed to border or edge the said silken materials with thread lace, which are not to be made of chain stitch, or gold or silver, and when these laces are mentioned we should understand they are exclusively for women's use." We also find in an Ordinance of the time of Philip III., dated 1623, that gold and silver lace was prohibited, and that "simple edgings, and curls, and fraises for women were enjoined for women's use." In the "Fenix de Cataluña, compendio de sus Antiguas Grandezas y Medio para Renovarlas," Barcelona, 1683, by Narciso Feliu, the author states, p. 75, that "edgings of all sorts of gold, silver, silk, thread, and aloe, is made there with greater perfection than in Flanders."

Many interesting details have reached us of the costume of a Spanish lady in the 17th century. We will copy the description given by Madame d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon 1628. "Under the vertingale of black taffety they wear a dozen or more petticoats, one finer than the other, of rich stuffs trimmed with lace of gold and silver to the girdle. They wear at all times a white garment called sabenqua; it is made of the finest English lace, and four ells in compass. I have seen some worth 500 or 600 crowns, and so great is their vanity, they would rather have one of those lace subenquas than a dozen coarse ones, and either lie in bed till it is washed, or else dress themselves without any, which they frequently enough do." A number of portraits exist in the Spanish galleries, especially by Velasquez and Carreño, in which these extravagant costumes are fully portrayed, but in very few Spanish portraits of the seventeenth century does thread lace of the kind known as Point d'Espagne or de Venise ever appear. Mrs. Palliser, in her interesting "History of Lace," p. 80, quotes a vast number of descriptions of these gold and silver laces. The celebrated bed at Versailles, the interior lacings of the carriages, the costumes of the gentlemen and ladies of court, and wedding dresses, were all trimmed with this silver and gold lace, either made in Spain, or called Point d'Espagne.

We copy again Madame d'Aunoy's description of a Spanish bed. "It is of gold and green damask lined with silver brocade and trimmed with point of Spain. Her sheets were laced round with an English lace half an ell deep. The young Princess of Monteleon bade her maids bring in her wedding clothes. They brought in thirty silver baskets so heavy four women could only carry one basket: the linen and lace were not inferior to the rest." Beckford, in describing the apartment of a Spanish lady, writes: "Her bed was of the richest blue velvet trimmed with point lace." Aarsens de Sommerdyck in his "Voyage d'Espagne," [Paris, 1665,] writes, in describing the costume worn by the men: "Leurs collets ou cravates sont de grandes pointes, qui sans doute coustent beaucoup, bien qu'elles ne paroissent pas belles. La mode en est presque la mesme qu'en France, l'ayant prise de la princesse de Carignan quand elle estoit à Madrid, dont elles les nomment Valonas à la Carignan." In the interesting "Journal du Voyage d'Espagne," Paris, 1669, l'Abbé Bertaut tells us that on the 15th of October, 1659, on the occasion of his embassy to Madrid, the king of Spain sent eight postilions, and forty post-horses, the saddles and bridles of eight of which were covered with gold and silver lace.

Notwithstanding the opinion of so competent an authority as Mrs. Palliser, I doubt the statement, finding no evidence to support it, that thread lace of a very fine or artistic kind was ever made in Spain, or exported as an article of commerce during early times. The lace alb, which is mentioned, to prove this, as existing at Granada, a gift of Ferdinand and Isabel, is of Flemish lace of the 17th century. The chasuble, etc., splendid ecclesiastical vestments embroidered on crimson velvet, were certainly the gift of these kings, and if Cardinal Wiseman officiated in this vestment, it is probable he may have made a mistake and not separated the alb from the chasuble, which certainly may be worth 10,000 crowns. J. Barretti, in his "Journey from London to Genoa, through Portugal and Spain," London, 1770, describing the fine church of Las Salesas, lately built, writes, "The nuns showed me in the sacristy some surplices for the mass priest, that are made of the finest Flanders lace. Each surplice has cost about 1000 doubloons." In "Tassa de los Precios a que se han de vender as Mercaderias," Madrid, 1628, we find that the "puntas or edgings made in Spain are to be sold at the same price as those imported from Paris." Puntas from Flanders are estimated in this tariff at a much higher rate than those which were brought from France; we may calculate they were sold for double the price. The "Ordenaciones" made at Barcelona to settle commercial tariffs state in 1704: "As experience has shown us that most of the edgings or puntas made in this principality are sent out of the country, and we do not find them mentioned in the financial accounts, to the great disadvantage of the community, it is determined--"

We find reference to lace brought from Flanders, Paris, and Lyon, in the first volume of "Apendice a la Educacion Popular," [p. 61.] [Madrid, 1775,] the author mentions the large sums of money which were taken out of the country by the importations of foreign lace, and he adds, [vol. ii., p. 61,] "Lace is employed to a very considerable extent; all the fine qualities come from foreign lands, and the greater varieties of the coarser ones. Spanish matrons, among other branches of their education, are taught to make lace of different kinds, and many respectable people live on this industry." Larruga, in his "Memorias," Madrid, 1788, mentions, vol. ii., p. 149, a manufacture of gold and silver lace which had been set up lately at Madrid; and in the 17th vol., p. 294, in mentioning lace made at La Mancha, "the industry of lace has existed at Almagro from time immemorial. D^{n}. Manuel Fernandez and Dª Rita Lambert, his wife, natives of Madrid, established in this town in 1766 a manufacture of silk and thread lace." This industry also existed at Granatula, Manzanares, and other villages of La Mancha. At Zamora "lace and blonde were made in private houses. The finest kinds are sold to lace merchants." In Sempere, "Historia del Lujo," [Madrid, 1788, 8vo,] we find that in the Ordinance issued in 1723, the "introduction of every sort of edgings or foreign laces was prohibited, the only kinds allowed were those made in the country."

Cabanillas writes in his "Observaciones sobre la Historia natural del Reino de Valencia," Madrid, 1797, that at Novelda a third part of the inhabitants made lace, "more than 2000 among women and children worked at this industry, and the natives themselves hawked these wares about the country." Swinburne, in his "Travels in Spain in 1775," also says, "The women of the hamlets were busy with their bobbins making lace." Laborde writes that in 1809 the manufacture of blonde was almost entirely confined to Cataluña. Barcelona is in the present day the great centre of this industry in Spain; the black and white blondes which are made chiefly for mantillas are very fine. The white laces made there are in the style of Lille and Buckinghamshire laces, Brussels and Duchesse laces, and Chantilly is also made to a large extent. Gold and silver blondes were revived during the years 1830-40; and it may interest my readers to know that the late Queen Mercedes, in her wedding trousseaux, had a garniture de robe, mantilla included, of gold blonde.

Modern torchon laces are still made at Almagro to a very large extent. Bed linen, even in the poorest houses, is elaborately trimmed with lace or embroidery. Valances for beds of ravellings, point coupé and lace work are still constantly found to decorate beds at weddings in the provinces of Spain.

THE END.

RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY.

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FRENCH POTTERY. By PAUL GASNAULT and EDOUARD GARNIER. With Illustrations and Marks. 3_s._

ENGLISH EARTHENWARE: A Handbook to the Wares made in England during the 17th and 18th Centuries, as illustrated by Specimens in the National Collection. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 3_s._

INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF DENMARK. From the Earliest Times to the Danish Conquest of England. By J. J. A. WORSAAE, Hon. F.S.A., &c. &c. With Map and Woodcuts. 3_s._ 6_d._

INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF SCANDINAVIA IN THE PAGAN Time. By HANS HILDEBRAND, Royal Antiquary of Sweden. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

PRECIOUS STONES: Considered in their Scientific and Artistic relations, with a Catalogue of the Townsend Collection of Gems in the South Kensington Museum. By PROF. A. H. CHURCH, M.A. With a Coloured Plate and Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF INDIA. By Sir GEORGE C. M. BIRDWOOD, C.S.I., &c. With Map and Woodcuts. Demy 8vo, 14_s._

HANDBOOK TO THE DYCE AND FORSTER COLLECTIONS in the South Kensington Museum. With Portraits and Facsimiles, 2_s._ 6_d._

INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN. By JUAN F. RIAÑO. With numerous Woodcuts. 4_s._

GLASS. By ALEXANDER NESBITT. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

GOLD AND SILVER SMITHS' WORK. By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

TAPESTRY. By ALFRED DE CHAMPEAUX. With Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

BRONZES. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

PLAIN WORDS ABOUT WATER. By A. H. CHURCH, M.A, Oxon. With Illustrations. Sewed, 6_d._

ANIMAL PRODUCTS: their Preparation, Commercial Uses, and Value. By T. L. SIMMONDS. With Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._

FOOD: Some Account of its Sources, Constituents, and Uses. By PROFESSOR A. H. CHURCH, M.A. Oxon. New Edition, enlarged. 3_s._

ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. By ANDREW MURRAY, F.L.S. APTERA. With Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._

JAPANESE POTTERY. Being a Native Report. With an Introduction and Catalogue by A. W. FRANKS, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. With Illustrations and Marks. 2_s._ 6_d._

HANDBOOK TO THE SPECIAL LOAN COLLECTION of Scientific Apparatus. 3_s._

INDUSTRIAL ARTS: Historical Sketches. With Numerous Illustrations. 3_s._

TEXTILE FABRICS. By the Very Rev. DANIEL ROCK, D.D. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

JONES COLLECTION IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. With Portrait and Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._

COLLEGE AND CORPORATION PLATE. A Handbook to the Reproductions of Silver Plate in the South Kensington Museum from Celebrated English Collections. By WILFRED JOSEPH CRIPPS, M.A. F.S.A. With Illustrations. 2_s._ 6_d._

IVORIES: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL. By WILLIAM MASKELL. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

ANCIENT AND MODERN FURNITURE AND WOODWORK. By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. With numerous Woodcuts. 2_s._ 6_d._

MAIOLICA. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._

THE CHEMISTRY OF FOODS. With Microscopic Illustrations. By JAMES BELL, Ph.D., &c., Principal of the Somerset House Laboratory. Part I .--Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, Sugar. &c. 2_s._ 6_d._