Chapter XIV

The Technic of Globe Construction--Materials and Methods

General problems to be met.--Development from the simple armilla to the complex sphere.--The references of Ptolemy, Leontius Mechanicus, Alfonso.--Behaim's leadership in practical globe making.--Materials employed.--Experiments in map projection.--The beginning and rapid development of globe-gore construction.--Various examples of early gore maps.--Equatorial polar and ecliptic polar mountings.--Special features of celestial globe maps.--Globe mountings.--Varying sizes of globes.--The uses of globes.--Moon globes and planetariums.

In this concluding chapter it is not proposed to consider in detail the technical features of globe construction, as these features have presented themselves in the long period which has been under review; the rather to give, somewhat in the nature of a summary, a general word as to the development of the simple armilla of the ancients, "in continued succession, receiving ripeness and perfection" in such celestial spheres as were those of Mohammed ben Helal, of Tycho, of Hondius, or of Blaeu; into the terrestrial spheres of Schöner, of Mercator, of Greuter, or of Coronelli.

We have seen that during these years there were problems mechanical, mathematical, and artistic continually arising, in the solution of which talent of a high order was often exhibited; problems having to do with the kind of material to be employed, with the shaping and the graduation of the rings or circles, with the construction of the supporting bases which entered into the completed product, with the engraving of the map on the surface of the metal sphere, or with the designing and the engraving of the plates for the printing of the map to be used in covering the prepared ball, and the fitting of the same to its curved surface.

[Illustration: Fig. 133. Astrolabe.]

The principal astronomical instrument employed by such ancient astronomers as Eudoxus, Timocharis, and Hipparchus appears to have been at first but a single metal ring, perhaps of brass. At any rate their instruments must have been exceedingly simple, perhaps the simplest form of the astrolabe (Fig. 133), yet they sufficed as aids in the solution of such astronomical problems as suggested themselves in that early day. The addition of a second ring to the simple instrument gave further aid to the observer in his efforts to determine the declination and the right ascension of any of the heavenly bodies. These rings came to be considered, the first as a celestial meridian circle, the second as a celestial horizon circle, and in the passing years others were added to represent the ecliptic, the colures, the tropics, the polar circles, and the orbits of the several planets, until we have the fully developed armillary sphere of a Vopel or a Santucci.[181]

Relative to globes proper in antiquity, it will have been noted that in general there is an element of uncertainty as to their exact character, which speaks out in the numerous allusions to them. None has survived to our day save the Atlante Farnese. This globe of marble is not so mounted as to permit its revolution, resting as it does upon the shoulders of the mythical Atlas, yet in its representation of the figures of the several constellations, then recognized by astronomers, it differs practically but little from the celestial globes, that is, solid spheres, constructed a millennium and a half later.[182] We cannot, however, draw the conclusion from this one example that such globes were generally looked upon as practical instruments for use in astronomical studies, yet there clearly were those who did so regard them.

Doubtless the globe or globes to which Ptolemy alludes were intended to be of practical value. He tells us they should be constructed of brass, and as before noted, he describes the use and the construction of such instruments. Like the maps he probably made, though none survives, it is not difficult, from his description, to reconstruct them. Such celestial globes as Ptolemy may have prepared were doubtless adjustable, but were not made to revolve by mechanical device such as we frequently meet with in globes of the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries, nor were they like the mechanical contrivance of Archimedes, clearly intended to represent the movements of the celestial bodies, and perhaps their movements relative to the earth. No description of Archimedes' mechanism survives by means of which it could now be reproduced with anything like a satisfactory degree of certainty.

The allusions of Leontius Mechanicus, referred to in Chapter III, read like a globe maker's instructions of the eighteenth century. He knew his Ptolemy whom he followed in the main, but he wrote as one who clearly did not sense the approaching decline of interest in the physical sciences.

And what can be said of the methods and the materials for globe making during the period of the so-called middle ages? The survivals, and these are only of the later years of the period, are of Arabic origin, which, without exception, appear to have been intended primarily for use in astronomical studies. They are either armillary spheres, or metal balls, on the surface of which are the engraved representations of the starry heavens, with the figures of the several constellations. Without a known exception these are of small size, and if furnished at all with mounting, only that of a simple character. There is reason for thinking that such astronomical instruments were made in great numbers, and that they were to be found in practically all Arabic observatories.[183]

The interesting allusions in King Alfonso's 'Libros del Saber de Astronomia,' from which citations may be found in our Chapter IV, give us information concerning both methods and materials which might be employed in globe construction in his day. It is not there stated that the author had information concerning the actual use of the more than twenty named materials which might be chosen for their manufacture. He does, however, lead us to infer that there may have been experiments by his contemporaries in which trial was made of the fitness of the several materials named, his conclusion being that wood or brass was the most suitable.

It has previously been noted that globes appear to have been made now and then for use in the monastic schools, but we find no detailed description of their special character. Here and there, it is true, may be found reference to the adjustability of their parts, and to their rings which made them serviceable for furthering astronomical studies. The inference is fair that the globes of these Christian schools were armillary spheres, and were not solid or hollow balls on the surface of which the starry firmament or the earth had been depicted.

Behaim's globe of the year 1492 seems to represent a radical departure in globe construction. His idea appears to have been novel. He employed a mould in the making of his globe ball, and over the surface of this completed ball pasted irregular strips of parchment which furnished a suitable ground for the draughting of the map with its geographical outlines and its artistic adornments in color. Behaim's globe mounting was of the simplest character, consisting of a metal meridian circle within which the sphere could be revolved, a horizon circle of like material, the whole resting upon a tripod base. Although effort was made to establish in Nürnberg an institute wherein globe making might be taught especially, the plan seems not to have carried, and such as were later produced in this city were merely the output of the mathematical instrument maker's shop or of the geographical establishments.

Throughout all the early years of the modern period, metal globes continued to find favor, to the making of which skilled workmen in the thriving industrial centers of Southern Germany, Southeastern France, Northern Switzerland, and Northern Italy set themselves. Brass, copper, silver, and gold were employed very frequently in their construction, the last-named metals being used in the making of globes primarily for ornamental purposes.[184] Globes with manuscript maps, as before noted, seemed to find especial favor in Italy, in the making of which much artistic skill was displayed. The spheres for such globes were usually of wood either solid or hollow, of well-fashioned strips of wood, canvas covered, the whole carefully glued and braced that the spherical shape might not be affected with time. In the preparation of the sphere to receive the manuscript map, workmen proceeded much as did Behaim, pasting over its surface irregular strips of parchment or paper, adding occasionally a groundwork of paint suitable for taking the sketch of the draughtsman. As the years passed, and the engraved map found increasing favor, practically all globe balls, with exceptions as noted above, were made either of plaster shot through and through with a binding material, usually of fiber, and fashioned over a mould, or of a preparation of papier-mâché.

The increasing interest in globes and globe making manifesting itself in the early years of the sixteenth century led to the devising of methods for their more rapid construction. If the opening years of the sixteenth century witnessed a rapid expansion of geographical knowledge, none the less did they witness an improvement in the making of maps wherein this expanding knowledge could fittingly be recorded. It is interesting to note how rapidly change was made from one method of map draughting to another in the search for a projection which might prove itself to be altogether suitable. As a result of this striving we have for example the projection of Donnus Nicolas Germanus employed in his maps of the geographer Ptolemy, and often referred to as the Donis projection.[185] Then we find the stereographic meridional[186] and the stereographic polar,[187] the cordiform single and double[188] which seem to have been a development from the orthographic projection well represented in the map of Johannes Stabius (Fig. 45) who appears to have been the first to give the method prominence. In addition to the projections mentioned there were many modifications, to suit the notions of the draughtsmen, which were employed in the early sixteenth century.[189] With the fuller realization of the fact that the earth is a sphere, the desire accurately to represent in the maps its spherical surface continued to seek for expression, an expression that would do least violence to the fact that the degrees of latitude and longitude vary in length, particularly those of longitude as one passes from the equator toward the poles or from the poles toward the equator. If the earth is a sphere then why could a map so draughted as truly to represent the surface of a sphere not be counted the most acceptable? This must have been the argument of those who especially applied themselves to the designing of maps suitable for a spherical surface, that is, for application to a globe ball.

Who first conceived the idea of fashioning globe gore maps we do not know. Fiorini cites evidence[190] that Francesco Rosselli (1445-1510), a printer of large and small maps in Florence, included in his productions gore maps to be used in globe construction, and this probably before the year 1507, but none of his work of this character has come down to us. The so-called Waldseemüller gores are the oldest known, of which but one copy is extant.[191] By some they are thought to have been constructed for his globe to which he refers in his 'Cosmographiae Introductio,' but they are unsigned and undated. They are somewhat crude and much manipulation would be required to fit them to the surface of a sphere. Before the first quarter of the sixteenth century had passed other globe gore maps made their appearance, such as those undoubtedly the work of Schöner or of the Schönerian school, or such as the gores of Boulengier[192] exquisitely engraved and printed, though so far as we know never used in covering the surface of a sphere.

[Illustration: Fig. 134. Globe Gores of Henricus Glareanus, 1527.]

The artist Albrect Dürer (1471-1528), as we are informed, was one of the earliest to set himself to the solution of the problem having to do with the development of a spherical surface into a flat surface, yet he never seems to have thought an exact mathematical solution possible. It was a problem, he realized, in which there could be but an approximate solution. In trying to illustrate what he thought to be the nearest approach to the same he found himself led to the idea of the globe gore.[193] Of his illustration, he said, "Die sphera oder ein Kugel wenn man sie durch jr mittag linien zerschneydet, und in Planum legt, so gewinnt sie ein Gestalt eines Kam, wie ich das hie hat auffgerissen." "Should one divide the sphere or ball on the line of the equator and lay this out as a plane, one has the figure of a comb, as is here shown." Dürer worked out a simple rule for the construction of the globe biangles,[194] which rule served measurably well for the purpose intended. While it would not be inappropriate to give here a résumé of his formula, as well as the formulae of others who set themselves to a like task, we should in so doing be carried into a field rather more technical than seems fitting for our purpose.[195]

Two years after Dürer had published his observations on this subject Henricus Loriti Glareanus (1488-1551) issued a small treatise on geography,[196] devoting his Chapter XIX bearing title 'De inducendo papyro in globo' to globe-gore construction. He proposed the employment of twelve gores or biangles (Fig. 134) so arranged for printing that the shorter diameter of each should represent 30 degrees of longitude, the sum therefore representing 360 degrees or the equatorial circumference of the globe they were intended to cover; the longer diameter of each gore representing the semicircumference of the globe and extending from pole to pole, that is, a meridian. We do not know that his formula for gore construction was closely followed by any globe maker of the period, nor does Glareanus himself appear to have attempted a practical application of his method, at least we have no evidence that he ever actually attempted to construct a globe. He, however, had made an important contribution toward the solution of the problem of how best to multiply these instruments which were increasingly recognized as of great value in geographical and astronomical studies. The general method of gore map making rapidly found favor despite such practical difficulties, for example, as arose from the peculiarity inseparable from the quality inherent in any and all paper, that is, its irregular expansion when moistened. This difficulty the globe makers, of course, were continually seeking to overcome or reduce to a minimum, as the years passed, through a careful selection of paper to be used, through a more skilful manipulation of the paper made moist by the application of the paste or glue employed in attaching the map to the surface of the sphere,[197] and through a more careful working out of the mathematical problem having to do with the proper proportions of each of the gores.

Dürer had proposed the employment of sixteen segments, Waldseemüller, Schöner, Boulengier, and Glareanus had thought twelve a more suitable number. As the years passed we find a preference manifesting itself now for twelve, now for sixteen, now for eighteen, twenty-four, or thirty-six with a more common preference for the smaller number. The several biangles for the maps alluded to above were fashioned to extend from pole to pole in what we may call the equatorial system; Mercator, as has been noted, introduced the novel idea of truncating his gores twenty degrees from each pole, preparing as a covering for the remaining polar space a circular disc, having the required diameter of forty degrees.[198] This plan he proposed for the practical reason that a paper covering for a sphere so constructed could be applied with greater ease and with greater accuracy than one consisting of complete biangular figures, remembering the tendency of the paper to expand and the difficulty in avoiding folds.

As there was much inclination among map makers to experiment in the matter of map projection so there was an inclination to experiment, as the years passed, in the matter of design for the globe gores. In the so-called Da Vinci gores we find them drawn in two groups of four each (Fig. 135), and instead of the globe biangle we have the globe equilateral triangle. Their application to a spherical surface could only have been made with difficulty, if at all; indeed we cannot be certain that in so outlining a map of the world the draughtsman's intention was to use it in globe construction. The plan seems never to have been followed by any of the other map makers, or by any globe maker. We find an interesting early instance in which the gore map construction was clearly employed merely as a method for plane map making, a method having certain very commendable features (Fig. 136). The author of this map is unknown.

[Illustration: Fig. 135. Gore Map of Leonardo da Vinci, ca. 1515.]

[Illustration: Fig. 136. Anonymous Globe Gores in Plane Map Construction, ca. 1550.]

In referring to unusual forms in gore construction attention may again be called to the map of Alonso de Santa Cruz and to that of Antonius Florianus, in which maps the plan was hemispherical,[199] the central point in the construction of each hemisphere, a northern and a southern, being the pole, the circumference of the circle in which the thirty-six gores were drawn, representing the equator. But again we do not know that such a gore map was ever employed in globe construction though the method, it seems, would lend itself to that end.

It can be readily understood that numerous modifications in the matter of globe-gore construction and their application to the surface of the sphere, more or less detailed in character, were introduced as the years passed, but the modifications were by no means at all times in the line of improvement.[200] The technical skill of the present day does not surpass that which one occasionally finds exhibited in the work of some three hundred years ago.

In the matter of geographical record terrestrial globe maps stand with the plane maps of the same period. While they are by no means as numerous as the plane maps, there attaches to them an importance no less historically significant. Not infrequently they give us records not to be found elsewhere. In their general features, differences can hardly be said to exist between plane maps and globe maps. In the matter of adornment there is similarity; each following the practice of the time when constructed. As pictures and legends hold a place of prominence, particularly on mediaeval maps,[201] so even to the close of the period we have had under consideration, that is, the end of the eighteenth century, these adornments have place on globe maps, sometimes few, sometimes many, the same, if in picture, exhibiting the inhabitants of land and sea, if merely a legend, giving information of geographical importance on the terrestrial globe and of astronomical importance on the celestial, these legends being often placed in an artistic cartouch.

To the printed or engraved globe map, color was generally added by hand with an effect often very artistic, in contrast with which the modern machine methods of color printing are deplorably crude.

On most terrestrial globe maps meridian circles are represented at intervals of ten, twenty, or thirty degrees, the prime meridian on which the degrees of latitude are marked being usually made very conspicuous, and to the close of the period under consideration usually made to pass through the Cape Verde Islands or the Canaries, a point always to be carefully noted in attempting to get a reading for the longitude of any particular place. Parallels are usually drawn at intervals similar to those of meridians, the equator on which the degrees of longitude are marked, the tropics, and the polar circles being always conspicuous. The ecliptic or zodiac is usually indicated encircling the globe from the solstitial point on the tropics, intersecting the equator at the two opposite equinoctial points, through which as through the solstitial points the colures are made to pass.

Hues states that "Those lines which a ship, following the direction of the Magnetic Needle, describeth on the surface of the Sea, Petrus Nonius calleth in the Latin Rumbos, borrowing the appellation of his Countrymen the Portugals; which word, since it is now generally received by learned writers to express them by, we also will use the same," that is, rhumbs or rhumb-lines.

[Illustration: Fig. 137. Portrait of Johann Hevelius (Hevel).]

These were represented on the globe, first by Mercator, by greater or lesser circles or "winding lines," and were intended to be of aid to seamen in navigating from port to port across the great oceans. In their representation on the globe map cognizance was taken of the fact that all meridians of all places pass through both poles, crossing the equator therefore at right angles and all other circles parallel to it, and that if the navigator's course is in any other direction than toward one of the poles he is continually changing his horizon and his meridian. The rhumbs as drawn were made to cut all meridians of all places at equal angles and to respect the same quarters of the world, that is, direction, whatever the horizon. Rhumbs can represent great circles only when they coincide with the equator or with any meridian.[202]

In the matter of draughting, printing, and mounting celestial globe gore maps the method employed may in general be said to be identical with that followed in terrestrial globe construction. It should, however, be noted that in pasting the gores on the surface of the sphere they were often so applied as to have their points or angles meet at the pole of the ecliptic, in what may be called the ecliptic system, instead of applying them to meet at the poles of the equator, the globe itself being generally so mounted as to revolve in the equatorial system, its poles of revolution being attached to the meridian circle.[203]

The figures of the several constellations were usually drawn with care, occasionally with high artistic taste, as those drawn by Hevelius (Fig. 137) and copied by Gerhard and Leonhard Valk for their celestial globes (Fig. 138). The several stars represented on the map, the majority of them being either lettered or named, were usually from the first to the sixth magnitude, each represented in its proportional size, while an explanatory table for the several magnitudes was usually given on some one of the gores. The stars and the figures of the several constellations, let it be noted, were not made to appear on the surface of the sphere, with rare exceptions, in their relative location as they appear to the observer who beholds them from his position on the surface of the earth, but are reversed. To the astronomer the earth is but a point in space, to the layman, so far as mere appearance is concerned, it is the center about which the starry heavens appear to revolve. With the pole (north for us in the northern hemisphere) as the center of the dial face the stars appear to move in a direction the reverse of that in which the hands of a clock are made to move. The astronomer, that is, the celestial globe maker, thinks of himself as placed beyond the vaulted heavens in which the stars appear to be located, and as looking down upon this vaulted dome as on the surface of his celestial globe. An illustration may here well serve us. As one observes serves Ursa Major on any starry night, which constellation we commonly call the Great Dipper, the bowl of the dipper, which is located in the body and flank of the bear, leads in its apparent motion around the pole star, being followed by the handle of the dipper or the tail of the bear (Fig. 139). On the surface of the celestial sphere, however, the position of bowl and handle was usually reversed, the constellation appearing as it would to the beholder who finds himself beyond the stars. Naturally the planets could not be represented on the surface of a solid celestial sphere; only in the armillary sphere or the orrery could they find place. In these instruments we generally find them represented, each with its circle or orbit properly given, and relatively properly placed.

[Illustration: Fig. 138. Constellation Ursa Major.]

In the geographical records as they appear on the several terrestrial globe maps, it is to be admitted that the authors, with rare exceptions, undertook to set down what they thought to be fact, shall we say the real tangible geographical fact or facts. The maker of the star map, on the contrary, clearly gave his imagination play, not in his attempt to mark in the proper location the several stars as they came to be known and catalogued, but in the draughting of the figures of the several constellations. The imaginative figures of the ancients, of Eudoxus, of Aratus, of Ptolemy and others survived throughout the period we have had under consideration, and to the forty-eight constellations of Ptolemy others from time to time were added until more than one hundred have been named and figured. In general the several constellations, as the various astronomers and makers of star maps have conceived them, may be said to be identical, while some of the names which have been proposed have been accepted but for a time only and then rejected. Some of the groups to which names have been given have later been divided, thus giving rise to a new group name and to the draughting of an appropriate figure for this new group.[204]

Attention has been called to certain suggested changes in the names of constellations as given by the ancients, as for example those suggested by the Venerable Bede, by Johannes Bayer, by Julius Schiller proposing that biblical or Christian names should be substituted for pagan names, and for these changes there was of course suggested an appropriate change in the figures for the several constellations. The proposal of Erhard Weigel has likewise been noted urging a substitution of the several coats of arms or heraldic devices of the European dynasties for the figures which had been so long and so generally accepted. There seems scarcely to be the need of stating that the names and figures of the ancients remain.[205]

A comparison of the work of the several artists who have set their hand to the draughting of figures for the numerous constellations is not without interest. Attention may here be directed in passing to the decidedly oriental cast of these figures as they appear on Arabic globes.[206]

It is to be regretted that in the present very practical or scientific day the star map, wanting the figures of the constellations or giving them in but the faintest outline, has come to supplant the artistic and not unscientific creations of earlier years.

The earliest references we have to globes, that is, to solid balls or spheres, make mention of their mountings, that is, to their encasing circles and their bases. The simplest mounting consisted of but a meridian and a horizon circle with probably a simple supporting base. The earliest spheres were doubtless made to revolve just as the globes of today, around their polar axes which turn within sockets firmly attached to the meridian circle. This meridian circle of brass or wood was usually graduated from one to ninety degrees, that is, from the equator to the poles, and being adjustable relative to the horizon circle, a globe could be set with a polar elevation for any desired latitude. Those who have had occasion to refer to the construction and the uses of the globe more or less in detail, make mention of what they call its threefold position. In the first of these positions either pole may be at the vertical point, the equator and the horizon being parallel or coinciding. This they termed a parallel sphere. In the second position the equator and the horizon circle are set at right angles. This they called a right sphere. In the third position, which was called an oblique sphere, the pole could be set at any elevation from zero to ninety degrees, counting from the horizon circle. In illustration of this third position it may be said that for the latitude of New York City, the north pole of the globe should be elevated 40 degrees 48 minutes above this circle.

More conspicuous by reason of its width and importance in the mounting of the globe than the meridian is the horizon circle. It is through notches in this circle at the north and south points that the meridian circle passes, the notches also serving as gauges to keep the meridian from inclining more to the one side of the horizon circle than to the other. On the upper surface of this circle there were usually represented several concentric circles, the same being either engraved thereon, if it were of metal, and printed or pasted thereon if of wood, just as the globe map proper which covered the surface of the sphere. The number of concentric circles, and the information carried in each, varied, nor was the order of the circles invariably the same. Those globes giving fullest information exhibit ten or more of these circles. That one which was innermost and next to the body of the globe was divided into twelve parts, each part carrying the name of one of the signs of the zodiac with its character, and each divided into thirty equal parts or degrees, these being numbered by tens, as 0, 10, 20, 30. Next to the circle of signs, always remembering that the order might vary, was that containing the calendar including the names of the months, as January, February, March, etc., the days of the week being either distinguished by numbers or names. The old calendar was likewise usually given and so represented as to show the beginning of each month ten days earlier than in the new calendar. Here also were given the names of the church festival days. In the next circle were the names of the winds or directions, and first the Greek, Latin or Italian names of the eight, twelve or sixteen winds, as Greco, Libeccio, Ponente, Maestro, and next the names or initials of the thirty-two compass directions, the same generally in English or Dutch abbreviations. It may further be noted that a compass was often fixed in the horizon circle's upper face.

[Illustration: Fig. 138. Constellation of Orion by Hevelius.]

A complete globe was further furnished with a quadrant of altitude, ninety degrees in length, this being attached at one end to the meridian circle, yet movable to any degree of the meridian, though commonly set at the zenith. This quadrant served for measuring altitudes or for finding amplitudes or azimuths.

The small hour circle,[207] fitted to the meridian, its center being the pole and for us the north, was marked with the twenty-four hours of the day, each hour being again divided into halves and quarters. An index attached to the axis of the globe pointed out successively the hours as the globe was revolved. The use of this hour circle was to indicate the time of the successive mutations, including the rising and the setting of the celestial bodies and the time of their passing successively the meridians.

As a compass was often set into the horizon circle so also we frequently find a large or small compass set into that plate which in certain globes was employed as a support, tying together, as it were, the lower extremities of the base columns.[208]

It will have been noted that the globes referred to in the preceding pages varied greatly as to size, from the small ball representing the earth, and but a few centimeters in diameter, to be found in the center of those armillary spheres representing the Ptolemaic geocentric system, to the great globe of Coronelli fifteen feet in diameter constructed for Louis XIV of France. With rare exceptions metal globes were made small in size. Those globe balls or spheres, in the construction of which a mould was employed, usually had a diameter under 50 cm., although we find some of them twice this size. Such spheres had the advantage of lightness though often were frail in structure and liable to lose their perfect sphericity.

[Illustration: Fig. 140. Terrestrial Globe Gores by Johannes Oterschaden, ca. 1675.]

In the matter of special ornamentation or decoration, to be observed in globe mountings, individual taste was given unlimited freedom to express itself, and in certain instances it will have been noted that these mountings were exceedingly elaborate.

Primarily we may say that globes were constructed for the useful purpose of promoting geographical and astronomical studies, generally recording the latest and best geographical or astronomical information and in form superior to that which could be set down on the plane map, but they also had a place of importance, secondary we may call it, on account of their decorative value. They came to be considered almost essential as adornments for the libraries of princes, of prosperous patricians, and of plodding students, and their mountings were often especially fashioned for the places they were to occupy. They seemed to lend an air of scholarly respectability; to suggest that their possessors wished to pay, certainly a modicum of homage to the sciences which globes were calculated to promote.

A brief concluding word may well be added touching those globes which may of course be classed as celestial, but which are known as moon globes and planetariums or orreries. There could be no practical value in an attempt to set forth a map of the surface of the stars, nor of the planets while our knowledge is so limited, although Schiaparelli has undertaken, with measurable success, to map the surface of Mars,[209] and it would be next in order to construct a Mars globe. Of the surface of our moon much is known and maps of it have been constructed, as indeed have been moon globes. We are informed that about the middle of the seventeenth century the Danish astronomer, Hevelius, who designed so successfully star maps, entertained the idea of constructing a moon globe,[210] but we do not know that he set his hand to the work. A century later it appears that the French astronomer La Hire actually completed a moon globe,[211] but it has been possible to obtain only the briefest reference to it.

Tobias Mayer of Nürnberg, a contemporary of La Hire, set himself to the draughting of gore maps[212] intended for use in the manufacture of moon globes. Mayer found employment in the Homann establishment of Nürnberg, being regarded as an exceedingly skilful draughtsman, able to sketch on his draughting sheet that which he saw through his telescope. His plan contemplated the making of twelve gores or segments, six for the northern half of the moon and six for the southern. His plan, of course, would enable him to represent but one side of the moon,--that turned toward the earth,--although it appeared that he contemplated the addition of two segments on which, in at least a fragmentary manner, he was to represent what we may call the border of the opposite side of the moon. Mayer seems not to have completed his work, since we find nowhere an example of his finished product.

It was not until near the close of the eighteenth that we again meet with an attempt to construct a moon globe and it seems that the task was accomplished by the Englishman, John Russel. It was in the year 1796 that he proposed to raise by subscription the necessary funds for making his undertaking a success. His globe has a diameter of 12 inches,[213] and was furnished with the necessary adjustable shield that the moon's waxing and waning could be represented. That this moon globe was actually constructed, although no copy has been located, we are informed by Wolf. Such attempts as were made in the nineteenth century with a good measure of success do not here call for consideration.

It has been previously noted that the so-called globe of Archimedes may have been a sort of planetarium, and that during the middle ages such instruments were constructed and employed in astronomical instruction. None, however, have come down to us out of those early years. Astronomers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as we know, made frequent use of planetariums, such for example as were constructed by the Dutch astronomer, Christiaan Haygens (1629-1695) for the illustration of planetary motion according to the Copernican system. Each of the planets was represented in his machine by a small ball, attached to an arm, which could be made to move through an orbit around the sun. In the more complicated machines the several planetary moons, such as the moons of Jupiter, were represented and were made to perform their proper motions.

[Illustration: Fig. 141. Celestial Globe Gores by Johannes Oterschaden, ca. 1675.]

[Illustration: Fig. 142. Engraved Sections for Globe Horizon Circle by Johannes Oterschaden, ca. 1675.]

In the eighteenth century the instrument maker, George Graham (1675-1751), constructed a complicated planetarium, in honor of Charles Boyle, Earl of Orrery (1676-1731), which he called an orrery. His machines, varying much in the character of construction, were especially popular in the eighteenth century. The nineteenth century saw them frequently in use for purposes of instruction and the regret may well be expressed that for serious purposes they seem to have lost favor.

[Illustration: Fig. 143. The Orrery.]

NOTES

[181] See Fig. 56, I, 116.

[182] Compare for example Figs. 8 and 89.

[183] Consult the 'Fihrist' referred to in Chap. III, n. 4.

[184] Note such examples as the globe of Robertus de Bailly, I, 108, the Lenox globe, I, 72, the Nancy globe, I, 102, and the Morgan globe in the Metropolitan Museum, I, 200.

[185] See Fig. 3.

[186] See Fig. 43.

[187] See Apianus' Cosmographicus liber.

[188] As for example the World map of Mercator of the year 1538, an original copy of which may be found in the New York Public Library, also a copy in the Library of The American Geographical Society.

[189] D'Avezac, M. A. P. Coup d'oeil historique sur la projection des cartes de géographie. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Paris. Paris, 1863, pp. 274 ff.); Breusing, A. Das Verebnen der Kugeloberfläche. Leipzig, 1892; Zondervan, H. Allgemeine Kartenkunde. Leipzig, 1891; Fiorini, M. Le projezioni delle carte geografiche. Bologna, 1881. The literature relative to map projection is very extensive.

[190] Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. pp. 93-102.

[191] See Fig. 32.

[192] See Fig. 40.

[193] Dürer, A. Underweysung der Mesung mit dem Zirkel und Richtscheyd, in Linien ebnen und ganzen Corporen. Nürnberg, 1525.

[194] Buchlein, pp. 5 ff.

[195] Consult Günther. Erd- und Himmelsgloben. pp. 72-73; Kästner. Geschichte der Mathematik. Vol. I, p. 684. See Günther, op. cit., chaps, vii, x, xii, xiii, xiv, with numerous references.

[196] Henrici Glareani poetae laureati de geographia liber unus. Basileae, 1527.

[197] There is an interesting bit of information given by Coronelli in his 'Epitome Cosmografica' relative to the making of an adhesive material for use in the mounting of globe maps.

[198] See Fig. 61.

[199] See Figs. 59 and 66.

[200] Such, for example, as might consist of zonal strips, one for the torrid, one for each of the temperate, and one for each of the polar zones. Such strips perhaps could not properly be termed gores.

[201] Pictures are a particularly striking feature of the cloister maps of the middle ages. The idea of such adornments may have come down from Greek or Roman days. Plutarch tells us in his 'Theseus' that "Geographers crowd into the edge of their maps parts of the world about which they have no knowledge, adding notes in the margins to the effect that only deserts full of wild beasts and impassable marshes lie beyond." Jonathan Swift, humorously referring to maps of the early period, writes:

"So geographers in Afric maps With savage pictures fill their gaps And o'er unhabitable downs Place elephants for want of towns."

The early map makers as illustrators should be an interesting theme for a special monograph.

[202] Nonius, P. De arte atque ratione navigandi. Conimbriae, 1573, lib. II, c. xxi, xxiv; Hues. Tractatus de Globis (Hakluyt Soc. Pub.). pp. 127-147.

[203] For illustration of the method, see Fig. 89.

[204] Burritt, L. H. The geography of the heavens. New York, 1833; Allen, R. H. Star names and their meanings; Wolf. Geschichte der Astronomie. pp. 188-191, 420-427; Olcott, W. T. Starlore of all ages. New York, 1911.

[205] The literature relating to this particular branch of astronomy is extensive. Wolf, loc. cit., with references.

[206] See especially Fig. 13.

[207] See Fig. 121a.

[208] See Fig. 88.

[209] Wolf, R. Handbuch der Astronomie, ihre Geschichte und Litteratur. Zürich, 1893. pp. 451 ff.; Frobesius. Bibliographie Selenographorum. Helmstädt, 1718.

[210] Hevelius, J. Selenographiae sive Lunae descriptio. Danzig, 1647. pp. 492 ff.; Béziat, L. C. La vie et les travaux de Jean Hévélius.

[211] Lalande. Bibliographie astronomique, "La Hire."

[212] Mayer, T. Abhandlung über die Umwälzung des Mondes um seine Achse und die scheinbare Bewegung der Mondflecke. Nürnberg, 1750; same, Bericht von den Mondskugeln, welche bei der kosmographischen Gesellschaft in Nürnberg aus neuen Beobachtungen verfertigt werden. Nürnberg, 1750.

[213] Russel, J. A description of the selenographia, an apparatus for exhibiting the phaenomena of the moon; together with an account of some of the purposes to which it may be applied. London, 1797. In his effort to obtain funds for the construction of his globe he issued an announcement which he called a "Proposal for publishing by subscription a Globe of the Moon."

[Illustration: Printer's Mark of the Blaeu Press]

Bibliographical List

The following bibliographical list includes the works referred to in the body of the foregoing pages, with certain additions of those touching incidentally globe making and globe makers. It is a suggestive list, not one that can be called exhaustive. Practically all those works in which the subject of geography and of astronomy has been treated historically may be consulted with interest and profit.

AA, A. J. V. D. Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden. Haarlem, 1852-1878.

ABRAHAM BEN CHIJAH. Liber de Sphaera. 1105. MS.

ABULFEDA, I. E. I. Takwim al Boldan (Geography). Tr. by M. Reinaud into French. Paris, 1848-1883.

ADAMS, G. A treatise describing and explaining the construction and the use of new celestial and terrestrial globes, designed to illustrate in the most easy manner the phenomena of the earth and heavens. London, 1766.

Astronomical and geographical essays. London, 1795.

A treatise on the construction of globes. London, 1769.

Geometrical and geographical essays, containing a description of mathematical instruments. London, 1791.

AKERMAN, A. Globes céleste et terrestre de vingt-deux pouces. Upsala, 1766.

ALBERTUS MAGNUS (Albert of Bollstädt). Opera omnia. Ed. by P. Jammy. Leyden, 1651. 21 vols.

ALFONSO X. Libros del Saber de Astronomia del Rey D. Alfonso X de Castilla. Ed. by Don Manuel Rico y Sinobas. Madrid, 1863-1867. 5 vols.

ALLEN, R. H. Star names and their meanings. New York, 1899.

ALLGEMEINE DEUTSCHE BIOGRAPHIE. Leipzig.

ALLGEMEINE GEOGRAPHISCHE EPHEMERIDEN. See ZACH, F. V.

AMARI, M. Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia. Firenze, 1868.

AMERICAN SCENIC AND HISTORIC PRESERVATION SOCIETY. Fifteenth Annual Report. New York, 1910.

ANDREA, M. J. L. Zweifache Sternkugel oder Himmelskugel. n. p., 1724.

ANNALES DE GÉOGRAPHIE. Paris, 1891--.

ANNUARIO ASTRO-METEOROLOGICO con efemeridi nautichi. Venezia, 1882--.

ANONYMOUS. Treatise of the use of globes celestial and terrestrial. London, 1647.

ANONYMOUS. W. J. Blaeus Antheil an der Bestimmung der Erdlangen. Stuttgart, 1875.

Portraits des hommes et des femmes illustrés par renaissance, n. p., 1792.

ARATUS. The Phaenomena and Diosemia of Aratus. Tr. by J. Lamb. London, 1847.

ARCHAEOLOGIA. London, 1865.

ARCHER, G. M. Henry Hudson, the Navigator. (In: Hakluyt Society Publications. London, 1860.)

ARCO, C. DE. Delle arti e degli artifici di Mantova. Mantova, 1857.

ARISTOTLE. De Coelo. Tr. by T. Taylor, with title On the Heavens from the Greek with copious elucidations. London, 1807.

ARX, J. V. Geschichte des Kantons St. Gallen. St. Gallen, 1810.

ASCHBACH, J. Die Wiener Universität und ihre Humanisten im Zeitalters Kaiser Maximilians I. Wien, 1877.

ASSEMANI, G. Globus coelestis cufico-arabicus Veliterni Musei Borgiani. Patavii, 1790.

AUSLAND, DAS. Stuttgart, 1828--.

AVERDUNK, H. and MULLER-REINHARD, J. Gerhard Mercator und die Geographen unter seinen Nachkommen. (In: Petermanns Mitteilungen. Gotha, 1914. Ergänzungsheft, Nr. 182.)

AVEZAC, M. A. P. DE. Notice des découvertes faites au moyen âge dans l'Ocean Atlantique. Paris, 1845.

Coup d'oeil historique sur la projection des cartes. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Paris, 1863.)

Martin Hylacomylus Waltzemüller, ses ouvrages et ses collaborateurs. Paris, 1867.

Sur un globe terrestre trouvé à Laon, antérieur à la découverte de l'Amérique. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Paris, 1860.)

AZURARA, G. E. DE. The Chronicle of the discovery and conquest of Guinea done into English by C. R. Beazley and E. Prestage. (In: Hakluyt Society Publications. London, 1896-1899. 2 vols.)

BACON, R. Opus Maius. Oxford, 1897.

BADIA, J. DEL. Egnazio Danti cosmografo e matematico. Firenze, 1882.

La bottega di Alesandro di Francisco Rosselli merciaje e stampatore (1525). Firenze, 1894.

DEL BADIA, J. Egnazio Danti cosmografo e matematico. Firenze, 1882.

BAGLIONE, G. Le vite de pittori, scultori, architetti et intagliatori dal pontificato di Gregorio XIII del 1572 fino a tempo di Papa Urbano VIII nel 1642. Napoli, 1733.

BAILLY, F. The catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulug Beigh, Tycho Brahe, Halley, Hevelius deduced from the best authorities. London, 1843.

BARTHOLOMAEI, F. Erhard Weigel: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften auf den deutschen Universitäten im XVI Jahrhundert. (In: Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik. Leipzig, 1868.)

BAUDET, P. J. H. Leven en werken van Willem Jansz. Blaeu. Uitgegeven door het provincial Utrechtsch genootschap van kunsten en wetenschappen. Utrecht, 1871.

Notice sur la part prise par Willem Jansz. Blaeu dans le détermination des longitudes terrestres. Utrecht, 1875.

BAUER, L. A. Principal facts relating to the earth's magnetism. (In: United States Magnetic Declination Tables and Isogonic Charts. Washington, 1902.)

BAUMGÄRTNER, J. Zwei alte Globen von Blaeu: Erdkugel von 1599 und Himmel-Globen von 1603. (In: Das Ausland. Stuttgart, 1885.)

BAYER, J. Uranometria, sive omnium asterismorum schemata quinquaginta et unum in totidem tabulis nova methoda delineata. Augustae Vindel, 1603.

BEAZLEY, C. R. The Dawn of Modern Geography. London, 1897-1906. 3 vols.

Globe of 1593. (In: Royal Geographical Journal. London, 1904.)

Prince Henry the Navigator. New York, London, 1895.

See Gomez, E.

See Azurara, G. E.

BEDA. Opuscula scientifica. Ed. by J. A. Giles. London, 1843.

BEIGEL, W. Nachricht von einer Arabischen Himmelskugel mit Kufischer Schrift welche im Chürfurstlichen Mathematischen Salon zu Dresden aufbewahrt wirt. (In: Bodes Astronomisches Jahrbuch für das Jahr 1808. Berlin, 1808.)

BERGER, H. Die geographischen Fragmente des Eratosthenes. Leipzig, 1880.

Entwickelung der Geographie der Erdkugel bei den Hellenen. (In: Grenzboten. Leipzig, Jahrgang 39.)

Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen. Leipzig, 1903.

Die geographischen Fragmente des Hipparchus. Leipzig, 1869.

BERNARDO, F. Biblioteca scriptorum Ordinis Minorum S. Francisci Capucinorum. Venetia, 1747.

BERTHOUD, F. Histoire de la mesure du temps par les horologes. Paris, 1802.

BERTOLOTTI, A. Artisti in relazione coi Gonzaga Signori di Mantova. Modena, 1885.

BESTE, G. A true discourse of the late voyages of discovery, for the finding of a passage to Cathaya, by the northweast undeer the conduct of Martin Frobischer Generall. London, 1578.

BEYER, J. Descriptio globi coelestis et terrestris nova ratione composuiti. Hamburgi, 1718.

BÉZIAT, L. C. La vie et les travaux de Jean Hevelius. Rome, 1876.

BION, N. L'usage des globes céleste et terrestre, et des sphères suivant les differens systémes du monde. Ed. by N. Bion (son). Paris, 1751.

The construction and principal uses of mathematical instruments. Tr. from the French by Edmond Stone. London, 1723.

BION, N. Traité de la construction et des principaux usages des instruments de mathématique. Paris, 1752.

BLAEU, G. (W. J.) Institution astronomique de l'usage des globes et sphères. Amstelodami, 1642.

Guilielmi Blaeu institutio astronomica de usu globorum & sphaerarum caelestium ac terrestrium. Amsterdam, 1655. Ed. by J. Blaeu.

Tafelen van de declinatie der sonne, ende der voornaemste vaste sterren. Amsterdam, 1625.

BLAEU, J. Le Grande Atlas ou Cosmographie Blaviane. Amsterdam, 1663-1671. 12 vols.

BLAGRAVE, J. The Mathematical Jewel. London, 1585.

BLAU, M. Mémoires de la Société Royal de Nancy. Nancy, 1836.

BLUNDEVILLE, T. Mr. Blundeville his Exercises. London, 1594.

BODE, J. E. Astronomisches Jahrbuch. Berlin, 1781-1826.

BOLLETTINO DELLA SOCIETÀ GEOGRAFICA ITALIANO. Roma, 1868.

BOURGEAT, J. B. Études sur Vincent de Beauvais. Paris, 1856.

BOURNE, E. G. Spain in America. New York, 1904.

BRAHE, T. Astronomiae instauratae mechanica. Noribergae, 1682.

Tychonis Brahe mathim: eminent: Dani opera omnia. Ed. by J. G. Schonvetteri. Francofurti, 1648.

Epistolarum astronomicarum libri. Uraniburgi, 1596.

BRANDSTÄTTER, F. A. Hevel's Leben und seine Bedeutsamkeit. Danzig, 1861.

BREHAUT, E. An Encyclopedist of the Dark Ages, Isidore of Seville. (In: Studies in History, Economics and Public Law, Columbia University. New York, 1912.)

BREUSING, A. Gerhard Kremer, genannt Mercator, der deutsche Geograph. Duisbourg, 1869.

Leitfaden durch das Wiegenalter der Kartographie bis zum Jahre 1600. Frankfurt, 1883.

Das Verebnen der Kugelfläche. Bremen, 1893.

BRION, M. Tablettes astronomique ou abrégé élémentaire de la sphère et des différens systèmes, avec l'usage des globes. Paris, 1774.

BRITISH MUSEUM CATALOGUE OF PRINTED BOOKS. London, 1841--.

BRITTEN, F. J. Old clocks and watches and their makers. London, 1899.

BROWN, A. The genesis of the United States. Boston and New York, 1891.

BÜDINGER, M. Ueber Gerberts wissenschaftliche und politische Stellung. Kassel, 1851.

BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. New York, 1852--.

BULLETIN DE LA SOCIÉTÉ DE GÉOGRAPHIE D'ANVERS. Anvers, 1876--.

BULLETIN DE LA SOCIÉTÉ DE GÉOGRAPHIE DE PARIS. Paris, 1822--.

BULLETIN DE GÉOGRAPHIE HISTORIQUE ET DESCRIPTIVE. Paris, 1894--.

BUNBURY, E. H. History of Ancient Geography. London, 1883. 3 vols.

BURRITT, L. H. The geography of the heavens. New York, 1833.

CAMPANO DA NOVARA, G. Liber de Sphaera; de modo fabricandi Sphaeram solidam; de compositione quadrantis; de quadratura circuli. MSS. 13th Century. See Lalande. Bibliographie astronomique.

CANTOR, M. Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik. Leipzig, 1894.

CARDELLA, L. Memorie storiche di Cardinali della Sancta Romana Chiesa. Roma, 1792-1797. 9 vols.

CARTWRIGHT, J. Isabella d'Este. London, 1903.

CASSINI, G. M. Nuovo atlante geografico universale. Roma, 1792-1801. 3 vols.

CASSINI, J. D. Méthode pour trouver la différence des longitudes des lieux par les observations correspondantes des phases des éclipses de soleil, 1670. (In: Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1733.)

La méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par les observations des satellites de Jupiter, 1676. (In: Mémoires de l'Académie. Paris, 1743.)

Les hypothèses et les tables des satellites de Jupiter reformées sur de nouvelles observations, 1693. (In: Mémoires de l'Académie. Paris, 1730.)

Méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par des étoiles fixes et des planètes par la Lune, 1703. (In: Mémoires de l'Académie. Paris, 1703.)

CASTELLANI. Catalogo rageonato delle più rare o più importanti opera geografiche a stampa che si conservano nella Biblioteca del Collegio Romano. Roma, 1876.

CATALOGUE GÉNÉRAL DES MANUSCRITS DES BIBLIOTHÈQUES PUBLIQUES DE FRANCE. Paris, 1897.

CATALOGUS LIBRORUM, tam impressorum, qua, manuscriptorum, bibliothecae publicae universitatis Lugduno-Batavos. Lugduni apud Batavos, 1716.

CERADINI, G. A propositio dei due globi Mercatoriani, 1541-1551. Milano, 1894.

CÉSPEDES, G. DE. See Garcia de Céspedes.

CHABAS, F. Ouvres diverses publiées par G. Maspero. Paris, 1902.

CHAMBERS, R. (revised by T. Thompson). A biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen. London, 1856.

CHATEL, M. Note sur une globe terrestre--de la succession de Titon du Tillet. (In: Mémoire lus à la Sorbonne. Paris, 1865.)

CHEYNEIUS, J. De sphaerae seu globi coelestis fabrica brevis praeceptio. Douay, 1575.

CHYTRAEUS, S. De nova stella. Rostock, 1577.

CICERO, M. T. De Republica. Tr. by G. G. Hardingham. London, 1884.

Epistolae ad Atticum. Lugduni, 1548.

CLEMENS, C. Musie, sive bibliothecae tam privatae quam publical extructis. Lugduni, 1635.

CLEMENT, D. Bibliothèque curieuse, historique et critique. Göttingen, 1750-1760.

COESTER, A. Ueber die grosse astronomische Künstler in den Kasseler Museum. (In: Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hessische Geschichte und Landeskunde. Kassel, 1874.)

COLUMBUS, F. See Ulloa, A.

COMPT-RENDU, CONGRÈS DES AMERICANISTES. Paris, 1877.

COOTE, C. H. (Ed.) Johann Schöner, a reproduction of the globe of 1523 long lost: his dedicatory letter and the "De Moluccis Maximilianus Transylvanus," with a new translation and notes on the globe. With an introduction and bibliography. London, 1888. See Stevens, H. Johann Schöner.

COPERNICUS, N. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Noribergae, 1543.

CORONELLI, V. Epitome Cosmografica. Cologne, 1693.

Atlante Veneto. Venetia, 1691-1696. 3 vols.

Biblioteca universale sacro-profano, antico-moderna. Venezia, 1701-1706.

Viaggi del P. C. Venetia, 1697.

The Royal Almanack containing a succinct account of the remarkable actions of K. William III; with the year and the day of the month when each happened. Tr. from Italian into English. London, 1696.

COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES. Topographia Christiana. Tr. by J. M. McCrindle as Christian Topography. (In: Hakluyt Society Publications. London, 1897.)

COSTARD, G. A History of Astronomy with application to Geography, History and Chronology, occasionally exemplified by the Globe. London, 1767.

COVENS, C. Handleiding tot de kennis en het gebruik der hemelen aard-globen. Amsterdam, 1802.

CUNEIFORM TEXTS from Babylonian Tablets, &c., in the British Museum. London, 1906. Pt. xxii, plate 48.

DAHLGREN, E. W. Map of the World by Alonzo de Santa Cruz. Text and facsimile of map. Stockholm, 1892.

D'ARCO, C. Delle arti e degli artefici di Mantova. Mantova, 1857.

DASYPODIUS, K. Horologii astronomici argentorati in summo templo erecti descriptio. Strassburg, 1580.

Warhafftige Auslegung des astronomischen Uhrwerkes zu Strassburg. Strassburg, 1578.

D'AVEZAC, M. A. P. See Avezac, M. A. P. de.

DAVIS, J. The Worldes Hydrographical Discription. London, 1595.

DAVIS, J. Manual to accompany the star globe, containing a complete course of problems and illustrations of the fundamental principles of geography. Allegheny City, 1884.

DE COSTA, B. F. The globe of Ulpius, with a view of the globe, Portrait of Pope Marcellus II, and text Illustrations. (In: Magazine of American History. New York, 1879.)

Verrazano the explorer. (In: Magazine of American History. New York, 1881.)

The Nancy Globe. (In: Magazine of American History. New York, 1881.)

The Lenox Globe. (In: Magazine of American History. New York, 1879.)

DE LA HIRE, P. See La Hire, P. de.

DELAMARCHE, C. F. Les usages de la sphère, et des globes célestes et terrestres, selon le hypothèses de Ptolémée & de Copernic. Paris, 1791.

DELAMBRE, J. B. J. Histoire de l'astronomie ancien. Paris, 1817.

DEL BADIA, J. See Badia, J. del.

DELPHINUS, J. A. Tractatus de globis coelestibus et motibus. Bologna, 1559.

DE MORGAN, A. The globes celestial and terrestrial. London, 1845.

DENZA, P. F. Globi celesti della Specola Vaticana. Torino, 1894.

DESIMONI, C. Intorno al Fiorentino Giovanni Verrazzano. Genova, 1881.

DESJARDINS, E. La Table de Peutinger d'après l'original conservé à Vienne. Paris, 1896.

DEUTSCHE GEOGRAPHISCHE BLÄTTER. Bremen, 1877--.

DEUTSCHE RUNDSCHAU FÜR GEOGRAPHIE UND STATISTIK. Leipzig, 1882.

DICTIONARY OF NATIONAL BIOGRAPHY. London, 1885--.

DIDIER, R. DE V. Usages des globes célestes et terrestres faits par ordre du Roi par le S. Robert de Vaugondy, fils. Paris, 1751.

DILWORTH, T. A new and complete description of the terrestrial and celestial globes, with their several uses. London, 1794.

DIODORUS. The historical library of Diodorus the Sicilian, in fifteen books. Tr. by G. Booth. London, 1814.

DOPPELMAYR, J. G. Historische Nachrichten von den Nürnbergischen Mathematicis und Künstlern. Nürnberg, 1730.

Tractatus de fabrica et usu instrumentorum astronomicorum, Nic. Bion, en Allemand. Nürnberg, 1721.

DORN, B. Description of an Arabic celestial globe. (In: Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society. London, 1829.)

Drei in der kaiserlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu St. Petersburg befindliche astronomische Instrumente mit arabischen Inschriften. (In: Mémoires de l'Académie-Imperiale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg. St. Pétersbourg, 1865.)

DOZY, C. M. Willem Janszoon Blaeu. (In: Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, gevestigt to Amsterdam, 1887. 2de Serie.)

DRACH, K. A. V. Die zu Marburg im mathematisch-physikalischen Institute befindliche Globusuhr Wilhelm IV von Hessen. Marburg, 1894.

DRAKE, SIR F. The world encompassed; with introduction by W. S. W. Vaux. (In: Hakluyt Society Publications. London, 1854.)

DRECHSLER, A. Katalog der Sammlung des Königl.-Mathematisch-Physikalischen Salon zu Dresden. Dresden, 1874.

Der arabische Himmelsglobus angefertigt zu Maragha. Dresden, 1873.

DREYER, J. L. E. Tycho Brahe, a picture of scientific life and work in the sixteenth century. Edinburgh, 1890.

DRÖBER, W. Kartographie bei den Naturvölkern Erlangen, 1903.

DRYANDER (ENZINAS), J. Sphaerae materialis sive globi coelestis descriptio. Neuss, 1581.

DUBOIS, P. Histoire de l'horologerie depuis son origine jusqu'à nos jours. Paris, 1849.

DUMMLER, E. Ekkehart IV von St. Gallen. Berlin, 1869.

DÜRER, A. Underweysung der Mesung mit dem Zirkel und Richtscheyd in Linien, Ebnen und ganzen Corporen. Nürnberg, 1525. See Thausing, M.

EAMES, W. A list of the editions of Ptolemy's Geography, 1475-1730. New York, 1886.

ECKERT, J. Tycho Brahe und seine Planetensystem. Basel, 1846.

ELTER, A. De Henrico Glareano geographo et antiquissima forma "Americae" commentatio; Festschrift der Bonner Universität. Bonn, 1896.

ENCICLOPEDIA UNIVERSAL ILLUSTRADA. Madrid.

ERATOSTHENES. See Berger, H.

ERHARD, H. A. Geschichte der Wiederaufblühens wissenschaftliche Bildung, vornehmlich in Teutschland bis zum Anfange der Reformation. Magdeburg, 1827.

ESPADA, J. DE LA. Relaciones geograficas de Indias. Madrid, 1885.

ESTREICHER, T. Ein Erdglobus aus dem Anfange des XVI Jahrhundert, in der Jagellonischen Bibliothek. (In: Bulletin International de l'Academie des Sciences de Cracovie. Cracovie, 1900.)

FANNING, M. A treatise upon the uses of globes both celestial and terrestrial. London, 1760.

FELIZIANI. Vite dei Monaci Illustri di S. Benedetto in Fabriano. (MS. in Biblioteca Municipale, Fabriano, ca. 1680.)

FELLNER, R. Kompendium der Naturwissenschaften an der Schule zu Fulda. Berlin, 1879.

FENNING, D. A new and easy guide to the use of the globes. Dublin, 1787.

FERGUSON, J. Lectures on select subjects in mechanics, hydrostatics, pneumatics, optics, and astronomy. New edition, by C. F. Partington. London, 1843.

Select mechanical exercises with a short account of the life of the author by himself. London, 1773.

FINK, K. Pomponius Mela und seine Geographie. Rosenheim, 1881.

FIORINI, M. Le projezioni cordiformi nella cartografia. (In: Bolletino della Societa Geografica Italiano. Roma, 1889.)

Le sfere cosmografichi e specialmente le sfere terrestri. (In: Bolletino della Societa Geografica Italiano. Roma, 1893-1894.)

Sfere terrestri e celesti di autore italiano oppere fatte o conservate in Italia. Roma, 1898.

Gerardo Mercatore e le sue carte geografiche. (In: Bolletino della Societa Geografica Italiana. Roma, 1890.)

Le projezioni delle carte geografiche. Bologna, 1881.

Vincenzo Coronelli ed i suoi globi cosmografici. (In: Annuario Astro-Meteorologico. Roma, 1893.)

Erd- und Himmelsgloben, ihre Geschichte und Konstruction. Nach dem italienischen Matteo Fiorinis frei bearbeitet von Siegmund Günther. Leipzig, 1895.

FISCHER, J. The Discovery of the Northmen in America with special relation to their early cartographical Representation. Translated from the German by B.H. Soulsby. London, 1903.

The globe-goblet of Wolfegg. (In: United States Catholic Historical Society Historical Records and Studies. New York, 1913.)

FLAMSTEED, J. Atlas céleste de Flamsteed approuvé par l'Académie Royal des Sciences. Ed. by M.J. Fortin. Paris, 1776.

FONTENELLI, B. LE B. DE. Éloge des académiciens. À la Haye, 1731.

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