CHAPTER I

CAXTON AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES

The art of printing had been known on the Continent for something over twenty years, when William Caxton, a citizen and mercer of London, introduced it into England.

Such facts as are known of the life of England's first printer are few and simple. He tells us himself that he was born in the Weald of Kent, and he was probably educated in his native village. When old enough, he was apprenticed to a well-to-do London mercer, Robert Large, who carried on business in the Old Jewry. This was in 1438, and in 1441 his master died, leaving, among other legacies, a sum of twenty marks to William Caxton.

In all probability Caxton, whose term of apprenticeship had not expired, was transferred to some other master to serve the remainder of his term; but all we know is that he shortly afterwards left England for the Low Countries. In the prologue to the _Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_ he tells us that, at the time he began the translation, he had been living on the Continent for thirty years, in various places, Brabant, Flanders, Holland, and Zealand, but the city of Bruges, one of the largest centres of trade in Europe at that time, was his headquarters. Caxton prospered in his business, and rose to be 'Governor to the English Nation at Bruges,' a position of importance, and one that brought him into contact with men of high rank.

In the year 1468 Caxton appears to have had some leisure for literary work, and began to translate a French book he had lately been reading, Raoul Le Fevre's _Recueil des Histoires de Troyes_; but after writing a few quires he threw down his pen in disgust at the feebleness of his version.

Very shortly after this he entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. of England, either as secretary or steward. The Duchess used to talk with him on literary matters, and he told her of his attempt to translate the _Recueil_. She asked him to show her what he had written, pointed out how he might amend his 'rude English,' and encouraged him to continue his work. Caxton took up the task again, and in spite of many interruptions, including journeys to both Ghent and Cologne, he completed it, in the latter city, on the 19th September 1471. All this he tells us in the prologue, and at the end of the second book he says:--

'And for as moche as I suppose the said two bokes ben not had to fore this tyme in oure English langage | therefore I had the better will to accomplisshe this said werke | whiche werke was begonne in Brugis | and contynued in Gaunt, and finyshed in Coleyn, ... the yere of our lord a thousand four honderd lxxi.' He then goes on to speak of John Lydgate's translation of the third book, as making it needless to translate it into English, but continues:--

'But yet for as moche as I am bounde to contemplate my fayd ladyes good grace and also that his werke is in ryme | and as ferre as I knowe hit is not had in prose in our tonge ... _and also because that I have now god leyzer beying in Coleyn, and have none other thing to doo at this tyme_, I have,' etc.

Then at the end of the third book he says that, having become weary of writing and yet having promised copies to divers gentlemen and friends,--

'Therfor I have practysed and lerned at my grete charge and dispense to ordeyne this said book in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may here see,' etc.

The book when printed bore neither place of imprint, date of printing, or name of printer. The late William Blades, in his _Life of Caxton_ (vol. i. chap. v. pp. 45-61), maintained that this book, and all the others printed with the same type, were printed at Bruges by Colard Mansion, and that it was at Bruges, and in conjunction with Mansion, that Caxton learned the art of printing. His principal reasons for coming to this conclusion were: (1) That Caxton's stay in Cologne was only for six months, long enough for him to have finished the translation of the book, but too short a time in which to have printed it. (2) That the type in which it was printed was Colard Mansion's. (3) That the typographical features of the books printed in this type (No. 1) point to their having all of them come from the same printing office.

Caxton's own statement in the epilogue to the third book certainly appears to mean that during the course of the translation, in order to fulfil his promise of multiplying copies, he had learned to print. He might easily have done so in the six months during which he remained in Cologne, or during his stay in Ghent. That it was in Cologne rather than elsewhere, is confirmed by the oft-quoted stanza added by Wynkyn de Worde as a colophon to the English edition of _Bartholomæus de proprietatibus rerum_.

'And also of your charyte call to remembraunce The soule of William Caxton, the first prynter of this boke, In laten tongue at Coleyn, hymself to avaunce That every well-disposed man may thereon loke.'

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Part of Caxton's Preface to the 'Recuyell of the Histories of Troye.' (Type 1.)]

If any one should have known the true facts of the case it was surely Caxton's own foreman, who almost certainly came over to England with him. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that type No. 1 is totally unlike any type that we know of as used by a Cologne printer, and, moreover, Caxton's methods of working, and his late adoption of spacing and signatures, point to his having learnt his art in a school of printing less advanced than that of Cologne. In the face of the statements of Caxton himself and Wynkyn de Worde, we seem bound to believe that Caxton did study printing at Cologne, but the inexpertness betrayed in his early books proves conclusively that his studies there did not extend very far. In any case it must have been with the help of Colard Mansion that he set up and printed the _Recuyell_, probably in 1472 or 1473. In addition to this book several others, printed in the same type, and having other typographical features in common with it, were printed in the next few years. These were:--

_The Game and Playe of the Chess Moralised_, translated by Caxton, a small folio of 74 leaves.

_Le Recueil des Histoires de Troye_, a folio of 120 leaves.

_Les Fais et Prouesses du noble et vaillant chevalier Jason_, a folio of 134 leaves, printed, it is believed, by Mansion, after Caxton's removal to England. And,

_Meditacions sur le sept Psaulmes Penitenciaulx_, a folio of 34 leaves, also ascribed to Mansion's press, about the year 1478.

About the latter half of 1476 Caxton must have left Bruges and come to England, leaving type No. 1 in the hands of Mansion, and bringing with him that picturesque secretary type, known as type 2. This, as Mr. Blades has undoubtedly proved, had already been used by Caxton and Mansion in printing at least two books: _Les quatre derrenieres choses_, notable from the method of working the red ink, a method found in no other book of Colard Mansion; and _Propositio Johannis Russell_, a tract of four leaves, containing Russell's speech at the investiture of the Duke of Burgundy with the order of the Garter in 1470.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Part of Caxton's Epilogue to the 'Dictes and Sayinges of the Philosophers.' (Type 2.)]

On his arrival in England, Caxton settled in Westminster, within the precincts of the Abbey, at the sign of the Red Pale, and from thence, on November 18th 1477, he issued _The Dictes and Sayinges of the Philosophers_, the first book printed in England. It was a folio of 76 leaves, without title-page, foliation, catchwords or signatures, in this respect being identical with the books printed in conjunction with Mansion. Type 2, in which it was printed, was a very different fount to that which is seen in the _Recuyell_ and its companion books. It was undoubtedly modelled on the large Gros Batarde type of Colard Mansion, and was in all probability cut by Mansion himself. The letters are bold, and angular, with a close resemblance to the manuscripts of the time, the most notable being the lowercase 'w,' which is brought into prominence by large loops over the top. The 'h's' and 'l's' are also looped letters, the final 'm's' and 'n's' are finished with an angular stroke, and the only letter at all akin to those in type No. 1 is the final 'd,' which has the peculiar pump-handle finial seen in that fount. _The Dictes and Sayinges_ is printed throughout in black ink, in long lines, twenty-nine to a page, with space left at the beginning of the chapters for the insertion of initial letters. It has no colophon, but at the end of the work is an Epilogue, which begins thus:--

'Here endeth the book named the dictes or sayengis | of the philosophers, enprynted, by me william | Caxton at Westmestre the yere of our lord ·M· | CCCC·LXXVij.'

Caxton followed _The Dictes and Sayinges_ with an edition of Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_, a folio of 372 leaves. The size of the book makes it probable that it was put in hand simultaneously with its predecessor, and that the chief work of the poet, to whom Caxton paid more than one eloquent tribute, engaged his attention as soon as he set up his press in England. He also printed in the same type a Sarum _Ordinale_, known only by a fragment in the Bodleian, and a number of small quarto tracts, such as _The Moral Proverbs of Christyne_, which bears date the 20th of February; a Latin school-book called _Stans Puer ad Mensam_; two translations from the Distichs of Dionysius Cato, entitled respectively _Parvus Catho_ and _Magnus Catho_, of which a second edition was speedily called for; Lydgate's fable of the _Chorl and the Bird_, a quarto of 10 leaves, which also soon went to a second edition; Chaucer's _Anelida and Arcite_, and two editions of Lydgate's _The Horse, the Sheep, and the Goose_.

During the first three years of Caxton's residence at Westminster he printed at least thirty books. In 1479 he recast type 2 (cited in its new form by Blades as type 2*), and this he continued to use until 1481. But about the same time he cast two other founts, Nos. 3 and 4. The first of these was a large black letter of Missal character, used chiefly for printing service books, but appearing in the books printed with type 2* for headlines. With it he printed _Cordyale, or the Four Last Things_, a folio of 78 leaves, the work being a translation by Earl Rivers of _Les Quatre Derrenieres Choses Advenir_, first printed in type 2 in the office of Colard Mansion. A second edition of _The Dictes and Sayinges_ was also printed in this type, while to the year 1478 or 1479 must be ascribed the _Rhetorica Nova_ of Friar Laurence of Savona, a folio of 124 leaves, long attributed to the press of Cambridge.

After 1479 Caxton began to space out his lines and to use signatures, customs that had been in vogue on the Continent for some years before he left. In 1480 he brought the new type 4 into use. This was modelled on type 2, but was much smaller, the body being most akin to modern English. Although its appearance was not so striking as that of the earlier fount, it was a much neater letter and more adapted to the printing of Indulgences, and it has been suggested that it was the arrival of John Lettou in London, and the neat look of his work, that induced Caxton to cut the fount in question. The most noticeable feature about it is the absence of the loop to the lowercase 'd,' so conspicuous a feature of the No. 2 type. With this type No. 4 he printed Kendale's indulgence and the first edition of _The Chronicles of England_, dated the 10th June 1480, a folio of 152 leaves. In the same year he printed with type 3 three service-books. Of one of these, the _Horæ_, William Blades found a few leaves, all that are known to exist, in the covers of a copy of _Boethius_, printed also by Caxton, which he discovered in a deplorable state from damp, in a cupboard of the St. Albans Grammar School. This was an uncut copy, in the original binding, and the covers yielded as many as fifty-six half sheets of printed matter, fragments of other books printed by Caxton. These proved the existence of three hitherto unknown examples of his press, the _Horæ_ above noted, the _Ordinale_, and the _Indulgence of Pope Sixtus IV._, the remaining fragments yielding leaves from the _History of Jason_, printed in type 2, the first edition of the _Chronicles_, the _Description of_ _Britain_; the second edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_, the _De Curia Sapientiæ_, Cicero's _De Senectute_, and the _Nativity of Our Lady_, printed in the recast of type 4, known as type 4*.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Caxton's earliest Woodcut. Headline in Type 3.]

The first book printed by Caxton with illustrations was the third edition of _Parvus_ and _Magnus Chato_, printed without date, but probably in 1481. It contained two woodcuts, one showing five pupils kneeling before their tutor. These illustrations were very poor specimens of the wood-cutter's art.

To this period also belongs _The History of Reynard the Fox_ and the second edition of _The Game and Play of Chess_, printed with type 2*, and distinguished from the earlier edition by the eight woodcuts, some of which, according to the economical fashion of the day, were used more than once.

In type 4, Caxton printed (finishing it on the 20th November 1481) _The History of Godfrey of Bologne; or, the Conquest of Jerusalem_, a folio of 144 leaves. In the following year (1482) appeared the second edition of the _Chronicles_, and another work of the same kind, the compilation of Roger of Chester and Ralph Higden, called _Polychronicon_. This work John of Trevisa had translated into English prose, bringing it down to the year 1387. Caxton now added a further continuation to the year 1460, the only original work ever undertaken by him. Another English author whom Caxton printed at this time was John Gower, an edition in small folio (222 leaves in double columns) of whose _Confessio Amantis_ was finished on the 2nd September 1483. In this we see the first use of type 4*, the two founts being found in one instance on the same page. The first edition of the _Golden Legend_ also belongs to 1483, being finished at Westminster on the 20th November. This was the largest book that Caxton printed, there being no less than 449 leaves in double columns, illustrated with as many as eighteen large and fifty-two small woodcuts. The text was in type 4*, the headlines, etc., in type 3. For the performance of this work Caxton received from the Earl of Arundel, to whom the book was dedicated, the gift of a buck in summer and a doe in winter, gifts probably exchanged for an annuity in money. Several copies of this book are still in existence, its large size serving as a safeguard against complete destruction, but none are perfect, most of them being made up from copies of the second edition. The insertions may be recognised by the type of the headlines, those in the second edition being in type 5. Other books printed in type 4* were Chaucer's _Book of Fame_, Chaucer's _Troylus_, the _Lyf of Our Ladye_, the _Life of Saint Winifred_, and the _History of King Arthur_, this last, finished on July 31, 1485, being almost as large a book as the _Golden Legend_.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--From Caxton's 'Golden Legend.' (Types 4* and 5.)]

No work dated 1486 has been traced to Caxton's press, but in 1487 he brought into use type 5, a smaller form of the black letter fount known as No. 3, with which he sometimes used a set of Lombardic capitals. With this he printed, between 1487 and 1489, several important books, among them the _Royal Book_, a folio of 162 leaves, illustrated with six small illustrations, the _Book of Good Manners_, the first edition of the _Directorium Sacerdotum_, and the _Speculum Vitæ Christi_. During 1487 also he had printed for him at Paris an edition of the _Sarum Missal_, from the press of George Maynyal, the first book in which he used his well-known device. The second edition of the _Golden Legend_ is believed to have been published in 1488, and to about the same time belongs the Indulgence which Henry Bradshaw discovered in the University Library, Cambridge, and which seems to have been struck off in a hurry on the nearest piece of blank paper, which happened to be the last page of a copy of the _Colloquium peccatoris et Crucifixi J. C._, printed at Antwerp. This was not the only remarkable find which that master of the art of bibliography made in connection with Caxton. On a waste sheet of a copy of the _Fifteen Oes_, he noticed what appeared to be a set off of another book, and on closer inspection this turned out to be a page of a Book of Hours, of which no copy has ever been found. It appeared to have been printed in type 5, was surrounded by borders, and was no doubt the edition which Wynkyn de Worde reprinted in 1494.

In 1489 Caxton began to use another type known as No. 6, cast from the matrices of No. 2 and 2*, but a shade smaller, and easily distinguishable by the lowercase 'w,' which is entirely different in character from that used in the earlier fount. With this he printed on the 14th July 1489, the _Faytts of Armes and Chivalry_, and between that date and the day of his death three romances, the _Foure Sons of Aymon_, _Blanchardin_, and _Eneydos_; the second editions of _Reynard the Fox_, the _Book of Courtesy_, the _Mirror of the World_, and the _Directorium Sacerdotum_, and the third edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_. To the same period belong the editions of the _Art and Craft to Know Well to Die_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Vitas Patrum_.

But in addition to type 6, which Blades believed to be the last used by Caxton, there is evidence of his having possessed two other founts during the latter part of his life. With one of them, type No. 7 (see E. G. Duff, _Early English Printing_), somewhat resembling types Nos. 3 and 5, he printed two editions of the _Indulgence of Johannes de Gigliis_ in 1489, and it was also used for the sidenotes to the _Speculum Vitæ Christi_, printed in 1494 by Wynkyn de Worde. Type No. 8 was also a black letter of the same character, smaller than No. 3, and distinguished from any other of Caxton's founts by the short, rounded, and tailless letter 'y' and the set of capitals with dots. He used it in the _Liber Festivalis_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Fifteen Oes_, his only extant book printed with borders, and it was afterwards used by Wynkyn de Worde.

Caxton died in the year 1491, after a long, busy, and useful life. His record is indeed a noble one. After spending the greater part of his life in following the trade to which he was apprenticed, with all its active and onerous duties, he, at the time of life when most men begin to think of rest and quiet, set to work to learn the art of printing books. Nor was he content with this, but he devoted all the time that he could spare to editing and translating for his press, and according to Wynkyn de Worde it was 'at the laste daye of his lyff' that he finished the version of the _Lives of the Fathers_, which De Worde issued in 1495. His work as an editor and translator shows him to have been a man of extensive reading, fairly acquainted with the French and Dutch languages, and to have possessed not only an earnest purpose, but with it a quiet sense of humour, that crops up like ore in a vein of rock in many of his prologues.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--From Caxton's 'Fifteen Oes.' (Type 6.)]

Of his private life we know nothing, but the 'Mawde Caxston' who figures in the churchwarden's accounts of St. Margaret's is generally believed to have been his wife. His will has not yet been discovered, though it very likely exists among the uncalendared documents at Westminster Abbey, from which Mr. Scott has already gleaned a few records relating to him, though none of biographical interest. We know, however, from the parish accounts of St. Margaret's, Westminster, that he left to that church fifteen copies of the _Golden Legend_, twelve of which were sold at prices varying between 6s. 8d. and 5s. 4d.

Caxton used only one device, a simple square block with his initials W. C. cut upon it, and certain hieroglyphics said to stand for the figures 74, with a border at the top and bottom. It was probably of English workmanship, as those found in the books of foreign printers were much more finely cut. This block, which Caxton did not begin to use until 1487, afterwards passed to his successor, who made it the basis of several elaborate variations.

Upon the death of Caxton in 1491, his business came into the hands of his chief workman, Wynkyn de Worde. From the letters of naturalisation which this printer took out in 1496, we learn that he was a native of Lorraine. It was suggested by Herbert that he was one of Caxton's original workmen, and came with him to England, and this has recently been confirmed by the discovery of a document among the records at Westminster, proving that his wife rented a house from the Abbey as early as 1480. In any case there is little doubt that Wynkyn de Worde had been in intimate association with Caxton during the greater part of his career as a printer, and when Caxton died he seems to have taken over the whole business just as it stood, continuing to live at the Red Pale until 1500, and to use the types which Caxton had been using in his latest books. This fact led Blades to ascribe several books to Caxton which were probably not printed until after his death. These are _The Chastising of Gods Children_, _The Book of Courtesye_, and the _Treatise of Love_, printed with type No. 6; but, in addition to these, two other books, probably in the press at the time of Caxton's death, were issued from the Westminster office without a printer's name, but printed in a type resembling type 4*. These are an edition of the _Golden Legend_ and the _Life of St. Catherine of Sienna_. Wynkyn de Worde's name is found for the first time in the _Liber Festivalis_, printed in 1493. In the following year was issued Walter Hylton's _Scala Perfectionis_, and a reprint of Bonaventura's _Speculum Vite Christi_, the sidenotes to which were printed in Caxton's type No. 7, which de Worde does not seem to have used in any other book. Besides this, there was the _Sarum Horæ_, no doubt a reprint of Caxton's edition now lost. He used for these books Caxton's type No. 8, with the tailless 'y' and the dotted capitals. Speaking of this type in his _Early Printed Books_, Mr. E. G. Duff points out its close resemblance to that used by the Paris printers P. Levet and Jean Higman in 1490, and argues that it was either obtained from them or from the type-cutter who cut their founts.[1]

To the year 1495 belongs the _Vitas Patrum_, the book of which Caxton had finished the translation on the day of his death, and beside this, there were reprints of the _Polychronicon_ and the _Directorium Sacerdotum_. The reprint of the _Boke of St. Albans_, which was issued in 1496, is noticeable as being printed in the type which De Worde obtained from Godfried van Os, the Gouda printer. This broad square set letter is not found in any other book of De Worde's, though he continued to use a set of initial letters which he obtained from the same printer for many years.

Among other books printed in 1496, were _Dives and Pauper_, a folio, and several quartos such as the _Abbey of the Holy Ghost_, the _Meditations of St. Bernard_, and the _Liber Festialis_. In 1497 we find the _Chronicles of England_, and in 1498 an edition of Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_, a second edition of the _Morte d'Arthur_, and another of the _Golden Legend_, in fact nearly all De Worde's dated books up to 1500 were reprints of works issued by Caxton. But amongst the undated books we notice many new works, such as Lydgate's _Assembly of Gods_, and _Sege of Thebes_, Skelton's _Bowghe of Court_, _The Three Kings of Cologne_, and several school books.

In 1499 De Worde printed the _Liber Equivocorum_ of Joannes de Garlandia, using for it a very small Black Letter making nine and a half lines to the inch, probably obtained from Paris. This type was generally kept for scholastic books, and in addition to the book above noted, Wynkyn de Worde printed with it, in the same year or the year following, an _Ortus Vocabulorum_. From the time when he succeeded to Caxton's business down to the year 1500, in which he left Westminster and settled in Fleet Street, De Worde printed at least a hundred books, the bulk of them undated.

As will be seen, several printers from the Low Countries seem to have come to England soon after Caxton. The year after he settled at Westminster, a book was printed at Oxford without printer's name, and with a misprint of the date, that has set bibliographers by the ears ever since. This book was the _Exposicio sancti Jeromini us simbolum apostolorum_, and the colophon ran, 'Impressa Oxonie et finita anno domini M.cccc.lxviij., xvij. die decembris.' The facts that two other books that are dated 1479 (the _Aegidius de originali peccato_ and _Sextus ethicorum Aristotelis_) have many points in common with the _Exposicio_, that the _Exposicio_ has been found bound with other books of 1478, and that the dropping of an x from the date in a colophon is not an uncommon misprint, have led to the conclusion that the _Exposicio_ was printed in 1478 and not 1468. The printer of these first Oxford books is believed to have been Theodoric Rood of Cologne, whose name appeared in the colophon to the _De Anima_ of Aristotle, printed at Oxford in 1481. This was followed in 1482 by a _Commentary on the Lamentation of Jeremiah_, by John Lattebury, and later editions of these two books are distinguished by a handsome woodcut border printed round the first page of the text.

About 1483 Rood took as a partner Thomas Hunt, a stationer of Oxford, and together they issued John Anwykyll's Latin Grammar, together with the _Vulgaria Terencii_, Richard Rolle of Hampole's _Explanationes super lectiones beati Job_, a sermon of Augustine's, of which the only known copy is in the British Museum, a collection of treatises upon logic, one of which is by Roger Swyneshede, the first edition of _Lyndewode's Provincial Constitutions_ (a large folio of 366 leaves with a woodcut, the earliest example found in any Oxford book), and the _Epistles of Phalaris_, with a lengthy colophon in Latin verse. The last book to appear from the press was the _Liber Festivalis_ by John Mirk, a folio of 174 leaves, containing eleven large woodcuts and five smaller ones, apparently meant for an edition of the _Golden Legend_, as they were cut down to fit the _Festial_. After the appearance of this book, printing at Oxford suddenly ceased, and it has been surmised that Theodoric Rood returned to Cologne. Altogether the Oxford press lasted for eight years, and fifteen books remain to testify to its activity. In these, three founts of type were used, the first two having all the characteristics of the Cologne printers, while the third shows the influence of Rood's residence in England. A full account of these will be found in Mr. Falconer Madan's admirable work _The Early Oxford Press_.

The St. Albans Press started in 1479. Only eight books are known with this imprint, not all of them perfect, none give the name of the printer, and only one has a device. Most of them are scholastic books, printed for the use of the Grammar School. These included the _Augustini Dati elegancie_, a quarto, dated 1480, the _Rhetorica Nova_, which Caxton was printing at Westminster at the same time, and Antonius Andreæ _super Logica Aristotelis_. But in addition to these, two other notable works came from this press, the _Chronicles of England_ and the _Book of St. Albans_.

Out of the four types which are found in these books, two at least were Caxton's type No. 2 and type No. 3. There was plainly some connection between the two offices, and as it was a frequent custom for monasteries to subsidize printers to print their service books, it seems possible that Caxton may have had some hand in establishing this press, and that it was for St. Albans Abbey that he cast type No. 3, which (putting aside its subordinate employment for headlines) we find used exclusively for service books.

Three years after Caxton had settled at Westminster, viz. in 1480, an _Indulgence_ was issued by John Kendale, asking for aid against the Turks. Caxton printed some copies of this, and others are found in a small neat type, and are ascribed to the press of John Lettou. _Lettou_ is an old form of Lithuania, but whether John Lettou came from Lithuania is not known.

In this same year 1480, Lettou published the _Quæstiones Antonii Andreæ super duodecim libros metaphysicæ Aristotelis_, a small folio of 106 leaves, printed in double columns, of which only one perfect copy is known, that in the Library of Sion College. The type is small, and remarkable from its numerous abbreviations. Mr. E. G. Duff in his _Early Printed Books_, p. 161, speaks of its great resemblance to those of Matthias Moravus, a Naples printer, and suggests a common origin for their types. In his _Early English Printing_, on the other hand, he writes: 'There are very strong reasons for believing that he [Lettou] is the same person as the Johannes Bremer, _alias_ Bulle, who is mentioned by Hain as having printed two books at Rome in 1478 and 1479. The type which this printer used is identical (with the exception of one of the capital letters) with that used in the books printed by John Lettou in London.'

A few years later Lettou was joined by William de Machlinia. They were chiefly associated in printing law-books, but whether they had any patent from the king cannot be discovered. Only one of the five books they are known to have printed, the _Tenores Novelli_, has any colophon, and none of them has any date. The address they gave was 'juxta ecclesiam omnium sanctorum,' but as there were several churches so dedicated, the locality cannot be fixed.

We next find Machlinia working alone, but out of the twenty-two books or editions that have been traced to his press, only four contain his name, and none have a date. All we can say is that he printed from two addresses, 'in Holborn,' and 'By Flete-brigge.' Mr. Duff inclines to the opinion that the 'Flete-brigge' is the earlier, but it seems almost hopeless to attempt to place these books in any chronological order from their typographical peculiarities.

In the Fleet-Bridge type are two books by Albertus Magnus, the _Liber aggregationis_ and the _De Secretis Mulierum_. The type is of a black letter character, not unlike that in which the _Nova Statuta_ were printed, and is distinguishable by the peculiar shape of the capital M. In the same type we find the _Revelation of St. Nicholas to a Monk of Evesham_, a reprint of the _Tenores Novelli_, and some fragments of a _Sarum Horæ_ found in old bindings; a woodcut border was used in some parts of it. Besides these Machlinia printed an edition of the _Vulgaria Terentii_.

A larger number of books is found in the Holborn types, the most important being the _Chronicles of England_, of which only one perfect copy is known.

The _Speculum Christiani_ is interesting as containing specimens of early poetry, and _The Treatise on the Pestilence_, of Kamitus or Canutus, bishop of Aarhus, ran to three editions, one of which contains a title-page, and was therefore presumably printed late in Machlinia's career, _i.e._ about 1490.

In addition to these, there were three law-books, the _Statutes of Richard III._, and several theological and scholastic works. One of the founts of type used by Machlinia is of peculiar interest, by reason of its close resemblance to Caxton's type No. 2*, and its still greater similarity to the type used by Jean Brito of Bruges.

Machlinia's business seems to have been taken over by Richard Pynson. There is no direct evidence of this, but like Machlinia he took up the business of printing law-books (being the first printer in this country to receive a royal patent); he is found using a woodcut border used in Machlinia's _Horæ_; and, in addition to this, waste from Machlinia books has been found in Pynson bindings.

Richard Pynson was a native of Normandy. He had business relations with Le Talleur, a printer of Rouen. His methods also were those of Rouen, rather than of any English master. Wherever he came from, Richard Pynson was the finest printer this country had yet seen, and no one, until the appearance of John Day, approached him in excellence of work.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pynson's Mark.]

The earliest examples of his press appear to be a fragment of a _Donatus_ in the Bodleian and the _Canterbury Tales_ of Chaucer. The type he used for these was a bold, unevenly cast fount of black letter, somewhat resembling that used by Machlinia at Fleet Bridge. The _Chaucer_, however, contained a second fount of small sloping Gothic.

The first book of Pynson found with a date is a _Doctrinale_, printed in November 1492, now in the John Rylands Library. This was followed by the _Dialogue of Dives and Pauper_, printed in 1493 with a new type, distinguishable by the sharp angular finish to the letter 'h.' Several quartos without date were printed in the same type.

From this time till 1500, the majority of his books were printed in the small type of the _Chaucer_.

Another printer who worked at this time was Julian Notary. He was associated in the production of books with Jean Barbier, and another whose initials, J. H., are believed to be those of J. Huvin, a printer of Paris. They established themselves in London at the sign of St. Thomas the Apostle, and their most important book was the _Questiones Alberti de modis significandi_, which they followed up in 1497 with an octavo edition of the _Horæ ad usum Sarum_. In 1498 Barbier and Notary removed to King Street, Westminster, where they printed in folio a _Missale ad usum Sarum_. Soon afterwards Notary was printing by himself, his partner, Barbier, having returned to France. Two quartos, the _Liber Festivalis_ and _Quattuor Sermones_, are all that can be traced to his press in 1499, and a small edition of the _Horæ ad usum Sarum_ is the sole record of this work in 1500.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Notary's Mark.]

Notary was also a bookbinder, and some of his stamped bindings are still met with.

[Footnote 1: E. G. Duff, _Early Printed Books_, pp. 84 and 139.]