PART III.
_SYNTAX_.
INTRODUCTORY.
[Sidenote: _By way of introduction._]
388. Syntax is from a Greek word meaning _order_ or _arrangement_.
Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express clearly the intended meaning.
[Sidenote: _Ground covered by syntax._]
380. Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually divide syntax into the two general heads,--agreement and government.
Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and noun.
Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are said to govern words by having them in the objective case.
390. Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:--
Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected forms: hence the _position_ of words in a sentence is of little grammatical importance.
[Sidenote: _Essential point in English syntax._]
English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon _the meaning_ and _the logical connection_ of words rather than upon their form: consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms.
For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is ambiguous. _Savage_ may be the subject, following the regular order of subject; or _settler_ may be the subject, the order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one stood first.
[Sidenote: _Why study syntax?_]
391. There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a department of grammar,--
_First_, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic (peculiar to our own language).
_Second_, To find out the _logical methods_ which control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side by side in good usage.
As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the preposition _of_, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good English.
Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would require _him_ instead of _he_ after the preposition; yet the expression is sustained by good authority.
[Sidenote: _Some rules not rigid._]
392. In some cases, authorities--that is, standard writers--differ as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes verb and subject, etc.
When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given in the following pages.
[Sidenote: _The basis of syntax._]
393. Our treatment of syntax will be an endeavor to record the best usage of the present time on important points; and nothing but important points will be considered, for it is easy to confuse a student with too many obtrusive _don'ts_.
The constructions presented as general will be justified by quotations from _modern writers of English_ who are regarded as "standard;" that is, writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior, and whose judgment, therefore, will be accepted by those in quest of authoritative opinion.
Reference will also be made to spoken English when its constructions differ from those of the literary language, and to vulgar English when it preserves forms which were once, but are not now, good English.
It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire correctness is to watch good usage _everywhere_, and imitate it.
NOUNS.
394. Nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objective cases: hence no mistake can be made in using them. But some remarks are required concerning the use of the possessive case.
[Sidenote: _Use of the possessive. Joint possession._]
395. When two or more possessives modify the same noun, or indicate joint ownership or possession, the possessive sign is added to the last noun only; for example,--
Live your _king and country's_ best support.--ROWE.
Woman, _sense and nature's_ easy fool.--BYRON.
_Oliver and Boyd's_ printing office.--MCCULLOCH.
_Adam and Eve's_ morning hymn.--MILTON.
In _Beaumont and Fletcher's_ "Sea Voyage," Juletta tells, etc.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _Separate possession._]
396. When two or more possessives stand before the same noun, but imply separate possession or ownership, the possessive sign is used with each noun; as,--
He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the _storm's_ and _prelate's_ rage.--MARVELL
Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in _Anne's_ and _George's_ time?--THACKERAY.
_Levi's_ station in life was the receipt of custom; and _Peter's_, the shore of Galilee; and _Paul's_, the antechamber of the High Priest.--RUSKIN.
Swift did not keep _Stella's_ letters. He kept _Bolingbroke's,_ and _Pope's_, and _Harley's_, and _Peterborough's_.--THACKERAY.
An actor in one of _Morton's_ or _Kotzebue's_ plays.--MACAULAY.
Putting _Mr. Mill's_ and _Mr. Bentham's_ principles together. --_Id._
397. The possessive preceding the gerund will be considered under the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408).
PRONOUNS.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS.
398. Since most of the personal pronouns, together with the relative _who_, have separate forms for nominative and objective use, there are two general rules that require attention.
[Sidenote: _General rules._]
(1) The _nominative use_ is usually marked by the nominative form of the pronoun.
(2) The _objective use_ is usually marked by the objective form of the pronoun.
These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literary English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; others are generally, if not universally, sanctioned.
[Sidenote: _Objective for the nominative._]
399. The objective is sometimes found instead of the nominative in the following instances:--
(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no notice is taken of the proper form to be used as subject; as,--
He and _me_ once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay out to Boonville.--WHITCHER, _Bedott Papers._
It seems strange to me that _them_ that preach up the doctrine don't admire one who carrys it out.--_Josiah Allens Wife._
(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the words is misunderstood; for example, "_Whom_ think ye that I am?" (In this, _whom_ is the complement after the verb _am_, and should be the nominative form, _who_.) "The young Harper, _whom_ they agree was rather nice-looking" (_whom_ is the subject of the verb _was_).
Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with _than_ or _as_, the real thought being forgotten; thus,--
But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such a one as _her_.--TROLLOPE.
This should be "as _she_," because the full expression would be "such a one as _she is_."
400. Still, the last expression has the support of many good writers, as shown in the following examples:--
She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or _me_.--THACKERAY.
No mightier than thyself or _me_.--SHAKESPEARE.
Lin'd with Giants deadlier than _'em_ all.--POPE.
But he must be a stronger than _thee_.--SOUTHEY.
Not to render up my soul to such as _thee_.--BYRON.
I shall not learn my duty from such as _thee_.--FIELDING.
[Sidenote: _A safe rule._]
It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, as illustrated in the following sentences:--
If so, they are yet holier than _we_.--RUSKIN.
Who would suppose it is the game of such as _he_?--DICKENS.
Do we see The robber and the murd'rer weak as _we_? --MILTON.
I have no other saint than _thou_ to pray to.--LONGFELLOW.
[Sidenote: "_Than_ whom."]
401. One exception is to be noted. The expression than whom seems to be used universally instead of "than _who_." There is no special reason for this, but such is the fact; for example,--
One I remember especially,--one _than whom_ I never met a bandit more gallant.--THACKERAY.
The camp of Richard of England, _than whom_ none knows better how to do honor to a noble foe.--SCOTT.
She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate a steward _than whom_ no one living was supposed to be more competent.--PARTON.
[Sidenote: "_It was_ he" _or_ "_It was_ him"?]
402. And there is one question about which grammarians are not agreed, namely, whether the nominative or the objective form should be used in the predicate after _was_, _is_, _are_, and the other forms of the verb _be_.
It may be stated with assurance that the literary language _prefers the nominative_ in this instance, as,--
For there was little doubt that it was _he_.--KINGSLEY.
But still it is not _she_.--MACAULAY.
And it was _he_ That made the ship to go. --COLERIDGE.
In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and America, the objective form is regularly found, unless a special, careful effort is made to adopt the standard usage. The following are examples of spoken English from conversations:--
"Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"--"That's _her_."--KINGSLEY.
"Who's there?"--"_Me_, Patrick the Porter."--WINTHROP.
"If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be _me_."--WM. BLACK.
The usage is too common to need further examples.
Exercise.
Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, giving reasons from the analysis of the sentence:--
1. _Whom_ they were I really cannot specify.
2. Truth is mightier than _us_ all.
3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is _me_.
4. They were the very two individuals _whom_ we thought were far away.
5. "Seems to me as if _them_ as writes must hev a kinder gift fur it, now."
6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of _whomsoever_ opens to the stranger.
7. It is not _me_ you are in love with.
8. You know _whom_ it is that you thus charge.
9. The same affinity will exert its influence on _whomsoever_ is as noble as these men and women.
10. It was _him_ that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad figure but as an author.
11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or _me_.
[Sidenote: Me _in exclamations_.]
403. It is to be remembered that the objective form is used in exclamations which turn the attention upon a person; as,--
Unhappy _me!_ That I cannot risk my own worthless life.--KINGSLEY
Alas! miserable _me_! Alas! unhappy Señors!--_Id._
Ay _me_! I fondly dream--had ye been there.--MILTON.
[Sidenote: Nominative for the objective.]
404. The rule for the objective form is wrongly departed from--
(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, or preposition which governs it; as, "_He_ that can doubt whether he be anything or no, I speak not to" (_he_ should be _him_, the object of _to_); "I saw men very like him at each of the places mentioned, but not _he_" (_he_ should be _him_, object of _saw_).
(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs, verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts are cleared between you and I" (for _you_ and _me_); or this, "Let _thou_ and _I_ the battle try" (for _thee_ and _me_, or _us_).
(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used in apposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, _he_ who has steeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of "_him_ who," the word being in apposition with _murderer_).
[Sidenote: _Exception 1_, who _interrogative_.]
405. The interrogative pronoun who may be said to have no objective form in spoken English. We regularly say, "_Who_ did you see?" or, "_Who_ were they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To _whom_ were they talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and is usually avoided.
In literary English the objective form _whom_ is _preferred_ for objective use; as,--
Knows he now to _whom_ he lies under obligation?--SCOTT.
What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH.
Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the work of the objective use; for example,--
My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_.--GOLDSMITH.
_Who_ have we here?--_Id._
_Who_ should I meet the other day but my old friend.--STEELE.
He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows _who_.--KINGSLEY.
_Who_ have we got here?--SMOLLETT.
_Who_ should we find there but Eustache?--MARRVAT.
_Who_ the devil is he talking to?--SHERIDAN.
[Sidenote: _Exception 2, but_ he, _etc._]
406. It is a well-established usage to put the nominative form, as well as the objective, after the preposition _but_ (sometimes _save_); as,--
All were knocked down but _us_ two.--KINGSLEY.
Thy shores are empires, changed in all save _thee._--BYRON.
Rich are the sea gods:--who gives gifts but _they?_--EMERSON.
The Chieftains then Returned rejoicing, all but _he_. --SOUTHEY
No man strikes him but _I_.--KINGSLEY.
None, save _thou_ and thine, I've sworn, Shall be left upon the morn.
BYRON.
Exercise.
Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons from the analysis of the quotation:--
1. _Thou_, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign.
2. Let you and _I_ look at these, for they say there are none such in the world.
3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in half an hour, and they know that as well as _me_."
4. Markland, _who_, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls three contemporaries of great eminence.
5. They are coming for a visit to _she_ and _I_.
6. They crowned him long ago; But _who_ they got to put it on Nobody seems to know.
7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the pedestrians _they_ who had business with St. Bartholomew.
8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves to Yorkshire and _he_ who moves to Canada.
9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock--_he_ of the silver plates.
10. _Ye_ against whose familiar names not yet The fatal asterisk of death is set, _Ye_ I salute.
11. It can't be worth much to _they_ that hasn't larning.
12. To send me away for a whole year--_I_ who had never crept from under the parental wing--was a startling idea.
II. POSSESSIVE FORMS.
[Sidenote: _As antecedent of a relative._]
407. The possessive forms of personal pronouns and also of nouns are sometimes found as antecedents of relatives. This usage is not frequent. The antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as the use of the possessive is less likely to be clear.
We should augur ill of any _gentleman's_ property to whom this happened every other day in his drawing room.--RUSKIN.
For _their_ sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing me.--C.B. BROWN.
Now by _His_ name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by _hers_ whom I most worship on earth.--SCOTT.
He saw her smile and slip money into the _man's_ hand who was ordered to ride behind the coach.--THACKERAY.
He doubted whether _his_ signature whose expectations were so much more bounded would avail.--DE QUINCEY.
For boys with hearts as bold As _his_ who kept the bridge so well. --MACAULAY.
[Sidenote: _Preceding a gerund,--possessive, or objective?_]
408. Another point on which there is some variance in usage is such a construction as this: "We heard of _Brown_ studying law," or "We heard of _Brown's_ studying law."
That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always be used with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closely scrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a difference between them: saying that in the first one _studying_ is a participle, and the meaning is, _We heard of Brown_, [who was] _studying law_; and that in the second, _studying_ is a gerund, object of _heard of_, and modified by the possessive case as any other substantive would be.
[Sidenote: _Why both are found._]
But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types of sentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has the possessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use of the objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of regarding the _person_ as the chief object before the mind: the possessive use is more modern, in keeping with the disposition to proceed from the material thing to the _abstract idea_, and to make the action substantive the chief idea before the mind.
In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive of the pronoun is more common than that of the noun.
[Sidenote: _Objective_.]
The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy _patron_ falling from a chair.--SCOTT.
He spoke of _some one_ coming to drink tea with him, and asked why it was not made.--THACKERAY.
The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to _Shakespeare_ having been born in her house.--IRVING.
The fact of the _Romans_ not burying their dead within the city walls proper is a strong reason, etc.--BREWER.
I remember _Wordsworth_ once laughingly reporting to me a little personal anecdote.--DE QUINCEY.
Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the _reader_ casting about in alarm for my ultimate meaning.--RUSKIN.
We think with far less pleasure of _Cato_ tearing out his entrails than of _Russell_ saying, as he turned away from his wife, that the bitterness of death was past.--MACAULAY.
There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a _man_ being sent into this earth.--CARLYLE.
[Sidenote: _Possessive_.]
There is no use for any _man's_ taking up his abode in a house built of glass.--CARLYLE.
As to _his_ having good grounds on which to rest an action for life.--DICKENS.
The case was made known to me by a _man's_ holding out the little creature dead.--DE QUINCEY.
There may be reason for a _savage's_ preferring many kinds of food which the civilized man rejects.--THOREAU.
It informs me of the previous circumstances of _my_ laying aside my clothes.--C. BROCKDEN BROWN.
The two strangers gave me an account of _their_ once having been themselves in a somewhat similar condition.--AUDUBON.
There was a chance of _their_ being sent to a new school, where there were examinations.--RUSKIN
This can only be by _his_ preferring truth to his past apprehension of truth.--EMERSON
III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS.
409. The pronouns of the third person usually refer back to some preceding noun or pronoun, and ought to agree with them in person, number, and gender.
[Sidenote: _Watch for the real antecedent._]
There are two constructions in which the student will need to watch the pronoun,--when the antecedent, in one person, is followed by a phrase containing a pronoun of a different person; and when the antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun following cannot indicate exactly the gender. Examples of these constructions are,--
_Those_ of us who can only maintain _themselves_ by continuing in some business or salaried office.--RUSKIN.
Suppose the life and fortune of _every one_ of us would depend on _his_ winning or losing a game of chess.--HUXLEY.
If _any one_ did not know it, it was _his_ own fault.--CABLE.
_Everybody_ had _his_ own life to think of.--DEFOE.
410. In such a case as the last three sentences,--when the antecedent includes both masculine and feminine, or is a distributive word, taking in each of many persons,--the preferred method is to put the pronoun following in the masculine singular; if the antecedent is neuter, preceded by a distributive, the pronoun will be neuter singular.
The following are additional examples:--
The next _correspondent_ wants you to mark out a whole course of life for _him_.--HOLMES.
Every _city_ threw open _its_ gates.--DE QUINCEY.
Every _person_ who turns this page has _his_ own little diary.--THACKERAY.
The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. --BRYANT.
[Sidenote: _Avoided: By using both pronouns._]
Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the feminine pronoun; for example,--
Not the feeblest _grandame_, not a mowing _idiot_, but uses what spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and triumph in _his or her_ opinion.--EMERSON.
It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every _man_ and _woman_ of us being one of the two players in a game of _his or her_ own.--HUXLEY.
_By using the plural pronoun._
411. Another way of referring to an antecedent which is a distributive pronoun or a noun modified by a distributive adjective, is to use the plural of the pronoun following. This is not considered the best usage, the logical analysis requiring the singular pronoun in each case; but the construction is frequently found _when the antecedent includes or implies both genders_. The masculine does not really represent a feminine antecedent, and the expression _his or her_ is avoided as being cumbrous.
Notice the following examples of the plural:--
_Neither_ of the sisters _were_ very much deceived.--THACKERAY.
_Every one_ must judge of _their_ own feelings.--BYRON.
Had the doctor been contented to take my dining tables, as _anybody_ in _their_ senses would have done.--AUSTEN.
If the part deserve any comment, every considering _Christian_ will make it _themselves_ as they go.--DEFOE.
_Every person's_ happiness depends in part upon the respect _they_ meet in the world.--PALEY.
_Every nation_ have _their_ refinements--STERNE.
_Neither_ gave vent to _their_ feelings in words.--SCOTT.
_Each_ of the nations acted according to _their_ national custom.--PALGRAVE.
The sun, which pleases _everybody_ with it and with _themselves_.--RUSKIN.
Urging _every one_ within reach of your influence to be neat, and giving _them_ means of being so.--_Id._
_Everybody_ will become of use in _their_ own fittest way.--_Id._
_Everybody_ said _they_ thought it was the newest thing there.--WENDELL PHILLIPS.
Struggling for life, _each_ almost bursting _their_ sinews to force the other off.--PAULDING.
_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let _them_ break it off.--_Bible._
_Nobody_ knows what it is to lose a friend, till _they_ have lost him.--FIELDING.
Where she was gone, or what was become of her, _no one_ could take upon _them_ to say.--SHERIDAN.
I do not mean that I think _any one_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health.--ADDISON.
Exercise.--In the above sentences, _unless both genders are implied_, change the pronoun to agree with its antecedent.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES.
[Sidenote: _What these terms mean._]
412. As to their conjunctive use, the definite relatives who, which, and that may be coördinating or restrictive.
A relative, when coördinating, or unrestrictive, is equivalent to a conjunction (_and_, _but_, _because_, etc.) and a personal pronoun. It adds a new statement to what precedes, that being considered already clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, _who_ went away." This means, "I gave it to the beggar [we know which one], _and he_ went away."
A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and make clear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the antecedent, and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a thought necessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a beggar _who_ stood at the gate." It defines _beggar_.
413. It is sometimes contended that who and which should always be coördinating, and that always restrictive; but, according to the practice of every modern writer, the usage must be stated as follows:--
[Sidenote: _A loose rule the only one to be formulated._]
Who and which are either coördinating or restrictive, the taste of the writer and regard for euphony being the guide.
That is in most cases restrictive, the coördinating use not being often found among careful writers.
Exercise.
In the following examples, tell whether _who_, _which_, and _that_ are restrictive or not, in each instance:--
[Sidenote: Who.]
1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near Ernest.--HAWTHORNE.
2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who were comparing the features with the face on the mountain side.--_Id._
3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor.--HOLMES.
4. Yet how many are there who up, down, and over England are saying, etc.--H.W. BEECHER
5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or seventy years old.--THOREAU.
[Sidenote: Which.]
6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as much English history as Dutch.--MOTLEY.
7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras, she agreed to join the party.--DE QUINCEY.
8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the universal prostration of mind.--_Id._
9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first, which Mr. Hare has printed.--CARLYLE.
10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in hand, and it is called logic.--NEWMAN.
[Sidenote: That.]
11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport, that were often vicious.--DE QUINCEY.
12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose everywhere about him in the greatest variety.--ADDISON.
13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew stronger and sweeter in proportion as he advanced.--_Id._
14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves.--IRVING.
II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT.
[Sidenote: _The rule._]
414. The general rule is, that the relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person and number.
[Sidenote: _In what sense true._]
This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does not vary for person or number. We say _I_, _you_, _he_, _they_, etc., _who_; _these_ or _that_ _which_, etc. However, the relative _carries over_ the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb following, so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with a substantive. For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to himself writes to an eternal public," _that_ is invariable as to person and number, but, because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person singular.
Notice the agreement in the following sentences:--
There is not _one_ of the company, but _myself_, who rarely _speak_ at all, but _speaks_ of him as that sort, etc.--ADDISON.
O _Time!_ who _know'st_ a lenient hand to lay Softest on sorrow's wound.--BOWLES.
Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes hardest to bear are _those_ which never _come._--LOWELL.
[Sidenote: _A disputed point._]
415. This prepares the way for the consideration of one of the vexed questions,--whether we should say, "one of the finest books that _has_ been published," or, "one of the finest books that _have_ been published."
[Sidenote: One of ... [_plural_] that who, _or_ which ... [_singular or plural_.]]
The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. --BRYANT.
Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a difference of opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be _one_ [book] _of the finest books_, with _one_ as the principal word, the true antecedent; others regard _books_ as the antecedent, and write the verb in the plural. The latter is rather more frequent, but the former has good authority.
The following quotations show both sides:--
[Sidenote: _Plural._]
He was one of the very few commanders who _appear_ to have shown equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and in improving a victory.--LECKY.
He was one of the most distinguished scientists who _have_ ever lived.--J.T.MORSE, Jr., _Franklin._
It is one of those periods which _shine_ with an unnatural and delusive splendor.--MACAULAY.
A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows which _make_ one more ashamed, etc.--HOLMES.
I am one of those who _believe_ that the real will never find an irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal.--LOWELL.
French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most powerful agencies that _have_ ever existed.--M. ARNOLD.
What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those tornadoes that _send_ us out of our course?--THACKERAY.
He is one of those that _deserve_ very well.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: _Singular._]
The fiery youth ... struck down one of those who _was_ pressing hardest.--SCOTT.
He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever _was_, when he derided the shams of society.--HOWELLS.
A rare Roundabout performance,--one of the very best that _has_ ever appeared in this series.--THACKERAY.
Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which ever _was_ published in this country.--_Id._
It is one of the errors which _has_ been diligently propagated by designing writers.--IRVING.
"I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who _is_ at the Piazza Hotel."--DICKENS.
The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which _is_ an honor to the human race.--EMERSON.
Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of any that _has_ fallen under my observation.--ADDISON.
The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls that ever gave _itself_ to the arts.--RUSKIN.
III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE.
416. Although the omission of the relative is common when it would be the object of the verb or preposition _expressed_, there is an omission which is not frequently found in careful writers; that is, when the relative word is a pronoun, object of a preposition _understood_, or is equivalent to the conjunction _when_, _where_, _whence_, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route [by which] he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he died." Notice these sentences:--
In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the sky.--SWIFT.
This is he that should marshal us the way we were going.--EMERSON.
But I by backward steps would move; And, when this dust falls to the urn, In that same state I came, return.--VAUGHAN.
Welcome the hour my aged limbs Are laid with thee to rest.--BURNS.
The night was concluded in the manner we began the morning.--GOLDSMITH.
The same day I went aboard we set sail.--DEFOE.
The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had determined on being Protector of England, at the time he was plowing the marsh lands of Cambridgeshire.--CARLYLE.
To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required time and attention.--SCOTT.
Exercise.--In the above sentences, insert the omitted conjunction or phrase, and see if the sentence is made clearer.
IV. THE RELATIVE _AS_ AFTER _SAME_.
417. It is very rarely that we find such sentences as,--
He considered...me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected the same service from me _as_ he would from another.--FRANKLIN.
This has the same effect in natural faults _as_ maiming and mutilation produce from accidents.--BURKE.
[Sidenote: _The regular construction_.]
[Sidenote: _Caution_.]
The usual way is to use the relative _as_ after _same_ if no verb follows _as;_ but, if _same_ is followed by a complete clause, _as_ is not used, but we find the relative _who, which,_ or _that_. Remember this applies only to _as_ when used as a relative.
Examples of the use of _as_ in a contracted clause:--
Looking to the same end _as_ Turner, and working in the same spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, etc.--R.W. CHURCH.
They believe the same of all the works of art, _as_ of knives, boats, looking-glasses.--ADDISON.
Examples of relatives following _same_ in full clauses:--
[Sidenote: Who.]
This is the very same rogue _who_ sold us the spectacles. --GOLDSMITH.
The same person _who_ had clapped his thrilling hands at the first representation of the Tempest.--MACAULAY.
[Sidenote: That.]
I rubbed on some of the same ointment _that_ was given me at my first arrival.--SWIFT.
[Sidenote: Which.]
For the same sound is in my ears _Which_ in those days I heard.--WORDSWORTH.
With the same minuteness _which_ her predecessor had exhibited, she passed the lamp over her face and person.--SCOTT.
V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _Anacoluthic use of_ which.]
418. There is now and then found in the pages of literature a construction which imitates the Latin, but which is usually carefully avoided. It is a use of the relative _which_ so as to make an anacoluthon, or lack of proper connection between the clauses; for example,--
_Which_, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well have staid at home.--DEFOE
_Which_ if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he would follow him to Jerusalem.--THACKERAY.
We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake them;--_which_ if they once heard, they would start up to meet us in the power of long ago.--RUSKIN.
He delivered the letter, _which_ when Mr. Thornhill had read, he said that all submission was now too late.--GOLDSMITH.
But still the house affairs would draw her thence; _Which_ ever as she could with haste dispatch, She'd come again.--SHAKESPEARE.
As the sentences stand, _which_ really has no office in the sentence: it should be changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, and this be placed in the proper clause.
Exercise.--Rewrite the above five sentences so as to make the proper grammatical connection in each.
[Sidenote: And who, and which, _etc._]
419. There is another kind of expression which slips into the lines of even standard authors, but which is always regarded as an oversight and a blemish.
The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now engaged in distributing what remains among the poorer sort, _and who_ are now thrown upon their compassion." The trouble is that such conjunctions as _and_, _but_, _or_, etc., should connect expressions of the same kind: _and who_ makes us look for a preceding _who_, but none is expressed. There are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus, (1) "Among those _who_ are poor, _and who_ are now," etc.; (2) "Among the poorer sort, _who_ are now thrown," etc.; (3) "Among the poorer sort, now thrown upon their," etc. That is,--
[Sidenote: _Direction for rewriting._]
Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out both connective and relative.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following examples according to the direction just given:--
[Sidenote: And who.]
1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed them.--HAWTHORNE.
2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and who might be introduced to the congregation as the immediate organ of his conversion.--DE QUINCEY.
3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the lowest walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble figure.--SCOTT.
4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. le Conte, and in whom I myself was not a little interested.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: But who.]
5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English by name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam.--HAWTHORNE.
6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity, but whose mind was thrown off its just bias.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: Or who.]
7. "What knight so craven, then," exclaims the chivalrous Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a thousand times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his love?"--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: And which.]
8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, and which may even be heard a mile off.--IRVING.
9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in the western counties.--PEARSON.
10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and which has never been described.--MOTLEY.
[Sidenote: But which.]
11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with itself!"--HAWTHORNE.
12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the power of dreams had reconciled into harmony.--DE QUINCEY.
[Sidenote: Or which.]
13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: That ... and which, _etc._]
420. Akin to the above is another fault, which is likewise a variation from the best usage. Two different relatives are sometimes found referring back to the same antecedent in one sentence; whereas the better practice is to choose one relative, and repeat this for any further reference.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative instead of using two for the same antecedent:--
[Sidenote: That ... who.]
1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is closed.--DE QUINCEY.
2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours, and whose examples and principles we inherit.--BEECHER.
3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest heaven!--CARLYLE.
[Sidenote: That ... which.]
4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love of his brethren.--W.E. CHANNING.
5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will remain as long as the Prometheus.--EMERSON.
6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most important difficulties to be surmounted.--HALLAM.
7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from you than from others.--SCOTT.
8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may say old civilization has established in place of goodness of heart, but which is perhaps not so different from it.--HOWELLS.
9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a century ago, was a bustling wharf,--but which is now burdened with decayed wooden warehouses.--HAWTHORNE.
10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his present condition, appeared an insult sufficient to drive the fiery monarch into a frenzy of passion.--SCOTT
[Sidenote: That which ... what.]
11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from the sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular crevices, was hung in air.--W.G. SIMMS.
[Sidenote: Such as ... which.]
12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had always dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first interpreted itself to my ear.--DE QUINCEY.
13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a chance of becoming President.--HOLMES.
[Sidenote: Such as ... whom.]
14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: Which ... that ... that.]
15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested notion of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so forcibly upon me.--DEFOE.
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: Each other, one another.]
421. The student is sometimes troubled whether to use each other or one another in expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whether either one refers to a certain number of persons or objects, whether or not the two are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of the following sentences:--
They [Ernest and the poet] led _one another_, as it were, into the high pavilion of their thoughts.--HAWTHORNE.
Men take _each other's_ measure when they meet for the first time.--EMERSON.
You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of _each other_?--THACKERAY.
England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war with _one another_, carrying off _each other's_ cattle and wives.--BREWER
The topics follow _each other_ in the happiest order.--MACAULAY.
The Peers at a conference begin to pommel _each other_.--_Id._
We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish enough to thumb _each other's_ books out of circulating libraries.--RUSKIN.
The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us not increase them by dissension among _each other_.--GOLDSMITH.
In a moment we were all shaking hands with _one another_.--DICKENS.
The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against _each other._--RUSKIN.
[Sidenote: _Distributives_ either _and_ neither.]
422. By their original meaning, either and neither refer to only two persons or objects; as, for example,--
Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold--or his corn. Assume that no one is in want of _either_.--RUSKIN
Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own.--HAWTHORNE.
[Sidenote: _Use of_ any.]
Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which case any should be used instead; as,--
Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? was it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that _neither_ of these causes, that not all combined, were able to blast this bud of hope?--EVERETT.
Once I took such delight in Montaigne ...; before that, in Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the pages of _either_ of them languidly, whilst I still cherish their genius.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: Any _usually plural_.]
423. The adjective pronoun any is nearly always regarded as plural, as shown in the following sentences:--
If _any_ of you _have_ been accustomed to look upon these hours as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, etc.--BEECHER
Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, _any_ of his friends had died, he had been punctual in doing honor to _their_ memory.--STIRLING.
But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, when _any_ of them _are_ so good as to visit me.--FRANKLIN.
Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's children, I mean that _any_ of them _are_ dead?--THACKERAY.
In earlier Modern English, _any_ was often singular; as,--
If _any_, speak; for _him_ have I offended.--SHAKESPEARE.
If _any_ of you lack wisdom, let _him_ ask of God.--_Bible_.
Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; as,--
Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own descriptions as _any_ that _reads_ them can be.--BURKE.
[Sidenote: _Caution_.]
The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective _any_, which is plural as often as singular.
[Sidenote: None _usually plural_.]
424. The adjective pronoun none is, in the prose of the present day, usually plural, although it is historically a contraction of _ne ān_ (not one). Examples of its use are,--
In earnest, if ever man was; as _none_ of the French philosophers _were_.--CARLYLE.
_None_ of Nature's powers _do_ better service.--PROF. DANA
One man answers some question which _none_ of his contemporaries _put_, and is isolated.--EMERSON.
_None obey_ the command of duty so well as those who are free from the observance of slavish bondage.--SCOTT.
Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's children, I mean that any of them are dead? _None are_, that I know of.--THACKERAY.
Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I think _none_ of them _are_ so good to eat as some to smell.--THOREAU.
The singular use of _none_ is often found in the Bible; as,--
_None_ of them _was_ cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian.--LUKE iv 27
Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in prose, and less rarely in poetry; for example,--
Perhaps _none_ of our Presidents since Washington _has_ stood so firm in the confidence of the people.--LOWELL
In signal _none his_ steed should spare.--SCOTT
Like the use of _any_, the pronoun _none_ should be distinguished from the adjective _none_, which is used absolutely, and hence is more likely to confuse the student.
Compare with the above the following sentences having the adjective _none_:--
Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though _none_ [no sky] was visible overhead.--THOREAU
The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and _none_ [no fires] were lighted in their own dwellings.--PRESCOTT
[Sidenote: All _singular and plural_.]
425. The pronoun all has the singular construction when it means _everything_; the plural, when it means _all persons_: for example,--
[Sidenote: _Singular_.]
The light troops thought ... that _all was_ lost.--PALGRAVE
_All was_ won on the one side, and _all was_ lost on the other.--BAYNE
Having done _all_ that _was_ just toward others.--NAPIER
[Sidenote: _Plural_.]
But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged leniently by _all_ who _remember_, etc.--PEARSON.
When _all were_ gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc.--LINGARD
_All_ who did not understand French _were_ compelled, etc.--McMASTER.
[Sidenote: Somebody's else, _or_ somebody else's?]
426. The compounds somebody else, any one else, nobody else, etc., are treated as units, and the apostrophe is regularly added to the final word _else_ instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression _somebody's else_, and Ford has _nobody's else_, but the regular usage is shown in the following selections:--
A boy who is fond of _somebody else's_ pencil case.--G. ELIOT.
A suit of clothes like _somebody else's_.--THACKERAY.
Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as benevolently as if they were _somebody else's_.--DICKENS.
Certainly not! nor _any one else's_ ropes.--RUSKIN.
Again, my pronunciation--like _everyone else's_--is in some cases more archaic.--SWEET.
Then everybody wanted some of _somebody else's_.--RUSKIN.
His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike _anybody else's_ in the world.--N.P. WILLIS.
"Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like _somebody else's_ wantin' what you've got."--MRS. STOWE.
ADJECTIVES.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS.
[Sidenote: These sort, all manner of, _etc._]
427. The statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in number is restricted to the words this and that (with these and those), as these are the only adjectives that have separate forms for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of expressions that the concord seems to be violated,--in such as "_these sort_ of books," "_those kind_ of trees," "_all manner_ of men;" the nouns being singular, the adjectives plural. These expressions are all but universal in spoken English, and may be found not infrequently in literary English; for example,--
_These kind_ of knaves I know, which in this plainness Harbor more craft, etc.--SHAKESPEARE
All _these sort_ of things.--SHERIDAN.
I hoped we had done with _those sort_ of things.--MULOCH.
You have been so used to _those sort_ of impertinences.--SYDNEY SMITH.
Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, or _those sort_ of people.--FIELDING.
I always delight in overthrowing _those kind_ of schemes.--AUSTEN.
There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy _those sort_ of romantic spots.--_Saturday Review_, London.
The library was open, with _all manner_ of amusing books.--RUSKIN.
According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of the above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or the nouns to the plural.
[Sidenote: _History of this construction._]
The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought in the history of the language: it cannot be found in the statement that the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following.
[Sidenote: _At the source._]
In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking at things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not "all _kinds_ of wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" (wild animals of-every-kind). This the modern expression reverses.
[Sidenote: _Later form._]
But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old.
[Sidenote: _The result._]
Consequently we have a confused expression. We keep the form of logical agreement in standard English, such as, "_This sort_ of trees should be planted;" but at the same time the noun following _kind of_ is felt to be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken English, made to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, "_These kind of_ trees are best."
[Sidenote: _A question._]
The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish to use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This kind of rules _are_ the best," or "This kind of rules _is_ the best?" _Kind_ or _sort_ may be treated as a collective noun, and in this way may take a plural verb; for example, Burke's sentence, "A _sort_ of uncertain sounds _are_, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming than a total silence."
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS.
[Sidenote: _Use of the comparative degree._]
428. The comparative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used when we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects, or one object with a class of objects, to express a higher degree of quality; as,--
Which is _the better_ able to defend himself,--a strong man with nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a sword which he cannot lift?--MACAULAY.
Of two such lessons, why forget The _nobler_ and the _manlier_ one? --BYRON.
We may well doubt which has the _stronger_ claim to civilization, the victor or the vanquished.--PRESCOTT.
A _braver_ ne'er to battle rode.--SCOTT.
He is _taller,_ by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his court.--SWIFT.
[Sidenote: Other _after the comparative form._]
429. When an object is compared with the class to which it belongs, it is regularly excluded from that class by the word _other_; if not, the object would really be compared with itself: thus,--
The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in its manipulation than perhaps any _other_ which Thackeray has drawn.--TROLLOPE.
I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier curiosity than any _other_ form of humanity.--HAWTHORNE.
Exercise.
See if the word _other_ should be inserted in the following sentences:--
1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. Henry.--WIRT.
2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, etc.--MACAULAY.
3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its obligations as our own.--LOWELL.
4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any mythology I know.--CARLYLE.
5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel I remember to have read.--THACKERAY.
6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in "Scott's lot."--_Id._
[Sidenote: _Use of the superlative degree._]
430. The superlative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used regularly in comparing more than two things, but is also frequently used in comparing only two things.
Examples of superlative with several objects:--
It is a case of which the _simplest_ statement is the _strongest_.--MACAULAY.
Even Dodd himself, who was one of the _greatest_ humbugs who ever lived, would not have had the face.--THACKERAY.
To the man who plays well, the _highest_ stakes are paid.--HUXLEY.
[Sidenote: _Superlative with two objects._]
Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the following:--
Which do you love _best_ to behold, the lamb or the lion? --THACKERAY.
Which of these methods has the _best_ effect? Both of them are the same to the sense, and differ only in form.--DR BLAIR.
Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got _easiest_.--IRVING.
It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly contributed _most_ to the amusement of the party.--SCOTT.
There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The _eldest_, Mary, was like the Stuarts--the _younger_ was a fair English child.--MRS. OLIPHANT.
Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the nation between them, I should say that one has the _best_ cause, and the other contains the _best_ men.--EMERSON.
In all disputes between States, though the _strongest_ is nearly always mainly in the wrong, the _weaker_ is often so in a minor degree.--RUSKIN.
She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid both to stand up to see which was the _tallest_.--GOLDSMITH.
These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly the _last_ of them.--ADDISON.
"Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. "Let us see which will laugh _loudest_."--HAWTHORNE.
[Sidenote: _Double comparative and superlative._]
431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double comparative and superlative by using _more_ or _most_ before the word already having _-er_ or _-est_. Examples from Shakespeare are,--
How much _more elder_ art thou than thy looks!--_Merchant of Venice._
Nor that I am _more better_ than Prospero.--_Tempest._
Come you _more nearer_.--_Hamlet._
With the _most boldest_ and best hearts of Rome.--_J. Cæsar._
Also from the same period,--
Imitating the manner of the _most ancientest_ and _finest_ Grecians.--BEN JONSON.
After the _most straitest_ sect of our religion.--_Bible_, 1611.
Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The following examples are used purposely, to represent the characters as ignorant persons:--
The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the _most convenientest_ and _handsomest_ saddle that ever was seen."--BULWER.
"There's nothing comes out but the _most lowest_ stuff in nature; not a bit of high life among them."--GOLDSMITH.
_THREE FIRST_ OR _FIRST THREE_?
432. As to these two expressions, over which a little war has so long been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than that both are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literary English. Instances of both are given below.
The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same idea from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of either or both.
[Sidenote: First three, _etc._]
For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping them heart and soul for the _last two_ years.--KINGSLEY.
The delay in the _first three_ lines, and conceit in the last, jar upon us constantly.--RUSKIN.
The _last dozen_ miles before you reach the suburbs.--DE QUINCEY.
Mankind for the _first seventy thousand_ ages ate their meat raw.--LAMB.
The _first twenty_ numbers were expressed by a corresponding number of dots. The _first five_ had specific names.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: Three first, _etc._]
These are the _three first_ needs of civilized life.--RUSKIN.
He has already finished the _three first_ sticks of it.--ADDISON.
In my _two last_ you had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you are glad he is gone.--SMOLLETT.
I have not numbered the lines except of the _four first_ books. --COWPER.
The _seven first_ centuries were filled with a succession of triumphs.--GIBBON.
ARTICLES.
[Sidenote: _Definite article_.]
433. The definite article is repeated before each of two modifiers of the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the noun expressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separate objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers. Examples of this construction are,--
[Sidenote: _With a singular noun_.]
The merit of _the Barb_, _the Spanish_, and _the English_ breed is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.--GIBBON.
_The righteous_ man is distinguished from _the unrighteous_ by his desire and hope of justice.--RUSKIN.
He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either on _the sunny_ or _the stormy_ side.--CARLYLE.
It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between _the first_ and _the second_ part of the volume.--_The Nation_, No. 1508.
[Sidenote: _With a plural noun_.]
There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether the earliest cleavage was between _the Northern_ and _the Southern_ languages.--TAYLOR, _Origin of the Aryans_.
434. The same repetition of the article is sometimes found before nouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; as,--
In every line of _the Philip_ and _the Saul_, the greatest poems, I think, of the eighteenth century.--MACAULAY.
He is master of the two-fold Logos, _the thought_ and _the word_, distinct, but inseparable from each other.--NEWMAN.
_The flowers_, and _the presents_, and _the trunks and bonnet boxes_ ... having been arranged, the hour of parting came.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: The _not repeated. One object and several modifiers, with a singular noun_.]
435. Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each of two or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; as,--
Or fanciest thou _the red and yellow_ Clothes-screen yonder is but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?--CARLYLE.
_The lofty_, _melodious_, _and flexible_ language.--SCOTT.
_The fairest and most loving_ wife in Greece.--TENNYSON.
[Sidenote: _Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun_.]
Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between _the ancient and modern_ general views of the town.--HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS.
At Talavera _the English and French_ troops for a moment suspended their conflict.--MACAULAY.
The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of _the Adriatic and Tyrrhene_ seas a large increase of wealth.--_Id._
Here the youth of both sexes, of _the higher and middling_ orders, were placed at a very tender age.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Indefinite article_.]
436. The indefinite article is used, like the definite article, to limit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the modified nouns. Examples of this use are,--
We shall live _a better_ and _a higher_ and _a nobler_ life.--BEECHER.
The difference between the products of _a well-disciplined_ and those of _an uncultivated_ understanding is often and admirably exhibited by our great dramatist.--S.T. COLERIDGE.
Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, _a round_ and _a square_ one alternately.--BURKE.
As if the difference between _an accurate_ and _an inaccurate_ statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most common book of reference.--MACAULAY.
To every room there was _an open_ and _a secret_ passage.--JOHNSON.
Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted.
[Sidenote: _One article with several adjectives._]
437. Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives unite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. 433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood with the other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the first sentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the first three of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing the same noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions "_a red-and-white_ geranium," and "_a red and a white_ geranium."
Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:--
To inspire us with _a free and quiet_ mind.--B. JONSON.
Here and there _a desolate and uninhabited_ house.--DICKENS.
James was declared _a mortal and bloody_ enemy.--MACAULAY.
So wert thou born into a tuneful strain, _An early, rich, and inexhausted_ vein. --DRYDEN.
[Sidenote: _For rhetorical effect._]
438. The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lend special emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns; as,--
James was declared _a_ mortal and bloody _enemy, a tyrant, a murderer_, and _a usurper_.--MACAULAY.
Thou hast spoken as _a patriot_ and _a Christian_.--BULWER.
He saw him in his mind's eye, _a collegian, a parliament man--a Baronet_ perhaps.--THACKERAY.
VERBS.
CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER.
[Sidenote: _A broad and loose rule._]
439. In English, the number of the verb follows the meaning rather than the form of its subject.
It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I., Sec. 276, and the following illustrations prove it.
The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have separate forms for singular and plural number.
[Sidenote: _Singular verb._]
440. The singular form of the verb is used--
[Sidenote: _Subject of singular form._]
(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning.
Such, then, _was_ the earliest American _land_.--AGASSIZ.
_He was_ certainly a happy fellow at this time.--G. ELIOT.
_He sees_ that it is better to live in peace.--COOPER.
[Sidenote: _Collective noun of singular meaning._]
(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ which represents a number of persons or things _taken as one unit_; as,--
The larger _breed_ [of camels] _is_ capable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds.--GIBBON.
Another _school professes_ entirely opposite principles.--_The Nation._
In this work there _was_ grouped around him _a score_ of men.--W. PHILLIPS
A _number_ of jeweled paternosters _was_ attached to her girdle.--FROUDE.
_Something like a horse load_ of books _has_ been written to prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.--CARLYLE
This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the writer's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer a plural verb after _number_ in Froude's sentence above.
[Sidenote: _Singulars connected by_ or _or_ nor.]
(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected by _or_ or _nor_; as,--
It is by no means sure that either our _literature_, or the great intellectual _life_ of our nation, _has_ got already, without academies, all that academies can give.--M. ARNOLD.
_Jesus is_ not dead, nor _John_, nor _Paul_, nor _Mahomet_. --EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _Plural form and singular meaning._]
(4) When the subject is _plural in form_, but represents a number of things to be taken together as _forming one unit_; for example,--
Thirty-four years _affects_ one's remembrance of some circumstances.--DE QUINCEY.
Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence _is_ no bad day's work.--GOLDSMITH.
Every twenty paces _gives_ you the prospect of some villa; and every four hours, that of a large town.--MONTAGUE
Two thirds of this _is_ mine by right.--SHERIDAN
The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and other singulars of plural form; as,--
Politics _is_ the only field now open for me.--WHITTIER.
"Sesame and Lilies" _is_ Ruskin's creed for young girls.--_Critic_, No. 674
The Three Pigeons _expects_ me down every moment.--GOLDSMITH.
[Sidenote: _Several singular subjects to one singular verb._]
(5) With _several singular subjects not_ disjoined by _or_ or _nor_, in the following cases:--
(_a_) Joined by _and_, but considered as meaning about the same thing, or as making up one general idea; as,--
In a word, all his conversation and knowledge _has been_ in the female world--ADDISON.
The strength and glare of each [color] _is_ considerably abated.--BURKE
To imagine that debating and logic _is_ the triumph.--CARLYLE
In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly _is_ not the least of accomplishments.--DE QUINCEY
The genius and merit of a rising poet _was_ celebrated.--GIBBON.
When the cause of ages and the fate of nations _hangs_ upon the thread of a debate.--J.Q. ADAMS.
(_b_) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, or considered as appositional; for example,--
The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, _is_ gone.--BURKE.
A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, a loss of friends, _seems_ at the moment unpaid loss.--EMERSON
The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, _does_ not take the place of the man.--_Id._
To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any way with a suitor, _was_ punished, in a judge, with death.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Subjects after the verb._]
This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,--
There _is_ a right and a wrong in them.--M ARNOLD.
There _is_ a moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an agitated gesture.--BURKE
There _was_ a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves, with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.--HAWTHORNE.
Then _comes_ the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the "No, sir!"--MACAULAY.
For wide _is_ heard the thundering fray, The rout, the ruin, the dismay. --SCOTT.
(_c_) Joined by _as well as_ (in this case the verb agrees with the first of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,--
Asia, as well as Europe, _was_ dazzled.--MACAULAY.
The oldest, as well as the newest, wine _Begins_ to stir itself. --LONGFELLOW.
Her back, as well as sides, _was_ like to crack.--BUTLER.
The Epic, as well as the Drama, _is_ divided into tragedy and Comedy.--FIELDING
(_d_) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by _every_, _each_, _no_, _many a_, and such like adjectives.
Every fop, every boor, every valet, _is_ a man of wit.--MACAULAY.
Every sound, every echo, _was_ listened to for five hours.--DE QUINCEY
Every dome and hollow _has_ the figure of Christ.--RUSKIN.
Each particular hue and tint _stands_ by itself.--NEWMAN.
Every law and usage _was_ a man's expedient.--EMERSON.
Here _is_ no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.--_Id._
Every week, nay, almost every day, _was_ set down in their calendar for some appropriate celebration.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Plural verb._]
441. The plural form of the verb is used--
(1) When the subject is plural _in form and in meaning_; as,--
These _bits_ of wood _were_ covered on every square.--SWIFT.
Far, far away thy children _leave_ the land.--GOLDSMITH.
The Arabian poets _were_ the historians and moralists.--GIBBON.
(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ in which _the individuals_ of the collection are thought of; as,--
A multitude _go_ mad about it.--EMERSON.
A great number of people _were_ collected at a vendue.--FRANKLIN.
All our household _are_ at rest.--COLERIDGE.
A party of workmen _were_ removing the horses.--LEW WALLACE
The fraternity _were_ inclined to claim for him the honors of canonization.--SCOTT.
The travelers, of whom there _were_ a number.--B. TAYLOR.
(3) When the subject consists of _several singulars connected by and_, making up a plural subject, for example,--
Only Vice and Misery _are_ abroad.--CARLYLE
But its authorship, its date, and its history _are_ alike a mystery to us.--FROUDE.
His clothes, shirt, and skin _were_ all of the same color--SWIFT.
Aristotle and Longinus _are_ better understood by him than Littleton or Coke.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: _Conjunction omitted._]
The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, _b_), but the verb is plural, as with a subject of plural form.
A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, _are_ sufficient to attract a colony.--GIBBON.
The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, _were_ men of insignificant characters.--MACAULAY
(4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,--
One or two of these perhaps _survive_.--THOREAU.
One or two persons in the crowd _were_ insolent.--FROUDE.
One or two of the ladies _were_ going to leave.--ADDISON
One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers _were_ still alive in the village.--THACKERAY
One or two of whom _were_ more entertaining.--DE QUINCEY.
But notice the construction of this,--
A ray or two _wanders_ into the darkness.--RUSKIN.
AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN PERSON.
[Sidenote: _General usage_.]
442. If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of the verb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few cases where there are forms for different persons: as,--
Never once _didst_ thou revel in the vision.--DE QUINCEY.
Romanism wisely _provides_ for the childish in men.--LOWELL.
It _hath_ been said my Lord would never take the oath.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: _Second or third and first person in the subject_.]
443. If the subject is made up of the first person joined with the second or third by _and_, the verb takes the construction of the first person, the subject being really equivalent to _we_; as,--
I flatter myself you and I _shall_ meet again.--SMOLLETT.
You and I _are_ farmers; we never talk politics.--D WEBSTER.
Ah, brother! only I and thou _Are_ left of all that circle now. --WHITTIER.
You and I _are_ tolerably modest people.--THACKERAY.
Cocke and I _have_ felt it in our bones--_Gammer Gurton's Needle_
[Sidenote: _With adversative or disjunctive connectives_.]
444. When the subjects, of different persons, are connected by adversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with the pronoun nearest to it; for example,--
Neither you nor I _should_ be a bit the better or wiser.--RUSKIN.
If she or you _are_ resolved to be miserable.--GOLDSMITH.
Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I _have_ said.--M. ARNOLD.
Not Altamont, but thou, _hadst_ been my lord.--ROWE.
Not I, but thou, his blood _dost_ shed.--BYRON.
This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided either by using a verb which has no forms for person (as, "He or I _can_ go," "She or you _may_ be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the sentence s