PART III.—THE HEROES.

INTRODUCTORY 159

THE CREATION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MANKIND 162

PROVINCIAL HEROIC LEGENDS— The Lapithæ and the Centaurs 165 Theban Legend— _Cadmus_ 170 _Actæon_ 171 _Amphion and Zethus_ 172 Corinthian Legend— _Sisyphus_ 179 _Glaucus_ 180 _Bellerophon and the Legend of the Amazons_ 180 Argive Legend— _Io_ 185 _Danaüs and the Danaïds_ 186 _Prœtus and his Daughters_ 187 _Perseus_ 188 The Dioscuri 194 Heracles (Hercules) 197 _The Birth and Youth of Heracles_ 198 _Heracles in the Service of Eurystheus_ 199 _Deeds of Heracles after his Service_ 206 _Death and Apotheosis_ 211 _Heracles as God_ 212 Attic Legend— _Cecrops_ 217 _Erechtheus, or Erichthonius_ 218 _Theseus_ 219 Cretan Legend— _Minos and the Minotaur_ 227 _Talos_ 229

COMBINED UNDERTAKINGS OF THE LATER HEROIC AGE— The Calydonian Hunt 230 The Argonauts 232 The Theban Cycle 237 The Trojan Cycle 241 The Heroic Races of the Trojan War— _The Dardanidæ, or Race of Dardanus_ 241 _The Pelopidæ, or Race of Pelops_ 242 _The Æacidæ, or Race of Æacus_ 245 _Nestor, the Locrian Ajax, Diomedes, and Odysseus_ 247 The War 249 The Return 257

MYTHIC SEERS AND BARDS 262

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE 1. Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum, 20 2. Cameo of Athenion 21 3. Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum, 27 4. Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum, 29 5. Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After Overbeck.) 30 6. Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum, 32 7. Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples, 33 8. Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican, 38 9. Athene Polias. Villa Albani, 39 10. Pallas Athene. Naples, 40 11. Apollo Belvedere. Vatican, 44 12. Head of Apollo Belvedere, 45 13. Apollo Citharœdus. Munich, 47 14. Diana of Versailles, 50 15. Mars Ludovisi, 55 16. Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich, 56 17. Venus of Milo. Louvre, 60 18. Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese, 61 19. Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples, 66 20. Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection, 67 21. Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum, 70 22. Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection, 74 23. Head of Eros. Vatican, 78 24. Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum, 79 25. Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum, 80 26. Melpomene. Vatican, 81 27. Euterpe. Vatican, 82 28. The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani, 85 29. Victoria. United Collections in Munich, 86 30. Hebe. From Antonio Canova, 88 31. Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen, 89 32. Asclepius. Berlin, 95 33. Head of Asclepius. British Museum, 96 34. Night and the Fates. From Carstens, 97 35. Poseidon. Dolce Gem, 103 36. Dionysus and Lion. From the Monument of Lysicrates, 116 37. The so-called Sardanapalus in the Vatican, 119 38. Youthful Dionysus. From the Chateau Richelieu, now in the Louvre, 120 39. Marble Head of Youthful Dionysus at Leyden, 121 40. Sleeping Ariadne. Vatican, 122 41. Dannecker’s Ariadne. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 123 42. Head of Satyr. Munich Sculpture Gallery, 126 43. Pan. From a Mural Painting at Herculaneum, 130 44. Demeter Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples, 142 45. Persephone Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples, 145 46. Head of Hades. Palazzo Chigi. Rome, 147 47. Three-formed Hecate. Capitoline Museum, 154 48. Metope of the Parthenon, 166 49. From the Frieze of the Temple at Bassæ 167 50. Centaur teaching a boy to play upon the Pipe. Relief by Kundmann, 169 51. Actæon. Group. British Museum, 172 52. Farnese Bull. Naples, 174 53. Head of Niobe. Florence, _Frontispiece_. 54. Niobe. Florence, 178 55. Amazon. Berlin, 183 56. Perseus and Andromeda. Marble Relief in the Museum at Naples, 192 57. Rondanini Medusa. Munich, 193 58. Farnese Hercules, 215 59. Elgin Theseus. British Museum, 225 60. Theseus Lifting the Rock. Relief in the Villa Albani, 226 61. Laocoön. Group, 255 62. Priam before Achilles. Relief by Thorwaldsen, 260 63. Rape of Helen. Campana Collection. Paris, 261 64. Orpheus and Eurydice. Marble Relief in the Villa Albani, 263

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GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

INTRODUCTION.

I.—SUBJECTS OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

Myths may be described as poetic narratives of the birth, life, and actions of the old heathen gods and heroes or demigods. Both myth and legend[1] are distinguished from the “Mährchen,” or popular tale, by not being, like the latter, a mere product of the imagination, but always being founded on some preceding reality, whether that be an oft-recurring phase of nature, or a distinct and real occurrence. It is often most difficult to recognise with any precision the true germ of a myth, on account of the numerous additions and alterations made by the poets. And therefore the question, whether a particular tradition be a myth or not, is very hard to answer: on one side we are tempted to view, in the god or demigod, the hero of a tribe magnified to superhuman proportions by the admiration of posterity; and, on the other side, comparison of the legends of different families of nations points us to the operations of nature, not only in the demigod or the hero, but in the animals of fable and the traditions of the nursery.

Footnote 1:

The German word “sage” (legend) is really only a translation of the Greek word “mythos,” and is often used in that sense. But lately the custom has tacitly sprung up of employing the term “mythos” when speaking of the life or actions of the gods, and “sage” when speaking of those of heroes.

A large proportion of these myths are due to men’s observations of Nature, and her various active and creative forces, which appeared to their lively Southern fancy as manifestations of single supernatural beings. These were regarded, now as friendly, now as hostile, to man; and men therefore strove as eagerly to gain their favour as to appease their wrath. Of the appearance of the deities who thus manifested themselves in the workings of nature, men necessarily formed at first very crude and fantastic ideas. But later, when men emerged from the simple conditions of the early patriarchal epoch, and began to dwell in regular political communities, they gradually ceased to regard the gods as mere personifications of natural forces. They began to regard them as beings acting in accordance with unchangeable moral laws, and endowed with forms similar to those of men (Anthropomorphism). They brought the gods into connection with each other by means of genealogies in a great measure artificial, and built up a vast political system, which has its centre in Zeus, the “father of gods and men.”

Strange to say, however, it was only among the Greeks that this system of development prevailed. The nations of Italy still continued to regard their gods as mere natural forces—that looked down on them in a cold, strange fashion—of whose form and mode of life they had no clear idea. It was only later, when the Romans came into intellectual contact with their Greek neighbours, and began to study their language and literature, that they adopted the popular Greek conceptions concerning the gods. They now transferred existing myths, and fathered them on those of their own gods and goddesses who bore the closest resemblance to the Greek divinities, and harmonised best with their natural interpretation. Thus it was that the Roman Jupiter was identified with the Greek Zeus, Juno with Hera, Minerva with Athene; though for peculiar deities, such as Janus, they could find no Greek prototype.

II.—POPULAR IDEAS CONCERNING THE GODS.

We learn most concerning the conceptions the ancients formed of their gods from the numerous Greek and Roman poets whose works have come down to us, and who contributed so largely to the construction of the myths. First, both in antiquity and importance, are the poems attributed to Homer, in which we find the whole political system of Olympus, with Zeus at its head, already constructed.

Henceforth the gods, in outward appearance at least, are endowed with forms entirely human; more grand and beautiful and majestic, but still not verging on the monstrous or fantastic.

Not only in beauty and grandeur, but also in strength and vigour, do the gods surpass men. Let but Zeus shake his ambrosial locks, and the whole of Olympus trembles. The other deities are also endowed in proportion with great strength. As corporeal, indeed, they are limited in regard to space, and cannot therefore be omnipresent; but this restriction affects them far less than mortals, for they can compass the greatest distances at lightning speed. In a moment Athene drops from the heights of Olympus down to Ithaca; and Poseidon, the ocean-god, passes in three or four steps from Samothrace to Ægæ in Eubœa. Moreover, the gods can see and hear at a much greater distance than men. In regard to hearing, indeed, they seem to have unlimited powers. Prayers ascend to them from every place, irrespective of their personal presence. In the same manner Zeus, from his high throne in Olympus, sees all that passes among men, and, sitting on the highest summit of Mount Ida, he can follow all the events of the battle that rages before Troy.

On the other hand, the gods are subject to the same bodily wants as men. They refresh themselves in the same way with sleep, and have to support themselves with food and drink. Here again, however, they are far less fettered than mortals, for they can hold out much longer without satisfying these wants. Nor is their food so coarse as that of men; they live on ambrosia and nectar. Another natural necessity is clothing, on the tasteful ordering of which the goddesses even bestow extraordinary care, and in this, as in many other respects, greatly resemble the daughters of Eve. Although later art delights in representing some of the deities either slightly clothed or quite naked, yet we cannot justly conclude from this that the popular belief of the ancients conceived thus of those gods.

Gods endowed with frames like those of mortals must necessarily be born in the same way, and develope gradually both in mind and body. But here, again, everything proceeds with the utmost rapidity. For instance, the new-born Hermes rises from his cradle to steal the cattle of Apollo, and, coming into the world in the morning, he is found in the afternoon playing on the lyre, which he has himself invented. The most important point, however, in which they surpass mortals is that, when once in full possession of bodily and intellectual powers, they never grow old, but remain ever young and beautiful, ever free from disease and death. Compared with the race of men, who are subject to need and pain, they are the “happy,” “blessed” gods, the gods “who live at ease,” who can readily gratify every desire. But this does not by any means prevent their suffering occasionally from the pangs of sorrow and grief; they are vulnerable alike in body and soul, and exposed to every kind of painful sensation. So completely did the Greeks subject their gods to human passions.

As regards mental qualifications they are naturally far superior to men. In the first place, they stand higher morally; they shun all that is evil, impure, and unjust, and visit with punishment the impiety and injustice of man. This, again, does not prevent their giving way to every description of vice and folly, such as deceit, lying, hatred, cruelty, jealousy, &c. They are far from holy, therefore, in the sense in which we speak of the Supreme Being. Still less are they conceived as omniscient or omnipotent. Their powers indeed are great, and so is their knowledge. They are able to interrupt the course of nature—to send sudden storms, pestilences, and other evils—to endow themselves or others with any forms they like, and to do many other things, of which we read in fairy tales. But even Zeus, to whom a far greater measure of power is accorded than to other gods, and on whose will the government of the universe depends, is himself subjected to the immutable decrees of fate; whilst the possibility of deceiving and duping him is by no means excluded.

Where then are we to seek for the explanation of these apparent inconsistencies? We have already said that the active and creative forces of Nature were personified by the imagination of men. Let us take one of the first conceptions likely to spring up—that of the love of the heaven for the earth, from which all nature is born. Different names will be used in different localities; men will at last forget that they all once meant the same, and out of the simple personification will spring a series of divine marriages; or if one be recognised by the whole nation as the wife, the other brides will sink into mistresses.

So with the everlasting war of the sun with the clouds; we shall not only find several gods of the light in Greece, but almost every tribe had a particular hero, whose great deeds we shall generally find to be those of the sun. Yet in the midst of all this confusion, men had a feeling that there was something above them better and holier than they, to which that which is good and holy alone was pleasing. This idea was more and more attached to Zeus himself, as the notion grew that Zeus was the supreme god, the king of heaven.

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